Martin L. Friedland. The University of : A History. Toronto: Press, 2002. xiii + 764 pp. $60.00 (Canadian), cloth, ISBN 978-0-8020-4429-7.

Reviewed by Hannah Gay

Published on H-Canada (February, 2003)

This history of the University of Toronto was with scholarly interests in higher education, the commissioned to mark the university's one hun‐ University of Toronto, or the city of Toronto. dred and seventy-ffth anniversary.[1] It is the Already in the late eighteenth century, when frst major treatment since that by William S. Wal‐ the European population of Upper Canada was lace, published for the one-hundredth anniver‐ only about 25,000 there were demands that a uni‐ sary in 1927. A single volume work was request‐ versity be established at York, the site of present- ed, presumably with a view to sales to alumni and day Toronto. By the 1820s plans were afoot for an others with close attachments to the university. Anglican university college along the lines of ones But, writing a comprehensive history of a major already founded in other British colonies. McGill institution with so many diferent schools, centers University (with no religious tests) received a roy‐ and departments is no easy task and, from a al charter in 1821 and the British government scholarly point of view, a two-volume work would thought it might serve the needs of both Upper have been justifed. The major inconvenience of and Lower Canada. But there was concern that having all the notes and scholarly apparatus for too many young men were leaving Upper Canada the book available only on the press website could for study in the United States where, according to then have been avoided. Even with a volume this the chief booster for the new university, Bishop weighty, Friedland must have found it difcult to , the books "breathe hatred to ev‐ balance the demands of scholarship, comprehen‐ erything English" (p. 6). Concern over American‐ siveness, and accessibility. Despite the odds, he ization, and the possible loss of young men to the has succeeded in writing a lucid, balanced and United States, led the authorities in to representative volume which should appeal to support the founding of a university in the colony. both constituencies that the Press may have in King's College, chartered in 1827, was to be run by mind, the larger university community and those Anglican clergymen, a major, albeit indirect, rea‐ son for its subsequent failure. The elite families of H-Net Reviews the colony may have been largely Anglican but, British Association, may have let his materialist overall, Anglicans were in a minority. Methodists, bias show--though his being Irish might have who formed the largest minority, understandably counted against him. The early hiring ethos, in objected to the terms of the new college and, in which the English and Scots were favoured, and 1837, were successful in getting a bill passed in in which nepotism and anti-semitism were prac‐ London removing Anglican religious tests from tised, faded away only slowly. Friedland appears the original charter. But entrants still had to de‐ to have some sympathy for the claim, made by A. clare their belief in the "authenticity and divine B. Macallum the professor of physiology in the inspiration" of the Old and New Testaments (p. late nineteenth century, that had these scientists 19). The university was, in essence, to be both a been hired the university would have early been place where clergymen could be trained and a fn‐ able to rival some leading US institutions. But this ishing school for Christian gentlemen. Most of the is surely false. Huxley and Tyndall needed the early entrants were graduates of Upper Canada London environment with its new openings free College, an elite school where Latin and other of Oxbridge tradition and religious restrictions, in subjects needed for matriculation were taught. which to operate. Toronto would not have given But the 1837 Rebellion, and a number of fnancial them the same opportunities; though, had they problems, delayed construction. By the time the gone, they would have made the best of it--as did cornerstone was laid in 1842, the Methodists had other scientists, such as Henry Croft the frst pro‐ founded Victoria College in Cobourg and the Pres‐ fessor of chemistry, hired on the recommendation byterians, Queen's College in Kingston (both in of Michael Faraday. 1841). The Roman Catholic St Michael's College Strachan was unhappy that Charles Bagot, the was founded in Toronto in 1852 by French Basil‐ Governor General, hired an Irishman, John Mc‐ ians. Later, in the 1920s, Etienne Gilson and Caul, principal of and a Jacques Maritain came to St. Michael's and built graduate of Trinity College, Dublin, as his vice- up the Institute of Medieval Studies (renamed principal and professor of classics. Far worse, in Pontifcal Institute in 1939), a major center in its 1849 an act was introduced in the parliament of feld. Canada to convert King's College into the Univer‐ Bishop Strachan tried to hold out for only sity of Toronto which was to become a secular in‐ English staf at the new King's College. But recruit‐ stitution. There was to be no public funding for ing from England was not easy; few talented the chair of divinity, and no religious test for stu‐ young men wished to work in the colonies. dents or professors. The idea was that the Victoria Among those who did apply for positions in the and Queen's colleges should afliate with the uni‐ early years, the scientists John Tyndall and versity while retaining powers to grant degrees in Thomas Henry Huxley, and the mathematician J. J. certain subjects. Strachan and his followers la‐ Sylvester stand out. They were all rejected; Hux‐ belled this act "entirely infdel" (p. 28). It prompt‐ ley, because the Rev. William Hincks, brother of ed them to found yet another college, the strictly the then premier of Canada, was given the chair Anglican Trinity College which opened its doors to of natural history; Sylvester because he was a Jew, students in 1852, two years after the act inaugu‐ though it is only fair to point out that he had just rating the new university. Those King's College been thrown out of University College in London professors who did not move to Trinity became (Gower Street's 'godless institution') and was to professors at the University of Toronto. John Mc‐ have a rather odd career trajectory before becom‐ Caul became the frst president and professor of ing Savilian professor in Oxford. Tyndall, later in‐ classics. The Rev. James Beaven ceased being a famous for his materialist Belfast address to the professor of divinity and became professor of

2 H-Net Reviews metaphysics and ethics. Victoria and Queen's did goode Hall Law School in 1889 and the University not wish to afliate at this time. A little later St. only won the right to fully train lawyers in 1957. Michael's bid to afliate was turned down. A School of Practical Science was opened in 1878. Perhaps appropriately, the old King's College These professional schools came into being after site became the University Lunatic Asylum. Clear‐ Confederation when responsibility for education ly sectarian tensions had clouded people's minds passed to the new provincial governments. I in the planning of tertiary education for the would like to have read a little more about engi‐ colony, and the university has had to live with the neering education than Friedland provides. On‐ consequences of its early history. By the 1850s the tario saw itself as a province with great potential, new university took about ffty students a year, but one in need of development--roads and rail‐ but the denominational colleges were holding ways to be built, mineral deposits to be exploited, their own so that the government had to rethink timber to be harvested, land to be farmed, manu‐ yet again. In 1853 royal assent was given to a bill facturing to be promoted and, later in the century, redefning the university. It was renamed Univer‐ electricity to be generated and distributed. Well- sity College and a new University of Toronto, in‐ trained technical people were needed. The frst tended to be an examining body for all the col‐ professor of engineering, John Galbraith, was a leges, was founded. This arrangement bore some railway engineer. Like Galbraith, most of the sci‐ resemblance to the one at the University of Lon‐ ence and engineering professors of the 1870s ap‐ don, though not to the extent that Friedland, or pear to have had Scottish training. The School of some of the contemporary observers that he Practical science did train some mining and civil quotes, imply. Under the new legislation the fedg‐ engineers; but we are not told how far this new ling faculties of law and medicine were aban‐ school went in providing the talent used in devel‐ doned. This is understandable given the existing oping the infrastructure of the province. climate of opinion on professional education, not Friedland details the history of the universi‐ just in British North America but also in Britain. ty's buildings well. University College was housed The question of whether future lawyers, doctors, in an impressive new building by the 1860s and surgeons and engineers should be educated in other buildings followed. But the new university colleges or universities, or on the job by tutelage, still had to survive the attacks of sectarian inter‐ articling, working in hospital settings, or as ap‐ ests. According to it narrowly prentices, was highly debated. Egerton Ryerson, avoided extinction after a Royal Commission, ap‐ the power behind Victoria College, still believed in pointed by John A. Macdonald, and designed to be a gentlemanly tertiary education of the Oxbridge friendly to the denominational colleges, fled its type in which classics and mathematics were report in 1863. The report recommended endow‐ stressed. Later he recommended that normal ment monies be taken from the university and schools and schools of engineering be kept apart shared with the colleges. But, in the end, after uni‐ from the rest. But there were those attached to the versity supporters came out in force to oppose the university who wanted an expanded and more report, the colleges received higher grants with‐ modern curriculum. In Britain, as in Upper Cana‐ out any loss to the university. Wilson, a Scot, was da, professional education was still largely private a major force in the university from his appoint‐ and only later in the century did the state begin to ment, in 1853, as professor of English history and play a serious role in funding medical and engi‐ literature--an appointment that marks a modern neering programs. In Toronto the medical faculty curricular turn from classics. By the late 1860s was reestablished in 1887. The Law Society, which University College had a credible group of profes‐ had a monopoly on legal education, set up the Os‐ sors and about 250 full-time students, including a

3 H-Net Reviews few from visible minorities and First Nations. leges could not easily aford to do so. Queen's, in James Ross, grandson of an Okanagan chief and the end, rejected federation because the govern‐ later chief justice in Louis Riel's provisional gov‐ ment was not prepared to pay for it to move to ernment at Red River, was one. Even though there Toronto. Victoria College was in debt by the 1880s was nothing in the University of Toronto Act to ex‐ and did not wish to wither into a strictly theologi‐ clude women, President McCaul was against their cal college. The government encouraged federa‐ admission. Until he retired in 1880, and was suc‐ tion but Daniel Wilson was concerned that this ceeded by Wilson, few women were admitted. was part of some plot by Methodists to take con‐ Women entered by painfully slow degrees from trol of University College. In the event, Victoria the 1870s, despite the fact that the need for wom‐ College moved from Cobourg, and with two small‐ en teachers in high schools was widely recog‐ er theological colleges, Wyclife (low-church An‐ nized. The frst women to be admitted were not glican) and Knox (Presbyterian) joined the Uni‐ allowed to attend lectures with men and had to be versity of Toronto in 1885. Victoria College's new separately tutored - though Henry Croft, the building was opened in 1892. St. Michael's feder‐ chemist, was an exception in allowing a few wom‐ ated in 1890 and Trinity did so in 1903, moving en to attend his classes. Only one of the twenty- into its present building in 1925. The Baptist Col‐ three women admitted in the 1870s graduated. lege refused to join; with a bequest from William Wilson, who was opposed to co-education, would McMaster it was able to become an independent have preferred a separate women's college along university and move to Hamilton in 1930. the lines then being attempted by Trinity College Under the new legislation the govern‐ (St. Hilda's never became a true college; it became ment had greater control of university afairs, and a residence for Anglican women students). But it allowed the university to slowly expand. How‐ women students did not want to be denied the fa‐ ever, by 1904, University College and Victoria Col‐ cilities of University College and, in 1884, legisla‐ lege between them only graduated about 400 stu‐ tion gave them the right to attend lectures. A Lady dents each year. By the late century local feeling Superintendent, Letitia Salter, was hired to en‐ was beginning to turn against professors import‐ sure the smooth and proper integration of women ed from Britain. The frst Canadian to be hired students and there were strict rules of conduct. was in 1875. As professor of mathe‐ Five women graduated in 1885, the frst women's matics and physics he introduced practical residence opened in 1905, but not until the late physics instruction in Toronto and later became twentieth century was anything close to parity in president of the university. But, as a Canadian fac‐ access to university facilities achieved. Hart ulty member, he remained part of a tiny minority. House, the major student social centre, which In this connection, a dispute arose in 1888 around opened after the First World War, excluded wom‐ the hiring of the frst professor of political science. en students from most of its facilities, not admit‐ William Houston, a graduate of the university, ting women on equal terms with men until 1972. promoter of women's access, and founder of the Even women faculty members, only a handful be‐ political science club, had local support. But Wil‐ fore the 1960s, were denied access to the faculty son, who referred to Houston as "the gorilla" and club while it was located in Hart House. "devoid of the elements that go to the making of a It would appear that government investment gentleman," hired William Ashley an Oxford grad‐ in expensive practical science laboratories was uate (p. 116). Ashley, a left-winger, and an excel‐ the most important factor in encouraging integra‐ lent scholar, was lured to Harvard in 1892. He vir‐ tion of the denominational colleges. Keeping up tually hand-picked his successor, James Mavor, a with the new was expensive and the separate col‐ University of Glasgow graduate with similar polit‐

4 H-Net Reviews ical leanings. Mavor, a highly accomplished schol‐ Presidents up to, and including, ar of Russian afairs, and one of the more colour‐ (1958-70) took a personal interest in all major fac‐ ful characters in the history of the university, re‐ ulty appointments. It would appear that this gen‐ mained head of the department until 1924. Nepo‐ erated a certain loyalty towards the administra‐ tism rather than nativism was a factor in the dis‐ tion. The democratisation of the 1970s and 80s, pute over the 1894 hiring of George Wrong, son- while giving more power to departments in hiring in-law of the chancellor, as professor of history. and other matters, has also had the negative con‐ Students were opposed to the hiring and, led by sequence of an increasing gap between the inter‐ the future prime minister William Lyon Macken‐ ests of the various university constituencies. It is zie King, held a strike in which a number of other not surprising that the 1970s and 80s saw consid‐ grievances were also aired. The strike raised ques‐ erable growth in the number of staf unions, and tions of student power and freedom of the student in the activity of the faculty association. These press. It also prompted the creation of a student bodies became vocal advocates for their member‐ union to represent the entire student body. Anoth‐ ships and, in the mid 1970s, there were legitimate er aspect of student life at this time was the fears among university administrators that the growth of a fraternity culture. Only in the 1960s faculty association, too, would unionize. The enor‐ when a black woman student was denied entry mous growth in the university bureaucracy since into a fraternity house did the university formally the 1970s has only increased the problem of alien‐ dissociate itself from fraternities--though they still ation of faculty and staf from the administra‐ exist in diminished form. Friedland gives some tion--alienation characteristic of today's universi‐ account of student afairs, notably of sporting ac‐ ties more generally. tivities. Sports were more dominant, and contrib‐ Interestingly, English studies was a feld more uted more to the corporate life of the university, open to Americans and American-trained faculty from the late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth cen‐ than many others. It was put on a good footing tury, than either earlier or later. While universi‐ with the appointment, in 1889, of William John ties still support teams of athletes, the pattern Alexander. A Canadian with a batchelor's degree shown in Toronto is typical. University identity in from the University of London and a Johns Hop‐ more recent years has been less bound up with kins PhD, Alexander taught at the university for sports and athletics, despite the achievement of thirty-seven years. His student, Pelham Edgar, increasingly high standards, than it was in the who later taught at Victoria College, was professor frst half of the twentieth century. and mentor to Northrop Frye, one of the universi‐ While Wrong did well as professor of history, ty's most distinguished scholars. Also American William Dale, the professor of Latin who sided trained, James Baldwin, a Princeton graduate, was with the students and criticized Wrong's appoint‐ appointed professor of philosophy. He opened one ment, was fred. Academic freedom was not yet of the earliest (the frst in the British Empire) psy‐ well defned. Mavor and Wrong continued to chology laboratories at the university. But when, favour hiring academics from Britain, as did the in 1893, the university refused to pay for a labora‐ future president, , who had talent tory demonstrator, Baldwin returned to Prince‐ scouts on the ground in England and made fre‐ ton. quent hiring trips across the Atlantic. Despite the The reinstituting of a medical faculty at the advice of the scouts, Falconer did not hire Lewis university in 1887 laid the foundation for what, Namier, later to become the leading historian of today, is arguably the university's greatest his generation, because he was Jewish. The frst strength. At the time there were three medical Jewish faculty member was hired only in 1930.

5 H-Net Reviews schools, one attached to Trinity College, Women's under his direction, or under that of his succes‐ Medical College, and the privately run Toronto sors, Canon Henry Cody and Sidney Smith. The School of Medicine. Women were not admitted to university grew in size and diversity but cultural‐ the university medical school until 1906 but it was ly it remained a gentlemanly enclave. University the medical school facilities that helped draw College was secular, but the denominational col‐ Trinity College into the university in 1903. Most of leges continued to have a major infuence on uni‐ the early staf, including the frst dean, William versity life. While the largest university in Canada Aikins, came from the Toronto School of Medicine from about 1910, the university's aim of becoming and its buildings were used by the university until a national institution did not materialize. The sta‐ a new medical building was opened in 1903. From tistics for the year 1987 are surprising to an out‐ the start there was good training in surgery and sider: about 66 percent of the undergraduate research was encouraged. Biological sciences ex‐ body came from the Toronto area, 29 percent panded alongside medicine. Physics, too, pro‐ from elsewhere in Ontario, 3 percent from other gressed well under John McLennan the second provinces and 2 percent from outside Canada; person to receive a PhD from the university, and only 15 percent of graduate students were from one of the best scientists in its history. He set up a outside Ontario. McGill University had far greater good research school in low temperature physics diversity in both its student and faculty bodies at after the First World War. It was not, however, as that time; in Toronto the university remained large as the research school in chemistry under largely parochial. William Lash Miller. In the period leading up to the First World The Alumni Association was founded in 1900, War, the university grew to about 4000 students. arguably the most important event of James Friedland describes well how the university re‐ Loudon's tenure as president. The university was sponded to the events of two world wars. In 1914 running serious defcits and the graduates, when the university's main contribution was in man‐ organized, helped both with lobbying the govern‐ power. Over 6000 people associated with the uni‐ ment for more funds and in raising money pri‐ versity joined the armed services and about 10% vately. They also played a role in the Royal Com‐ of them died in active service. Unlike institutions mission of 1906. The Commission's report envi‐ of similar size in Britain, the university was un‐ sioned Toronto as the center of higher education able to contribute much to the scientifc or techni‐ not just for the province of Ontario but for the en‐ cal war efort. Recognition of this inadequacy led tire Dominion. It also recommended an end to di‐ to the foundation of an Advisory Council for Sci‐ rect government control, and the creation of an entifc and Industrial Research in 1916, forerun‐ independent governing board and a senate. A ner of the National Research Council. However, new university act put the board in place and the Professor of Hygiene, John Fitzgerald, did pro‐ many of the businessmen members of the com‐ duce vaccines for rabies and diphtheria on a com‐ mission became governors. Robert Falconer, a mercial scale leading, after the war, to the found‐ Presbyterian clergyman and New Testament ing of the Connaught Laboratory which has pro‐ scholar, was appointed president in the following vided Canada with vaccines and anti-toxins for a year and was expected to give the university a number of diferent diseases. Income from this new direction. He held the post until 1932, pro‐ laboratory has been used to support research moted a service ethos (more along social service across the university. In a separate development, lines than along technical ones) and encouraged insulin was isolated and frst used successfully at missionary activity among students. It is not clear the University of Toronto in 1922. The work, de‐ that the culture of the university changed much scribed in a 1982 book by University of Toronto

6 H-Net Reviews historian , was carried out by Freder‐ was not yet clear and the university devoted ick Banting and Charles Best in the physiology de‐ scarce resources into building its own computer partment headed by J. J. Macleod. It resulted in a from scratch--perhaps hoping to hit the jackpot. Nobel prize for Banting and Macleod. While ap‐ Only after the government purchased a Ferranti proximately 10,000 university people served in machine for the university did the hardware en‐ the Second World War, this represented a smaller thusiasts leave computer construction to private percentage of personnel than in the frst war. enterprise. The University of Toronto Electronic Photographs taken during the second war show Computer (UTEC) then faded away. With hind‐ the campus looking rather like an army camp sight one can say that it was not the only misuse with many students in uniform. More than half of funds on computer related projects over the the 557 fatal casualties of the second war were years. among members of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The inter-war years had seen considerable Not surprisingly, aeronautical engineering was in‐ growth with 8,000 students by the mid 1930s troduced at the university shortly after the war when women made up about 40% of the student ended. The university's contribution to the scien‐ body. A School of Nursing was established in 1933 tifc and technical war efort was far greater than with money from the Rockefeller Foundation and in the frst war and included work on radar and a Fine Arts Department with help from the munitions. The Connaught Laboratory received Carnegie Foundation. Both these foundations many blood donations and prepared large quanti‐ helped fund a major program in Chinese Studies ties of blood serum. It also began the manufacture under William White who brought his large col‐ of the new wonder drug penicillin. lection of artifacts (some questionably acquired) A few refugees were admitted before and to the Royal Ontario Museum. An extension was during the war; ten academics found refuge from needed to house this and the George Crofts collec‐ the Nazis but, overall, the numbers were small. tion. Art, music and drama fourished in this peri‐ Walter Kohn who was sent from England as an od. Oratorio and other musical performances un‐ enemy alien was admitted as a student and later der the direction of Ernest MacMillan and Healey won the Nobel Prize for chemistry (1995). Because Willan, added much to campus life. After the war of attrition the continuation of the faculty of arts the university continued to expand, though the was questioned, but concerted action by its sup‐ percentage of women students declined to 27.5 porters led to the formation of the Humanities Re‐ percent by 1951. The Cold War saw a number of search Council in 1943 and success in keeping the left-wing scholars arrive from the United States, faculty alive. The war also saw the numbers ap‐ including mathematician Chandler Davis and his‐ plying to medical school exceed the number of torian Natalie Zemon Davis. Staf salaries which available places for the frst time. There was some had been sliding relative to other professionals discrimination against the entry of women and were beginning to rise and student admission Jews. But in other faculties the war allowed some standards were raised. In planning for the expect‐ women to replace men in teaching positions and a ed baby boom, the university opened several new few stayed on after 1945. colleges, including two satellite campuses in sub‐ Immediately after the war the development urban Toronto. It built new residences though the of computer science followed a path that is seen number of residences remains small for a univer‐ also in many other centres. Toronto was not alone sity that sees itself as a national and international in wanting to build a large computer. The distinc‐ institution. tion between software and hardware expertise

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In seeking a more international profle the expense of - the undergraduate school. This is the university began to think seriously about gradu‐ price of competition at the world level for institu‐ ate studies. In this connection the history of the li‐ tions which do not have the kind of endowments brary is interesting. After a fre at University Col‐ of Oxbridge colleges or Harvard College. President lege in 1890 many of the holdings were lost but a Claude Bissell persuaded Milton scholar Ernest plea for replacement was successful; 20,000 vol‐ Sirluck to return from the University of Chicago umes were sent from England and more from and become Dean of the Graduate School in 1963. elsewhere. The new library had about 55,000 vol‐ A strong internal committee, chaired by Bora umes, small by the standards of the day. While the Laskin, looked into the future direction of gradu‐ main library, and others in the system, expanded ate studies and handed down a report that Sirluck slowly it was only in the 1960s that a major cam‐ was able to use in overseeing the growth of re‐ paign to increase holdings and bring the library search. The graduate school won control, highly up to international standards took place. When contested, over who could teach at the graduate the Robarts Library (Fort Book) opened in 1973 level and who could be hired. Centralism won the library held close to eight million volumes, over departmentalism and was further enhanced and was the third largest university library in by the growth of many interdisciplinary units. North America. It houses the impressive Thomas Robertson Davies helped create the Drama Centre Fisher Library (the rare book collection), and has and other centres followed; for example, in crimi‐ space for 4,000 readers at a time. A graduate col‐ nology, industrial relations, urban and communi‐ lege, Massey College, was opened in 1963, perhaps ty studies, Russian and East European studies and, a decade too soon to match the ideals of the mod‐ perhaps most famously in the 1960s, the Centre ern graduate school. A small bastion of privilege, for Culture and Technology under the director‐ it provided rooms for only sixty students, a tiny ship of Marshall McLuhan. This centre continued fraction of what was needed (The college has also some of the work begun by the economist some non-resident students and senior fellows). Harold Innis, one of the university's most distin‐ But the college met some of the older Oxbridge guished scholars of the 1940s and 50s. The engi‐ ideals of the university chancellor, Vincent neering and medical faculties reinvented them‐ Massey, who was closely involved in its funding selves as research engines. But old Toronto was and planning. To this reader, and visitor, the col‐ slow to keep up. The York Club, traditionally the lege seems a somewhat anachronistic product of meeting place for private lunch and dinner meet‐ the 1960s. Like McCaul much earlier at University ings at which important university decisions were College, Robertson Davies, the frst Master, kept taken, refused membership both to Sirluck and to Massey a male preserve for the frst eleven years Charles Hollenberg, appointed in 1970 as chair of of his tenure. But, among the senior fellows of the the department of medicine and chief of medicine college, there have been several distinguished at the Toronto General Hospital, because they scholars; among them, metallurgist Ursula were Jewish. Franklin, renowned also as a peace activist and But times were changing. Student activism of commentator on science and engineering, John the 1960s is mentioned by Friedland and it is in‐ Polanyi, winner of the 1986 Nobel Prize for chem‐ teresting to read the names of some of some of istry, and Ann Saddlemeyer, an Anglo-Irish litera‐ those who were highly engaged: Irving Abella, ture scholar who also served as Master of the col‐ Rosalie Silverman Abella, Michael Ignatief, Bob lege. Rae and Stephen Langdon among them. It was The last forty years have seen the growth of clear to Bissell that students and faculty wanted the graduate school over -one could argue, at the more say in decision making and that some re‐

8 H-Net Reviews structuring was needed. The Duf-Berdahl Com‐ Frank Iacobucci, the future Supreme Court justice. mission set up under the auspices of the Canadian This new system, adopted also elsewhere, had Association of University Teachers and the Associ‐ (and still has) some major drawbacks. While the ation of Universities and Colleges in Canada was university president was able to surround himself asked to look into the question of governance. The with loyal appointees, the deans and other admin‐ co-chairs were Sir James Duf, a former vice-chan‐ istrators not elected to the council were left very cellor of the University of Durham, and Robert much on the outside of major decision making. Berdahl, a political scientist from San Francisco Departmental heads had little say in anything im‐ State College. Among the 107 recommendations of portant. Weekly meetings with senior administra‐ the 1969 report was one for a unicameral govern‐ tors didn't really solve this problem of over cen‐ ing structure. Friedland was chair of a committee tralization. The new council was reviewed after struck to determine the university's views on the fve years by John B. Macdonald, a former presi‐ report; the issues were debated in a large assem‐ dent of the University of British Columbia. He rec‐ bly with representatives from a range of universi‐ ommended that the council be less activist. This ty constituencies. The fnal decision went to the may have led to greater efciency but it also led to Ontario legislature and a unicameral system was the concentration of yet more power in the presi‐ adopted, though one more along lines favoured dent and other senior ofcials in Simcoe Hall, the by Bissell than those suggested by the commis‐ site of the administrative unit. This, despite the sion. fact that Macdonald also recommended some del‐ But Bissell resigned in 1970 and it was his egation of power to the divisions, and that deans successor John Evans who had to make the new and department chairs be elected by their con‐ system work. He arrived at a bad time, not just for stituencies. Indeed, it could be argued that throw‐ Toronto but for universities throughout the world. ing out this crumb of democracy increased the in‐ A major downturn in the world economy, exacer‐ terests gap between the higher administration bated by the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Ex‐ and the faculty, and led to yet further alienation. porting Countries) crisis of the early 1970s, forced These problems were compounded as the universities to examine their activities and make poor economic climate of the 1970s extended into painful choices in how to allocate their shrinking the 1980s. Faculty salaries declined in real terms budgets. In Ontario, scarce education monies now and demands were made for increases. But the had to be shared also with several new universi‐ government could count on the mood of a general ties founded during the 1960s. The new governing public also sufering under the economic down‐ council, into which the senate and old governing turn. Among the public, large numbers tradition‐ body had been collapsed, was an elective council ally inclined to see the universities as bastions of with only a few designated ex officio positions, not privilege, supported budgetary freezes. While enough for all the senior administrators. Evans John Evans saw the situation as "sliding down began by creating a smaller group of executive Parnassus," politicians such as John White, a later positions, vice presidencies to be flled by people minister of education, wanted 'more scholar for with whom he could work. These included a vice- the dollar" (p. 561). Indeed, academics every‐ president of internal afairs, to which he appoint‐ where were being asked to do more with less; it ed historian Jill Kerr Conway--a good choice, given was the mantra of the 1980s. Efciency and ac‐ her sensitivity to student and faculty problems countability became watchwords as Toronto, and and to the need to improve the situation for wom‐ universities everywhere, saw the pendulum en at the university. When she left to take the swing from a gentlemanly to a business ethos. presidency of Smith College the position went to James Ham spent much of his fve years as presi‐

9 H-Net Reviews dent (1978-83) in budget cutting. While many in well with the Governing Council, and governance the university would have liked to cut enroll‐ is now efective. ments, formula funding prevented this happen‐ benefted from Connell's ing. Student to faculty ratios increased and the planning and was highly efective in bringing new university scrambled to fnd new fnancial re‐ monies to the university. In the 1990s Toronto sources. Formula funding, based on student en‐ slowly began to take on the character of a nation‐ rollment, has major drawbacks. From the point of al and international centre of higher education, view of a large research university, such as the something it had been prematurely claiming for University of Toronto, it discourages the use of re‐ itself for many years. But older patterns had to be sources to build graduate programs with high broken. Issues of racism and the inclusion of staf to student ratios. And, for universities that women and visible minorities in decision-making want to improve undergraduate education, it dis‐ processes had to be dealt with. These new issues courages innovative programs, or tutorial systems of access and governance, not peculiar to Toronto, which require similar ratios. have been among the major concerns of universi‐ The faculty fnally received an 18 percent ties in the past quarter century and it would have salary raise in 1981 but this came only at the ex‐ been good to see them receive a fuller treatment pense of a major hiring freeze. The 1980s saw a than Friedland provides. The election of the Har‐ few new facilities such as an athletics centre and ris government in 1995 with its idea of a "com‐ an earth sciences centre, but when George Con‐ mon sense revolution" could have been a serious nell took over the presidency in 1984, the univer‐ problem had not the major fund raising campaign sity was demoralized. Student life was in decline; been under way. During Prichard's tenure there was a lack of space, and student services, in‐ (1990-2000) large sums were raised in the private cluding the important food services, were poor. sector and the aim of reaching one billion dollars These problems were, of course, not unique to by 2004 will likely be met. The federal and provin‐ Toronto, but Connell set his mind to sorting out cial governments have also been active. The fed‐ the budget, fnding new sources of revenue, facul‐ eral government is funding 250 of the 2000 new ty renewal, rewarding good teaching, persuading Canadian research chairs at the University of the governments of David Peterson and Brian Toronto (only 15 percent of these to humanities Mulroney to support "excellence", and diversifca‐ and social sciences); and the Canada Foundation tion of the student body. His plans, detailed in his for Innovation is supporting work in biomolecu‐ document Renewal 1987 were a good blueprint lar research and related areas. It is clear that for his successor, Robert Prichard, but they also some of the new private funding came with busi‐ demanded yet further changes in university gov‐ ness strings attached. Friedland acknowledges ernance. Faculty had to be given a greater say in this, but has little to say about the most public ex‐ the running of the institution and Connell sup‐ ample of the university's problems in this connec‐ ported the introduction of a large Academic Board tion, the Apotex/Nancy Olivieri afair. But it is not which was to have a majority of academics and only pharmaceutical companies that make de‐ academic administrators as members. In 1987 stu‐ mands that could compromise academic honesty. dents were more apathetic than they had been Peter Munk, for example, wanted a say in the hir‐ earlier and did not demand parity; only sixteen of ing of staf at the new Munk Centre for Interna‐ this new 114 member body were to be students. tional Afairs as did Nortel in its Nortel Institute According to Friedland the new board has worked for Telecommunications. Universities, especially those heavily dependent on private sector monies for their international reputations, need to think

10 H-Net Reviews clearly about how to maintain their indepen‐ Friedland could, perhaps, have sat back and dence. They should not have to depend on the in‐ considered the consequences of some of the tegrity of individuals like Olivieri to keep things longer term trends that he has uncovered. What honest. do they imply for higher education? Should we Today the university has about 50,000 full and simply accept the fact that older gentlemanly part-time students and a faculty of about 3000. elites have been replaced by newer business ones; Friedland has recounted its history well. He has and that one set of ideals with its associated prob‐ focussed rather more on governance and the vari‐ lems of exclusion and a gentlemanly curriculum ous presidencies, than on academic and student has simply been replaced by another set of ideals life--though these are by no means ignored. He with new problems? Do we have to live with new mentions many of the important academics and ideas of efciency, and of what is important; with some of the more successful graduates to have the squeezing out of an undergraduate education, been associated with the university. Understand‐ focussed on preparing young people for a socially ably, given that the book was commissioned, it responsible life, and its replacement with a task contains little criticism. As befts a former dean of oriented education suited to a vocational regime? the law faculty, Friedland is judicious. He has With the buying of academic research time by shown how the university has come a long way those who can most aford to pay for it? (A free from a group of small colleges founded by men market in education might perhaps be more with strong British ties who saw education as in‐ democratic than anything attempted to date, but herently connected to the Christian religion. The that is something both old and new elites would major narrative is one of gradually increasing ac‐ resist.) I have more sympathy than Friedland cess, of decline in the importance of denomina‐ shows for Ursula Franklin's statement "industry tionalism, of the rise of professional education can jolly well do their own research and employ other than for the clergy, of a partial turn from our graduates" (p. 642). It is surely absurd that Britain to the United States as model, and of in‐ many industries (and law frms for that matter) creasing curricular diversity as the world has de‐ can aford to hire university graduates at salaries manded more specialized workers. It is also a sto‐ that, so soon after graduation, soar far above ry of the enormous rise in the importance of grad‐ those paid to the academics who taught them. uate education, the importance of research, espe‐ While the clock on greater industrial, business cially in science, medicine and engineering, and and university integration cannot be turned back, the attempt by one university to keep up with the I agree with Franklin that the private sector new. Friedland's fnal chapter recounts a walk he should pay more towards the enormous benefts took around the campus on the eve of the new that accrue to it via state-funded education. Uni‐ millennium. The chapter has a romantic edge in versities are now competing not only nationally that the author recalls, as he walks, the ever- but also internationally for students and for changing history of the campus. If the university funds. If we have moved into a business era, then press wants to attract a few extra readers it we should acknowledge that universities are sell‐ should consider selling the chapter separately. ing a product. But, they need to sell it at its true With minor editorial changes it would make an value; and do so while maintaining access on the excellent guide to a university walking tour. It is a basis of merit. However, the future is uncertain. beautifully written piece by someone who clearly The role of the internet in university education, loves the university and knows it well. and of information technology more generally, is not yet clear. Further, in the post September 11 world, it may well be that geopolitics will trump

11 H-Net Reviews business in defning what nations demand of their universities. I have been thinking about these problems in connection with my own research on a very dif‐ ferent institution, Imperial College London. But Friedland can not be expected to engage with all the themes that his book implicitly raises. He has written a book that is rich in content and one that will be of interest to many. Notes [1]. Notes available at University of Toronto Press website (www.utpublishing.com); hard copy of notes available at extra cost of (Canada) $25.65. [2]. Acknowledgment: I would like to thank John Stubbs for his helpful comments on an earli‐ er draft of this review essay.

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Citation: Hannah Gay. Review of Friedland, Martin L. The University of Toronto: A History. H-Canada, H- Net Reviews. February, 2003.

URL: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=7163

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