Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002 27 Queensland, most natural areas have experienced some form of disturbance Assessment of invasive naturalized plants in (e.g. grazing, altered fire regimes, nutrient south-east Queensland enrichment and partial clearing) and therefore the list includes some species which benefit from disturbance. Also, George N. Batianoff and Don W. Butler, Queensland Herbarium, some invasive plants are ‘broad spectrum’ Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mt. Coot-tha weeds. For example, lantana (Lantana Road, Toowong, Queensland 4066, Australia. camara) and green panic (Panicum maxi- mum) can be categorized as suburban, ag- ricultural and environmental weeds.

Summary Methods A list of 200 invasive naturalized species anecdotal or inadequate, ranking systems Relevant literature (Kleinschmidt and was prepared as a working document for need to be pragmatic and utilize botanical Johnson 1977, Hobbs and Huenneke 1992, the compilation of an environmental information currently available. The ob- Parsons and Cuthbertson 1992, Crawley et weed list for south-east Queensland. ject of this project was to identify which of al. 1996, Kleinschmidt et al. 1996, Laz- Species were selected from the 1060 natu- the 1060 plant species the Queensland arides et al. 1997, Anon 2000, Thorp and ralized taxa and were ranked based upon Herbarium has recorded as naturalized in Lynch 2000, Groves et al. 2000, Randall invasiveness and frequency in non-agri- south-east Queensland could be catego- 2000, Groves et al. 2001 and Williamson cultural areas and/or remnant natural ar- rized as ‘environmental’ weeds. This list 1999, 2001) was consulted to assist our eas. The list was compiled using records provides a working base from which the understanding of naturalized plant inva- of 1413 vegetation sites, 10 163 her- Southeast Queensland Environmental siveness and current categorizations of barium specimens and ranking scores of Weeds List will be compiled in consulta- weeds. Common names used mostly fol- thirteen members of an expert assess- tion with the wider community. low Shepherd et al. (2001). ment panel. Environmental weeds are defined as The study area (Figure 1) was defined One third of the 200 species listed invasive plants occurring in relatively un- by the Southeast Queensland Environ- were categorized as highly invasive. disturbed, mostly native vegetation. The mental Weeds Strategy Working Group Ninety percent were intentionally intro- Australia-wide weed prioritization Weeds and was based on Local Government Ar- duced for landscaping, agriculture and of National Significance (WONS) identi- eas. The task of distinguishing weeds of aquariums. One half of the list consist of fied and used two criteria, invasiveness disturbance (ruderal) from weeds of natu- herbs, including 34 species (17%) of and impact (Thorp and Lynch 2000). In ral areas (environmental) was addressed grasses and 19 species (9%) of aquatic this assessment, evidence of invasiveness by categorizing species invasiveness and weeds. Woody weeds (shrubs and trees) or potential invasiveness was the primary referring to a panel of thirteen weed scien- are a problem in south-east Queensland, criterion for selection, and frequency data tists and field botanists. The expert assess- representing 37% (75 species). The ten used as a secondary criteria. Invasiveness ment panel included members of four or- highest ranked invasive species in de- is related to a plant’s vigour, ability to es- ganizations. Tom Anderson, Trevor scending order were lantana (Lantana tablish and colonize existing vegetation Armstrong and Dane Panetta are weed camara), groundsel bush (Baccharis and to develop substantial populations scientists at Alan Fletcher Research Sta- halimifolia), mother-of-millions (Bryo- (Randall 2000). Assessment of all 1060 tion, Department of Natural Resources phyllum delagoense), cat’s claw creeper species for environmental impact was and Mining. George Batianoff, Anthony (Macfadyena unguis-cati), Madeira vine considered to be impractical because of Bean, Paul Forster, Ailsa Holland, Bill (Anredera cordifolia), ornamental aspara- insufficient data. McDonald, Sue Phillips and Kathy gus (Asparagus africanus), Chinese celtis In this study ‘natural’ vegetation is de- Stephens are botanists at Queensland Her- (Celtis sinensis), camphor laurel (Cinna- fined as plant communities where more barium, Environmental Protection Agency. momum camphora), broad-leaf pepper than 70% of the cover of vegetation is com- Michael Olsen and John Swarbrick are en- tree (Schinus terebinthifolius) and sal- prised of indigenous species and vegeta- vironmental consultants representing pri- vinia (Salvinia molesta). tion structure approaches that of remnant vate enterprise. Paul Grimshaw is a tech- communities. Natural areas threatened by nical officer representing Queensland Introduction invasive species include remnant vegeta- Parks and Wildlife Service. Risk assessments and development of tion in nature reserves, natural wildlife The panel members were presented methodologies for prioritizing weedy spe- corridors, wetlands, waterways, seashore with a list of 1060 naturalized species cies are recognized as useful weed man- and roadside native communities. Rej- based on specimens held at the Queens- agement tools (Thorp and Lynch 2000, mánek (1989) suggested that ‘there seems land Herbarium. The questionnaire in- Randall 2000, Groves et al. 2001, Tye 2001). to be no community without some degree cluded four effective categories of inva- Because information on distribution, fre- of natural disturbance’ and few without siveness, plus a category for early records quency, autecology and impact is often signs of human disruptions. In south-east as outlined in Table 1. The weed scientists

Table 1. Categories of plant invasiveness offered to the assessment panel. Score Description Notes 5 highly invasive, forms monocultures e.g. Lantana camara, Celtis sinensis, Cabomba caroliniana 4 generally invasive escaping from cultivation and spreading to natural areas e.g. Asparagus spp., Ochna serrulata, Pinus elliottii 3 common, invasive? (needs disturbance) weeds of suburban and agricultural disturbance e.g. Alternanthera pungens, Conyza spp., Medicago polymorpha 2 infrequent, poorly invasive e.g. Aloe arborescens 1 poorly known and/or early records only scores of 1 were not included in calculation of average scores 28 Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002 and botanists in the panel estimated plant Water weeds were poorly represented Investigations of the source of introduc- invasiveness based on field observations in vegetation sites and therefore their tion indicate that 64% of the 200 listed spe- and understanding of the biological per- ranking was primarily based upon the cies were ornamental garden plants, 21% formance of the species. The scores were opinions of four experts. Prickly and large were agricultural plants, 5% were averaged and species with average scores plants (e.g. palms) were also under-repre- aquarium plants and 10% were of un- of 3.0 or less were not considered further, sented in the specimen data. known source. Relatively few species leaving 443 species. were considered extremely invasive by Three aspects of distribution were also Results and discussion the assessment panel. Table 2 illustrates considered: (i) frequency as specimens Distribution of naturalized species records that about one third of the 200 species had collected from the study area (HERBRECS presented in Figure 1 indicates a pattern average scores greater than 4, and only 27 = Queensland Herbarium Records Data- of high density of records within areas of species (13.5%) were regarded as ‘highly base System), (ii) frequency in detailed high development e.g. around Beaudesert, invasive’ (>4.5). Table 2 indicates that vegetation sites from the study area Toowoomba, Brisbane and Nambour and woody weeds (shrubs and trees) are a (CORVEG = Queensland Herbarium eco- coastal areas. The sub-coastal areas from problem in south-east Queensland, repre- logical site database, sites with compre- Esk to Mundubbera and further north are senting 37% (75 species) of the 200 listed hensive species lists only) and (iii) number poorly sampled and/or represent areas invasive species. However, the largest life of south-east Queensland sub-regions (ten with relatively low numbers of weed spe- form category of 100 species (50%) be- divisions, as per Young and Dillewaard cies. Similarly, taxa records in one degree longed to herbs. These herbs include 34 1999) within which a species had been re- grids across Queensland identified strong (17%) species of grasses and 19 species corded in HERBRECS or CORVEG. Site correlation between high number of natu- (9%) of aquatic herbs. The frequency of the data was predominantly restricted to na- ralized species records and high density of life forms was broadly similar to that of tive vegetation. Whereas Queensland people (Batianoff et al. 2000). the combined native and naturalized flora Herbarium specimen data also included The 200 more invasive species and their of the neighbouring area of Port Curtis records from heavily disturbed areas. ranks are presented in the Appendix. District (Batianoff and Dillewaard 1988). Invasiveness and the three aspects of distribution were combined into a single prioritization. The three aspects of distri- bution were combined into a frequency index by summing the three ranks and di- # Gladstone viding the sum for each species by the S S SSS N SSS S S SSS SS S S SSS NS SSNSSS SS SSSN largest value for any species. A similar in- S S S S S SN S S NS SSSSSS S S SS SS SSSSSSSS NSN SSN N SNS SSS S S S SS S S SSSSS S NNS S SSSS SSS S SSNSSS SS SS S SSSNSS SSS S NS SS S dex was developed for invasiveness by S N N S N S S NSS NSS S SS NS N S S S SS S S N SS S SSSSSSS SSSSS S S SS S S N SS SSSSSN N NS N N SSS S NSSN SSS S N S SSS SSS NSS NS S N SSS SN ranking all species in ascending order for NS NSSSN SN S NSSS NSS S S SS N NS NSNSN SN NSS S SS SN S SSSSS SS S S SSSNNSS SNSSSN NN SS S N S S SSN S S SSS N S S SS SNSSSNSS SS SS SSS SS N S SSSSNS S SS SSSSS their average invasiveness scores and S S NSS SSSS S N NSSS SS N SSN N NNNSS S SS S S SS NS S S S NS S SSS SS S SS NNNS SS NNNNSS N NNNSSSSSNS NS S SSS NSSSS S NN N SSSSSSS NS S N S N SN N SSNS S S S S NSN NN S S N S NSN N SSS NSSSS once again dividing each rank by the larg- SS SS N SS SS S S SSS S SSS N SS S S S SSSNS S S S S N S S S S S N NS Bundaberg S S SSS SS S S N SS S SS N S SSN S SS SSS N S SS SSSSNS NS N N N S N NS N NS SN N NNNN NN N S S N N N SSN N NNN N N N N SS NN S N SS N NS N S N NSSS N est rank for any species. The two indices S N NN S SS S S NS NS SSS N N S SS S S S SS SN SSNN SSNN N S S SS SN N N N S SSS N SN N S NS NSNS NS S S S SS S N NS NS S S S SS N SS SSS N N N SSN S S S SS S N NSS S NS N#NNNN NSSS S SS SS N SSN SN SSN N NS S NS NN NN SS S S NNS S NNN N SS N N N SN N N N S NNNNN N N were summed, after ‘weighting’ them by S SS S S S SSNSN SSSS SS N N S SN S N N S S N N SSSS SS N N S N SSS S S N S S S S N S S N SNSSS SSSSSS S N N SS S N NS SN SS SS S SS N N N SSSSSS NS SSSS N SSSS SSSS S S SSSS SSSSSS SSN SS S NSSS SN N SS SS SS SS S NSN S S S S S S NNNSSSN S SNS multiplication, to produce a final score by SS NS N S NNSS S S SSN SSSSS S N S S S S N S N S N S S S N NN N N SS S N S N SS SNSSS N N S S SS S S S S S S N SS N S S N NS S S SS N SNS S S S SNSS SSSS SS SS S N S N S S SS S SN S NSNSS S S S S S SS S S S S N S S SSN S N S S SSN S SS S which species could be ranked. The final S NSSS SSS S SSS S S S S SSS S N S SN S N S S SSSS NS SN S S SS S N S S SN N S SSS N S N N S SSN NSN N N NN N NS NS N N N N S SN S S S N N N N S N S S S SS S SSS S S S NS N S S S SS S SSNNS S S S S N N S S S N# S S S SSS S N SSS SS N S SSS S SSSNS N prioritization was based 90% on invasive- S S S S SS SS NNSS NS S S NS S N SS SS N SS N S S N S SS S S S S S S SS SS S S SN N S N S S SS S S S SS SSS S S S S S S N S S S SS S S S S N N N N S SNSNN N S N S S NSS SSS SNS S NS N N S S S N N SSSS SS S S S SS S S S S S S NS SSN N SS NSSSSS SSS SS S SS S S ness and 10% on frequency (0.9 × Inva- N N S N NNNN N SS S S SSSS SSS S SS S S S S S N S NNSS S S S S SS S N S N SS SS S N NSSNSSNSN SS S SSS SS SS SSS S S N N SSS NNN NN S N SSS S N S S SSSS NNS S SSS N S SS S S N N N S N NSSS SN NN S SSS S S S S SS N NN S NS N N S S S SS N S S N S N N S S SS SSS S NS N N N N NNNS S N S N N N SS N NNS SSS S SS N N S N N siveness index + 0.1 × Frequency index). NN SN N N#N SNN NNNNSN NS N S N SSS S NSS N S SS SS SS S S S S S NN N S S S S N S NSSS S SS NN S SS S SNSSSSSS SSN S SS SS S S S SS NNSS S N N S N SSSSSN S SN S SSN S S N SS NN N S S SS S SSS SSSS S NS N NN N N S SS N SSS N N N S SSS SSS S S N SS SN S S S S SSSSS S S As a result, if two species had similar in- N S SS S SS SNS S N N S N S S N NNNN N N NS S N N S N SSS N SS N N S N SS N S S SSS S SNSSS S S N N S SSS N S S SSSS S NSN NS SS N S SS S SSSS SS S S NS SSN S S NNSS S S N N S S SSS S S S S SS N N SS S NS N N N S SS S SSSS SSN SS N S NS SS SN S N N SSS NS SSS S S N S NS S S S vasiveness scores the most widespread SS SS S NS SS N S SS S S SS SS S N S S S Mundubbera S S SS SS N S S SS S S SN S SS S S N S SSS SSS N S S S NSS S SS NN N S S N SSSS N N NSS S SSSS SSSS SS S S SN SS S N S S S SS S N SN SS S S SSSS N NSN S N S SS SSSSSSSSS S N NNNN S N N N S NS SS SS SNS S S S N N S SSS NS S S SS S was placed higher in the final priorit- S SSS SS S S S S S S S SN N N N N SN S S NN S N SSS N N S N S S N SSSSSS SNS S S S S N NN N N SN N N N SS NS S N N N S N N S N N N S N N S N N NNN N NN S N N N N N N N N S NS S SS N N NN N S ization, for example, cork passionflower S N N S NS SS S N N S N S S N SSSSSS S S N S S S NNN NN N SSSSS NN N NNNSN NNNNN N S N S S N SSN #NN N N N S SNS S N S NNNS N NN N S NN S S N S S N Gympie S S S S N N N N N N SS NNNNNNN S S NNNN N N S S S S N NNNN NNNN S NN N (Passiflora suberosa) is ranked higher than N SN S N NS SSSS S N SS NNN N S S N S S SS S S S NN NSNN S S S S N S S NN N SSS N NSNS SS SSS SNN N N N N N S N NSS SSS SSSS SS N NNS S SS SN S NSN N SSS N SSN N N NN SNN NNNNNN blue morning glory (Ipomoea indica) as it is SS S S N N N N S S N NN NN N N N N N SN S N N N SS N S NNNNN NS NNNN NN NNNN S S S N S SS S S NN S N NN N S SSSS S SS SSSS S NNNN NS NN NN SS N S SS NSS S SS S N NS N NNN SSS N S SN S NS S SS N N SN S S S N N N SN N N SS SS N SS S SNNNNNS S NN N SNN N S SNS SSSS S SS NNN S S SNNS S NSN more widespread in the study area and N SSS NS S S S N SSS N NNNS N SNSNNN S N S S S NS N N N N NNN S NS S S S S NSS S S NNN N N NSNS N N NNNN N N SS S S SN N S NSS S NN S NNNNS SN NNN N N N S N NS N N SNNNNS S S SS S NN NNNN NNSNN S NS SS S NS N NS N NN#N NSN SS N S S NNNSSSSSN NS NS S NS N was frequently recorded in remnant map- N S SS S N S NNN NNN NSNSSS S N Nambour S SSSS N N NNNN N NNNNNSN NN SN N S S N N N SS NN NS N NN NN S S N S SSS N N SNNSS NNNS N S S S SSSNSSSNSSS N S N NN S N N NN N S N NN N SS S SSS SN S NN NN NNNSNS SS N N N N N SS SSS S N S NN SNN N NS N N S N NSNS S S N ping sites although I. indica had a slightly N S S SS N N SN SN S N NN S SS SNSN NN SSNN NN N NS S S S N N S S NNNSSNN NNN N NS S S N NSNS S NSNNNS S NSN SNNN S N N NN N S SS N N NN N N S N N SSSSNN N NN N N N NNNN N N N N NNNN S higher invasiveness score (4.3 vs. 4.2 for P. N N N S N NNS NSN N S N N SN N S NN NN S S N NS S N N N SSNSN NSN S S S N NN NS SNSNNSSS S N S S S N SNNSSSS SSSNSNSSS NN N S S SS N SS SNS N SS SSSSSSS suberosa). S S N N SSS N S NSS S N SNN N NNNN NN N N SNSNS NNN N N NSN SNSN SSN N NSN N NS N S SN S N N SS N NN N N NN S S N N SSSS N N SN N N S N SS N N N N SSSSS NSNN NS S S SS S N NSSS SSN S S N S N S The final prioritization does not strictly SS N S S NS N N N N SNSNSSSS N N S N N SS N N SS NNNNNSN N N NNNN NNNSNN N NSSN SSSSN #N NS N N N S S N N S N S NS N NNS SS SS S S S S SSS SNS N SS SN N N SSS SS S S S N NNNSS SNSN SSS S NS S N SS SS N NSSSSNSSNNSNSN NNN SN SSN Esk SSSS SN S N NN SNSSS NNNSSN N N N NN N NSSS NN follow the formula due to some shortcom- S N S SS SS SS N NSNSN NS N NNS S SS N SSSSS N NN SN SS SN N N N SN NNS S N S S N SSSSSNNSSNNNN NNSNNNNNSNN NNNNNNN SS NNS N NNNSS S NNNNNNNNNN SNSNNSSSSSSSSSSS S NNNNNNNN N S N Brisbane N S NSS S N NNS SS S SNSNSS SS S NN NN NNNN N S N N S SS SSSSS S S N N NN SSSNSSSSSSSSSSSSNSSSSNSNNN NNNNNN N N SS S SS SN N S NSSSS SS SSSSSSSSSS S NN NS SSSS NNSSSSSNNSSSSNSNNNNN N S NN S S ings identified in the herbarium data N N S NNSSNS SSSS SSNS SN N N SS N NNNNNSSNNSSNN#NNNNNSNS SS SS SS SSSS SSS N NN S NN NN NNSNNNNN N S NN N SSS S SS S NNS S NNN NS NNNNNNNNNN N NNNSN N S NS NNNN N S SSS S S N NNS S NN NN NN NNNNNNNNNNNN N SNS N N N S SS S S N S NNNN N N S SNNNNNNNNNSSNNNN SS N SSSSS SN NNS N N NNNN N N N N N SN N N NN SN NNNNN NSSNSSNN N SN S SSSS N # NN N NNNNN N N N N N NNSNS SN NNN SSNSS SN S NNNN NNNN NNNNNNNNS NNNNN NSNNNNN NNNSNNNNN NNNSNSNNNNN N N NS SN N SS N N N N SSNS NN N N N N NNNNNNNNNN NNN N NNN N N SSSN N S (Hosking et al. 1996). The formula pro- SSSS S N NNNS NN S N SS S SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SS SSSSSS Toowoomba N NSS N N N N S N SS N NNNNNN NNSNNNS N NN SSSSSS SSSSSSNSSSSSNSSSSSSSSSN NSSSN SSSSSS N NN N S SSS N S N N NSSSSSS N S S S SNSS SS S S N N SS N N N N NN S N N NS S NS S NN N SS SSSNN N S S S SSSSN SS N NSN S S S S SSSSS N SS N SSS N N N N N SSSN NN S NS SS SSSS SSS vided a provisional order after which NSSSSS N NS NN S N N N S NNNNNNNSS N N NN SSSNSSSNSSNS S S SN SS S S S NS SSS SSS NS N N N N N NN N NNNSSSNSSSS SSSN N S SSSSS SSS N N N SS N N NNN N S SSS S NS NS N N N NN SSS N N S N SSS SS N NNN S NS S N some priorities were adjusted according to SSS SSSSS N N S SS SSSSSN N NN NS N 30 0 30 60 Kilometers SS N S S SSS SSSSS S S NSS SS N N SN N S NNNSSSSSNSSSSSS NSNNNN SNSSNSSSN SNSS NSS SS N SS N N N S SSNS NN N SSS N S S SSSS SS SSS NN N N S S N SS SSSSSSS S SN NN N N S S SSSS S N SS NSS SSSSSS N N N S NN #N N NN field knowledge and anecdotal evidence. NS N S NNSN NN N N N N N NN NN N N N N N NN NNN N NN N N NNNN N N NNN N S N NSN S N N NSN N N N NN N N SSNSN Most attention was paid to the top half of N NS N N S N N NN N N NN N NN N NSS N N N N Beaudesert N SNS SSS N NSS N NNN N SSS N S NNNN N N NN N NN N N N N NN N N the list. Ranking of some species such as NNS N NN N SSNS NNS S S S N N kudzu (Pueraria lobata), was adjusted by N NS consulting with more recent publications, particularly Anon. (2000). Two pairs of species (Sporobolus pyramidalis and S. natalensis; Psidium guajava and P. Figure 1. Distribution of Queensland Herbarium naturalised plant records guineense) were treated as equivalent due (N = herbarium specimen and S = vegetation site) in study area. Local to confusion in their identification. Government Authority boundaries are shown. Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002 29 Table 2. Distribution of species among categories of invasiveness scores mated in non-agricultural areas. Natural and life form. areas with dense infestations of natural- ized exotic ground cover species face an Life form Plant invasiveness score uncertain future (Batianoff and Franks 5-4.6 4.5-4.1 4.0-3.6 3.5-3.1 Total 1997). The changes to seedling establish- Trees 5 4 13 14 36 (18%) ment of the overstorey, potential altera- Shrubs 4 4 26 5 39 (19.5%) tion of fire regimes and nutrient cycling Vines 4 11 8 2 25 (12.5%) caused by these weed infestations may Herbs 8 15 32 26 81 (40.5%) have a long-term effect on native forests Aquatic herbs 648119 (9.5%) (Williams and West 2000). Naturalized Total 27 (13.5%) 38 (19%) 87 (43.5%) 48 (24%) 200 aquatic species include some of the most invasive and damaging weeds within wetland environments. We had only a few The naturalized flora defined here con- 1891). According to Batianoff et al. (2001), sites and an insufficient number of speci- tains a larger number of vines (12.4% vs plants held in cultivation in the study area mens, to provide an objective assessment 4.6%) and fewer trees (18% vs. 23%) than are the main source of present and future of aquatic weeds. in the Port Curtis District. weed infestations. The process of weed invasion is ongo- The invasive naturalized flora is The ten most frequently collected and ing, with an average of 87 new naturaliza- taxonomically diverse, representing 161 sighted (site data) species, based on tions recorded per decade in south-east genera and 66 families. The ten most Queensland Herbarium records (as at Queensland (Batianoff et al. 2001). In re- important families based on number of June 2000) in descending order are lantana cent decades the number of plant naturali- species were Poaceae (35), Asteraceae (20), (Lantana camara, 455 records), groundsel zations appear to have increased (Hos- Fabaceae (8), Acanthaceae (7), Cactaceae bush (Baccharis halimifolia, 168 records), king, personal communication). As the (7), Solanaceae (7), Bignoniaceae (6), cork passionflower (Passiflora suberosa, 166 number of plant naturalizations is increas- Mimosaceae (6), Rosaceae (6) and records), Indian weed (Sigesbeckia ing, so is the number of invasive species Agavaceae (5). The Poaceae, Asteraceae, orientalis, 148 records), red Natal grass that colonize available areas (Batianoff et Mimosaceae and Fabaceae are also among (Melinis repens, 134 records), balloon cot- al. 2001). The list should be treated as a the ten most species rich native plant fami- ton bush (Gomphocarpus physocarpus, 132 current or point-in-time inventory and a lies in the region (Batianoff and Dille- records), cobbler’s pegs (Bidens pilosa, 110 useful monitoring tool for weed managers waard 1988). The success of the Cactaceae records), blue billygoat weed (Ageratum over time. Improvements in prediction of is notable since it is not represented in the houstonianum, 81 records), Queensland problematic species will depend on con- native Australian flora. blue couch (Digitaria didactyla, 70 records) tinual input of new information and the The ten most highly ranked invasive and Paddy’s lucerne (Sida rhombifolia, 69 advances in the understanding of plant species with their estimated residency records). Frequently recorded species in- invasion processes (Batianoff et al. 2001). years (since naturalization/cultivation), clude not only the highly ranked but also In this study, the most valuable frequency based on Queensland Herbarium natu- plants that take full advantage of distur- data came from herbarium specimens and ralization records, in descending order are bance such as cobbler’s pegs. site recordings. Lantana camara is ranked lantana (Lantana camara, 120 years), The main difficulty encountered in this as the number one invasive and most fre- groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia, 85 study was the range of the assessment quent weed of natural areas in south-east years), mother-of-millions (Bryophyllum panel scores. Individual field experience Queensland. According to Groves et al. delagoense, 38 years), cat’s claw creeper associated with plant invasiveness ac- (2000), widespread invasive plants such as (Macfadyena unguis-cati, 45 years), Ma- counted for major variations. We suspect Lantana camara are having a direct impact deira vine (Anredera cordifolia, 55 years), that the invasiveness scores were also in- on rare and threatened native plant spe- ornamental asparagus (Asparagus afri- fluenced by a predominance of roadside cies rated by the Australian and New Zea- canus, 25 years), Chinese celtis (Celtis sightings. Some panel members used gen- land Environment and Conservation sinensis, 89 years), camphor laurel (Cinna- eral information on Queensland’s weeds Council (ANZECC). momum camphora, 77 years), broad-leaf rather than the specific regional knowl- Socio-economic and environmental pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius, 77 edge required for this assessment. For ex- values are also important. The fact that years) and salvinia (Salvinia molesta, 48 ample Acacia nilotica subsp. indica is one of 85% of all invasive plants originated from years). This short list of ten includes two the WONS and is a problem in inland either ornamental or agricultural sources species, lantana and salvinia, which were Queensland but it is not a current problem is now acknowledged. The current codes included in the final 20 weeds of national in south-east Queensland. It is also sus- of practice within the responsible sectors significance (Thorp and Lynch 2000, pected that the majority of the members of of the horticultural and agricultural in- WONS). the expert panel interpreted high biomass dustries are being reviewed to avoid fur- The five arboreal plants (trees and as an index for plant invasiveness and ca- ther introductions and spread of highly shrubs) in this list have an average period pacity to colonize. Nevertheless, given the invasive plant species (Donald Scotts and since the first naturalized specimen was incomplete data, our panel’s determina- Bruce Cook personal communication, collected of 90 years. Whereas average pe- tions provided a useful interim categori- May 2001). riod since first specimen record for five zation. Without environmental weed prioritiz- non-arboreal plants (herbs and vines) is 42 Weeds that occupy the ground stratum, ation, weed managers are overwhelmed years. This suggests that introduced particularly grasses, are very difficult to by the large number of naturalized plant shrubs and trees may take twice as long as categorize even though one half of all in- species. According to Rejmánek (2000), herbs and vines to reach significant weedy vasive species are herbs. Unpalatable successful management of invasive weeds status. Many current environmental ground covers are likely to have an eco- requires active attempts to prevent new weeds such as camphor laurel, broad-leaf nomic impact e.g. giant rat’s tail grasses introductions and persistent efforts to pepper tree, Chinese celtis, tree privet, (Sporobolus natalensis and S. pyramidalis) eradicate the worst invaders. The Austral- Chinese privet and jacaranda were widely and African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). ian Quarantine and Inspection Service planted during the Arbor Days in south- Ground cover biomass and invasiveness is (AQIS) has new policies that include weed east Queensland in the 1890s (McLean frequently overlooked and underesti- risk assessments and prohibition of entry 30 Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002 of weedy plants. According to Walton Batianoff, G.N. and Dillewaard, H.A. Randall, R.P. (2000). Which are my worst (2001) the adoption of these new proce- (1988). ‘Port Curtis district flora and weeds? a simple ranking system for dures by AQIS has considerably improved early botanists’. (Queensland Her- prioritizing weeds. Plant Protection the screening process for importation of barium and Society for Growing Aus- Quarterly 15, 109-15. plant species. Control and regulation of tralian Plants Inc., Brisbane). Rejmánek, M. (1989). Invasibility of plant invasive aquatics will continue to be diffi- Batianoff, G.N. and Franks, A.J. (1997). In- communities. In ‘Biological invasions. cult. Finally, the compilation of this list of vasion of sandy beachfronts by orna- A global perspective’, eds A. Drake, invasive plants is seen as a small step in mental plant species in Queensland. H.A. Mooney, F. di Castri, R.H. Groves, assisting weed management in south-east Plant Protection Quarterly 12, 180-6. F.J. Kruger, M. Rejmánek and M. Queensland. Crawley, M.J., Harvey, P.H., and Purvis, Williamson, pp. 369-88. (John Wiley A. (1996). Comparative ecology of the and Sons, New York). Acknowledgments native and alien floras of the British Rejmánek, M. (2000). Invasive plants: ap- The list of invasive naturalized vascular Isles. Philosophical Transactions of the proaches and predictions. Australian plants developed for south-east Queens- Royal Society of London Bulletin 351, Journal of Ecology 25, 497-506. land was prepared at the request of the 1251-9. Shepherd, R.C.H., Richardson, R.G. and Southeast Queensland Environmental Groves, R.H., Hosking, J.R., Batianoff, Richardson, F.J. (2001). ‘Plants of Weeds Strategy Group. Support and con- G.N., Cooke, D.A., Cowie, I.D., importance to Australia: a checklist’. tributory comments, corrections and vari- Keighery, G.J., Lepschi, B.J., Rozefelds, (R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Melbourne, ous taxonomic opinions are gratefully ac- A.C. and Walsh, N.G. (2000). The natu- Victoria). knowledged from Peter Bostock, Richard ralized non-native flora of Australia: its Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. (2000). ‘The de- Clarkson, Rod Fensham, Hellen Haapa- categorization and threat to native termination of weeds of national sig- koski, David Halford, Rod Henderson, plant biodiversity. CRC Weed Manage- nificance’. (National Weeds Strategy Ailsa Holland, Laurie Jessup, Robert ment Systems, Canberra, ACT 2601, Executive Committee, Launceston). Johnson, Michael Robinson, Bruce Scott, Australia. Unpublished Report. Tye, A. (2001). Invasive plant problems Bryan Simon and two referees. Queens- Groves, R.H., Panetta, F.D. and Virtue, and requirement for weed risk assess- land Herbarium management staff (Gor- J.G. (eds) (2001). ‘Weed risk assess- ment in the Galapagos Islands. In don Guymer and John Neldner) are ac- ment’. (CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne). ‘Weed risk assessment’, eds R.H. knowledged for their encouragement and Hill, W. (1875). ‘Catalogue of the plants in Groves, F.D. Panetta and J.G. Virtue, support. the Queensland Botanic Gardens’. pp. 153-75. (CSIRO Publishing, Mel- (Government Printer, Brisbane). bourne). Hobbs, R.J. and Huenneke, L.F. (1992). Walton, C.S. (2001). Implementation of a References Disturbance, diversity, and invasion: permitted list approach to plant intro- Anon. (2000). ‘Common weeds of north- implications for conservation. Conser- ductions to Australia. In ‘Weed risk as- ern NSW rainforest: a practical manual vation Biology 6, 324-37. sessment’, eds. R.H. Groves, F.D. on their identification and control’, Sec- Hosking J.R., Sainty G.R. and Jacobs Panetta and J.G. Virtue, pp. 93-9. ond edition. (BiG Scrub Rainforest S.W.L. (1996). Certainty and uncer- (CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne). Landcare Group, Bangalow, New tainty in plant identification. Proceed- Williams, J.A. and West, C.J. (2000). Envi- South Wales). ings of the Eleventh Australian Weeds ronmental weeds in Australia and New Batianoff, G.N., Bostock, P. and Swarbrick Conference, ed. R.C.H. Shepherd, pp. Zealand: issues and approaches to J. (2000). A new ‘book’ on the weeds of 464-67. (Weeds Science Society of Vic- management. Australian Journal of Ecol- Queensland: A discussion paper. Pro- toria Inc.). ogy 25, 425-44. ceedings of the Sixth Queensland Weed Kleinschmidt, H.E., Holland, A. and Williamson, M. (1999). Invasions. Eco- Symposium, ed. J. Swarbrick, pp. 16-21. Simpson, P. (1996). ‘Suburban weeds’, graphy 22, 5-22. (Weed Society of Queensland Inc., Bris- 3rd edition. (Department of Primary In- Williamson, M. (2001). Can the impacts of bane). dustries, Brisbane). invasive species be predicted? In ‘Weed Batianoff, G.N. and Butler, D.W. (2001). Kleinschmidt, H.E. and Johnson, R.W. risk assessment’, eds. R.H. Groves, F.D. Invasive weeds of natural areas. Pre- (1977). ‘Weeds of Queensland’. Panetta, and J.G. Virtue, pp. 20-33. pared for Southeast Queensland Envi- (Queensland Department of Primary (CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne). ronmental Weeds Strategy. Presented Industries, Government Printer, Bris- Young, P.A.R. and Dillewaard, H.A. to the Southeast Queensland Environ- bane). (1999). Southeast Queensland. In ‘The mental Weeds Management Group, Lazarides, M., Cowley, K. and Hohnen, P. conservation status of Queensland’s 2 February 2001, Brisbane. Unpub- (1997). ‘CSIRO handbook of Australian bioregional ecosystems’, eds. P.S. lished report. weeds’. (CSIRO Publishing, Colling- Sattler, and R.D. Williams, pp. 12/1-75. Batianoff, G.N., Butler, D.W. and Panetta, wood). (Environmental Protection Agency, F.D. (2001). Potential new weeds in McLean, P. (1891). Arbor Day. In ‘Annual Brisbane). southeast Queensland: examining the report of the Queensland Department process of invasion. Proceedings ‘2001 of Agriculture for the Year 1890–91’, a pest odyssey’, Local Government Pest pp. 19-20, 53, 68-9, 197-202. (Govern- Management Workshop, Caloundra, ment Printer, Brisbane). Queensland, pp. 27-35. (Department of Parsons, W.T. and Cuthbertson, E.G. Natural Resources and Mines, Queens- (1992). ‘Noxious weeds of Australia’. land). (Inkata Press, Melbourne and Sydney). Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002 31 Appendix. List of invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland compiled by George N. Batianoff and Don W. Butler, Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency, August 2001. Rank Family Scientific and common names Sub-region Recd No. Score Life form and source 1 Verbenaceae Lantana camara var. camara (lantana) 10 455 5 S/O 2 Asteraceae Baccharis halimifolia (groundsel bush) 10 168 4.8 S/O 3 Crassulaceae Bryophyllum delagoense (mother of millions) 8 38 4.9 H/O 4 Bignoniaceae Macfadyena unguis-cati (cat’s claw creeper) 5 36 4.9 V/O 5 Basellaceae Anredera cordifolia (madeira vine) 8 16 4.9 V/O 6 Asparagaceae Asparagus africanus (ornamental asparagus, asparagus fern) 7 26 4.9 V/O 7 Ulmaceae Celtis sinensis (Chinese celtis) 8 19 4.9 T/O 8 Lauraceae Cinnamomum camphora (camphor laurel) 7 25 4.8 T/O 9 Anacardiaceae Schinus terebinthifolius (broad-leaf pepper tree) 6 49 4.8 T/O 10 Salviniaceae Salvinia molesta (salvinia) 8 57 4.9 Ha/F 11 Cabombaceae Cabomba caroliniana (cabomba, fanwort) 4 12 4.9 Ha/F 12 Asteraceae Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata (bitou bush) 3 23 4.9 S/OA 13 Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) 4 8 4.9 Ha/OF 14 Acanthaceae Hygrophila costata (Glush weed) 3 7 5 Ha/F 15 Oleaceae Ligustrum lucidum (tree privet) 5 9 4.8 T/O 16 Asteraceae Sphagneticola trilobata (Singapore daisy) 6 34 4.6 H/O 17 Asteraceae Ageratina adenophora (crofton weed) 6 38 4.6 H/O 18 Verbenaceae Lantana montevidensis (creeping lantana) 8 62 4.8 S/O 19 Fabaceae Neonotonia wightii (glycine) 5 16 4.7 H/A 20 Poaceae Panicum maximum (green panic and guinea grass) 8 78 4.6 H/A 21 Oleaceae Ligustrum sinense (Chinese privet) 4 11 4.6 T/O 22 Ochnaceae Ochna serrulata (ochna) 7 33 4.5 S/O 23 Asparagaceae Asparagus aethiopicus cv. Sprengeri (asparagus ground fern) 5 35 4.5 H/O 24 Poaceae Sporobolus pyramidalis and S. natalensis (giant rat’s tail grasses) 8 72 4.8 H/U? 25 Asteraceae Ageratina riparia (mistflower) 5 38 4.6 H/O 26 Asclepiadaceae Araujia sericifera (mothvine) 9 38 4.4 V/O 27 Crassulaceae Bryophyllum daigremontianum × B. delagoense 6 15 4.5 H/O (hybrid mother-of-millions) 28 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea cairica (mile-a-minute) 7 56 4.4 V/O 29 Sapindaceae Cardiospermum grandiflorum (balloon vine) 7 31 4.4 V/O 30 Asclepiadaceae Cryptostegia grandiflora (rubber vine) 6 19 4.4 V/O 31 Phytolaccaceae Rivina humilis (baby pepper) 8 61 4.3 H/O 32 Poaceae Sporobolus africanus (Parramatta grass) 8 48 4.5 H/U 33 Poaceae Sporobolus fertilis (giant Parramatta grass) 9 27 4.5 H/U 34 Poaceae Eragrostis curvula (African lovegrass) 7 29 4.3 H/U 35 Asteraceae Gymnocoronis spilanthoides (Senegal tea) 3 4 4.7 Ha/F 36 Amaranthaceae Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed) 1? 3 5 Ha/U 37 Passifloraceae Passiflora suberosa (cork passionflower) 8 166 4.2 V/O 38 Poaceae Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass) 5 17 4.5 H/A 39 Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia elegans (Dutchman’s pipe) 8 30 4.3 V/O 40 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea indica (blue morning glory) 5 24 4.3 V/O 41 Mimosaceae Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) 6 14 4.3 ST/A 42 Poaceae Brachiaria mutica (para grass) 6 18 4.4 Ha/A 43 Hydrocharitaceae Egeria densa (egeria waterweed) 2 7 4.4 Ha/F 44 Pinaceae Pinus elliottii (slash pine) 4 22 4.3 T/A 45 Caesalpiniaceae Senna pendula var. glabrata (Easter cassia) 7 33 4.2 ST/O 46 Poaceae Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass) 9 55 4.3 H/A 47 Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum (resurrection plant) 6 17 4.2 H/O 48 Asteraceae Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed) 6 14 4.2 H/U 49 Caprifoliaceae Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) 3 6 4.3 V/O 50 Acanthaceae Thunbergia alata (black eyed susan) 5 22 4.2 H/O 51 Fabaceae Macroptilium atropurpureum (siratro) 8 39 4.2 V/A 52 Rosaceae Rubus ellipticus (yellowberry) 4 26 4.1 S/O 53 Colchicaceae Gloriosa superba (glory lily) 3 26 4.1 V/O 54 Verbenaceae Phyla canescens (lippia, Condamine couch) 3 4 4.2 Ha/O 55 Solanaceae Solanum seaforthianum (Brazilian nightshade) 8 78 4 V/O 56 Araceae Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) 3 8 4.1 Ha/OF 57 Asparagaceae Asparagus plumosus (asparagus fern) 4 8 4.1 V/O 58 Commelinaceae Tradescantia fluminensis (Qld use T. albiflora) (wandering jew) 5 9 4.1 H/O 59 Solanaceae Cestrum parqui (green cestrum) 6 36 3.9 S/O 60 Caesalpiniaceae Senna septemtrionalis (arsenic bush, was S. floribunda) 6 25 4 S/O 61 Solanaceae Solanum mauritianum (wild tobacco tree) 8 30 4 S/O

continued/… 32 Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002

Rank Family Scientific and common names Sub-region Recd No. Score Life form and source 62 Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (pink periwinkle) 5 22 4 S/O 63 Passifloraceae Passiflora subpeltata (white passion flower) 10 60 3.9 V/O 64 Fabaceae Desmodium uncinatum (silverleaf desmodium) 5 14 4 H/A 65 Poaceae Melinis repens (red Natal grass) 10 134 4.1 H/A 66 Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea caerulea subsp. zanzibarensis (blue lotus) 4 17 4 Ha/OF 67 Onagraceae Oenothera drummondii subsp. drummondii 3 17 4 H/O (beach evening primrose) 68 Tiliaceae Triumfetta rhomboidea (Chinese burr) 7 44 4 H/U 69 Haloragaceae Myriophyllum aquaticum (parrot’s feather) 3 15 4 Ha/F 70 Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida (stinking passion flower) 7 50 3.9 V/O 71 Asteraceae Verbesina encelioides (crownbeard) 7 34 4 H/U 72 Poaceae Paspalum mandiocanum 364H/A 73 Poaceae Paspalum dilatatum (paspalum grass) 10 30 3.9 H/A 74 Ruppiaceae Ruppia maritima (sea tassel) 2 8 4 Ha/F 75 Arecaceae Syagrus romanzoffiana (queen palm) 4? 10 3.9 T/O 76 Poaceae Hymenachne amplexicaulis cv. Olive (hymenachne) 1? 1 4 Ha/A 77 Asteraceae Senecio tamoides (Canary creeper) 3 8 4 V/O 78 Poaceae Cenchrus ciliaris (buffel grass) 4 15 4.1 H/A 79 Acanthaceae Thunbergia grandiflora (thunbergia, blue thunbergia) 2 3 5? V/O 80 Cactaceae Opuntia tomentosa (velvet tree pear) 8 46 3.9 S/O 81 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis (castor oil plant) 7 20 3.9 S/O 82 Asteraceae Senecio madagascariensis (fire weed) 6 28 3.8 H/U 83 Cyperaceae Cyperus involucratus (African sedge) 6 15 3.8 Ha/OF 84 Asteraceae Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower) 5 11 3.9 H/O 85 Poaceae Setaria sphacelata (South African pigeon grass) 9 41 3.8 H/A 86 Asclepiadaceae Gomphocarpus physocarpus (balloon cotton bush) 10 132 3.7 S/OU 87 Poaceae Digitaria didactyla (Queensland blue couch) 9 70 3.7 H/A 88 Caesalpiniaceae Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust) 7 12 3.8 T/O 89 Poaceae Paspalum notatum (bahia grass) 4 10 3.8 H/A 90 Cactaceae Opuntia monacantha (drooping tree pear, syn. O. vulgaris)234S/O 91 Poaceae Paspalum conjugatum (paspalum grass) 7 38 3.8 H/A 92 Malpighiaceae Hiptage benghalensis (hiptage) 3 5 4 S,V/O 93 Solanaceae Solanum torvum (devil’s fig) 6 39 3.9 S/O 94 Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpinia decapetala (thorny poinciana) 4 20 3.9 S,V/O 95 Poaceae Pennisetum alopecuroides (swamp foxtail) 7 29 3.8 H/O 96 Verbenaceae Duranta erecta (duranta) 6 14 3.6 ST/O 97 Brassicaceae Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (syn. Nasturtium officinale) 7 19 3.7 Ha/FU (watercress) 98 Polygonaceae Acetosa sagittata (rambling dock) 4 18 3.7 V/U 99 Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (couch, Bahama grass introduced cultivars) 10 45 3.6 H/OA 100 Bignoniaceae Tecoma stans (yellow bells) 4 16 3.6 ST/O 101 Rosaceae Rhaphiolepis indica (Indian hawthorn) 3 10 3.5 ST/O 102 Mimosaceae Mimosa pudica (common sensitive plant) 4 12 3.7 S/A 103 Commelinaceae Callisia fragrans (purple succulent) 3 9 3.9 H/O 104 Scrophulariaceae Paulownia tomentosa (paulownia) 3 5 4 T/AO 105 Commelinaceae Tradescantia zebrina (zebrina) 3 12 3.7 H/O 106 Acanthaceae Ruellia malacosperma (ruellia) 5 16 3.8 H/O 107 Poaceae Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass) 4 12 3.8 H/A 108 Liliaceae Lilium formosanum (Taiwan lily) 5 10 3.8 H/O 109 Asteraceae Sigesbeckia orientalis (Indian weed) 10 148 3.6 H/U 110 Asteraceae Bidens pilosa (cobbler’s pegs) 10 110 3.5 H/U 111 Cactaceae Opuntia stricta (common prickly pear) 7 67 3.6 S/O 112 Poaceae Eleusine indica (crowsfoot grass) 8 55 3.5 H/A 113 Poaceae Axonopus compressus ( broad leaved carpet grass) 5 23 3.6 H/AO 114 Lamiaceae Salvia coccinea (red salvia) 9 46 4 H/O 115 Asteraceae Ageratum houstonianum (blue billygoat weed) 8 81 3.8 H/UO 116 Myrtaceae Psidium guajava and P. guineense 4 7 3.7 ST/AO (yellow guava and West Indes guava) 117 Rosaceae Rubus bellobatus (kittatinny blackberry) 5 22 3.5 S/O 118 Myrtaceae Eugenia uniflora (Brazilian cherry) 4 19 3.5 ST/O 119 Oleaceae Olea europaea (olive) 2 6 4? T/A 120 Poaceae Brachiaria decumbens (signal grass) 4 14 3.5 H/A 121 Fabaceae Stylosanthes scabra (shrubby stylo) 4 4 4.3? H/A 122 Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis (hairy wandering jew) 4 7 3.5 H/O 123 Poaceae Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass) 2 9 3.5 H/O continued/… Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.17(1) 2002 33

Rank Family Scientific and common names Sub-region Recd No. Score Life form and source 124 Zingiberaceae Hedychium coronarium (wild ginger) 2 2 3.5 H/O 125 Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca octandra (inkweed) 10 50 3.4 H/O 126 Asclepiadaceae Asclepias curassavica (red cotton bush) 9 43 3.4 S/O 127 Solanaceae Lycium ferocissimum (African boxthorn) 1? 5 4.4? S/O 128 Mimosaceae Prosopis pallida (algaroba) 2 2 4 ST/O 129 Juncaceae Juncus articulatus (jointed rush) 1 2 4 Ha/FO 130 Cactaceae Opuntia aurantiaca (tiger pear) 1 2 4 S/O 131 Poaceae Arundo donax (giant reed) 1 4 3.8 H/O 132 Cactaceae Opuntia imbricata (rope pear) 1 1 4 H/O 133 Bignoniaceae Pyrostegia venusta (flame vine) 1 1 4 V/O 134 Poaceae Cortaderia selloana (pampas grass) 2 1 3.7 H/O 135 Solanaceae Solanum hispidum (giant devil’s fig) 5 23 3.6 S/O 136 Agavaceae Furcraea foetida (Cuban hemp) 3 4 4.3? S/OA 137 Agavaceae Furcraea selloa (hemp) 1 2 4? S/OA 138 Agavaceae Agave americana (century plant) 4 9 3.7 S/OA 139 Rutaceae Murraya paniculata cv. Exotica (murraya) 6 26 3.6 S/O 140 Rosaceae Rubus discolor (R. fruticosus complex, a blakberry) 4 10 3.7 S/OA 141 Brassicaceae Cakile edentula (American sea rocket) 4 24 3.7 H/U 142 Balsaminaceae Impatiens walleriana (balsam) 2 6 3.7 H/O 143 Agavaceae Agave sisalana (sisal) 2 4 3.7 S/OA 144 Agavaceae Agave vivipara var. vivipara (sisal) 2 3 3.7 S/OA 145 Rosaceae Prunus munsoniana (wild goose plum) 7 31 3.7 ST/A 146 Poaceae Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) 6 34 3.7 H/A 147 Asteraceae Solidago canadensis var. scabra (Canadian goldenrod) 7 15 4? H/O 148 Fabaceae Pueraria lobata (kudzu) 3 4 3.8 V,S/O 149 Alismataceae Sagittaria graminea var. platyphylla (sagittaria arrowhead) 3 7 3.5 Ha/FO 150 Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea mexicana (yellow waterlily) 2 4 3.7 Ha/OF 151 Poaceae Phyllostachys aurea (fishpole bamboo) 1 2 3.7 S/O 152 Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypiifolia (cotton-leaf physic nut, bellyache bush) 1 1 3.7 S/O 153 Malvaceae Sida rhombifolia (Paddy‘s lucerne) 9 69 3.6 S/U 154 Poaceae Themeda quadrivalvis (grader grass) 8 25 3.6 H/A 155 Poaceae Andropogon virginicus (whisky grass) 6 14 3.6 H/A 156 Bignoniaceae Jacaranda mimosifolia (jacaranda) 4 12 3.4 T/O 157 Acanthaceae Justicia betonica (squirreltail) 2 4 4 S/O 158 Mimosaceae Acacia boliviana (Bolivian wattle) 1 1 4 T/O 159 Simaroubaceae Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) 1? 3 3.5 T/O 160 Poaceae Echinochloa colona (awnless barnyard grass) 9 44 3.3 H/A 161 Cyperaceae Cyperus brevifolius (Mullumbimby couch) 8 53 3.4 H/O 162 Moraceae Morus alba (white mulberry) 3 10 3.4 T/O 163 Arecaceae Colocasia esculenta (taro) 3 4 3.4 H/AO 164 Cannaceae Canna indica (canna lily) 3 9 3.3 H/O 165 Buddlejaceae Buddleja madagascariensis (buddleja) 5 6 3.4 S,V/O 166 Bignoniaceae Tecoma capensis (Cape honeysuckle) 3 8 4 ST/O 167 Cactaceae Harrisia martinii (harrisia cactus) 2? 4 4 S/O 168 Acanthaceae Thunbergia laurifolia (laurel clock vine) 1 1 4 V/O 169 Fabaceae Erythrina crista-galli (cockspur coral tree) 2? 4 3.5 T/O 170 Sapindaceae Koelreuteria elegans (Chinese rain tree) 1? 1 3.6? T/O 171 Zingiberaceae Hedychium gardnerianum (ginger lily) 1? 3 3.6 H/O 172 Acanthaceae Hypoestes phyllostachya (polka-dot plant 3 5 3.5 H/O 173 Caprifoliaceae Sambucus canadensis (American elder) 3 7 3.4 ST/O 174 Asteraceae Conyza sumatrensis (tall fleabane) 9 45 3.3 H/U 175 Fabaceae Tipuana tipu (tipuana) 2 5 3.4 T/O 176 Asteraceae Tagetes minuta (stinking roger) 8 32 3.3 H/U 177 Caesalpiniaceae Chamaecrista rotundifolia (round-leaf cassia) 6 14 3.3 ST/A 178 Poaceae Cenchrus echinatus (Mossman river grass) 8 43 3.3 H/A 179 Asteraceae Conyza canadensis (Canadian fleabane) 10 55 3.3 H/U 180 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cyathophora (painted spuge) 8 20 3.3 H/O 181 Poaceae Setaria palmifolia (palm leaf setaria) 5 13 3.3 H/O 182 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia heterophylla (milk weed) 5 12 3.4 H/O? 183 Fabaceae Desmodium intortum (greenleaf desmodium) 4 11 3.3 H/A 184 Poaceae Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass) 3 11 3.3 H/O 185 Asteraceae Conyza bonariensis (flax-leaf fleabane) 7 38 3.3 H/U 186 Solanaceae Solanum erianthum (a tobacco bush) 7 19 3.2 S/O 187 Poaceae Stenotaphrum secundatum (buffalo grass) 3 23 3.2 H/AO

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Rank Family Scientific and common names Sub-region Recd No. Score Life form and source 188 Apocynaceae Cascabela thevetia (syn. Thevetia peruviana) 5 9 3.1 ST/O (yellow oleander) 189 Rubiaceae Coffea arabica (coffee) 3 7 3.2 ST/A 190 Bignoniaceae Spathodea campanulata (African tulip tree) 1? 1 3.4 T/O 191 Fabaceae Macrotyloma axillare (perennial horse gram) 4 12 3.1 V,H/A 192 Iridaceae Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera (bulbil watsonia) 2 3 3.1 H/O 193 Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis (passion fruit) 6 12 3.2 V/AO 194 Asteraceae Zinnia peruviana (wild zinnia) 6 33 3.1 H/O 195 Dracaenaceae Sansevieria trifasciata (sansevieria) 2? 7 3.1 H/O 196 Poaceae Digitaria eriantha (pangola grass) 5 20 3.1 H/A 197 Rosaceae Eriobotrya japonica (loquat) 3 5 3.1 T/O 198 Cactaceae Acanthocereus tetragonus (sword pear) 1 1 3.3 S/O 199 Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica subsp. indica (prickly acacia) 3 3 4.4? T/A 200 Mimosaceae Acacia farnesiana (mimosa bush) 6 15 3.1 T/A

Explanatory notes Sub-region Number of the ten sub-regions of the south-east Queensland bioregion (Young and Dillewaard 1999) within which species recorded (Queensland Herbarium data). Recd No. Total number of records for species within study area, Queensland Herbarium CORVEG and HERBRECS data. Scores Based on panel data of invasiveness, 5 (highest) to 3 (moderate). ? indicate doubtful scores. Life forms T – tree (woody plant >5 m), ST – small tree (2-5 m), S – shrub (woody <2 m), H – herb (grasses and forbs), Ha – aquatic herbs. Source A – agriculture, O – ornamental and landscaping, F – fish aquarium, U – unintentional introduction and/or contaminant.