Towards a Sustainable Landscape for Lahore
by
Hamid Ullah Khan
A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of
The University of Manitoba
in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Master of Landscape Architecture
Faculty of Architecture
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Towards a Sustainable Landscape for Lahore
By
Hamid Ullah Khan
A Thesis/Practicum submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of
Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree
Of
Master of Landscape Architecture
Hamid Ullah Khan©2009
Permission has been granted to the University of Manitoba Libraries to lend a copy of this thesis/practicum, to Library and Archives Canada (LAC) to lend a copy of this thesis/practicum, and to LAC's agent (UMI/ProQuest) to microfilm, sell copies and to publish an abstract of this thesis/practicum.
This reproduction or copy of this thesis has been made available by authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research, and may only be reproduced and copied as permitted by copyright laws or with express written authorization from the copyright owner. Acknowledgement
I offer my humblest and sincerest words of thanks to my Almighty Allah, who bestowed me with the potential and ability to make material contributions to the already existing ocean of knowledge.
The author acknowledges with deep respect and gratitude, the sincere advice and inspiring guidance extended by Professor Alan Tate, Department of Landscape
Architecture, for his keen interest, needed help, valuable suggestions, constructive criticism, and timely advice as well as doing tedious editing during the course of studies.
I am highly indebted to my committee members, Professor Brenda Brown, Department of
Landscape Architecture and Helen Fabbri, Landscape Architect for their sincere advice and technical backup.
The author is highly grateful to his parents and extends a deep appreciation to his wife, Tahira Asghar Khan, for her wisdom, encouragement and an unfailing support to help the author finish his graduate school. I thank my children Palwasha Khan, Shanza
Khan and Moeid Ahmed Khan for providing spiritual support, inspiration and energy when needed. I also offer my sincerest thanks to my friends who co-operated in the completion of my research work. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Definition of sustainable and sustainable development 1
Relationship between Landscape Architecture and Sustainability 2
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 5
CHAPTER TWO: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 11
Physiography of Pakistan 12
Land cover 14
Land Degradation 16
Brief History of Lahore 17
Area 1 Pre 1849) 18
Area 2 (1849-1947) 22
Area 3 (since 1947) 24
Geography and Demography of Lahore 26
Topography 27
Hydrological status 28
Water Resources, Climate 29
Humidity 31
Economy 32
Socio - Cultural Conditions 33
Lahore from a landscape perspective 33
Problems of unsustainable landscape 38
Urban water pollution 40 CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW 45
CHAPTER FOUR: RELATIONSHIP OF WATER RESOURCES
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE WITH THE LANDSCAPE OF
LAHORE 60
Major Green Spaces in Lahore 65
CHAPTER FIVE: STRATGIES FOR A MORE SUSTAINABLE
LANDSCAPE FOR LAHORE 69
Proposed Water Bodies 69
Vegetation, Green spaces around water bodies 72
Proposed Walkways and Trails Connections 77
Sustainable landscape design elements 78
Zones for Sustainable Landscape Design 80
Zone A 81
Zone B 83
Zone C 87
Zone D 89
Zone E 92
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 95
APPENDIX A: Desilting Sewers Mechanism 103
APPENDK B: Recommended plant species for Lahore 105
BIBLIOGRAPHY 114 List of Figures
Figure 1:
Location of Pakistan and its Four Provinces 11
Figure 2:
Physiography of Pakistan 12
Figure 3:
Punjab Rivers 13
Figure 4:
Land Degradation in Pakistan 16
Figure 5:
Major Areas of the City of Lahore— 17
Figure 6:
Main Features of Area l(Pre 1849) 18
Figure 7:
Main Features of Area 2 (1849-1947) 21
Figure 8:
Main Features of Area 3 (since 1947) 24
Figure 9:
Irrigation Channels 35
Figure 10:
Drains and Stormwater Channels 62
Figure 11:
Drainage Pattern 63 Figure 12:
Drainage Disposal and Pumping Stations 64
Figure 13:
Major Parks and Green Spaces 65
Figure 14:
Proposed Water Bodies 69
Figure 15:
Green Spaces Around Water Bodies 73
Figure 16:
Proposed Walkways and Trails Connections 77
Figure 17:
Zones for Sustainable Landscape Design 80
Figure 18:
Zone A 81
Figure 19:
Zone B 84
Figure 20:
Zone C 88
Figure 21:
Zone D 90
Figure 22:
Zone E 93 Definition of Sustainable and sustainable development
According to dictionary definition, sustainable means
1- capable of being sustained
2- capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment.
(http://www.answers.com/sustainable")
Sustainable development according to a free encyclopedia is a "socio-ecological process characterized by the fulfillment of human needs while maintaining the quality of the natural environment indefinitely".
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_developmentV
The linkage between environment and development was globally recognized in
1980, when the International Union for the Conservation of Nature published the World
Conservation Strategy and used the term "sustainable development". The concept came into general usage following publication of the 1987 report of the Brundtland
Commission - formerly, the World Commission on Environment and Development. Set up by the United Nations General Assembly, the Brundtland Commission coined the definition of sustainable development as development that "meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Although commendable, this definition is vague and now a day-to-day operational definition of sustainable development is conceptually broken into three parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, socio-political sustainability. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable development-)
-1- Relationship between Landscape Architecture AND Sustainability
This relationship is best explained as "Landscape architecture is the profession committed to the creation of meaningful and vital outdoor places and to the sustainable management of our environment. Landscape architects strive to establish a balance between our use and enjoyment of the land with the conservation and health of the environment". (http://csla.ca/site/index.php?q=en/node/5)
The above analysis shows strong connection between sustainability, ecology and design and landscape architecture. Correspondingly sustainability focuses on learning and applying ecological principles and on efficient use of resources. Thus sustainable landscape is incorporating this knowledge in design. This approach is not reflected in the landscape of Lahore, Pakistan - the subject area of this practicum.
The landscape of Lahore is not sustainable either from the Brundtland
Commission's definition of development where the emphasis is to "meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" or from an ecological point of view where the need is to follow ecological principles in designing sustainable landscapes. This is taken to be a landscape that helps in promoting plant cover, tree planting, forestry, use of native plants, biological control, water harvesting, access to local parks, promotion of community gardening, and promotion of natural water courses and wetland habitats and that helps to reduce energy and health cost bills.
The present landscape is not designed or managed in a way that helps with the recharge of water resources and energy saving. Water, a fundamental and essential resource for human survival, is being depleted and polluted at "an alarming rate
-2- resulting in [a] mean average decline in ground water level by 620 mm per year".
(Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 34)
If this trend continues there will be very little clean water left for the next
generation. According to the Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, "water availability on a per capita basis has been declining at an alarming rate, from about 5,000 cubic meters per capita in 1951 to about 1,100 currently and .. .is projected to be less than 700 cubic
meters per capita by 2025". (Water Supply and Sanitation, 2007, p. 50 Retrieved March
10,2008, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources
/Publications/448813-1188777211460/pakceach6.pdf)
The present landscape is not designed to help solving these problems. A
significant proportion of the available resources is spent to treat water related diseases
in the city. A study conducted by UNICEF found that in Pakistan 20-40 percent of the hospital beds are occupied by patients suffering from diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery and hepatitis, which are responsible for one third of all deaths and are ... estimated to account for more than 1.8 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)"
(Water Supply and Sanitation, 2007, p. 51)
The main factors in water pollution are poor practices in solid waste disposal and lack of sanitation facilities and only "about 1% of the total wastewater generated in municipal sector is treated before being discharged into the rivers" (Pakistan, Water
Sector Strategy, 2002, p. 20)
Furthermore "it has been reported that in Lahore, only three out of some 100 industries using hazardous chemicals treat their waste water adequately" (Water Supply and Sanitation, 2007, p. 52)
-3- The present day landscape is designed for luxury purposes. In this landscape mostly evergreen exotic plant species are used. These need high levels of maintenance and require more water, fertilizers and pesticides for their proper growth than are required by native plant species. The abundant use of fertilizers and pesticides pollutes the environment and the lack of native vegetation affects the diversity of habitats for wildlife. In Pakistan "an estimated 5.6 million tonnes of fertilizers and some of 70,000 tonnes of pesticides are used annually in [the] agriculture sector and the pollution from this abundant use can be expected in the receiving waters" (Water Supply and
Sanitation, 2007, p. 52)
The intention of this practicum is to demonstrate that a sustainable landscape in
Lahore will be less costly to maintain and will be more durable, energy efficient, and helpful to the creation of ecological balance (by contributing to the process of air purification), ground water recharge, bioremediation, storm water runoff retardation, oxygen regeneration, energy and water conservation and provision of habitat for wildlife and, thus, beautification of the city.
-4- CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The city of Lahore is some 2000 years old. It has experienced many different
controlling regimes, among which the Mughal era (1524-1752) and the period of
British rule (1849-1947) are very prominent from a landscape perspective.
During the period of the Mughal Empire, designed landscapes were influenced by strong religious beliefs. The main components of these designs were strong
symmetry, use of fruit plants, water features and exotic hard surface materials such as
marble and other varieties of stone. These landscapes were enclosed and centrally
focused. The main purpose was the reflection of power and of the splendors of the
empire and as expressions of paradise on the earth.
In the period of British rule, landscape took another direction. The British designed specific areas for their offices, residences and for recreation purposes. These
landscapes are organic, localized and disconnected from their surroundings. They
introduced exotic plants and included artificial hillocks that mimic the pastoral
landscape of the United Kingdom. These landscapes were also intended to protect the colonial settlers from the scorching heat of the region.
This pattern of pastoral landscape using exotic plants is still continued. Different localized communities such as Defence Societies, Government Officer Colonies,
Federal Colonies, Model Town Society, Revenue Employees Housing Societies, Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) Housing Societies still demonstrate this type of landscape. The trend among residents in these communities is to use exotic
-5- plants and grass varieties, ground covers and flowering plants in their landscape in order to show uniqueness and to create an impression and to project a particular identity.
Until now parks and open spaces were intended to be for aesthetic and recreational purposes and the use of exotic plants, shrubs, bulbous and flowering plants was preferred and was prevalent both in the public and the private sectors. Every year the Horticultural Society of Pakistan arranges competitions in Lahore for annual flowers, evergreen, greenhouse, indoor and outdoor plants. The main participants in these competitions include the Parks and Horticulture Authority (PHA) Lahore, The
Municipal Corporation of Lahore (MCL), Lawrence Garden in Lahore and the
Governor's House in Lahore. In these flower/plants exhibitions, the presence of exotic species in prize winning entries often leads to huge public expenditure to import these species.
This unsustainable and costly type of landscape is beyond the scope of the city authorities to practise on a large scale and leads to a fragmented landscape with pieces of green space and tree-lined roads in different parts of the city.
The exotic plants used in Lahore are also susceptible to diseases. These plants need more energy, water, care and maintenance including, but not limited to, more use of labour and pesticide. This is especially demanding in a situation where there is no trained staff for applying pesticides. But the most limiting factor for the landscape of
Lahore is water availability. The British diverted the waters of the Upper Bari Doab canal (Lahore canal) to irrigate the gardens, boulevards, government houses, golf
-6- courses and other green spaces. This water could otherwise be used to irrigate
agricultural crops.
It is now being realized that the diverted canal waters are the main cause of weed
infestation in public parks. The Parks and Horticultural Authority (PHA), Lawrence
Garden, Municipal Corporation of Lahore (MCL) and Governor's House have installed
tube wells within public parks and are using underground water for irrigation purposes,
thus putting great pressure on this vital resource.
The underground water is the main source for drinking, household, commercial and industrial purposes within the city of Lahore and its water table is going down every year. In "Initial Environmental Examination Report" prepared for the "Project for the retrieval of sewage and drainage system in Lahore city" compiled by Environmental
Process Engineering Company (EPEC) it is mentioned that ground water is the only source of water in Lahore. Ground water abstraction from the Lahore aquifer was estimated to be around 1.45 million cubic metres per day resulting (as already mentioned) in an average decline in the ground water level of 620 millimetres per year.
(Initial Environmental Examination report, 2004, p. 34)
According to this report the lowest water contour was 192 metres above sea level
in 1987 which went down to 183 metres above sea level in 2000. This situation is
alarming. A sustainable landscape could play a vital role in the use and recharge of
Lahore aquifers and mitigate the shortages to some extent.
Whereas the current landscape of Lahore requires more ground water for its maintenance, its drainage pattern helps little in recharge of the aquifer beneath the city.
Furthermore, with the passage of time, the population of the city has increased
-7- dramatically. In designing houses, more emphasis is placed on engineering aspects while opportunities are not taken to implement landscape works that could reduce pollution, ambient temperatures, diseases and incorporate permeable surfaces that promote aquifer recharge. As a result of increased population and the creation of more impervious surfaces and lack of naturalized landscapes, storm water has contributed to increased flooding of town roads, to soil erosion, disruption of daily activities and water pollution leading, in turn, to big economic losses and direct effects on wildlife habitat and aquatic life.
With rapid urbanization, commercial and residential development has caused deforestation and an increase in temperature further aggravating the situation. As a result of high levels of unchecked industrial smoke, increasing traffic and lack of environmental control policies, the level of poisonous gases has caused increased levels of eye irritation, reduced visibility, heart diseases, nervous disorders and other undesirable medical conditions.
One of the leading newspapers of Pakistan (International - The News) reported that according to the Environment Protection Agency Punjab (EPA) the motor vehicles that cause congestion are major polluters of urban air. Meanwhile the EPA, as of June 2008, reported that Lahore's air is the most polluted it has ever been, "since records began".
The main factors for this congestion include traffic jams at crossings and the high density of traffic on the roads.
According to this report, there were 1.5 million registered motor vehicles in Lahore in
2005, whereas Excise and Taxation reported that 900000 new vehicles were registered between 2002 and 2007. (Ahmed, 2008)
-8- These automobiles are a major cause of congestion and traffic remains jammed on the roads with idling engines polluting/adding heat to the environment. This traffic congestion has a psychological effect on the citizens because of missing their appointments, being late going to or from their work, schools, hospitals and other appointments in daily life.
In such situations continuous safe pedestrian and cycle connections would
facilitate and encourage citizens to access the parks, schools, offices and markets and
help in alleviating the congestion on the roads and improve the quality of the urban
environment.
All these problems suggest that sustainable landscapes employing techniques
such as rain harvesting, use of native vegetation, retention and detention ponds to
control runoff in dense areas, changing land forms in open spaces to help in recharge of
water systems, creating wetlands and marshes, creating green corridors throughout the
city would be both economical and environmentally sound. Adopting these techniques
would bring economic benefits through a clean environment, decreased health costs,
reduced energy bills and the reduction of stormwater and water recharge problems.
Furthermore the application of sustainable landscape techniques would promote
ecological balance through air purification, ground water recharge, stormwater runoff
retardation, oxygen regeneration, conservation of energy and water, provision of habitat
for wildlife and beautification of the city.
This study of how these techniques might be applied in Lahore will proceed as follows;
• Description of the study area;
-9- Review of relevant literature;
Relationship of water resources and landscape of Lahore;
Opportunities and strategies for a more sustainable landscape for Lahore;
Summary and conclusions.
-10- CHAPTER TWO
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
Figure 1: Location of Pakistan and its Four Provinces
Pakistan lies between latitudes 24 and 37 degrees North and longitudes 62 and 78 degrees
East. It is a federation of four provinces: North West Frontier Province (NWFP), Punjab,
Sindh and Baluchistan with its capital Islamabad. The land area of Pakistan is about
-11- 796000 square kilometres and it has an estimated population of 134 million (June 1996), giving a population density of 168 persons per square kilometre.
(Land Cover Assessment and Monitoring Pakistan, Volume 10 - A, 1998, p. 2)
Figure 2: Physiography of Pakistan
The physical framework of Pakistan has been created by two major geographic processes that have created two distinct physiographic entities:
-12- 1. The Western Highlands produced by the mountain building movement extended from the Markham Coast in the south to the Pamir Plateau in the extreme north.
2. The Indus Plains resulting from the deposition of sediments from the Indus River and it tributaries
(Land Cover Assessment and Monitoring Pakistan, Volume 10 - A, 1998, p. 15)
Figure 3: Punjab Rivers
The Indus Plains have been formed by the alluvium laid down from the River Indus and its tributaries. The Indus is a major river about 2900 kilometres long with a catchment
-13- area of about 963500 square kilometres. From its source it flows from east to west between the Karakorum and the Himalayas Mountains. It receives a number of tributaries from the west including the Kabul River, Kurram, Tochi and Gomal Rivers. The east side tributaries are the Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab and Sutlej. The swelling of the Indus and its tributaries during summer causes floods and sometimes the rivers change their courses and spread fertile soil in some areas and coarse sand in other areas. All these processes have built the Indus Plains and have made them very important agriculturally. The Indus
Plains slope down from north to south. In the north, they rise to about 300 metres and drop to about 75 metres near Panjand in the Punjab. From there, they slope gently and cascade into the Arabian Sea.
Lahore is located on a flat alluvial plain on the left bank of the River Ravi. It lies between 31 degrees 15 minutes and 31 degrees 42 minutes north latitude and a longitude
74 degrees 01 minutes and 74 degrees 39 minutes east. It is bounded on the north and west by Sheikhupura District, on the east by India and on the south by Kasur District. The general altitude of the area is 208 to 213 metres above sea level. (Initial Environmental
Examination Report, 2004, p. 31)
Land Cover
"The climate of Pakistan varies with altitude, which in turn affects the type of vegetation.
It has some of the world's highest cold areas that occur above 5175 metres above sea level in the Himalayas and the hottest low areas in the Indus Plains". (Land Cover
Assessment and Monitoring Pakistan, Volume 10 - A, 1998, p. 2)
Pakistan has many ecological zones with the main determinants being arid and semi arid conditions. These conditions prevail over most of the Indus Plains and the
-14- Baluchistan Plateau. The humid conditions exist over the hills and mountains in the north. The arid and semi arid areas are mostly bare of vegetation.
Along river banks and deltas, riparian and mangroves forests have emerged. On humid hills and mountains, pine and coniferous forests occur. These change with altitude.
The dry subtropical forests dominate up to an altitude of 1000 metres above sea level, the coniferous forest dominates from 1000 to 4000 metres above sea level. Above the tree line, dwarf alpine forests followed by the alpine pastures occur up to the snow line.
(Land Cover Assessment and Monitoring Pakistan, Volume 10 - A, 1998)
As Lahore is located on the flat alluvial plain on the left bank of the River Ravi, its soils are composed of rich alluvial deposits that will support any type of vegetation including trees and agricultural crops. There used to be riparian forests in narrow belts along its bank. These were harvested over time for timber and other household uses.
Furthermore, under the Indus Waters Treaty, made in 1960 between Pakistan and India, the waters of the River Ravi were granted to India which now controls its water. Many species of tree have subsequently disappeared from its banks.
The soil of Lahore city is very fertile. The city's groundwater and climate support many types of vegetation. The land surrounding the city is intensively used for agricultural crop production.
-15- Land Degradation
LAND DEGRADATION IN PAKISTAN y^-~~~\ CHINA
Figure 4: Land Degradation in Pakistan
The main causes of land degradation in Pakistan are water erosion, wind erosion,
chemical contamination and physical degradation. The soil of the study area, Lahore, is
physically degraded. The main reasons for this include deforestation, fertilizer and
pesticide use on agricultural land and municipal and industrial effluents.
-16- Brief History of Lahore
RIVER RAVI OLD CITY
•— ARTERIAL ROADS - RAILWAY TRACK - LAHORE CANAL
Figure 5: Major Areas of the City of Lahore
-17- Historically the City of Lahore can be divided into three areas.
Area 1 (Pre 1849)
RAILWAY TRACK LEGEND LAHORE CANAL ARTERIAL ROADS i\ ?>*|NAR-E-PAK|STAN LAHORE FORT
R SHALIMAR GARDEN BADSHAHI (KING) MOSQUE
r JEHANGHIS TOMB WAZIR KHAN MOSQUE
D KAMRAN Kl BARADARI
Figure 6: Main Features of Area 1 (Pre 1849)
The Old City is situated 1.6 kilometres to the south of the River Ravi and about 36.8 kilometres from the eastern border of the Punjab District. The total area of the walled city is 186 hectares and is surrounded by a wall. According to legend, Lahore is supposed to
-18- be 4000 years old but it is demonstrated by the vivid description of Hieun - Tasng, a
Chinese pilgrim who visited Lahore in the 7th century CE that Lahore is 2000 years old.
The Mughal emperors played the main role in shaping the architecture and landscape of this part of the city and adding structures such as the Lahore Fort and Badshahi Mosque, and gardens such as Shalimar, Jahangir's tomb and a series of other gardens along transportation routes. Some of these sites are illustrated as follows.
Shalimar Gardens (1642)
Shalimar Gardens were built by the Mughal
Emperor Shah Jahan under the supervision of
Khalilullah and with the cooperation of Ali
Mardan Khan.
Jahangir's Tomb
The Tomb of Jahangir is a mausoleum built for the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (1605-1627). It is located in a beautiful walled garden and features prominently on the Pakistan Rupees 1000 bank note
Kamran Ki Baradari
K.K.B was built by Kamran (1509-1557), the son of Babar, the first Mughal Emperor, on the bank of river Ravi. With the passage of time, the river changed its course and it now stands as an island in the waters of the river.
-19- Lahore Fort
The Lahore Fort is located in the northwestern corner of Lahore, adjacent to the walled city. In
1566 Mughal Emperor, Akbar rebuilt it in solid brick masonry on its earlier foundations. In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site along with Shalimar Gardens.
Wazir Khan Mosque
Wazir Khan Mosque is famous for its tile work and has been described as 'a mole on the cheek of
Lahore' due to its art work and beauty. It was built in seven years, starting around 1634-1635, by Wazir Khan, a minister of the Mughal
Emperor, Shah Jahan. It is located inside the walled city
Minar-e-Pakistan
Minar-e-Pakistan is National Monument of
Pakistan where Muslims of the sub-continent gathered on March 23, 1940 and demanded a separate homeland. This contributed to the creation of Pakistan with effect from August 14, 1947. — I
N.T.S
LEGEND
A CANfONMLM AKLA
GOVERNMENT OFFICER'S tj COLONY c MAYO GARDEN D LAHORE MUSEUW MUNICIPAL CORPORATION E OFFICE
Figure 7: Main Features of Area 2 (1849-1947)
-21- Area 2 (1849 - 1947)
In 1849 the British gained control of Lahore and developed an architectural vocabulary that included Mughal, Gothic and the Victorian styles. They built some important buildings, like the High Court, the Government College, Museums, the National College of Arts, Montgomery Hall, Tollinton Market, the Punjab University (old campus) and
Punjab Assembly. They also built some shaded bungalows and gardens. The Lahore cantonment, the British residential district of wide, tree-lined streets and white bungalows set in large, shaded gardens is generally regarded as the prettiest cantonment in Pakistan.
Since independence in 1947, Lahore has been expanding rapidly as the capital of Punjab
Province.
Lawrence Garden
This was completed in 1864-1869 as a botanical garden during the British era and named after
Viceroy Sir John Lawrence and is a good example of organic form. Now known as Bagh e Jinnah, the garden is centrally located and heavily used.
Punjab Assembly Hall ~'rr Salune and its construction was completed in 1935. -22- Aitcheson College (1836) Aitcheson College is a very prominent college attended by many of the ruling class, bureaucrats and members of the legislative assembly. It was named after then Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab, Sir Charles Umpherston Aitcheson. Lahore Railway Station The railway station was built by the British. The railway network was very extensive and is one the lasting contributions from the days of the British Empire to the culture and infrastructure of this region. Government College Built in 1964, this was the first Government College to be established in Lahore. Allama Iqbal, the national poet of Pakistan, graduated from here. Municipal Corporation This building is a masterpiece of architecture in the style introduced by the British in the sub continent. The building is located on the Shahra- e- Quad-e-Azam and is still used as a head office of Municipal Corporation of Lahore. LEGEND DEFENCE COLONY HOUSING COLONIES FOR B ARMY PERSONNEL c NEW INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT Figure 8: Main features of Area 3 (since 1947) 24 Model Town Park This is a huge park and was built in 1990, by the Model Town society. It is circular in shape with scattered trees and a 2.5 kilometre long circular walkway/jogging track along its boundary. It has a lake in the centre surrounded by a vast lawn. This is a heavily used space Gaddafi Stadium The Gadaffi Stadium is a test cricket ground. It was completed in 1959 and renovated for the 1996 Cricket World Cup. The stadium has a capacity of over 40,000 spectators for high profile matches and events. Allama Iqbal Airport Allama Iqbal Airport is recently completed in 2003. Its proximity to Military housing and the ring round attracts business activities and expansion of the city in its vicinity. Other significant buildings and structures shown in Figure 8 (Main Features of Area 3), not illustrated here include: Liberty Market, the busiest commercial centre of the city Walton Airport, the first airport for the city -25- Defence Colony, where senior army officers reside Motorway connecting Lahore to the capital Islamabad Punjab University (New Campus), the largest university in the Province Allama Iqbal Medical College affiliated to Jinnah Hospital for new medical graduates. The above figures (the singularities) mentioned in each frame help to investigate the working of the city, its flow and forces that shaped it with the passage of time. It is a narrative, how the landscape of the city took shape under different types of flow, regimes and scenarios. The analysis of the past scenario will be helpful to explore a new scenario where emphasis will be on exploring water on ground surface and proposing water bodies that will act as natural bio - remediation of water, way finding and will be used as multipurpose spaces. New singularities will emerge and new trends will be set where emphasis will be on more sustainable landscape. Geography and Demography of Lahore The municipal area and the extended area of the city are stated as 332 square kilometres and 932 square kilometres respectively. (Government of Punjab website, Retrieved April 16, 2008, http://pportal.punjab.gov.pk/portal/) Lahore is a provincial metropolis and the only urban district of Punjab. "Lahore encompasses a number of commercial, social, cultural, industrial and educational activities. According to a census held in 1998, the population of the City District of -26- Lahore was 57.5 million which has jumped up to 70.0 million at an average annual growth rate of 3.39%". (Initial Environmental Examination report, 2004, p. 31) The average household size in 2004 was just below eight persons. According to the 1998 census, the Government of Pakistan, the male population exceeded than the female population by 271945. This can be best explained by the high rental values in the city that is beyond the reach of workers, compelling them to leave their families in the countryside and to pool their resources to share expenditure on house rents. Other main factors affecting the demographic pattern in the city are the lack of employment opportunities, shrinking land holdings, and the shortage of health, education and communication facilities in the countryside. The partition in 1947, when there was a mass migration between the newly created countries of India and Pakistan, was a major cause of increased population in Lahore. Topography The topography of Lahore is generally flat, sloping towards the south and southwest at an average gradient of 1 in 3000. The River Ravi flows into the west of Lahore city forming the boundary with Sheikhupura District. The construction of urban infrastructure has destroyed the original physiographic features like remnant channels, creeks and levees that were used to drain the water from its catchments area to the river. The result of this is flooding of the residential areas. To mitigate this problem the municipal government has constructed an embankment around the city. -27- "The following main natural drains run through the city to drain the stormwater and sewerage systems and are finally discharged in to the River Ravi 1. Upper Chotta (small) Ravi - the remnant of the old River Ravi 2. Lower Chotta (small) Ravi - the remnant of the old River Ravi ' vtf'- 3. SukhNahar \ .' : '..-;".,, •(* X: JtT^ 4. Mian Mir • ^ - >• 5. Suttu Katla - Hudiara Drain" Mian Mir Drain (Initial Environmental Examination report, 2004, p. 34) Hydrological Status The Environmental Processes Engineering Company (EPEC) in its Initial Environmental Examination Report, prepared for the repair of the sewage and drainage systems in August 2004, described the hydrological status of Lahore as "an area underlain by unconsolidated alluvial deposits of Quaternary age. The alluvial sands constitute the aquifer material. The aquifer is composed of [an] unconsolidated alluvial complex formed by the contemporaneous filling of a subsiding trough resulting in huge sedimentary complexes of more than 400 metres thickness. Sediments have been deposited by the present and ancestral tributaries of the River Indus during the Pleistocene-Recent periods. In accordance with its mode of deposition by large streams in constantly shifting channels, the alluvial complex is heterogeneous and individual strata have little lateral or vertical continuity. However in spite of their heterogeneity, the alluvial sediments constitute a large aquifer, which on a whole behaves as a -28- homogeneous and highly trans- missive aquifer. The ground water occurs under water table conditions and the individual lenses of silt and clay do not impede the flows of ground water". (Initial Environmental Examination report, 2004, p. 34) Water Resources The only source of water for the city of Lahore is ground water and its abstraction has been going on since time immemorial. According to EPEC, the abstraction rate of water by the Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore WAS A) was 1.45 million cubic metres per day (study period not mentioned). The WAS A has installed 316 tube wells that operate for an average duration of 16 to 18 hours daily to meet the demand of citizens of Lahore, Further in this report it is mentioned that the mean average decline in the ground water level in Lahore is 2.03 feet (620 mm) per year. (Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 34) This is one of the most important reasons for deciding to work on this practicum topic and to address the idea of using the principles of sustainable landscape to mitigate and repair water resources. Climate Lahore enjoys four seasons but the two main seasons are Winter and Summer. Summer spans from April to September whereas Winter starts in November and ends in January. Similarly Autumn and Spring extend from October to November and February to April respectively. The monsoon season, in which most of the precipitation falls, runs from July to September. During Winter, the temperature is lower and the lowest temperature -29- during January is 6° Celsius, lowest ever recorded. (Government of Punjab website, Retrieved April 16, 2008, http://pportal.punjab.gov.pk/portal/) Summer is very hot with the temperature sometimes rising to 47° Celsius. Spring and Autumn are mild and very pleasant. During Summer the concrete, buildings, industry, asphalt, paved surfaces, congested transport and lack of vegetation add to the impact of the ambient climate making it at times unbearable for the old, for children and sometimes for the very young. Monthly Rainfall Data (1999-2003) in millimetres Month 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 January 0.5 0.6 7.8 21.5 50.1 February 103.5 3.2 4.4 9.2 6.0 March 59.6 11.2 34.6 1.8 37.5 April 2.0 1.7 3.4 2.8 0.0 May 18.2 35.6 28.1 8.4 16.9 June 41.7 34.5 106.5 79.6 46.3 July 252.3 56.4 293.1 327.2 159.8 August 108.5 92.0 2.5 78.0 136.2 September 16.4 85.0 48.3 23.5 20.2 October 0.0 6.4 1.0 0.0 0.7 November 16.0 0.0 1.0 5.3 21.0 December 8.0 7.0 7.0 1.0 0.0 Annual 626.75 333.7 535.7 557.5 473.2 (Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 37) Maximum rainfall is usually experienced during July, when 32.1 % of the average annual rainfall occurs and accounts for 22.1% of the rainy days in a year. The annual rainfall in -30- Lahore was 626.75 millimetres during 2003 with the maximum during July and August, which accounted for 252.3 and 108.5 millimetres respectively. "According to data submitted in this report, the heaviest rainfall recorded during 24 hours over the last 50 years was in September 1954 with 228 millimetres. Other recent heaviest rainfalls in 24 hours were recorded on 22 August, 1996 with 189 millimetres followed by 185 millimetres on the following day and 65 millimetres on the third day when most of the city area was inundated" (Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 37) Precipitation during the monsoon is the main cause of storm floods, massive erosion and silting of sewerage and drainage pipes. Lahore is inundated during rains and this causes economic loss, loss of human life and water borne diseases. This rain, if harvested properly, could become very valuable for the city and could help in recharging groundwater, greening the city's landscape and helping to save energy. Humidity Lahore experiences diverse levels of humidity. It is lowest during the months of May and June when there is very hot weather and dust storms occur occasionally. During June and July when the monsoon season starts and it rains heavily, the relative humidity remains at its highest level. It becomes extremely high in July, August and September. Overall relative humidity throughout the day is higher in winter than in summer. (Initial Environmental Examination report, 2004, p. 36) -31- Economy Lahore is the economic hub of the Punjab. It has the second largest stock market in Pakistan after Karachi. Major industries include foundries, steel mills, textile units and chemical factories. It is the largest city of Pakistan and contains a number of industrial zones including the Kot Lakhpat and the newer Sunder Industrial Zones. Major provincial and corporate offices are located in Lahore and the city has more educational institutions than any other city in Pakistan. Other activities include the real estate business, the construction industry and hand made carpet making. The construction sector, especially house building, is the leading sector for providing jobs followed by community, social and personal services and manufacturing in that order. Although the labour market has been thriving in the city, wage rates are very low relative to the cost of living. This results in malnutrition, an unhealthy labour force, poverty, disruption of life and social and economic ills. In Pakistan "malnutrition is widespread, with a reported 8 million malnourished children in 1999/2000" (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, 2003, p. 15) According to the Asian Development Bank's fact sheet on Pakistan, in 2003 the portion of the population living on less than US $ 1 per day was 19.7% and the portion of the population living below the national poverty line was 23.9% in 2004. Export and import growth in 2005 were 16.2 and 38.3% respectively. -32- Socio - Cultural Conditions Different social groups in Lahore have different types of leisure time activity depending on their income, gender, age, residential location and access to public space. Richer citizens enjoy going to public parks, hotels, and clubs and feel comfortable moving along with their families. People whose lives are economically sound are more inclined to visit parks whereas most poor people have no time to visit parks and are constantly engaged in earning their livelihood. The poor mostly stay at home and spend time with their families or may visit their friends or sit together outside in the street and chat. Children usually play at home, in neighbor's houses Or in nearby streets. They may be taken to a park, market or playground by their fathers once a week. (Rizwan, 1995) In high density neighborhoods, there is shortage of open spaces. In these localities the roofs of the houses are usually interconnected and used, amongst other things, for kite flying. Shortage of open spaces means that school grounds can be the best places for children to play in Lahore but most schools are walled and locked after school time. There is an opportunity for children and women to use school grounds as recreation places. Lahore from landscape perspective Three eras - the Moghul Empire (1524 - 1752), the period of British rule (1849 -1947) and since independence in 1947, are prominent from a landscape perspective. Although each era used the landscape according to their needs and aesthetic tastes, landscapes have been seen as places to which people could withdraw to escape the busy city for a quiet quasi - paradisical experience. It is important to understand the cultures and the aims and -33- intentions that drove the design of landscapes and gardens in this region. For example, the Arabs of the desert longed for greenery, the Turks used gardens as resting places in their travels and Persian gardens are places where the line between heaven and earth is blurred. The first Mughal Emperor, Babur (ruled 1526 - 30) built gardens in Lahore, Kalar Kahar, Dholpur and Agra following the Turkish tradition of building rest stops on their journeys. During the times of Babur's descendants, the Emperors Jahanghir (1569 -1627) and Shah Jahan (1592 -1666) built the finest gardens in Lahore following a Persian approach. During their reign, Lahore had the finest gardens in the subcontinent. The Shalimar garden was one of the finest of these gardens. Their design was based on influences of the Islamic religion and Shalimar Garden included centrally focused, enclosed, water features, exotic hard surface material and fruit plants. These gardens were symmetrical and formal in design and required costly maintenance and significant amounts of water. During this period the availability of cheap labour made it feasible to maintain these gardens. Whereas the size of the city was small and gardens were outside the city or along the transportation routes for the Emperors to visit them or stay there during their countrywide journeys, allocation of funds to maintain these gardens was always a priority. To irrigate these gardens, water was diverted from rivers through canals, and -34- hydraulic systems were built to operate the fountains in the gardens. These gardens were labour intensive and again needed significant amounts of water. When the British invaded the region, they designed landscapes according to their tastes. These were primarily pastoral landscapes consisting of artificial hillocks, vast grassy lawns and exotic plants. This was a fragmented and localized landscape Artificial hillock in Lawrence Garden using plants to provide shade for streets, offices, residences and cantonment areas to help protect them from the heat and rolling dust of the Punjabi plains. The British constructed water courses and diverted Figure 9: Irrigation Channels -35- water from the Upper Bari Doab Canal that runs through the centre of the city to irrigate the gardens, boulevards, parks and their residential colonies. Again during this era there was no shortage of labour or water resources to make it feasible to manage this maintenance - intensive style of landscape. Lawrence Garden is the best example of the designed landscape in the British era. Ironically, since independence the practices of the British era have continued to be practised. There is more emphasis on exotic plants and rare species of indoor and outdoor plants, unique turf varieties and important bulbous and hybrid flowering plants. Being foreigners and a distinct culture, the British designed specific areas for their offices, residences and cantonments for enjoying their social life according to their aesthetic preferences. The ruling class who superseded the British after independence adopted the British colonist's way of governing and their preferences. As a result, different residential colonies, like Government Officers' residences, defence colonies, judicial colonies, and professional colonies were constructed. In this mode of government, the involvement of citizens and communities is minimal and most of the decisions are made by ruling elites. As a consequence major landscape plans and parks are located in affluent areas (see Figure 13). The Parks and Horticulture Authority (PHA) of Lahore is responsible for designing and managing the public landscape of Lahore. This authority is also responsible for parks and open space planning but there is no master plan for the whole city and only patchwork projects are added to the city's landscape. The preferred use of exotic plants, shrubs and ground covers in their projects is expensive and needs more care, labour, inputs, water and pesticides - all of which produces an unsustainable landscape. -36- Recently, corporate, national and multinational banks and businesses have been involved in patronizing amenity landscape projects and spending money to promote their business under the umbrella of the Parks and Horticulture Authority. These projects have been in wealthy areas including commercial and business corners/squares. These have followed the same prevailing trend of costly exotic landscape practices. Nationwide competitions and exhibitions for annuals, chrysanthemums, evergreens, indoor, outdoor and rose plants are held every year. The focus of these events is always to introduce and display rare species of plants. Foreign exchange and resources are spent to purchase and maintain the imported plants. Special greenhouses are designed to propagate and take care of these plants and these need more resources to create artificial environments that will sustain them. The author of this document worked in Lawrence Garden (now named Bagh e Jinnah after the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah) as an Agricultural Officer and in the Governor's House in Lahore as Garden Superintendent. A number of exhibitions and competitions for plants were staged at this time, always focusing on unique and rare varieties in order to win the competitions. Even for maintenance and development in Lawrence Garden and the Governor's House, the main focus was to import hybrid varieties of bulbous, flowering, perennial plants and shrubs and arranging for inputs like fertilizers, pesticides and tools to manage the gardens. Three turbines installed in Lawrence Garden operate for 20 hours a day for irrigation, there by depleting a vital resource essential for the existence of citizens. During that time the author never realized the impacts of these landscape practices and it -37- was only as a student of landscape architecture that he became aware of landscape design as a vehicle for making landscape more sustainable. Problems of unsustainable landscape The current ornamental landscape of Lahore is not sustainable and demands inputs that the city is unable to afford particularly when there are other pressing issues such as health, education, infrastructure and utilities. Furthermore this ornamental landscape is designed to drain out the stormwater instead of harvesting it and helping to recharge ground water. This is particularly important since the city uses ground water for drinking, and for commercial and business purposes, and the level of underground water is going down with the passage of time. Additionally most of the plants in gardens, roads, and boulevards in Lahore are evergreens. Although plants such as Eucalyptus, Arjun (Terminalia arjund) and Gaab {Diospyros embryopteris) provide shade during summer, they also use a lot of water and other inputs to provide this amenity whereas during winter their foliage blocks the sunshine. These plants are therefore not energy efficient and they put great pressure on underground water resources. This type of intensely maintained monoculture is not helpful for wildlife and the city is losing native birds that used to survive on the diverse species of naturally occurring vegetation. Equally use of pesticides is harmful to pollinating insects and has other impacts on the environment. While working in Lawrence Garden, one of the older gardeners told the author about hundreds of honey bee hives in the garden prior to the use of pesticides that have now decreased dramatically after their use. -38- The shrinking resources as a result of high maintenance costs have forced the city to prioritize the areas of maintained open space. The result is fragmentation of the landscape, deforestation and desertification resulting in further environmental problems. Furthermore this landscape is solely for visual purposes and gives little consideration to efficient use of energy, promotion of wildlife habitat, recharge of aquifers, improvement in water quality, reduction in water erosion, recycling of resources and the multiple uses of green spaces that the city should be addressing. This could be achieved by a series of measures including proper grading and drainage, and use of vegetation focusing on sustainable practices. Rapid urbanization, expansion of impervious surfaces, and lack of resources to support high maintenance landscapes is reducing the environmental quality of the city. The extent of these issues is apparent from the Strategic Country Environmental Assessment Report published in 2006. According to this report, "environmental degradation costs the country at least 6 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), or about Pakistan Rupees 365 billion per year and these costs fall disproportionately upon the poor. The most significant causes of environmental damage identified in this report are, a) illness and premature mortality caused by air pollution (indoor and outdoor) - almost 50 percent of the total damage cost" b) diarrhea diseases and typhoid due to inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene - about 30 percent of the total, c) reduced agricultural product due to soil degradation. (Pakistan Strategic Country Environmental Assessment, 2006, p. 6) -39- Urban water pollution Pakistan is an arid country with low, unreliable rainfall averaging 250 millimetres a year. Classified as water-stressed, the country uses almost all of its available water supplies in most years. Population growth coupled with the demands of industrialization and urbanization are expected to create conditions of absolute water scarcity in a few decades. Water shortages are compounded by water quality problems. Untreated pollutants from industrial, agricultural and urban sources are released directly into water bodies intended for human consumption, with little regard for the assimilative capacity of eco-systems. The result is heavily polluted water around towns and cities and high incidences of diseases, especially among the poor. "The links between water quality and health risk is well established. Inadequate quantity and quality of potable water and poor sanitation facilities and practices are associated with a host of illnesses such as diarrhea, typhoid, intestinal worms and hepatitis. According to an estimate from SCEA more than 1.6 million Disability Adjusted Life Years are lost annually as a result of death and diseases due to diarrhea, and almost 900000 as a result of typhoid. Diarrhea and typhoid mortality in children accounts for the bulk of losses, reflecting the vulnerability of children to these diseases. The total health costs according to SCEA are estimated at Rupees 114 billion". (Pakistan's waters at Risk, 2007) To deal with waste water, urban food production is an important aspect for urban sustainability. If practised, it will make food available from close by and offer livelihood for city people. It will make efficient use of nutrients from the urban metabolism that otherwise will end up in rivers or water bodies. -40- Using waste water for production of food for cities like Lahore, where the climate is hot, has been practised in other cities of the world like "Adelaide, Australia, where tens of thousands of hectares of land on the edge of the city are cultivated using waste water from the city for irrigation, growing vegetables such as grapes and fruit" (Andre Viljoen, 2005, p. 38) The importance of urban food production from a sustainable perspective can be put in perspective by the figure explained by Stanley that "if food in the United Kingdom were produced organically, consumed locally, and eaten when in season, greenhouse gas reductions in excess of 40 million tones of carbon per annum could be achieved that represent a reduction of 22 percent of current carbon dioxide emissions for the United Kingdom". (Andre Viljoen, 2005, p. 25) This will be mimicking of natural ecosystems, learning from the "metabolisms of natural, closed loop systems in which all wastes are recycled into resources for future growth" (Andre Viljoen, 2005, p. 39) In Pakistan 100 million acre feet of water is received from glaciers, ice melt and rainfall in the Indus River basin and 50 million acre feet is received from groundwater annually. Despite the enormous size of the Indus basin system, water availability per capita has been declining at an alarming rate, as mentioned before, from about 5,000 cubic metres per annum in 1951 to about 1,100 currently, and is projected to be less than 700 cubic metres by 2025. The majority of the Pakistan population relies on groundwater as their principal source of drinking water. (Pakistan Strategic Country Environmental Assessment, 2006, p. 52) -41- As the main source of drinking water in Lahore is groundwater, the city government has installed wells at various places to provide water to its citizens. Some housing societies and Government Officers' colonies own their own water supply systems, installing tube wells within these colonies. With the passage of time, the water table is being lowered. In such a situation when thousands of hectares are paved with roads or covered by houses, parking lots and other hard surfaces, most of the rain water is wasted in the form of stormwater that can lead to flooding rather than recharging underground water. In such conditions, it is timely to think about the landscape of Lahore and its possible contribution to mitigation of these problems. A situation addressed by Spirn in The Granite Garden applies to the city of Lahore in the monsoon season "the urban activities, the density of urban form and the impervious materials of which it is built, pattern of settlement and its relation to the natural drainage network, and the design of the drainage and flood control system produce a characteristic urban water regime. Abundant and rapid stormwater runoff creates extremely high stream flows during and immediately after storms. Pavement and storm sewers reduce infiltration and lower the level of water beneath the ground. Urban activities and their location, and urban form and materials, influence the degree of flooding and where it occurs, the degree of pollution, and where it is concentrated, and the amount of water consumed. The characteristics of urban water dynamics, pollution, and use are well understood, their causes and effects well known, but the knowledge is too seldom applied. The planner, designers, builders and managers of cities all too often treat the problems of flooding and storm drainage, water pollution, water use, and water supply separately. -42- The concrete, stone, brick and asphalt of pavement and buildings cap the city's surface with a waterproof seal. Unable to penetrate the ground and unimpeded by the city's smooth surface, the rain which falls on the roofs, plazas, streets and parking lots runs off the surface in greater quantities, more rapidly than the same amount of rain falling on the spongy surface of a forest or field. The densest parts of the city increase stormwater runoff the most." (Spirn, p. 130) Among other factors that limit water conservation is country's weather. In Pakistan summers are very hot and solar energy quickly evaporates the soil water brought to the surface through capillary action. Mulching is an effective way of stopping this capillary action and conserving water in depressions and plants beds. Organic mulch including composted wood chips, bark, twigs, leaves, straw and grass clippings are useful in relatively low flow areas whereas inorganic mulches like rock, cobbles, gravels, crushed stone and other hard materials can be used in areas where higher velocity of flow may occur. Organic mulches, in addition to conserving moisture, help in improving the soil by adding decomposed material with the passage of time. Other benefits of mulch include suppression of weeds, reduction in pesticide use to control weeds, and providing habitat for decomposers. Falling leaves, twigs and branches can keep on accumulating under the trees as natural organic mulch but to get the optimum benefits of the mulch, a depth of three to four inch should be maintained. Dense ground covers can also be used as mulch and will be helpful in reducing moisture loss and in suppression of weeds. In Pakistan, mulch is rarely used but the benefits associated with its use strongly suggest that its use should be encouraged. -43- Looking at the landscape of Lahore, two major issues emerge instantly. The first is the high maintenance cost of its landscape areas and the second is their limited role in recharge of water, bio-remediation, improvement of water quality, reduction of stormwater runoff and erosion, water detention and retention. These issues are interrelated and solutions may be available from applying an understanding of the ecology and cultural requirements of plants. With appropriate grading and planting combined with low energy demanding maintenance practices, a more sustainable landscape could be developed. The shortage of water quality and quantity is realized in the National Drinking Water Policy from the Government of Pakistan Ministry of Environment 2007, according to which "the overall goal of the national drinking water policy is to improve the quality of life of people of Pakistan by reducing the incidence of death and illness caused by water - born diseases through ensuring provision of an adequate quantity of safe drinking water to the entire population at an affordable cost and in an equitable, efficient and sustainable manner by 2020". (National Drinking Water Policy, 2007, p. 4) Policy guidelines recommended to achieve this goal include measures to protect and conserve surface and ground water resources, rainwater harvesting at household and community level, ground water recharge, recycling and reuse of water, participation of communities, especially women and children, in planning and implementation to promote community ownership and empowerment as well as sustainability. -44- CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW According to the United Nations and published figures from other international organizations, 1.1 billion people do not usually have access to safe drinking water and 2.4 billion people have to live without adequate sanitation. If the current trend prevails, it is expected that of a total 8.5 billion global population, about 3 billion will suffer from water shortage by 2025 and 83 percent of them will be living in developing countries, mostly in rural areas where even today sometimes only 20 percent of the population has access to a sufficient water supply. (Drinking Water Crises in Pakistan and the Issue of Bottled Water, 2005, p. 5) Insufficient supply of drinking water is the main cause of diseases in developing countries. In 1997 it was reported by the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development that 2.3 billion people suffer from diseases related to insufficient water provision and quality. More than five years later, it was estimated that 2.4 billion people were suffering from water-related diseases, and the World Health Organization estimates that 80 percent of all infections are traceable to poor water conditions. Globally, 5,483 people die daily of water caused diarrhea - 90 percent are children under five. Taking into account all water-related diseases and deaths, international organizations estimated in 2001 that 2.2 million people died because of inadequate water supply - ten times more deaths than caused by the tsunami disaster in December 2004. (Drinking Water Crises in Pakistan and the Issue of Bottled Water, 2005, p. 5) -45- Water availability and its quality is a global issue. In Pakistan 44 percent of the population lack access to safe drinking water whereas in rural areas, up to 99 percent may lack such access. "As one indication of the magnitude of the problem, it is estimated that 200,000 children in Pakistan die every year due to diarrhea related diseases" (Drinking Water Crises in Pakistan and the Issue of Bottled Water, 2005, p. 3) The Indus basin is a primary source of surface water for irrigation as well as drinking water for the country but the availability on a per capita basis is declining at an alarming rate. As mentioned before, in 1951 water availability per capita was 5000 cubic metres which recently has reduced to 1100 cubic metres. This figure is just above the internationally recognized scarcity rate and it is expected that per capita water available in 2025 will drop to 700 cubic metres which is an alarming situation for future generations. Although household use takes a fraction of the total amount of water available, the competing use of water for agriculture, commercial and industrial purposes and continuing degradation of water quality impacts efforts to improve the level of household provision. (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 5, 2002, p. 50) The Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 5 October 2002, describes the source of drinking water in various parts of Pakistan as follows: "The majority of the population relies on groundwater as their principal source of drinking water. This is true both for rural areas and for major cities, apart from Karachi and Islamabad (which has a number of different resources). Pakistan can be divided into five groundwater zones, for the purpose of drinking water supply: (i) sweet ground water areas; (ii) areas where canal or river water is a real alternative; (iii) mountains and hilly areas where spring water is available; (iv) the -46- eastern desert belt where groundwater is in scarce supply; and, (v) coastal areas where the ground water is saline. About 80 percent of Punjab has fresh ground water, with saline water in the south and desert areas. In addition there is some evidence of high fluoride or arsenic contents locally in Punjab and a number of locations have been contaminated by industrial water waste discharges. Less than 30% of ground water in Sindh is fresh, with much of the province underlain by brackish water, and some instances of elevated fluoride levels. In NWFP, increasing abstraction has resulted in wells now reaching into saline layers, and much of Baluchistan also has saline ground water." (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 5, 2002, p. 50) Population growth and water availability and its quality are driving forces in thinking about how to use and conserve this vital resource in Pakistan. Population growth will create pressure for more agricultural produce and the consequent demand for more water, and there will be more competition for water between domestic and agricultural and other non agricultural users. Pakistan has a current population of 141 million (2008) and had a growth rate of 2.61% between 1986 and 1998. Assuming a reduced growth rate at 2.1% over the next 25 years, the population is expected to touch the figure of 221 million. (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 2, 2002, p. 1) Although the population of Pakistan is increasing at an alarming rate, its rate of growth in urban centres is increasing dramatically putting more pressure on ground water for domestic use. In Volume 2, of the Water Sector Strategy Pakistan, it is pointed out that rapid urbanization is taking place in Pakistan, with a present urban population of 48 million (34% of the total), increasing at a rate of 3.7% per annum, and predicted to be -47- 114.5 million (52% of the total) in 2025. This is more than triple the existing population in urban centres. This swelling population in urban centres will demand more expanded and improved water supply, sanitation services, pollution control and electricity supply. (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 2, 2002, p. 1) Against this background of a growing population and growing demand for water is the fact that, essentially, Pakistan is at the limit of its water resources. In addition, the declining groundwater levels and increasing groundwater salinity in various parts of the country demand special attention. Several studies have been conducted to estimate the ground water resources in Pakistan. According to these studies, the amount of available ground water varies from 45.6 m a f (56.2 b c m) to 53.3 m a f (65.7 b c m) and averages about 51.1m a f (63.3 b c m). The amount of ground water commonly abstracted for irrigation and for urban and rural drinking supply is estimated at about 41.6 m a f (51.27 b c m). (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 2, 2002, p. 18) The total domestic water supply including urban, rural and industrial water supply currently amounts to 5.1 MAF (6.5 b c m). It is projected that domestic water supply consumption will increase to 7.9 m a f (10.06 b c m) by 2011 and 11.3 m a f (13.92 b c m) by 2025. (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 2, 2002, p. 6) Considering this increasing domestic demand it will be necessary to develop additional storage and conservation measures and/or the taking of water from irrigation usage. That would adversely affect the capacity of crop production to feed the increasing population. -48- In the Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 2, the quality both of surface and underground water is considered to be a major issue. The main reasons given for this are lack of resources to implement laws and regulations, municipal waste tipping, and lack of will on the part of industry to treat their waste water before allowing it to flow into the water bodies and rivers. This contributes to the lack of access to clean water for urban and rural citizens. The lack of access to proper sanitation facilities can be judged from the fact that "only 1% of total wastewater generated in the municipal sector is treated before being discharged to the rivers." (Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, Volume 2, 2002, p. 20) Municipal effluent is a principal source of water pollution and most surface water pollution is associated with urban centres. "Typically, nullahs, and stormwater drains collect and carry untreated sewerage which then flows into streams, rivers, and irrigation canals, resulting in widespread bacteriological and other contamination. It has been estimated that around 2000 million gallons of sewage is being discharged to surface water bodies every day" (Water Supply and Sanitation, p. 51) Industrial effluent is also a major source of water contamination. Although there are National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) to regulate industrial discharge of industrial effluents to surface water, compliance is very low due to lack of monitoring and enforcement of these standards. It has been reported that "in Lahore only 3 out of some 100 industries using hazardous chemicals treat their wastage adequately" (Water Supply and Sanitation, p. 52) -49- As Pakistan is an agricultural country and farmers use pesticides and fertilizers in their fields to raise their crops, it is to be expected that agricultural runoff will be a source of contamination of water. The extent of pesticide and fertilizer use and its expected impacts on the quality of water was described in Volume 5, of the Pakistan Water Sector Strategy "the quantity and quality of agricultural runoff has not been measured at the national level but with an estimated 5.6 million tons of fertilizer and some 70000 tons of pesticides used annually, pollution from agricultural sources can be expected in receiving waters. In 107 samples of ground water collected from various locations in the country between 1988 and 2000, 31 samples were reported to have concentrations of pesticides beyond FAO/WHO safety limits. A pilot project was undertaken in 1990 -1991 in Sumandri, Faisalabad District over an area of 1000 square kilometres, to look at the extent of ground water contamination by agrochemicals. Often ground water samples in Faisalabad District drawn from a depth of 10 - 15 metres, seven were contaminated with unsafe levels of one or more pesticides. Although the study concluded that the contamination had reached only shallow aquifers, evidence suggested that it was gradually reaching the deeper aquifers as well." (Water Supply and Sanitation, p. 52) As the city of Lahore is surrounded by agricultural land that is used intensively for cash crops and vegetable production, the intensive use of pesticides and the fertilizers is inevitable. Furthermore as the city is located within the watershed and on the edge of the River Ravi, the surface and ground water flow of agricultural runoff toward the city limits could contaminate ground water. -50- To address the water quality issues, the importance of wetlands in extracting pollutants and hazardous chemicals from the polluted water is long established. Nemeth, N and Nemeth, T examined the composition of water, soil, and reeds in contaminated environments compared with natural habitats. They also looked at the influence of constructed wetlands on water quality. They found higher concentrations of phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) in every plant part in the constructed environment. It seemed that the concentrations of elements in roots and leaves are the most appropriate bio - indicators of their availability in the environment. According to Nemeth and Nemeth's findings, vegetated beds operated better in element removal than non - vegetated beds. They found that purification efficiencies of vegetated beds were 15 - 50 % higher in removing of all the above mentioned pollutants calculated by mass and water flow. (Nemeth, N and Nemeth, T, 2006, p. 37) Similarly Moore, M, T., Cooper, C, M. et al conducted an experiment to see how wetlands help in pesticide mitigation. They found that in intensively cultivated areas where agriculture is a significant source of pesticides and is associated with stormwater runoff, the pesticides have potential to damage nearby aquatic ecosystems. To alleviate this potential problem the constructed wetlands are a best management practice. "A constructed wetland system (180 x 30 metres) comprised of a sediment retention basin and two treatment cells was used to determine rate and transport of a simulated storm runoff event containing the insecticide diazinon and suspended sediment. Wetland water, sediment, and plant samples were collected spatially and temporally over 55 days. Results indicated that 43% of the study's measured diazinon mass was associated with plant material, while 23 and 34% were measured in sediment and water, respectively. -51- Results of this experiment show the importance of vegetation in removing the insecticides from the environment and can be used to model future design specifications for mitigation of diazinon and other pesticides". (Moore, M, T., Cooper, C, M. et al 2007, p. 313-321) Shanghai is the economic and financial centre of China and experiencing extensive urban expansion. Wang and Sang studied the temporal variation of surface water quality in urban, suburban and rural areas between 1982 and 2005. Analysis of the collected data indicated that the level of urbanization was the main determinant of surface water quality. Surface water quality in urban and suburban areas was improved by strengthening environmental and management policies, but was worsening in rural areas as a result of environmental and management policies. The study demonstrated the inverse relationship between surface water quality and urbanization which is common in other developing countries. The research gives a clear indication and alerts the decision maker and city official to be vigilant about addressing the pollution of water surface associated with rapid urbanization. (Wang L., Da L., Song K., Li BL. 2008) Gerd Liebezeit, Ralf Wostmann and Christine Joe conducted research on waste water, rich in particulate and dissolved organic matter, discharged to the Siak River by two latex processing plants in Pekanburu, Riau province, Sumatra. They noted that the immediate effect of this discharge was the marked enrichment of the total organic carbon in the sediment adjacent to the discharge point that were detectable both in the direct vicinity of the wastewater inlet, in the sediment as well as in the water column and in the surface sediment up to 25 kilometre downstream of the discharge point. The sewage with -52- extremely high concentration of organic carbon contents, entering the river water near the vicinity of discharge needs more oxygen to process water and burdens the oxygen budget of the river at Pekanbaru and downstream. They warned about any other input to be drained in to the river and emphasized on the further research to mitigate the situation. (Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 1-5. In order to determine the level of accumulated heavy metals in aquatic animals, Agoes Soegianto, Bambang Irawan and Hamami conducted a survey entitled "Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Animals Collected form Coastal Waters of Gresik, Indonesia". Their research showed the presence of higher concentration of Zn in all aquatic animals than the level of other metals in the same species. The reasons of accumulation of heavy metals in aquatic animals supported by other studies in this survey are mentioned as follow, "Industrial activities as well as agriculture and mining create a potential source of heavy metals pollution in aquatic environment (Unlu et al., 1996). Pollution of aquatic ecosystems by heavy metal is an important environmental problem, as heavy metals constitute some of the most dangerous toxicant that can bioaccumulate (Soegianto et el., 1999a; Benson et al., 2007). Metals that are deposited in the aquatic environment may accumulate in the food chain and cause ecological damage, also pose a threat to human health due to biomagnifications over time (Yilmaz and yilmaz, 2007). (Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 95 - 100.) S.k. Tyagi, P.S. Datta, R.K. Sharma and Shilpi Kulshreshtha conducted a study to determine the extent of underground water contamination in the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India, using Geographic Information system (GIS) -53- Technology and founded various levels of nitrate, fluoride and potassium contents in farm groundwater that varied from <1.0 to 80.0 mg/L, <1.0 to 1.87 mg/L and 1.6 to 18.3 mg/L respectively. Their investigation indicated various point sources that contributed for these various levels of contaminations such as sewage water disposal and use of fertilizers in the zones of extensive agricultural activities. They suggested the following actions that would help in mitigating the groundwater contamination "cautious use of agrochemicals; application of only the required amount of irrigation water; avoiding flood irrigation; proper treatment of sewage water before irrigation; urgent action on the possibilities of rain water recharge which would help in reducing the level of contamination in groundwater by dilution process" (Nitrate and Fluoride Contamination in Ground Water under Intensive Agricultural Land use, Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 81 - 86.) The presence of pesticide residuals in human chain was reported in various studies in India. In 1980, Karla and Chawla reported the occurrence of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and BHC (benzenehexa chloride) residues in human milk in India where 75 human milk samples were collected from lactating women in Punjab within a week after delivery. The analysis indicated the presence of DDT and BHC in all the samples. A similar study was conducted during 1974 - 76 to analyze the residues of DDT and BHC in wheat flour in Punjab by Joia et al. (1978), who collected 140 samples of wheat flour from seven cities. The analysis indicated that the residues of DDT and BHC were detected in 124 and 116 samples respectively and in most samples simultaneously. -54- (Pesticide Pollution in Punjab: A Review, Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 89 - 96) Nobedita Kapil and Krishna Gopal Bhattacharyya conducted research for determining nutrients levels in Deepor Beel - a lake existing in a former channel of the Brahmaputr, a River in its south bank and in the southwest corner of Guwahati city (Assam, India). It is only the major stormwater storage basin for the city and a large natural wetland with great biological and environmental importance. The Beel supports rich flora and fauna, huge congregation of residential aquatic birds, provides habitat for migratory waterfowls and is known for nuts and flowers, ornamental fish, medicinal plants and giant water Lilly. In 2002 the lake was designated as a Ramsar site (1207). The original area of the lake was 4000 hectare that has shrunk to 700 hectare due to large scale encroachment and other urban activities. This shrinkage of the lake has resulted into deterioration of water quality. Other contributing factors in the deterioration of the water include excessive fishing activity, hunting of water birds, pollution from pesticides and fertilizers and urban stormwater. The study concluded that the water of the lake contains both micro and macro pollutants beyond permissible limits and not suitable for different uses. The high phosphorus contents in the water are responsible for declining water quality and depletion of dissolved oxygen in water that adversely affects the aquatic life. Other possible causes (mentioned in research) for the degradation of water quality may be linked to inflow of large amount of municipal waste water, inflow form nearby crop fields and discharge of effluents by the small and medium industries in the surrounding. -55- (Temporal, Spatial and Depth Variation on Nutrients and Chlorophyll content in an Urban Wetland, Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 2, p. 43 -55) S. Kannan, S.K Singh, A.A. Kazmi and M.P Sharma conducted research for selection of appropriate sewage treatment technology for the Kancheepuram, India. Kancheepuram is an ancient historic temple city situated on the northern bank of river Vegavathi, a tributary of Polar River in Tamil Nadu, India. Presently city is generating around 12 million liter sewage daily. In 1972, the Government of India approved a sewerage scheme which was executed and commissioned in 1975 at a cost of 12 million dollars. The sewerage scheme was designed for a population of 150000 with an average sewage flow of 9 MLD. In the existing sewerage system, the sewage is collected in the two zones by gravity through drainage channels to the collection sumps in the respective zones. The sewage is then pumped to the 9 MLD waste stabilization ponds located at a distance of 3 kilometre from the town. The treated effluent is then used for grass farming and growing of coconut trees. Due to the increase in population, the sewage generation has increased to more than 12 MLD. As the existing sewage system can not cope with volume of sewerage generated, the excess sewerage is discharged into the Manjal Neer storm water drain, which finally drains in the Vaegavathi River causing water pollution. The effect of poor sewage treatment and disposal was evident as the health of the population deteriorated and the children were affected by water related diseases, especially diarrhoeal diseases - the most common cause of infant mortality. -56- To deal with the environmental, social, economic and agricultural problems posed by inadequate sewerage system, it was felt to tackle these problems by choosing an appropriate wastewater treatment technology in the given area. The criteria selected for the appropriate technology included, a) low power requirement, b) suitable removal efficiencies to meet effluent discharge standards, c) economical in operation and maintenance cost, d) capacity of treated effluent to be used for irrigation, industrial and other non - potable purposes. Five treatment options were considered for techno economic evaluations that include: • Activated sludge process (ASP) • Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) • Moving Bed Biological Reactor (MBBR) • Waste Stabilization Pond (WSP) • Sequence Batch Reactor (SBR) Out of above five types of technologies being used in India, the WSP was found the most economical option to treat the sewage of the town, provided the cost of land in the city is less than Rupees. 6.5 million per hectare. (Selection of Appropriate Sewage Treatment Technology for Kancheepuram city, Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 43 - 55) The Show Low constructed wetland in northeastern Arizona can be worth mentioned as an example of a constructed wetland. Being located in a natural setting, the wetland supports an abundance of wildlife, with a flow of water slowly meandering through clumps of vegetation. -57- The Show Low facility is a complex made up of several wetlands, among them the Pintail Lake was the first to be built that began receiving municipal wastewater in 1979. "Initially the 47 - acre lake received 200,000 gallons of wastewater per day, an amount that has since increased to 500,000 gallons of municipal secondary effluent. In 1986, the Show Low complex expanded to include other wetlands, including Redhead Marsh and Telephone Lake, to form a complex made up of several lakes and marshes. The complex now consists of nine cells covering about 200 acres that can handle 1.42 million gallons of wastewater daily to serve a population of 13,500. The treated water is not discharged from the wetlands but remains to evaporate and create habitat. The management of the wetlands involve controlling water quantity and its levels, quality and delivery. Water can be diverted to allow some ponds to dry up to manage vegetation and its maintenance. Establishing a vigorous vegetative cover was essential to treat waste - water and attract wildlife. Cattail, water grass, spike rush and various sedges established naturally in the wetlands. Successful plantings include hardstem, softstem and alkali bulrushes and sego pondweed. Fencing keeps domestic livestock from grazing in the area. A number of wildlife is attracted to this area and 125 bird species were identified in a 16 - week survey conducted in 1991. Furthermore ten endangered bird species were found at the wetlands. The area also attracts Rocky Mountain elk, mule deer, pronghorn, black bear, coyote, raccoon and various kinds of amphibians. "Pintail Lake is open to the public and attracts human visitors, from instate, out - of - state and even foreign countries. Its public use plan includes a paved trail for handicapped access and a viewing blind that accommodates 50 students. Local students -58- use the facility as an outdoor classroom to learn about recycling, wetland ecology and wildlife". (http://ag.arizona.edu/AZWATER/arroyo/094wet.html, accessed on June 10, 2009) -59- CHAPTER FOUR RELATIONSHIP OF WATER RESOURCES, SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE WITH THE LANDSCAPE OF LAHORE The Lahore Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is responsible for providing water to the residents of Lahore city and for its drainage and sewerage system. Groundwater (as already mentioned) is the main source of water supply for Lahore. The WASA has installed tube wells of varying capacity that run 16-18 hours daily to provide water for residents. These tube wells inject water directly into the water supply system. Their depth varies from 150 to 180 metres. With the help of these tube wells, the WASA is supplying 290 million gallons daily (MGD) of water to 431336 connections. (Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 4) According to this report "the water distribution network of WASA consists of 3200 kilometres of water supply lines including a 79.5 Kilometres main grid ranging from (300 - 750 millimetres in diameter)." This extensive system of water extraction is putting immense pressure on the Lahore aquifer especially when the recharge of water is restricted by impervious surfaces. Furthermore the design of the infrastructure of the city has put more emphasis on engineering considerations and this has included the extension of permeable surfaces thereby further retarding opportunities for aquifer recharge from rain water. Rapid urbanization has caused deforestation and led in turn to a decrease in permeable surface area within the city. Consequently during rain, especially in the monsoon season, most of the city is inundated and this results in economic loss as well as loss of human life every -60- year. The significant difference between water extraction and aquifer recharge of water in Lahore is reflected in the fact that "ground water level in Lahore is declining at a rate of 620 millimetres per year". (Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 35) Given that the groundwater is the only source of water supply for the city, this situation is alarming and every opportunity should be explored to mitigate it - including sustainable design and management practices. The sewage system of Lahore comprises ageing pipes with the same cross section as an egg and designed to drain the sewage/stormwater to open drains that ultimately drain into the River Ravi. "The existing sewage system in the WASA service area consists of 405 kilometres of trunk sewers and 3205 kilometres of lateral sewers making a total length of 3610 kilometres. The diameter of the sewers An open drain in the city varies from 300 to 1650 millimetres. The entire sewage is pumped into different sullage / stormwater drains which ultimately discharge sewage into the River Ravi. (Initial Environmental Examination Report, 2004, p. 5) The Upper Bari Doab (Lahore Canal) is an irrigation canal that was constructed under the Indus River Treaty between India and Pakistan. The canal was a favorite site for residential development because of its aesthetic, environmental and scenic properties. The residences along the canal are the most expensive in the city. However, the lack of strict regulations regarding sewage disposal has led to most of the sewage channels being drained into the canal and contaminating its water. -61- MAHMOQD BOOTI J.DISPQSALSITE J^JbRAlNJGANDA NULLAH) jyyf yVk / -Sr #^ \^ \ ^ y \ V><> * N.T.S RIVER RAVI l/L^Cs^ ^^^ \>^^ 1 LAHORE CANAL .-Z/~y^_J ' RAILWAY TRACK \ ' GULBERG DRAIN I GULBERG DRAIN "\ v / / y '— LAHORE CANAL ^/ ' ' RAILWAY TRACK 7 y^ t '— LAHORE CANAL / / r t / / / / —--"-"^ / / t Figure 10: Drains and Stormwater Channels All the drainage channels shown in Figure 10, are natural drainage channels (though narrowed down in size due to development activities) that discharge stormwater and sullage out of the city and finally into the River Ravi. -62- Figure 11: Drainage Pattern The topography of Lahore is generally flat and slopes towards the south and south west. The physiographic features of most of the natural stream channels, levees and drains original have been changed by the construction of urban infrastructure. As a result the capacity of these drains is limited by available drainage widths and grades and by siltation and the accretion of garbage from urban activities. -63- MAHMOOB BOOTI -L,DISJ*OSALSITE JC/VNDA NULLAH^ HAD SASH PUMPING X CHOTARAVI \ N.T.S DRAINAGE STATION i ION \ LAHORE CANAL RAILWAY TRACK s~r ^AiH 3ULBERG DRAIN GULBERG DRAIN LAHORE CANAL RAILWAY TRACK LAHORE CANAL Figure 12: Drainage Disposal and Pumping Stations Disposal stations at various locations along the River Ravi are installed to drain the sewage and sullage into it. -64- Major Green Spaces in Lahore Major green spaces in addition to boulevards, green corridors, vegetation along the banks of the canals and prominent roads is shown in Figure 13, below. These include historical parks, community parks, golf courses and open spaces in public use. Figure 13: Major Parks and Green Spaces All these green spaces are connected to drainage systems in some way but their drainage pattern and grading instead of retaining rain water, disposes of it into the adjacent -65- drainage network rather than recharging it into underground aquifers. Creation of impervious surfaces in the form of buildings, infrastructure and asphalt parking lots where the landscape portion is either missing or designed for visual purposes only, means that stormwater has posed a significant problem. Even during small rainfall events, water is drained quickly. As stormwater gains momentum it erodes debris and soil particles and pools up on roads and in the drainage system leaving the dissolved particles of soil and debris. This results in disruption of the daily activities of the city and economic loss in the form of infrastructure damage, power failures, traffic disruption and even building collapse and, sometimes, loss of life. The major outcome associated with this stormwater runoff is the silting of the sewers and channels thereby reducing the capacity of the whole network. The sewer system of the city is choked to such an extent that, even Street flooded after rain during small rains, manholes start overflowing. This becomes even more problematic during the monsoon season when the whole city is flooded with polluted water, causing threat to both life and property. The magnitude of the problem can be judged from the material presented in the Action Plan - Project for the Retrieval of Sewage and Drainage System in Lahore City according to which "About 21800 cubic metres of silt has been deposited in a 74 kilometre length of sewer of sizes varying from 525 to 1500 millimetres diameter. The situation is worst in the case of drains where 295650 cubic metres of silt has been -66- deposited in 31.6 kilometres of drains having width varying form 1.2 to 27.5 metres. Some of the drains and sewers have been silted up to more than half of their carrying capacity. This is the main cause of inundation of the city during monsoon season, suspending the normal life in various parts of the city" (Action Plan - Project for the Retrieval of Sewage and Drainage System in Lahore City, 2004, p. 2 - 1) As a result the city is suffering from poor environmental and living conditions in the areas where roads and streets are inundated with polluted water. This Action Plan also mentioned that "one of the leading consulting firms [name of the firm not mentioned in report] in Pakistan who prepared an Integrated Master Plan for Lahore also identified silted drains and sewers as one of the major issues of concern with respect to creating a clean environment in the city. They suggest the system requires remedial measures as a top priority". (Action Plan - Project for the Retrieval of Sewage and drainage Systems in Lahore City, 2004, p. 1 - 2) As a remedial measure to clean the sewers and drainage system of Lahore, the WAS A is spending significant sums. Recently, in collaboration with the Japanese Government, the WAS A has been undertaking a Rupees 789823 million project with a foreign exchange component of Rupees 689823 million and with Rupees 100000 million arranged by WAS A from its own resources. (Action Plan - Project for the Retrieval of Sewage and drainage Systems in Lahore City, 2004, p. 1 - 2) The complexity, efforts and cost involved in this project can be judged by the mechanism of desilting drains and sewers described in Appendix A. The expected benefits of this project include cleaner, safer and healthier living and working conditions for the citizens as a result of the system operating at its full -67- carrying capacity. Other beneficiaries include large number of workers, shopkeepers and transport operators whose activities suffer due to the flooding in monsoons. It appears, however, that the city is using huge resources to solve the problem without necessarily trying to address its root causes and exploring the potential of open and green spaces to help in remedial measures and recharge of underground water. -68- CHAPTER FIVE STRATEGIES FOR A MORE SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE FOR LAHORE cr^Ti JEHANGHlR TOMB KAMRAN Kl BARADARI PUMPI* 'IIS -*— IQBALPARK T N.T.S —V NlSHTERPARK "— SHALAMAR GARDEN GOVERNOR'S HOUSE. LAHORE CANAL R ?s-f-=' RAILWAYTRACffl GOLF COURSE ) (I GOLF COURSE ^J^Jlr ^\. RACE COURSE PARK r s^ *sj- LAWRENCE GARDEN l^°° LAHORE CANAL GULSHAN-E-IQBAL PARK ^ RAILWAY TRACK MODEL TOWN PARK UNIVERSITVOF PUNJAB RESERVE LAND UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB (NEW CAMPUS) LEGEND MAJOR GREEN SPACES OF THE CITY PROPOSED WATER BODIES EXISTING WATER BODIES Figure 14: Proposed Water Bodies 69 As most of the green spaces of the city are connected to open drains (see Figure 13), these existing open spaces in Lahore have potential to harvest the rainwater by intercepting stormwater runoff that is drained into these drainage channels from surfaces such as roofs, Drain passing through Lawrence Garden parking areas, and other impervious surfaces. In this way the stormwater can be converted into a valuable source for recharging underground water systems. Other benefits of harvesting stormwater include: • Increased water availability for on-site vegetation; • Reduced on-site flooding and erosion; • Reduced water bills and groundwater pumping; • Extended life of ornamental planting as rainwater is usually low in salt content and relatively high in nitrogen. Water is necessary for all living beings and constitutes a major part of every living organism on the earth. It has its own cycle that starts from evaporation from the open surfaces of oceans, lakes and ponds, and by evapotanspiration under different climatic conditions. It then falls down on the earth in the form of vapor, rain, snow and hailstorms. Under normal conditions in the city, water helps in removing air and ground pollution, absorbing pollutant materials and becoming an input for plant material. In cases where there are insufficient designed green spaces to absorb water, the rain falling on impervious spaces such as roads, buildings and parking lots will absorb pollutants and start flowing at greater speed on these paved surfaces. With the passage of time, the -70- accumulated rain water starts gaining momentum and erodes debris and fertile soils and deposits its eroded and suspended materials where it pools up in sections of streets and roads or in ponds, on green spaces or in the sewerage system. This pooled water with eroded material can have adverse effects economically, environmentally and socially. In cases where it is pooled on roads it disrupts the traffic, damages infrastructure, affects daily business life and causes inconvenience for the general public. When this pooled water drains out, the deposited dust and debris cause major inconvenience and pollute the environment. To remove this debris and clean the roads and streets, the city has to allocate resources that might be used for other, more beneficial purposes. Stormwater with suspended debris and eroded soil is not even beneficial for green spaces and water ponds. Although the green spaces have the potential to drain water down into underground aquifers, the layer of deposited material on leaf surfaces will impair the process of photosynthesis and block the sunlight and the result will be damaged vegetation. Equally deposited material will affect the water holding capacity of ponds and change their ecosystems. The sediment that ends up in sewerage and drainage systems impacts their delivery capacity and this results in the overflowing of manholes, flooding of roads and streets, disruption of daily life, damage to buildings and other infrastructure, and even outbreaks of contagious diseases. The city has to spend significant sums for desilting that otherwise might be saved through ecologically driven landscape designs. Although water absorbs most pollutants, the presence of pollutants beyond certain levels turns it into poison and changes its ability to act as a solvent. Naturally, when the polluted water is absorbed into the soil, it acts as a source of nutrients for the plants and, -71- in the case of marshes, it is bio-remediated by aquatic plants. But when a large amount of polluted water pools up or ends up in a water body such as a lake or river, it changes the aquatic system and disturbs fish ecosystems and may end up killing certain species of fish. The temperature of falling rainwater on impervious surfaces during the summer season in a city like Lahore, if not moderated before entering the rivers, will adversely affect the aquatic life of the river. Vegetation Vegetation is one of the most important parts of the food chain web. The food chain starts with plants and ends with plants. Chlorophyll is the only substance that has the capacity to convert sunlight using carbon dioxide to create oxygen and green biomass that can be further utilized as a primary energy source. Green spaces around water bodies Green spaces around proposed water bodies are considered to be the best means of promoting recharge of the aquatic system of Lahore with bioremediated water. Vegetation, apart from many environmental, economical and social benefits, plays a major role in regulating the nutrient cycle, in the purification and recharge of water, reduction in erosion, and promotion of biodiversity and wildlife habitat. It also reduces environmental pollution, increases fertility and water holding capacity of soil, reduces energy use and stabilizes the soil. -72- JEHANGHIRTOMB KAMRAN Hi BARADftRI UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB RESERVE LAND UNIVERSITY OP PUNJAB (NEW CAMPUS) LEGEND MAJOR GREEN SPACES OF THE C|TY PROPOSED WATER BODIES EXIST ING WATER BODIES PROPOSED VEGETATION Figure 15: Green Spaces Around Water Bodies -73- Green biomass is considered the best mechanism for recycling nutrients. The byproducts are absorbed into the soil naturally or added to the soil as chemical fertilizers for treatment purposes and absorbed by plants and converted into useable forms of energy for other organisms. Additionally plants act as a carbon sink and capture carbon dioxide from the environment and fix it into carbohydrates and help in the reduction of greenhouse gases. The dead roots and leaves of the trees, shrubs and grasses that are later decomposed by micro - organisms enrich the soil and enhance its water holding capacity. Water evaporates in a pure form. During rainfall it captures nutrients, dust particles and other pollutants from the air, land, pervious and impervious surfaces and distributes or retains these suspended particles depending upon its flow pattern, direction and speed of flow and the patterns of the surfaces over which it flows. When nutrients dissolved in water enter the soil, most of the nutrients make bonds with soil particles and are absorbed by plant roots. Aquatic plants have the ability to absorb nutrients from standing water up to certain depths depending upon their species. The plants on land as well as in water help in capturing nutrients and in bioremediation of water at very low cost. One of the major problems in cities like Lahore is erosion from rainfall because of the lack of vegetation and properly designed landscapes to reduce its impact. The interception of rainfall by leaves and spongy biomass under vegetation and the plant roots that bind the soil particles within its network, all help in reducing storm water flow and its erosion impact. Furthermore, vegetation plays a role in keeping the upper layer of soil, rich in organic matter, and protecting it from erosion, and consequently helps in reducing chances of deposition of eroded material in the sewage system and in other landscape -74- spaces. This helps in saving resources that otherwise would have to be spent for removal of deposition from sewage systems and on cleaning roads, and other public areas. Natural water drainage patterns, with native vegetation designed to take into account local environmental conditions and topography is considered to be the best way to promote sustainable environmental conditions in the city. Different species of plants establish themselves according to their requirements regarding climate, water availability, sunlight, duration of day light, pH value, salinity levels of the soil, nutrient requirements, soil type and its topography, and their association with other plant species. Various plant communities in a particular environment then develop into complex sustainable ecological systems that promote diversity, wildlife habitat and biodiversity. This type of ecosystem, working in harmony with nature, plays a vital role for plant species that complement each other for their growth and promote bioremediation, recharge of underground water, provision of food and shelter for wildlife and optimize use of available resources. The rainwater falling on roads, parking lots and lawns absorbs pollutants, salts, fertilizers components like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium, gasoline components dripped onto impervious surfaces from automobiles, impurities suspended in the air and from fertilizer - rich landscapes. This polluted water, if unchecked, has a potential to damage the ecosystem of lakes and rivers where its flow ends up, changing water composition and possibly being injurious to fish culture. Ponds, marshes, retention and detention areas, if designed properly, can play a key role in normalizing the temperature of rainwater falling on land surfaces in hot summers as well as extracting the impurities from storm water prior to its entrance into -75- the lakes and rivers. Nutrient - rich water without such bioremediation can promote algal growth that will be harmful and block sunlight and deplete oxygen required for aquatic plants and fish in the water bodies. Furthermore, stormwater harvested in water ponds, retention and detention areas reduce dependence on dwindling groundwater reserves. Capturing and using storm water runoff also reduces site discharge and erosion, and potential transport of storm water pollutants. The proposed planting would also help to create continuous green spaces that could be used for active and passive recreation, for playgrounds, vegetable gardens, or orchards. Furthermore, as most of the existing major city parks and green spaces as well as the proposed ones are located on the existing drainage channels of the city, there is potential to create new, multipurpose walkways, trails and bike routes that can act as alternative transportation routes and reduce the pressure of traffic on the roads in the city. This active transportation system is based on any form of human - powered movement. This will be any trip made for the purposes of getting oneself, or others, to a particular destination - to work, to school, to the store or to visit friends. As long as it is "active" - walking, cycling, wheeling, in - line skating, skateboarding etc. - it could use this network. This would provide a significant opportunity for the city to improve the health of its residents, increase quality of life, and achieve other environmental and socio economic benefits. There are many community benefits associated with this type of transportation. It is efficient, competitive, accessible, and it respects the natural environment. The economic implications for both the city and the residents include reduced cost of road repairs, -76- related infrastructure, maintenance and parking. Social implications relate to the JEN ANGHIR TOMB KAMRAN Kl BARADARI LEGEND MAJOR GREEN SPACES OF THE CITY PROPOSED WATER BODIES EXISTING WATER BODIES PROPOSED VEGETATION PROPOSED TRAILS CITY ROADS Figure 16: Proposed Walkways and Trails Connections -77 reduction in health cost from smog, inactivity/obesity and stress, while other social benefits include reduced congestion, fewer traffic accidents, and an overall improvement in the quality of life for the individual and the community. The environmental impacts of active transportation include reduction in air, water and noise pollution, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and more efficient land use due to newer infrastructure requirements. The combination of these green spaces connected by a trail system would act as a "leisure escape - the desire to move in leisure through open spaces that will enables city dwellers to escape into the countryside and country dwellers to escape into the city". (Andre Viljoen, 2005, p. 251) The network of trails and walkways would connect parcels of open land, parks, playing fields, green spaces, public gardens, large city parks, marshes, utility areas, schools, stores and other public spaces and other leisure activity areas. Additionally the network would be accessible for people of different backgrounds age groups, social levels and genders and would provide an opportunity for the population groups that are often excluded from conventional leisure activities. Sustainable landscape design elements The following landscape design features that can be helpful for designing sustainable landscape and aquifer recharge areas for a city such as Lahore were identified from the Faculty of Architecture, University of Manitoba website: • Plant Covers - Wall and Roofs • Enhancement - Tree Planting, Forestry • Use of hardy native plant species -78- • Natural water courses • Wetland habitats • Preservation of agricultural soils • Biological control • Storm water retention/detention • Permeable surfacing • Access to local parks/recreation/open areas • Paths for recreation-walk, cycle • Community gardens for food production http://www.arch.umanitoba.ca/sustainable/design/landuse.htm Zones for Sustainable Landscape Design Keeping in mind the design principles mentioned above five zones of the city of Lahore are identified where different approaches will be proposed to make these zones more sustainable and help in conservation of water and in reduction of storm water runoff. The detail of these selected zones is discussed in upcoming document. The rationale in selection of these zones lies in exploring the possibilities to deal with stormwater runoff and its impacts by proposing appropriate strategies in compact high density areas, green spaces (specifically) connected with open sewage/stormwater drains, bioremediation of stormwater before entering into the river and the other associated multiple activities. Figure 17: Zones for Sustainable Landscape Design -80- Zone A Zone A represents the old city and neighborhoods characterized by compact building, few open spaces, narrow streets and densely populated areas with little vegetation. To compensate for the deficiency of open space, vegetation grown on the walls and roofs can be helpful in harvesting rainwater, decreasing stormwater runoff, to promote Figure 18: Zone A biodiversity, to create varied habitats and in the improvement of the appearance of the area. Given that in summer the temperature rises above 45° Celsius in the city and the demand for electricity to cool down the brick houses rises twofold, the vegetation cover would act as an extra insulating layer and help reducing the heat gain by shading surfaces and reducing the wind speed at the building faces thus reducing the energy loss. Other -81- environmental benefits include reduced runoff, filtering of airborne pollutants in the city, production of oxygen, reduced health bills, and improved appearance of the city. As mentioned earlier, the city receives major rainfall during the monsoon season from June to August and experiences major stormwater runoff and deposition of silt in sewerage system during these months. Storing rooftop runoff in a water tank of appropriate volume based on roof area, rainfall, downspout location, available spaces, water uses and site specific conditions, for later use, can be a better water harvesting technique. These water tanks, in addition to storing water, can serve multiple functions such as shading, providing a visual screen, and moderating hot and cold temperature extremes. Located above ground, water can be distributed by gravity flow or by a booster pump via hoses, irrigation systems, channels or perforated pipes. Most of the buildings in the city have roofs made of concrete and there is a potential to design them to accommodate roof gardens that will help cooling the building and slow down the stormwater flow to reduce its erosive nature. Different type of plants, ornamental, evergreen, flowering, and even vegetables can be grown in these gardens. These plants can also be grown in beds, pots and boxes and irrigated with water harvested in water tanks. For selection of plants (see Appendix B) Another option to harvest rain water is the use of school grounds and other open spaces by constructing detention and retention ponds that will help in recharge of water and in reducing stormwater runoff. Planting native plants around these landscapes can provide different habitat/shelter for wildlife and cooler social spaces for older people and for children in the city. -82- As already mentioned, the groundwater is the only source of water available for the city and is used for irrigation, household use and industrial purposes and the groundwater level is being lowered with the passage of time. The use of harvested water for landscape irrigation and for other purposes such as construction and cleaning facilities will lower the pressure on groundwater. Homemakers can play a crucial role in these water harvesting techniques and can grow fresh vegetables, free of pesticides, in kitchen gardens at their home. This will help in improving human health and reducing demand for underground water resources. ZoneB Zone B covers the parts of the city with large open spaces, public parks, boulevards, public buildings and schools that occupy vast open areas. In these areas there is greater potential to intercept stormwater runoff from surfaces such as roofs, parking areas and to put it to beneficial use. After thorough analysis of the topography of the area by designing water intercepting structures such as micro basins, swales, trenches, gabions, retention and detention ponds and wetlands along the roads, boulevards, open spaces and public parks, the stormwater could be collected, slowed down and retained. As shown in the plan, this area includes the biggest public parks of the city - Lawrence Garden and Racecourse Park, Government Housing colony - residences of Secretaries, Ministers, the Governor's residence, Provincial Assembly, Aitcheson College, Zoo and Mall Road - spine of the city of Lahore. Most of these sites have open areas of over 40 hectares each -83- Fatima Memorial ^ Gymkhana Hospital Vvtenial club LEGEND ?j Marsti f\ CYCLE STAND TO GET Bl CYCLE FREE OF RENT N.T.S Q KIOSK - BINNING FACILITY, 60AT RENTAL POINT AND PICNIC POINiT ON LAKE Q R R| DGE TO CONNECT LAWRENCE GARDEN AN D RACE COURSE PARK ALLOWING WATER CHANNEL PASSING UNDERNEATH f GREEN HOUSE g NURSERY TO REAR NURSERY PIANTSJSEEQLINGS USING INTERCEPTED STORVIWATER Figure 19: Zone B -84- and have the potential for harvesting stormwater and recharging the underground aquifers of the city The large open spaces that are connected to open drainage and irrigation channels (See Figure 13) available on these sites can be used for Entrance to Government Officer's constructing wetlands habitats. The rationale Residences behind these proposed water bodies in Racecourse Park and Lawrence Garden (see Figure 19) is derived from their link to drainage and irrigation channels, gentle southwest slope, building connection between both parks, and creating other multipurpose spaces/activities for general public. The exact size of these water bodies would require further studies. These wetlands will provide an opportunity for a wide variety of aquatic and land plants to establish and will help in promoting biodiversity and biological integrity of the landscape. A wide variety of native plants grown in these wetlands could provide habitat and food for birds and aquatic organisms. This would also provide an attractive setting for visiting families. For appropriate aquatic plants and vegetation (see Appendix B). The wetlands, if they can intercept the stormwater runoff, will filter out pollutants, support biomass and promote habitat development. As Lawrence Garden, Racecourse Park and Governor's House, historically has been a site for bricks kiln, with quarries and water pools that were later converted into artificial hillocks and lawns by Britain, the construction of wetlands will revive the history of the site and would be appreciated by the community. -85- The open space and public parks could play an even more significant role for the city environment if provided with trails and walkways connected to each other and surrounding . -^jf'M^^^TS&tfc. l^i~'^-<^\ neighborhoods. They would also provide aesthetic - ^m-' " ^ experiences and cultivate awareness of the natural environment. Racecourse Park At present most of the parks and public sites in the city are enclosed and walled/fenced and are not inviting. As can be seen from Figure 19, both major parks - Lawrence Garden and Racecourse Park are separated by Lawrence Road. The design proposes that existing water channels and proposed wetlands would be linked by providing multiple purpose pathways that will link the parks, transport nodes, schools, public libraries, civil service buildings and utility areas and act as alternate routes of transportation for the citizens. To promote pedestrian and bike transportation, it is proposed to initiate a scheme whereby free cycles painted in a particular colour will be available near main bus routes which people can use for commuting from one spot to another. The proposed wetlands in public parks, Governor's House and Atchison College Lahore, would help in creating awareness among citizens of the importance of ecology, ecosystems and sustainability. As most of the graduates form Atchison College become politicians and policy makers, their awareness about the importance of sustainable landscape and natural ecosystems could play a crucial role in promoting sustainable policies in the city and throughout country. -86- Other factors proposed in this plan to make the landscape more sustainable include greenhouses to prolong the growing season and using sunlight for the propagation of native plants for distribution to citizens using the intercepted stormwater and organizing events to create awareness among citizens regarding sustainable landscapes. ZoneC This zone emphasizes that wherever possible the natural water courses and drainage pattern should be protected to perform their roles of controlling flooding and supporting the growth of the existing plant communities. It is mentioned in the University of Manitoba Faculty of Architecture website on sustainable design, that "where water is permitted to follow its natural course, vegetation moderates flow and erosion is minimized. Watercourses also offer additional amenities in the form of recreational nature areas and wildlife habitat". http://www.arch.umanitoba.ca/sustainable/design/landuse.htm Whereas most of the water courses within the city are narrowed down in size due to development activity, this site, being on the other side of the Bund Road, is still flowing in its natural pattern and harboring a wide variety of flora and fauna and serving as a habitat for diverse wildlife. The drain (Ganda Nullah) flowing through this site in addition to its own catchments areas, receives stormwater/sewage form Chota Ravi and Shad Bagh drains, disposed off by Shad Bagh disposal station (see Figure 12). -87- Figure 20: Zone C This drainage network serves the Gujarpura, Shad Bagh, DataNagar and Fruit Market communities. As the city is expanding rapidly, it is anticipated that this parcel of land will start feeling the pressures of development activity. It is therefore suggested that this area be declared as a naturalized area where native species are protected and encouraged to establish themselves into native ecosystems and habitat. These areas are rich sources of education for understanding natural ecological processes of succession, as habitat for wildlife, as a buffer zone in case of flooding, as sites for passive recreation, and for purification and recharge of water. -88- ZoneD Zone D is proposed as an area in which sewerage and storm water is directly pumped into the River Ravi polluting its water by Multan Road disposal station and Babu Sabu drainage station located along the Bund Road. These disposal stations dispose off most of the city sewerage/stormwater drained through Central Drain, Mian Mir drain, Babu Sabu drain and Gulberg drain (for detail see Figure 12). It is proposed that a marsh/wetland surrounded by vegetation be constructed to treat this pumped sewage/stormwater prior its entrance into the river. For the location and communities around this wetland (see figure 21). The size of this proposed wetland is 300 hectare and will be the first constructed wetland of this size. More detailed studies will be required to determine its exact size, depth and water holding capacity. The aquatic plants in this marsh/wetland would filter the polluted water whereas the forest trees around it would utilize the polluted water through capillary action and convert it into biomass/timber. The forest belt around the marsh would help in evaporating a considerable volume of water during photosynthesis and help in stabilizing the soil through root networks as well as pumping water into the atmosphere, thereby moderating the climate. The design would help in recharge of water, natural bioremediation and saving the ecosystem of the River Ravi. For selection of aquatic plants and trees for timber production (see Appendix B). Other environmental benefits of the proposed plan include improved landscape appearance, reduction of airborne pollutants and cooling the air. The proposed forest around the marsh/wetland would be for a specific purpose. During the British era the first artificial forest in Changa Manga was planted in the 19th century to fulfill the requirement of coal/timber for the Indian railway network. This -89- LEGEND LEGEND INTERNATIONAL HOTEL A NATIVE PLANT NURSERY 1 MARINA DECK BOARD 2 B WOODEN DECK KIOSK 3 c WATER MANAGEMENT D SAND BEACH 4 INSTITUTE WOODEN ARTIFACTS SHOP E CYCLE STAND 5 6 CYCLE REPAIR SHOP COMPOST CENTRE FOR MARSH HARVESTING F TRAIL G MARSH RESEARCH CENTRE 7 8 ROAD TO HOTEL Figure 21: Zone D -90- forest would also be for timber production and visual and recreational purposes. Changa Manga covers an area of 5000 hectares and is one of the largest of its kind in Pakistan. The British constructed an irrigation system to irrigate this artificial forest and the main species grown for this purpose was Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo). Currently, in addition to providing timber, its present use includes recreation, camping and wildlife watching, (http:// pakistaniat.com/2007/10/changa-manga-forest-railway/) In Pakistan the "total area for forest accounts for 3.1%, of which 1748000 hectares are commercial productive forests and 3783000 hectares are privately owned forests. Most of these forests are located in North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab". (Bilal Farooqi, 2007) Since forest resources are limited, Pakistan has to import wood and wood products to meet the rising demand. According to figures provided by the Federal Bureau of Statistics, wood and cork worth $ 25.92 million was imported in the July - February 2006 - 2007 period as against $ 23.37 million in July - February 2005 - 2006, representing an increase of 10.91 %. (Federal Bureau of Statistics website: http://www.statpak.gov.pk/deept) As mentioned, Zone D would be a naturalized area provided with trails, picnic spots and activities related to the forestry and recreation. A research institution is recommended which would be responsible for advanced research on marshes, and creating awareness about natural processes to citizens. -91- ZoneE This zone will provide opportunities for active and passive recreation, tourism, economic activities, urban food production and other multiple activities for citizens of Lahore and tourists. This would be a sustainable landscape that would generate resources to sustain itself. The site is already being used for recreation and Kamran Ki Baradari boaters transport visitors to and from Kamran Ki Baradari (the historical site on an island in the River Ravi). Other historical sites of Lahore such as Lahore Fort, Badshahi Mosque (King's Mosque), the Pakistan National Monument and the Tomb of Jahangir are also in the vicinity of this area. The spot in middle of the River Ravi is proposed for passive recreation such as viewing, sitting/relaxing, reading, talking, sunbathing, board or card games, people - watching, napping, picnicking, nature study or star - gazing. On the south west bank of the river, active recreation activities that include jogging, walking, bicycling, playground activities, fitness training, skateboarding, roller skating, field sports, court port, lawn sports, golf and kite flying are proposed. Along the marsh, it is proposed to construct vegetable gardens and greenhouses for the production of food, and rearing plant nurseries. -92- LEGEND LEGEND LEGEND f\ BOAT RENTAL POINT I—J FOOD MARKET / / RESIDENTIAL / / AREA B SAND BEACH 1 CYCLE STAND PICNIC AREA c REPAIR SHOP D SKATE BOARD / ROLLER BLADE AREA 2 SPORTS SHOP EZZ SPORTS FIELD / FIELD COURTS 3 COMMERCIAL GREEN HOUSES C FRUIT GARDEN 4 KAMRAN K| BARADARl ^ VEGETABLE GROWING AREA 5 Figure 22: Zone E -93- The proposed marsh will cover an area of 40 hectare and will receive stormwater/sewerage from the communities form the west side of the Bund Road that include Timber Market, Shafiqabad and the commnities from the east side of the Bund Road including but not limited to Walled City, Bilal Ganj, Amin Park, Karim Park, Badami Bagh, Iqbal Park and Qila Lachman Singh. Shafiqabad Community The sewrage/stormwater from these communities is drained through Chota Ravi drain and disposed of in River Ravi by Chota Ravi drainage station (see figure 12). Walkways/trails are proposed to connect these various activities. These activities as a whole "will read as parks or urban forests, green lungs or wilderness, axes of movement and journey, or places of reflection, cultural gathering and social play and act as containers for an assembly of various activities". (Andre Viljoen, 2005, p. 11) -94- CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this research was to analyse the present landscape of Lahore in order to propose strategies based on ecological principles that would make it more sustainable. The results of the analysis show that the landscape of Lahore reflects the aspirations of three different regimes - the Mughal Empire (1524 - 1752), the period of British Rule (1849 -1947) and Post Independence since 1947. This analysis revealed that the basic elements of the landscape of Lahore include: • Extreme use of exotic plants • Excessive use of water, fertilizers and pesticides • Labour intensive maintenance practices • Fragmentation and disconnection of open spaces • Lack of harvesting stormwater • Limited use of native plants and lack of diversity • Limited habitat for wildlife • Little application of bioremediation and recharge of aquifers The study of the problems faced by the city revealed that the present landscape of Lahore lacks potential to help mitigate stormwater problems - especially during the monsoon season when the city is inundated and suffers from disruption of life and economic activities, and sometimes loss of life. The city also suffers from air pollution, water pollution, and failure to recharge of aquifers. -95- The study also revealed that underground water is the only source of water for the city and the underground water level is being lowered by an average of 620 millimetres every year. This is an alarming situation. The present landscape is engineered to drain out, rather than to try and reduce these problems. This approach has put even more pressure on the aquifers as has the use of well water irrigate the city's largely exotic evergreen vegetation. Furthermore, the topography of the present landscape and its extensive impervious surfaces lead to storm water runoff which causes erosion and deposits sediment and debris into the sewerage and drainage channels thereby limiting their drainage capacity. As a result, the city has to spend significant sums of money to clean the drainage system. Additionally, polluted water is directly pumped out into the River Ravi which impacts the ecosystem of the river. The study suggests that the landscape of Lahore can contribute to the mitigation of these problems by adopting the following ecological design practices and provisions; • Plant Covers - Wall and Roofs • Enhancement - Tree Planting, Forestry • Use of hardy native plant species • Natural water courses • Wetland habitats • Preservation of agricultural soils • Biological control • Storm water retention/detention -96- • Permeable surfacing • Access to local parks/recreation/open areas • Paths for recreation - walk, cycle • Urban food production The study identified five zones (see Figure. 17, p. 87) within which these approaches/strategies could be adopted. The study proposes that in Zone A - the old city and neighborhoods characterized by compact building, lack of open spaces, narrow streets and densely populated areas - vegetation growth on the walls and roofs can be helpful in the following ways; • harvesting rainwater and decreasing storm water runoff • promoting biodiversity and creating varied habitats • reducing the heat gain by shading the surfaces and reducing the energy loss • reducing runoff, filtering of airborne pollutants and the production of oxygen • in reducing health bills, increasing humidity level and improving the appearance of the city • to promote roof gardening, kitchen gardening and propagation of ornamental trees Other proposed options in these areas include: • installation of water tanks to harvest roof rain water for later use for irrigation • use of the common spaces and school grounds for retention and detention ponds to create habitat for wildlife, provide cool micro environment and social gathering spaces Zone B comprises vast open areas, boulevards and parks and offers greater potential to intercept stormwater. The strategies proposed here include: -97- a) Designing water intercepting structures such as retention and detention ponds and wetlands in open spaces and public parks to: • collect slow down and retain stormwater to help in reducing dependence on dwindling groundwater reserves, site discharge, erosion and potential transport of storm water pollutants • provide an opportunity for a wide variety of aquatic and land plants • to help in promoting biodiversity and biological integrity of the landscape • provide habitat and food for migrating birds • provide shelter, nesting, and breeding spots for birds and aquatic organisms • reduce pollutants from stormwater b) Provision of trails and walkways in open spaces and public parks that could play a sustainable role for the city environment, in addition to providing attractive scenery, multiple experiences and awareness for the natural environment c) Use of organic/inorganic mulches to help reduce the use of pesticides, providing habitats for decomposers and improving the soil by adding decomposed material into it Located on the north of Bund Road, Zone C has limited development activity and a drain, Ganda Nullah forms part of its natural pattern. As the city is expanding rapidly it is expected that this area will start to be in demand for development in the near future. The strategy proposed for this Zone is to protect natural water courses and drainage patterns: • to control flooding and to support the growth of the existing ecologies • allowing water to follow its natural path to create a sustainable environment, to moderate flow of stormwater and to minimize erosion -98- • provision of amenities including recreational natural areas and passive recreation areas • providing rich sources of education about natural ecological and succession processes • to act as a buffer zone in case of flooding, • to provide a rich source of diversity including breeding places for various organisms, food for migratory birds and habitat for wildlife • to establish a sustainable ecosystem, help in purification and recharge of water As Zone D is an area where drainage pumping stations dispose sewerage and stormwater directly into River Ravi, this pollutes its water, the strategy proposes the construction of marsh/wetland surrounded by forest to: • treat the sewerage and storm water that is directly pumped into the river • help in recharge of water, natural bioremediation and in saving the ecosystem of the River Ravi • enhance scenic value of the landscape, aid in the reduction of airborne pollutants, cool the air and help in creating beneficial microclimates • promote recreation and other activities related to forestry • produce timber • create an awareness among citizens regarding natural ecosystems Zone E includes an island standing in the River Ravi close to a number of historical buildings such as Lahore Fort, Jahangir's Tomb, the Badshahi Mosque and National Monument of Pakistan, so the proposed strategies here include; • provide active and passive recreation -99- • promote tourism and economic activities related to tourism • local food production and development of plant nurseries using waste water • promote Active Transportation • promote outdoor activities and cultural gatherings This is only a broad strategy that is proposed to mitigate the stormwater, its bilateral impacts, water quality and quantity issues. Further studies will be required regarding the grading, volume of stormwater, pollution levels, exact size of the proposed wetlands and other associated activities through participatory planning involving key local stakeholders. In this regards, to improve the services related to planning and management of the proposed sustainable landscape, the government has to set up a guidance framework for public participation through the provision of appropriate legislation. To implement this strategy, creating awareness among citizens regarding the water issues should be a priority. Different stakeholders, public agencies, and media such as radio, television, newspapers, magazines, seminars, and educational institutions could also play an important role in educating citizens about the severity of water related issues and its possible solutions. This way the proposed solutions come from one's inner being. Other promotional measures which may be helpful in educating the citizens may include sign boards on roads and public spaces, broachers, pamphlets, flyers displayed at community centres and public spaces, charity funds and fundraising games. In addition to creating awareness among the citizens, other steps that would be helpful for implementing the action plan include; • Establishment of community based organizations of stakeholders from various groups -100- • Legislations and local government licenses, incentive packages and appropriate framework of rules for implementation of action plan. • Cooperation among local non - governmental organizations, local governments, health offices and environment departments would also play an important role in sustainable management of the proposed strategies. The implementation of this plan will be a participatory where the major players will be Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA), Parks and Horticultural Authority (PHA) Lahore. It is proposed that both agencies will implement the part of the plan that falls in their jurisdictions through mutual cooperation. The proposed course of actions to implement the plan may proceed as follows; 1. As most of the city's impervious surfaces include areas occupied by residences, they are the major contributors of stormwater. The proposed strategy for high density areas that include vegetation on the walls/roofs and rain harvesting by storage tanks will take precedence. WASA will be responsible in implementing this strategy. The main tools to facilitate this may include conditional water connection permits, subsidy/incentives on water storage tanks, plant material and discounts on water utility bills. 2. Parks and Horticultural Authority (PHA) and Agricultural Department will implement the part of the plan in open spaces and public parks. This can be achieved through revised development plans and master plans where the emphasis will be on implementing the proposed strategy. Special allowances in the budget can be allocated for this purpose. Other fund raising resources may include nominal public park entry and parking tickets, fund raising form corporate and -101- volunteer organizations and use of public spaces for marketing activities such as advertisement boards, kiosks, cafes and other recreational promotion activities. 3. The proposed wetlands/marshes along the River Ravi will require heavy investment. WAS A will make arrangement for acquisition of land and resources required for planning, designing and management of these facilities in collaboration with PHA. The funds could be allocated from provincial and local development budgets. Other possible fund raising resources may include levying development taxes in utility bills and exploring possibilities from foreign donor agencies. -102- Appendix A: Desilting Sewers Mechanism The desilting operation of sewers proceeds from manhole to manhole. The process starts from the sewer line located farthest down stream. The lower end of the sewer line is blocked with the help of sand bags. The blocking of the sewer with sand bags requires entry of a sewer man into the manhole. Prior to the entry of the sewer inspector into the manhole, manhole covers from both ends of the sewer line to be cleaned are removed. The sewer line is then flushed with air by compressors. The flushing air removes the harmful gases from the sewer line and makes it safe for human entry. However in order to confirm that the sewer line and manhole are free form all harmful gases, a multigas detector is lowered into the manhole. The multigas detector measures the concentration of harmful gases i.e. Dihydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Carbon dioxide (C02), Carbon Monoxide (CO) as well as the concentration of oxygen in the manhole and sewer line. The instrument transmits the readings outside the manhole through the cable, which can be seen on a screen held by the supervisor of operations. After the supervisor of the desilting operation has made sure that the manhole is safe for human entry, workers wearing gloves, breathing apparatus, helmet with light and water proof shoes with oxygen cylinders and rope tied to their belts enter the manhole. The other end of the rope is attached to a winch. This arrangement is made to lift the worker in case of occurrence of an untoward incident. The worker fixes sand bags on the lower end of the sewer line and make sure it has become leak-proof and comes out of the manhole. -103- The worker then enters the upstream manhole to fix the pipe of the jetting machine to the sewer line and comes out. The supervisor of the desilting operation then orders to start the jetting machine. The jet of water erodes the solidified silt with its thrust. The water requirement of the jetting machine is fulfilled by the water tanker, which brings water from the nearest tube well. Jetting of the solidified silt and its removal proceeds simultaneously. Sludge suckers are used to withdraw silt from the sewer line and manholes. In the sludge suckers silt being heavier than water readily settles at the bottom and supernatant water is collected at the top. After the sludge sucker is filled, the supernatant water, which is free from silt, is drained in the nearby drainage channel and the sludge truck is dispatched to the landfill site for silt disposal". (Project for the Retrieval of Sewage and Drainage System in Lahore City, 2004, p. 3 - 8) -104- Appendix B: Recommended plant species for Lahore A wide variety of species of climbers, shrubs and trees are grown in the city of Lahore that is evident from the Flora of Jinnah Garden (Lawrence Garden) published by Government of Punjab Agriculture Department according to which 133 trees, 109 shrubs and 29 species of climbers are reported to be grown, among them most of which are exotic. To promote water management, re - vegetation and bioremediation strategy, a list of native and most naturalized exotics species of climbers, shrubs, trees and aquatic plants along with their origin and propagation techniques is recommended below for Lahore. Climbers Botanical Name Local Name Type Propagation Gulabo vine Semi deciduous By seed, tubers Antigonun leptopus Height: 9-12 m Native/naturalized and cuttings Fox tail Deciduous By seed Asparagus densiflorus Height: 10 m Native Asparagus ferm Evergreen By seed and Asparagus plumosus Height: 0.7 m Native cladodes Clerodendrum Evergreen By root and Clerodendrum splendens Height: 10 m Native tip cutting Panja bail Evergreen By seed Combretum coccineum Height: 5-10 m Native -105- Ficus pumila Ivy / Creeping fig Evergreen By seed Height: 10m Native Hedera helix Chirry - panja Evergreen By cuting Height: 3 - 5 m Exotic/naturalized Ipomoea palmata Ishk pecha Semi deciduous By cutting and Height: 8-10 m Exotic/naturalized seed Jasminum officinale Chambeli Evergreen By cutting and Height: 10-15 m Native layering Pyrostegia venusta Flame vine Deciduous By aerial laye- Height: 10-15 m Exotic -ring Quisqualis indica Rangoon creeper Deciduous By cutting Height: 12-20 m Native Stephanotis floribunda Wax flower Evergreen By layering Height: 5 m Exotic and cutting Shrubs Botanical Name Local Name Type Propagation Acacia farnesiana Kabli kikar Evergreen By seed Height: 4 m Native Acalypha wilkesiana Khalifa Evergreen By cutting Height: 1 - 3 m Exotic Bambusa nana Common bamboo Evergreen By suckers Height: 1.5 m Naturalized -106- Caesalpinia pulcherima Chota gold mohr Deciduous By layering Height: 2 - 4 m Exotic/naturalized and cutting Calliandra surinamensis Surinam Deciduous By seed Height: 2 - 3 m Native Cestrum nocturnum Raat ki rani Evergreen By cutting Height: 1.5-3 m Native Duranta repens pigeon berry Semi deciduous By cutting and Height: 1 - 4 m Exotic/naturalized aerial layering Euphorbia cotinifolia Lai jhari Deciduous By cutting Height: 1 - 5 m Native Euphorbia heterophylla Range -e- Rafique Evergreen By cutting Height: l-1.5m Native Euphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia Deciduous By cutting Height: 1 - 5 m Native Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Cotton rose Deciduous By grafting Height: 2 - 3 m Native and cutting Jatropha integerrima Jatropha Deciduous By seed and Height: 2 - 3 m Native cutting Lagerstroemia lancasteri Gul - e - fanoos Deciduous By cutting Height: 1 - 3 m Native Lawsonia inermis Heena Evergreen By cutting and Height: 2 - 3 m Native seed 107 Manihot esculenta Tapiexa Deciduous By cutting Height: 1.5-3m Exotic/naturalized Oncoba spinosa Oncoba Deciduous By aerial Height: 2 - 4 m Exotic/naturalized layering Punica granatum Anar Deciduous By seed and Height: 3 - 4 m Native layering Trees Botanical Name Local Name Type Propagation Albizzia procera White siris Deciduous By seed Height: 15-20 m Native Melia azedarach Bakain Moderate deciduous By seed Height: 9-12 m Native Acacia Arabica Kikar Deciduous By seed Height: 15-20 m Native Dalbergia sissoo Shisham Deciduous By seed and Height: 20 - 25 m Native suckers Eugenia jambolana Jaman Evergreen By seed Height: 15-20 m Native Morus alba Mulberry Deciduous By seed Height: 12-15 m Native Mangifera indica Mango Evergreen By seed Height: 12-15 m Native -108- Populus euramericana Poplar Deciduous By cutting Height: 20 - 25 m Exotic Salix tetrasperma Hybrid willow Deciduous By seed Height: 8-10 m Native Cassia fistula Amaltas Deciduous By seed Height: 12 - 15 m Native Azadirachta indica Neem Deciduous By seed Height: 10 - 12 m Native Aquatic Plants Botanical Name Local Name Origin Carina glauca Longwood canna Exotic/naturalized Colocasia esculenta Taro green Native Cyprus alternifolius Umbrella palm Exotic/naturalized Eleocharis Spike rush Exotic/naturalized Equisteum hyemale Horsetail Native Phragmites australis Giant reed grass Native Typha x glauca Hybrid cattail Exotic/naturalized The plants mentioned in the above list can be used individually or in association depending upon the scenario to achieve the objectives of promoting re - vegetation, bioremediation and water management strategy. In dense compact areas of the city, where the climbers are proposed for water conservation, energy saving, control of stormwater/erosion and the use of rain harvested water from the roofs for their irrigation, -109- deciduous species Antigonum leptopus, Asparagus densiflorus, Pyrostegia venusta and Quisqualis indica on the south face and evergreens such •{• i: *4L£Mffimm as Beaumonita grandiflora, Combretum coccineum, ^fei.* r« Hedera helix and Stephanotis floribunda on the north ^SBBflC; face ofthe building walls/under shades are proposed. ~' "ym^am* Climbers on the wall Whereas during winter, the deciduous species on the south face will help in heat gain and the evergreen species on the north face will act as an insulation layer to help reduce heat loss, during summer the climbers will shade the walls and help in reduction of heat gain. The selection ofthe climbers will also depend upon the height, surfaces and locations of the wall. For walls with rough surfaces, Ficus pumila, with its aerial roots, that click very firmly to the wall is the best option. At the entrance, on the fences, and boundary walls, Jasminum officinale (with fragrant flowers) and Ipomoea climbers providing shade palmata are preferred. Aspargus plumosus can be grown in boxes and pots under shady places. Once established these climbers will improve the aesthetics ofthe city, attract wildlife and improve the environment. Depending upon the surfaces ofthe walls, the climbers will need support for their growth which can be provided by trellises or net of strings fastened along the wall. The best planting seasons are spring and monsoon - during which there is a maximum humidity in the air. Various propagation techniques for climbers are mentioned above. Once established, there will be little need for irrigation that can be supplemented from rain harvested water. Somehow, climbers may need trimming once overgrown. -110- Wide selection of shrub choices depending upon their origin, intended use, location and soil moisture conditions mk i *'"_ ,'. "',yJifci£% ?"£ can be made. In public parks, picnic areas and along the mT - . "&?. f. sU-- -^F^fta ~' boulevard where the intention is to enhance aesthetics, the "- •—•-"••^^« Trees and shrub communities association of deciduous and evergreen shrubs with foliage beauty such as Acalypha wilkesiana, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Euphorbia cotinifolia, Euphorbia heterophylla, Euphorbia pulcherrima and Manihot esculenta may be planted in groves. Mulching in the shrub beds is recommended to help preserve moisture, suppression of weeds and stabilizing the soil temperature fluctuations. Along walkways, boulevards, public spaces, picnic areas, entrances and cross walks the fragrant shrubs like Cestrum nocturnum and Lawsonia inermis may be preferred. Bambusa nana and Duranta repens can be planted for hedge purposes. The Hibiscus rosa — sinensis, Jatropha integrima and lagerstroemia lancasteri are best suited for planting along boulevards and walkways in rows or in groves. While the Punica granatum is preferred for providing food for the public, the Acacia farnesiana and Calliandra surinamensis are preferred in proposed forest to increase the fertility of the soil. Furthermore the evergreen shrubs are preferred near wetlands - where there is more moisture available and the deciduous away from water bodies - where there is less moisture available. The combination of evergreen and deciduous shrub species along with trees and native grasses will be helpful in moisture conservation and promotion of wild life habitat. During fall where the falling of leaves from deciduous trees/shrubs will provide mulch and help in moisture conservation, the evergreen trees/shrubs will provide food and shelter for the wildlife. Spring and monsoon are the preferred seasons for plantation. For the first year, the newly planted shrubs/trees -111- will need care to help them establish. Once naturalized, an ecosystem will be established and there will be no need for the supplementary irrigation. As mentioned earlier, most of the tree species grown in the city are exotic and a major cause of pressure on the underground water !*£ " £ i^WWf resources and fragmented green spaces in the city, the §*V": ' • -• •': ' ^?': ^ recommended species of trees above will help promote I " ": vegetation and moisture conservation in the city. Most of Riparian vegetation them being native, drought resistant and well acclimatized when planted in rows/association of other plant species in streets, boulevards, walkways, water channels, along wetlands, public spaces and forests, will establish •<": '-'•'. >-•. easily. Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizzia ,-. '-.."%& ;'',\ ' • •'•••.. • -r.;X .. • .. ' procera and Cassia fistula are preferred for streets, •' _.•» .,-; • T'4 L, :. 'tyii-: -•-•" i walkway and boulevards. In boulevards where swales and •• ** ^Ai \ t'*' V1'** * -• *.*• * * i -i. •* trenches are proposed to collect the rain water and alone the Established native plants ° Communities wetlands, the saline tolerant trees such as Eugenia jambolana, Acacia Arabica, Populus euramericana and trees suitable for bank stabilization such as Dalbergia sissoo and Moms alba are preferred. The planting of Dalbergia sissoo, Eugenia jambolana, Morus alba and magnifra indica is preferred in picnic areas, along walkways to attract the public and provide food and shade for the visitors. The naturalized . •.'•• -< • " "T-V:-" " growth of the trees is recommended, but in maintained * ' .: ":' areas, tree guards are recommended to help avoid damage '"•' to the trees. For developing forests, the use of Azadirachta Native/drought resistant trees indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Melia azedarach, Acacia Arabica and Albizzia procera are the -112- most suitable species. Their association with drought resistant and shade tolerant shrub species such as Acacia farnesiana, Calliandra surinamensis and native grasses will establish into a forest and will provide habitat for the wildlife, retard erosion, conserve moisture, improve environment and provide timber for commercial use. To establish these forests, one way is to cultivate the land and sow with the seeds of native grass mix, preferred trees and shrubs and let them be naturalized. Other way is to involve the school children, non governmental organizations and the general public in preparing a tree plantation scheme during spring and monsoon seasons. The trees can propagate by seeds, cuttings and suckers during these seasons. Seedlings of native trees are available from local nurseries, and Bagh e Jinnah Lahore at nominal rates. Once planted, during succession process these plants will develop into an association of plants and establish them into an ecosystem to sustain it. Care may be needed in the beginning to help them establish, once naturalized, there will be no need for further maintenance. As the soil and weather of Lahore favours a wide variety of aquatic species, the preferred ones that will be most helpful in bioremediation of water and bank stabilization are mentioned in the recommended list. Whereas the emergent species such as Phragmites australis and Typha x glauca will grow in deep water, other species such as Spike rush and Umbrella palm can grow in shallow water. Horsetail, Longwood canna and Taro green will prefer moist Aquatic plants bank. These plants can be planted by using their seed mix or by separating the tubers of grown plants. Once established they will continue growing and producing suckers which will establish an ecosystem for spawning/breeding and habitat for the aquatic species. -113- -114- BIBLIOGRAPHY Agoes Soegianto, Bambang Irawan, Hamami, 2008. Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Animals Collected from Coastal Waters of Gresik, Indonesia, Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 95 -100. Alam, Ahmed, Facing urban congestion, The International News, 2008. Retrieved March 14, 2009, from http://www.thenews.com.pk/printl.asp?id=l 19982 Andre Viljoen, Katrin Bohn, Joe Howe, 2005, CPULs continuous productive urban landscapes, Oxford Architecture in Canada, Landscape, CSLA/AAPC. Retrieved, April 17, 2009, from http://csla.ca/site/index.php?q=en/node/5 Changa Manga, Wikipedia, 2008, Mediawiki/Wikimedia. 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