Plains Indians

LET NATURE BE YOUR GUIDE

BROKEN TREATIES BROKEN HEARTS

DANCING WITH GHOSTS WHERE HAVE ALL THE BUFFALO GONE ?

IN PARTNERSHIP WITH

Plains _Indians_cover.indd 1 3/15/17 4:09 PM 2 l MORETHAN 30 Native American nations, sometimes Regions 1700s called tribes, lived on the Great Plains. This map shows where some of the larger nations lived in the 1700s. Their names sometimes reflect what they called themselves. More often, they got their names from others. Assiniboin comes from an Ojibwa word meaning “he cooks using stones.” The Dakota Sioux called the Assiniboin “reb- els.” The French called them “stone warriors.” Where the Buffalo Roamed Imagine a time before cities, railroads, highways, and automobiles. Once upon a time, the vast grasslands of America’s Great Plains rolled on for thousands of miles with nothing to disturb them but the hooves of buffalo, deer, antelope, and elk. Thousands of years ago, small bands of hunters walked onto the Great Plains. Over time, their numbers grew. Different groups developed into different nations with different languages. Yet they still walked the plains, hunting with bows and arrows and spears and living in tepees. They hon- ored the spirits who guided and protected them. They raised their children to do the same. These are the Plains Indians. In time, the Plains Indians settled into one of two ways of life. They were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups moved their camps to follow herds of buffalo. Sedentary groups settled down in villages, especially on the northeastern fringes of the plains. They learned farming from their eastern neighbors. But they made short trips to hunt buffalo too. These enormous, shag- gy grass-eaters provided the Plains Indians with everything they needed to live.

Plains _Indians_sp1.indd 2 3/15/17 4:18 PM 3 d ALTHOUGHLAN- groups that had a guage and social common ancestor. customs united People in the same

a nation, people band didn’t always What is the difference between a buffalo and bison? usually traveled belong to the same in smaller groups, clan. Some nations called bands. had many clans. Members of some Others had only nations also a few. belonged to clans,

u THE GREAT PLAINS century, grasslands u WEATHERONTHE u THERE ARE NO area was formed covered the Great Great Plains was more huge buffalo millions of years Plains. To the east harsh. Summers herds. But descen- ago, as huge were areas of long were hot and dants of the Plains glaciers – large, grasses, called prai- dry, with strong Indians still live in slow-moving sheets ries. Short grasses winds and some areas of the United of ice – passed grew on the central thunderstorms and States and Canada over the land during plains. By the early tornadoes. Winters where the buffalo the Ice Age. On 1800s, farmers had were freezing, with once roamed. These the eastern border built homesteads hailstorms and Arapaho women of the plains are and plowed the blizzards. (above) live in woodlands, rivers, grass under to Wyoming. and rolling hills. The create fields. As flat central area has a result, the vast few trees or lakes. grasslands began to Before the 19th disappear.

Plains _Indians_sp1.indd 3 3/15/17 4:18 PM 4 l AROUND 900 CE, certain Plains peo- History of the ples, influenced by their eastern wood- land neighbors, Plains Indians began to develop a more settled way of Until Europeans arrived in life. They created farming villages the Americas with horses, along streams, Plains Indians hunted buffalo everywhere from on foot. They used dogs to carry the present-day belongings. Some Plains Indians call the Dakotas to Texas. After 950 CE, corn time before Europeans the Dog Days. In and beans became the 1500s and 1600s, Spanish soldiers and crops, brought in from the East or settlers brought horses to the Southwest. the Southwest. Over the next few hundred years, some They became an horses became wild, multiplied, and spread important part of the food supply. throughout the Great Plains. By the late The village women 1600s, Plains Indians were taming these did the farming. wild horses. They used them to hunt buffalo, Men hunted buffalo a few times a year. or they traded them. By making it easier for The sedentary Plains Indians to get food, the horse created people also traded their farm products a better life for them. Some call this time the to nomadic Plains Plains peoples’ golden age. people for meat.

u THEFIRSTPEOPLE also hunted other r PLAINS INDIANS the French word arrived on the game, including a attached wooden for “work.” A Great Plains about species of small poles to a dog’s strong dog could 12,000 years ago. horse, which later harness. This pull 40 pounds Scientists today became extinct. made it possible about five to six call these early Remains of mam- for the dog to miles a day. Later, people Paleo- moth bones and carry their pos- they used horses Indians. Not much spear tips from sessions. When to carry items. A is known about about 11,000 French explorers horse pulling a them. We do know years ago have first saw this kind travois could travel that they hunted been found on of carrier, they twice as far in mammoths, rela- the southern and called it a travois a day as a dog, tives of elephants western plains. (truh-VWAH). The lugging up to (above). They name came from 200 pounds.

Plains _Indians_sp2.indd 4 3/15/17 4:19 PM 5 d DIFFERENT PLAINS (formal agree- SOONAFTERTHEY the side of a horse, nations spoke dif- ments). They made started riding hors- using the horse as ferent languages. hundreds of signs es, Plains Indians a shield. They could They developed with their hands became skilled pick up a fallen a common sign and arms. This riders and trainers. warrior from the language all could sign language was The best could ground while riding use. It allowed an early version shoot an arrow at a gallop. different nations of modern sign while clinging to to trade with each language, which other, warn of is used by people danger, and make with impaired peace treaties hearing.

r TOCOMMUNICATE d PLAINSPEOPLES pictures on buf- were called winter over long distanc- did not have writ- falo hides. Some counts. People es, some Plains ten languages. drew one or two counted their age Indians used smoke They kept records major events a by the number of signals. The timing of important year on a hide. winters that had of the smoke puffs events by drawing These records passed since they meant different were born. The things. Drums Kiowa developed a and flashes of system of picture sunlight (reflected symbols that was off shiny objects) like a written were also used to language. send messages.

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ONCE THEY HAD a stampeding Hunters and Warriors horses, the Plains buffalo could Indians began to stomp its rider Men of the Plains nations hunt on horseback. to death. Some divided their time between One well-aimed hunters used arrow could kill a spears, which hunting and warfare. Buffalo buffalo weighing took more were their main prey. But close to 2,000 strength and pounds. The chase courage. In doing they also hunted smaller was dangerous. so, they deliber- animals. Warriors fought If a horse ately increased to score the best hunting stumbled the danger. grounds and campsites for and fell, their band. They also fought to get horses and to defend against attacks on their land.

r BEFORETHEY had horses, Plains hunters would crawl through tall grass to get close to a buffalo herd. Then they would shoot a buffalo with a bow and arrow. In winter, there was no tall grass, so hunters horseback, some- was to build a might cover them- times stampeded V-shaped corral of selves in buffalo a herd of buffalo wood or stones. skins to approach over a cliff. Other Hunters would herd a herd. Wolf skins hunters waiting at stampeding buffalo also worked, the bottom killed from the wide end because a healthy the buffalo that to the narrow end, buffalo didn’t fear hadn’t died from where they could wolves. Plains the fall. Another be killed with less hunters, on foot or hunting method risk to the hunters.

u WHENTHEHUNT they took the hide was divided equal- was over, women and meat back to ly among the rest skinned and camp. The man of the band. butchered the who had killed the buffalo where they buffalo owned the had died. Then hide, but the meat

Plains _Indians_sp3.indd 6 3/15/17 4:21 PM 7 r THE PLAINSPEO- carved into knives, ples used every spears, and other part of the buffalo. tools. Horns were Hides were made used as cups and into clothing, moc- spoons. Hair was casins, and tepee twisted into ropes. walls. Tendons Hooves were from the neck made into glue, made thread and and the fat into bowstrings. The soap. Ribs stomach was used could make a as a water con- sled frame. tainer, and the tail Sun-dried buffalo became a flyswat- droppings were ter. Bones were burned for fuel.

d EACHNATIONHAD warrior societies. These had their own songs, danc- es, and dress. Some were divided into age groups. Warrior societies took on such jobs as policing the campsite.

u PLAINS INDIANS raided other bands to take horses. Raids were also revenge for a warrior’s death. d WARRIORSDRESSED Showing bravery carefully for battle. was more import- A war shirt might ant than killing an show signs of a enemy. Getting warrior’s coups. In close enough to some bands, the touch or strike an way head feathers enemy with your were cut, painted, hand or a stick was and placed had a great show of different meanings. bravery. This was Only a great war- known as a coup. rior had the right Plains Indians to wear a warbon- “counted coup” to net – a headdress keep track of hon- made of eagle ors gained in a raid feathers. or battle.

WOUNDED KILLED WOUNDED WOUNDED OR KILLED AN ENEMY IN COMBAT SEVERAL AN ENEMY TIMES

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The farming groups, such as the In a Plains Village Mandan, Hidatsa, Pawnee, and The two types of Great Plains villag- Osage, built permanent villages es were very different. The nomadic of earth lodges. A few times a peoples, such as the Blackfeet, year, these sedentary groups went Crow, Kiowa, and Comanche, cre- out on the plains to hunt buffalo. ated temporary villages of tepees Just like the nomadic hunters, as they followed the buffalo herds. they took tepees along and set up temporary camps.

u INBOTHNOMADIC away from the l NOMADICHUNTERS would dry buffalo and sedentary winds. Smoke feasted on fresh meat, pound it groups, the woman escaped through meat after each into a paste, and who made a tepee a hole at the top. hunt. They pre- mix in buffalo fat, owned it. When Flaps up top could served meat for nuts, and berries. bands traveled, be shut to keep out the times between Pemmican was women put up the rain and snow. hunts. Cut into a favorite treat, tepees and took strips, buffalo meat especially on the them down. A was dried in the trail, and could last tepee could be put sun. This turned for years. up in 15 minutes it into jerky. It and taken down lasted a long time in five. All tepee without spoiling. openings faced Women also made east, toward the something called rising sun and pemmican. They

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u BABIESWERE carried on their mothers’ backs in cradleboards.

u CHILDRENDIDN’T l INWARMWEATHER, go to school. They Plains Indian men learned history might wear only a by listening to breechcloth. This elders tell stories. was a strip of soft Boys prepared for leather or cloth that adult life by hav- went between the ing make-believe legs and draped battles, while girls over a belt. Men played with dolls often wore leggings and put up child- to protect their size tepees. legs from cuts and scrapes.

l WHENBANDSOR tribes got together, they competed against one another. They had footraces, archery contests, wrestling matches, and horse races. u WOMENDECORAT- Boys played hoop and ed clothing and pole games. These other things with prepared them to be porcupine quills. hunters and warriors. They held the quills in their mouths to l WOMENANDGIRLS r EARTHLODGES soften them and wore dresses of had wood frames used their teeth buffalo, deer, or elk covered with to flatten them. hide. Extra leather grassy earth or The quills might could be attached to sod. Village peo- be dyed with berry make a cape. Long ple grew corn, juice. Later, they leather sleeves could beans, pumpkins, used glass beads be added in cold sunflowers, mel- from European weather. Leggings ons, and squash. traders. or knee-high mocca- Villages were also sins kept their legs trading centers. warm and protected Nomadic hunters the skin from rough brought hides and plants. swapped them for vegetables.

Plains _Indians_sp4.indd 9 3/15/17 4:22 PM 10 NOMADIC PLAINS CREE People of the Plains NATIONS

CHEYENNE

SIOUX

THE NATIVE Americans of the Great Plains were hunters, farmers, and warriors. They dressed accord- ing to the job they were per- forming and the climate they were in. Here are ex- amples of the typical dress of ASSINIBOIN some of the peoples of the Great Plains.

CADDO

GROS VENTRE MANDAN

Plains _Indians_sp5.indd 10 3/15/17 4:24 PM 11 ARAPAHO CROW

PLAINS APACHE COMANCHE

KIOWA SEDENTARY ARIKARA NATIONS

OMAHA

BLACKFEET KANSA

HIDATSA PAWNEE

OSAGE WICHITA

Plains _Indians_sp5.indd 11 3/15/17 4:25 PM 12 The Spirit World Plains Indians lived close to nature. They saw no separation between the natural world and the supernatural, or spirit, world. They believed that supernatural power filled every part of their lives and that their survival depended on living in harmony with this power. Plains Indians called on the spiri- tual power often and in many ways. Medicine men and women could use it to heal others.

u WHENSEEKING grant a vision. He would visit the heal. A Comanche r MOST PLAINS medicine, but there spiritual guidance, What was seen in shaman (medicine bundle might con- nations believed were also lesser a Plains Indian the vision would man or woman), tain sweet grass, in a supreme spirits. The sun, could go on a vision symbolize the indi- who would inter- a deer’s tail, small power. The Sioux which was seen quest. Let’s say it vidual’s guardian pret the vision. A stones, a bird’s called this power as the giver of life, was a man, though spirit. Animals or medicine bundle claw, and beaver Wakan-Tanka, or was an important women also did it. natural forces, would be pre- oil. Nations also the Great Spirit. spirit. Every morn- He would go to an such as thun- pared with sacred had medicine Other nations had ing, the first thing isolated spot and der or lightning, objects relating bundles that were similar names for that Plains Indians stay there alone. He were often the to the vision. This sacred to them. this power. The did was give would fast, pray, messengers who precious posses- Great Spirit was prayers of thanks and stay awake brought the vision. sion represented a the source of all to the sun. for a few days. He After receiving a person’s spiritual hoped that a guard- vision, the seeker life. It had power ian spirit would returned to camp. to protect and

Plains _Indians_sp6.indd 12 3/15/17 4:26 PM 13 What do you think is the best way for people to measure a person’s wealth?

u CERTAINMENAND to cure illness. rituals. If shamans women received Others studied with were given gifts, such powerful an honored holy they usually gave visions that they person and became them away. Plains became shamans, spiritual guides and Indians measured or medicine peo- healers. They kept wealth by what a ple. Some used the nation’s med- person shared their special pow- icine bundles and with others, not by ers, along with conducted cere- what he or she had. herbs and rituals, monies, or spiritual

r THESPIRITS’ dancers in buffalo u MOST PLAINS to four days and blessing was masks imitated the nations practiced a nights, accompa- sought for every animal’s move- yearly ritual called nied by singing and new project, large ments. Sometimes the Sun Dance. It drumming. Often or small. There they danced for was a time for the the participants were always cel- days. A dancer whole group to performed certain ebrations before doing the Buffalo seek the blessing ritual sacrifices, big events, such Bull Dance of of the spirits. There such as fasting as buffalo hunts or the Mandan is were differences or going without battles. These cer- shown here (right). but also similarities drinking water. emonies included between these singing, drumming, rituals. In general, dancing, and men who had prayers. Before made special vows a buffalo hunt, danced from one

Plains _Indians_sp6.indd 13 3/15/17 4:26 PM 14 l IN 1804, President Thomas Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore a huge piece of land the U.S. had purchased from France. Their expedition traveled from near St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back. u EUROPEANS Huge numbers of The reports they brought diseases them died. Before sent back encour- such as smallpox, the 1837 smallpox aged settlers to measles, cholera, epidemic, there head west. Soon, influenza, chicken were about 1,600 wagon trains were pox, and whoop- Mandan. Only about all over the Great ing cough. Native 125 survived. It is Plains. Here (left), Americans had estimated that 75 Sacagawea (SAK- never been exposed percent of all Plains uh-jah-WEE-uh) to these diseases, Indians died from guides Lewis and so they had no smallpox in one year Clark. resistance to them. (1837–1838). Changes on the Plains Almost everything Europeans did created problems for the Plains Indians. As the eastern United States became more populated, settlers pushed west. They fenced in areas where buffalo had roamed freely and Plains peoples had hunt- ed them. Over and over, the United States made and then broke treaties

(agreements) with Plains nations. u INTHE 1860S, brought more set- told their warriors The Plains Indians were pushed onto the railroad went tlers. Plains Indians to stay away, but farther and far- were angry that some warriors did smaller and smaller pieces of land. ther west. Trains the railroad tracks attack railways. In a short time, they lost their homes interfered with the crossed their best and their way of life. movement of the hunting lands. buffalo. Trains also Most tribal leaders

r PLAINS INDIANS packed aboard opened the plains usually killed only trains and wagons for cattle grazing. as many buffalo in the winter of Once, there were as they needed. 1872–1873 alone. an estimated 30 to But white trappers Settlers even shot 60 million buffalo. began killing hun- buffalo from mov- In a very short time dreds of thousands ing trains, leaving they were almost of buffalo each the animals to rot. extinct. By the end year to meet the This was a planned of the 1880s, only growing demand effort to destroy the a few hundred wild for buffalo hides. Plains Indians’ way buffalo remained. More than 1.5 of life. Driving them million hides were out of the area

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d THE U.S. covered most of flooded the area. d THE PLAINS government set present-day South The U.S. govern- nations had lost up reservations for Dakota west of ment ordered all their land and Native Americans the Missouri River, Sioux out of the their way of mak- to live on, as a including the Black Black Hills. Below ing a living. So they way to control Hills, a sacred area are some members fought many wars them. The Fort the Sioux called of the Pine Ridge with U.S. soldiers Laramie Treaty of Paha Sapa. When Reservation in between 1854 and 1868 established gold was found South Dakota. 1876. The Sioux the Great Sioux there in the 1870s, and other nations Reservation. It fortune seekers defeated Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer and more than 200 soldiers at the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. It was a vic- tory for the Indians. But Custer’s Last Stand was the beginning of the end. The govern- ment decided to stop Indian wars of resistance.

u RESERVATION land was so poor that farming was impossible. Many people starved. Natives on the reservations found comfort in the Ghost Dance. They believed this ritual would rid them of unwanted white settlers, restore the buffalo herds, and bring back long-departed relatives and warriors.

r THEFEDERAL 300 Sioux gath- and shot back. government feared ered on the bank Cannons opened the Ghost Dance of Wounded Knee fire. Almost 200 would lead to war. Creek in South Native American In 1890, it ordered Dakota’s Pine men, women, the arrest of Sioux Ridge Reservation. and children were chief Sitting Bull. While giving up killed. To many, This led to a their weapons the massacre at gunfight. Sitting to U.S. soldiers, Wounded Knee is a Bull and seven of one of the Sioux symbol of how the his warriors were fired a rifle into U.S. government killed. Later that the air. The sol- has failed Native year, more than diers panicked Americans.

Plains _Indians_sp7.indd 15 3/15/17 4:28 PM 16 Plains Indians Today They were forced onto reservations. They were stripped of their way of life and their culture. But the Plains Indians did not die. Today, whether they live on the “rez” (reserva- u INTHEPAST schools. There, century, U.S. gov- they were punished tion) or in towns and cities ernment policy for speaking their across the United States, toward Native own languages and the peoples of the plains Americans has practicing their changed several culture. People continue to honor and times. For many whose lives had celebrate their heritage. years, the govern- revolved around ment tried to get following the American Indians buffalo herds were to give up their old pushed to take up ways and fit into the farming, but were mainstream culture. given the worst Their children were land to farm. sent to boarding

d INTHE 1960S, over the village of Native Americans Wounded Knee, from many nations South Dakota. They u ALTHOUGHTHEY talkers. They used got together. were protesting had been treated as their languages to They formed the injustices on the second-class citi- send secret mes- American Indian Sioux reservation at zens, many Plains sages among dif- Movement (AIM). Pine Ridge. Since Indians served the ferent military units. They wanted to then, the U.S. gov- U.S. in wartime. Their languages honor their ances- ernment has given During World War were unknown tors and to protest Native Americans II, Comanche and to the rest of the the treaties broken more power to Navajo soldiers world, so the codes by the federal gov- govern themselves (above) were were never broken. ernment. In 1973, through tribal among the Native That gave the U.S. about 250 Native councils. American code a big advantage. Americans took

Plains _Indians_sp8.indd 16 3/15/17 4:29 PM 17 l BECAUSETHE POWWOWS STARTED best lands were in the late 19th taken away from century. They them, reservation were a way for life has been hard Native Americans for many Plains to express pride in Indians. There is their culture. Now much unemploy- every year hun- ment and poverty dreds of powwows on some reserva- are held on reser- tions. But some vations all over the nations have country. Powwows done better, when are often family natural resources reunions. They were found on feature drumming, their land. For dancing, food, and example, the elaborate modern Osage profited versions of tradi- from the oil on tional dress. their Oklahoma reservation.

r A GROUPOF Native American painters who studied at the University of Oklahoma in the late 1920s were known as the Kiowa Five. Their art focused on traditional native life. This painting is by Monroe Tsatoke, one of the Kiowa Five.

l PLAINS INDIAN ries of the Kiowa. writers have told Virginia Driving their peoples’ sto- Hawk Sneve, the ries in many ways. daughter of a N. Scott Momaday Lakota Sioux moth- is Kiowa-Cherokee. er, was born on In 1969, he won the Rosebud Sioux a Pulitzer Prize Reservation in for Literature for South Dakota. She House Made of has written many Dawn. His book books for children. The Way to Rainy Mountain tells sto-

r WHEN BEN He served from Nighthorse Campbell 1993 to 2005. As a (Northern Cheyenne) senator, Campbell was elected to the thought of himself U.S. Senate, he as a representative became the first not only of the peo- Native American in ple of Colorado but more than 60 years also of all Native to hold that position. Americans.

Plains _Indians_sp8.indd 17 3/15/17 4:31 PM 18 Activities

Suppose you’re a young Plains Indian. You just returned FIRST-HAND from your first buffalo hunt, and you want to remember every detail about it. You also want to tell your younger ACCOUNT brothers and sisters about it. Use what you learned in this magazine to create a record of the experience. Describe what you saw and heard during the hunt. Explain how you felt. Was it hard to hold onto your horse while shooting an arrow? Make notes of everything. Make your account of the hunt as complete as you can.

PLAINS INDIAN MUSEUM Imagine you’re in charge of the exhibits at the Plains Indian Museum, which is scheduled to open in the near future. The purpose of the exhibits is to educate people about the most important aspects of the history and culture of the Plains Indians. Your task is to plan five exhibits that feature different aspects of Plains Indians’ way of life and culture. Describe or draw each exhibit and make sure your presen- tation gives all the desired information.

Plains_Indians_18-19.indd 18 3/15/17 4:30 PM 19 MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES

Southwest Peoples Northwest Coast Peoples America 1492 Scorching heat, vast deserts, and little The northern Pacific coast is a beau- The year 1492 was undoubtedly the rainfall make the American Southwest tiful stretch of land running from what most pivotal one in the history of Native sound unwelcoming to many people. is now northern California up through Americans. Up until this time, the many But to the Native Americans who Oregon, Washington, and Canada. Native American nations that spanned have lived in the area for thousands Many Native American groups settled the different regions of North America of years, this is cherished homeland. in this region. Their sophisticated cul- carried on their traditional ways of life. Learn about the Anasazi, Hohokam, ture was marked by their spirituality Discover the unique and shared rituals and Mogollon, and their modern-day and incredible craftsmanship. Learn across these groups, in a time before descendants the Pueblo peoples, the about the daily lives and practices of Europeans settlers arrived. Tohono O’odham, and others. the Northwest Coast peoples.

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

HSS 5.1 Students describe the major pre-Columbian settlements, includ- ing the cliff dwellers and pueblo people of the desert Southwest, the American Indians of the Pacific Northwest, the nomadic nations of the Great Plains, and the woodland peoples east of the Mississippi LEARN River. 5.1.1 Describe how geography and cli- MORE mate influenced the way various nations lived and adjusted to the natural envi- ONLINE! ronment, including locations of villages, the distinct structures that they built, and how they obtained food, clothing, tools, and utensils. 5.1.2 Describe their • Like all Native varied customs and folklore traditions. Americans, the 5.1.3 Explain their varied economies Plains nations and systems of government. had different • The Mandan • The Plains Indian that their peo- kinds of gov- people had a nations tell dif- ple once lived Historical and Social Sciences ernment. Many different kind ferent creation underground Analysis Skills: Plains Indians of government. myths. These are in a dark place. lived in self- Each Mandan stories about One day a vine Historical Interpretation 2. Students identify the human and governing village was how the world grew upward physical characteristics of the places bands. A few governed indi- was formed or and created a they are studying and explain how those had national vidually. Most how their people hole to the world features form the unique character of levels of govern- selected two came to be. above. Some those places. ment that men as leaders: of the Mandan oversaw the one for war, one • The Mandan people climbed various bands. for peace. origin myth says up the vine.

Plains_Indians_18-19.indd 19 3/15/17 4:30 PM hmhco.com

EDITOR: Jennifer Dixon PROOFREADER: Paula Glatzer ART DIRECTION: Hopkins/Baumann, FACT-CHECKER: Patricia Fogarty Brobel Design AUTHOR: Lois Markham, Amy K. DESIGNERS: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, Hughes David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech AUTHOR TEAM LEAD: Amy K. Hughes PHOTO RESEARCH: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan, Jenna Minchuk PRESIDENT AND CEO: Ted Levine ACTIVITIES WRITER: Marjorie Frank CHAIRMAN AND FOUNDER: Mark Levine

GRADE 5 TITLES p.19 top right (map of linguistic stocks). Art Resource: George Catlin: p.6 bottom left (Indian encampment). Bridgeman Art Library: Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Regions of North America George Washington Massachusetts, USA: p.5 bottom right (buffalo robe); Albert Bierstadt: pp.6–7 center (hunting buffalo with spear); Severino Baraldi: p.15 bottom right (ghost dancing); Monroe Eastern Woodland Indians Thomas Jefferson Tsatoke: p.17 center right (Kiowa making medicine). Getty Images: DEA Picture Library: p.4 center left (mammoth); SuperStock: p.5 bottom left (smoke signals); Corbis Plains Indians Benjamin Franklin Historical: p.16 top right (Omaha girls, Carlisle School); Bettmann: p.16 bottom left Southwest Peoples The Constitution (Wounded Knee protest); PhotoQuest: p.16 center left (code talkers); Robert Alexander: Northwest Coast Peoples The New Nation p.17 bottom right (Ben Nighthorse Campbell). Granger Collection: William Jacob Hays: pp.2–3 bottom (Buffalo herd); DEA /G. Dagliorti: pp.4–5 top center (Great Plains America 1492 Lewis and Clark Native Americans); Alfred Jacob Miller: p.6 upper center (buffalo hunt); Paul Kane: pp. Exploring the Americas Westward Expansion 8–9 top (Lake Huron encampment); Karl Bodmer: pp.8–9 bottom center (Blackfoot girl); Jules Tavernier: p.9 top center (Sioux encampment); Granger Collection: p.9 top right Early Settlements Pioneers (cradleboard), p.14 bottom right (buffalo) Edward S. Curtis: p.9 center (breechcloth); 13 Colonies Immigration Seth Eastman: p.9 left center (lacrosse); Karl Bodmer: p.9 bottom center (Mandan chief hut); Richard West: p.13 center right (Sun Dance ceremony); Karl Bodmer: p.13 bottom Declaration of Independence Industrial Revolution in America center (Buffalo Bull Society); Edgar S. Paxson: p.14 top left (Lewis & Clark); Sarin American Revolution Civil Rights Images: p.14 top right (smallpox); iStock Images: theasis: pp.2–3 top (winter twilight); Philadelphia Publishers Union 1891: Boyd, James P. (James Penny), 1836–1910 p.15 Revolutionary Women top right (ghost dancer); Shutterstock: Tim Roberts Photography: p.3 top left (Great Plains); JAMCO Design p.4 top center (corn); Michael Vigliotti: p.6 top left (war bonnet); Gregory Johnston: pp.16–17 center (powwow); University of New Mexico Press: UniAl Nomaday and Mina Yamashita: p.17 bottom left (Rainy Mountain cover).

ON THE COVER: Sha-có-pay, The Six, Chief of the Plains Ojibwa, painting by George Catlin. ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS: Alamy: The Artchives. Acme Design: Map of Native American Regions 1700s, p.2.

PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Richard Ellis: p.3 top right (Arapaho women); North Wind Michael Kline Illustration: Cartoons: cover; So, What Band Are You In?, p.3; Sign Picture Archives: pp.4–5 bottom center (dog travois); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd: Language, p.5; How Fast Was I Going?, p.5; Nomadic Hunters, p.8; Major Indian p.7 center right (Native American warrior); Lyroky: p.9 center right (moccasins); Pictorial Reservations, p.17. Press Ltd: p.14 center right (Currier & Ives); Everett Collection Historica: p.15 top left (Pine Ridge Reservation); Stocktrek Images, Inc.: p.15 center (Battle of Little Bighorn); Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Spear, Feathers, p.7; People of the Plains, pp.10–11; Interfoto/Alamy Stock Photo: p.18 top (buffalo hunt); The Print Collector: p.18 bottom Vision Quest, pp.12–13; Spiritual Guide, p.13; Northwest Coast Peoples, p.19 top (buffalo hunt); Glasshouse Images: p.19 bottom (Mandan chief); Niday Picture Library: center; Southwest Peoples, p.19 top left.

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