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Introduction: Clever Devices 1 NOTES Introduction: Clever Devices 1. Kipling, Enter the King: Theatre, Liturgy, and Ritual in the Medieval Civic Triumph (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), pp. 79–83. 2. Arthur C. Clarke, “Clarke’s Third Law,” in Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible (New York: Harper & Row, 1962). 3. Francesa Massip, “The Cloud: A Medieval Aerial Device, Its Origins, and Its Use in Spain Today,” EDAMR 16, 1 (Spring 1994): 65–77. 4. Text translated from the Crónica de Juan II, Garcia de Santamaría, fol. 204, in The Staging of Religious Drama in Europe in the Later Middle Ages, ed. Peter Meredith and John E. Taliby, Early Drama, Art and Music monograph series 4 (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1983), pp. 94–5. 5. It is to be hoped that the study of marvels will acquire the breadth of critical interest enjoyed by monster-study since Jeffrey Jerome Cohen’s work began to reinvigorate the field in 1996, resurrecting interest in John Block Friedman’s sin qua non assembly of lore on the topic, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); See Cohen’s “Seven Monster Theses,” in Monster Theory: Reading Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Of Giants: Sex, Monsters, and the Middle Ages (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); and, too recently for consideration in this book, Hybridity, Identity and Monstrosity in Medieval Britain: Of Difficult Middles (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 6. Timothy Jones and David Sprunger, eds., Marvels, Monsters and Miracles: Studies in the Medieval and Early Modern Imagination (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 2002); Lorraine Daston and Kathrine Park, eds., Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998); Mary Baine Campbell, Wonder & Science: Imagining Worlds in Early Modern Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), and The Witness and the Other World: Exotic European Travel Writing, 400–1600 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988); Caroline Walker Bynum, “Wonder,” American Historical Review 102, 1 (February 1997): 1–26. 7. Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 19–24; on the social “increment being sought [in prestige-based pre-industrial 164 NOTES commodity exchange] is in reputation, name, or fame, with the critical form of capital for producing this profit being people,” p. 19. 8. For an early example, see Gerard Brett, “The Automata in the Byzantine ‘Throne of Solomon,’” Speculum 29 (1954): 477–87. 9. See Daston and Park, Wonders, p. 94, for an extended discussion. Bacon’s devices were meant to secure patronage at the papal court of Clement IV, where he was to “play Aristotle to Clement’s Alexander.” 10. I use the term in full appreciation of the framework established by Paula Findlen, in works such as “The Economy of Scientific Exchange in Early Modern Italy,” in Patronage and Institutions, ed. Bruce Moran (London: Boydell and Brewer, 1991), esp. pp. 5–7. Mechanical marvels were the instruments exchanged in the proto-scientific economy of wonder devel- oped in the thirteenth- and flourishing in the fourteenth century, presaging the early modern period’s practice of exchanging scientific instruments as tokens that “participated in the complex system of honor and prestige that determined social identity” (p. 5). 11. In addition to meetings such as the automaton tree and birds built for the Khan’s visit to Paris or the Throne of Solomon, both noted earlier, see J. D. North, “Opus quarundam rotarum mirabilium,” Physis 8 (1966): 337–72, documenting the thirteenth-century gift of a craft marvel from the sultan of Damascus to Emperor Frederick II. 12. Arjun Appadurai, “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value,” in The Social Life of Things, pp. 19–34. 13. The concept of the legible body is treated in Judith Butler, Gender Trouble, passim. 14. Georg Simmel, The Philosophy of Money (1907), trans. T. Bottomore and D. Frisby (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 73. 15. Appadurai, Social Life, p. 31. 16. Lesley Stern, “Paths that Wind through the Thicket of Things,” Critical Inquiry 28, 1 (Autumn 2001): 318. 17. Only a few studies have attended to aspects of manmade mirabilia in the works of Ricardian authors, and we have Mary Flowers Braswell and Laura Hibbard Loomis to thank for the seminal work of bringing attention to some of the material aspects of literary symbolization. 18. Studies focused upon these works include J. D. Bruce, “Human Automata in Classical Tradition and Medieval Romance,” Modern Philology 10 (1912–13): 511–26; Merriam Sherwood, “Magic and Mechanics in Medieval Fiction,” Studies in Philology 44 (1947): 567–92; John Cohen, Human Robots in Myth and Science (New York: Allen & Unwin, 1967), pp. 27–6; and most recently, E. R. Truitt, “‘Trei poëte, sages dotors, qui mout sorent di nigromance’: Knowledge and Automata in Twelfth-Century French Literature,” Configurations 12, 2 (Spring 2004): 167–93. 19. Robert W. Hanning, “Engin in Twelfth-Century Romance: An Examination of the Roman d’Enéas and Hue de Rotelande’s Iponedon,” Yale French Studies 51 (1974): 82–101. NOTES 165 20. Hanning, “Engin,” pp. 83–4; Stephen Perkinson, “Engin and Artifice: Describing Creative Agency at the Court of France, ca. 1400,” Gesta 41 (2002): 51–67; Charles Muscatine, Chaucer and the French Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), pp. 41–57. 21. Truitt, “Trei poëte,” p. 172. 22. Appadurai, Social Life, p. 31, on how royal demand creates a localized, dia- logic social structure in which the material representation of desire—in the present discussion, the manmade marvel as a material token of intangible elite power—sets a variety of conditions for the perception of value. 23. The Governance of Kings and Princes: John Trevisa’s Middle English Translation of the “De Regimine Principum” of Aegidius Romanus, ed. David C. Fowler, Charles F. Briggs, and Paul G. Remley (New York: Garland, 1997), p. 80. 24. Thomas of Britain, Tristan, trans. A. T. Hatto (New York: Penguin, 1960), pp. 315–6. 25. Anne Hagopian Van Buren, “Reality and Literary Romance in the Park of Hesdin,” Medieval Gardens (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1986), p. 128. 26. Truitt, “Trei poëte,” pp. 170–1, incl. ft.nt. 13, on the technical constraints that prevented widespread manufacture of automata before the end of the thirteenth century. 27. Daston and Park, Wonders, p. 95. Regarding the transition in techne litera- ture, see Jane Andrews Aiken, “Truth in Images: From the Technical Drawings of Ibn Al-Razazz Al Jazari, Campanus of Novara, and Giovanni De’Dondi to the Perspective Projection of Leon Battista Alberti,” Viator 25 (1994): 326–59. 28. Malcolm Vale, The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 281–3. 29. Maurizio Bettini, The Portrait of the Lover, trans. Laura Gibbs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 62; see also pp. 210–1 for a list of Pygmalion-like stories from the classics. 30. See Derek J. DeSolla Price, “Automata and the Origins of Mechanism and Mechanistic Philosophy,” in Science since Babylon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961); Bruce, “Human Automata in Classical Tradition and Medieval Romance,” pp. 511–26. The Virgil legend is given extensive treatment in Domenico Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, trans. E. F. M. Beneck (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1966). Also of interest to the topic of human automata are Theodore Ziolkowski, Disenchanted Images: A Literary Iconology (Princeton: Princeton University press, 1977); and Kenneth Gross, The Dream of the Moving Statue (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992). 31. Michael Camille, The Gothic Idol: Ideology and Image-Making in Medieval Art (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 317–37. 32. George Ovitt, Jr., The Restoration of Perfection: Labor and Technology in Medieval Culture (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987), p. 51. 33. Ovitt, Restoration of Perfection, p. 53. 34. The definitive study of the relationship between spirituality and worldly decline is James M. Dean’s The World Grown Old in Later Medieval Literature 166 NOTES (Cambridge: Medieval Academy of America, 1997). For a discussion of Augustine’s historiography in its doctrinal contexts, see pp. 39–47. 35. See De civitate Dei, 22.24, where Augustine lists the vast accomplishments of mankind, noting: “But even in our body, though it shares the mortality of the beasts, and is weaker than many of them, how great the goodness of God appears!” (Iam vero in ipso corpore, quamvis nobis sit cum belius mor- talitate commune multisque earum repariatur infirmius, quanta Dei bonitas, quana providentia tanti Creatoris apparet!), The City of God against the Pagans, trans. William H. Green (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 330–1. 36. Ovitt, Restoration of Perfection, p. 54. 37. Augustine, Confessions, 10.35. The function of curiositas in relation to mirabilia is explored in chapters 4 and 5 in this book. 38. Daston and Park, Wonders, p. 112. For a comprehensive outline of the con- temporary attitude toward mirabilia among natural philosophers, see Bert Hansen, Nicole Oresme and the Marvels of Nature: A Study of His De Causis Mirabilium with Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1985). 39. See the detailed analysis in chapter 3. 40. Chenu, M.-D. Nature, Man and Society in the Twelfth Century: Essays on New Theological Perspectives in the Latin West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 43. 41. Daston and Park, Wonders, pp. 123–4. 42. Roger Bacon’s Letter Concerning the Marvelous Power of Art and of Nature Concerning the Nullity of Magic, trans. Teney L. Travis (Easton, Pa.: Chemical Publishing Company, 1923), pp. 26–7. 43. Daston and Park, Wonders, p.
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