Contributors: Dian Yanuardi (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia) Ganies Oktaviana (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia) Syiqqil Arofat (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia) Ahmad Jaetuloh (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia) Yhkbai Hijaba (JASIL – Mongolia) Prabindra Sakhya (The Manushya Foundation – Thailand) Pheap Sophea (NGO-F – Cambodia) Lorraine (AFA – Philippines) PT Adaro’s former mining pit in East Kalimantan. Source: https://www.jatam.org/2019/09/06/ibu-kota-baru-terkepung-tambang/

CONTENTS

/1/ REDRAWING THE MAP OF THE WORLD

/3/ ASIA IS THE CENTER OF ECONOMIC CORRIDORS

/7/ WHAT ARE (ASIAN) ECONOMIC CORRIDORS REALLY ABOUT? /21/ THE EMERGENCE OF ECONOMIC CORRIDOR PROJECTS IN THE WORLD /26/ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beyond Asia Economic Corridors The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia http://alert-conservation.org/

REDRAWING THE MAP OF THE WORLD

he map of the world is being redrawn. On a regional level, two neighboring countries or more are put on a drawing board. Then, mega-investments Ton infrastructure projects, industrial economic zones, extractive economic activities and new metropolitan areas are planned, located and built. On national level, two or more districts, provinces or even islands are integrated into a new map and are called with a new name: as the center of commodity production, as the distribution hubs, the export and industrial zones, or the transit zones. This is not something new. In 1998, Asia Development Bank introduced a new concept and was then well-known as “Economic Corridor” (Isono 2010). Since then, it has been practically developed around the globe.

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Economic corridor is an integrated world excluded in the currently new economic development policy aiming at developing corridors. Trillions of money are poured to mega infrastructure projects, creating urban invigorate those mega-economic corridors. areas, industrial zones and other extractive Now, governments all over the world are busy economic activities in order to boost economic with debottlenecking regulations, inviting growth, to fasten the flow of capital, labour investments as well as constructing mega- and commodities and to accumulate profit infrastructure projects in their new economic endlessly. corridors. Terribly, the policies on economic corridors, are not only designed, planned However, the scale and level in which and implemented on global or regional level, the economic corridors redrawn in the they are translated and adopted as well into world today are totally different and even national development policies. unimaginable. There is no continent in the

https://philoforchange.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/feud0.jpg

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ASIA IS THE CENTER OF ECONOMIC CORRIDORS https://obortunity.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/mz-mozambique- economic-update-a-two-speed-economy-v2-780x439.jpg

housands of toll roads, airports, seaports and other infrastructure projects are being built and developed in Asia. Asian Mega cities and metropolis Tareas are redesigned, slump areas are being redecorated. Industrial and economic zones are agglomerated and augmented. New infrastructure bank is even formed. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predict that “dozens of trillions of dollars” will need to be spent on infrastructure over the next 20 years in all over the world. Meanwhile, the forecasted budget for infrastructure investment in Asia are $705,2 billion and other investments for developing economic corridors are still countless.

The development of economic corridors in systems; and social infrastructure, including Asia generally take various forms and aspects, schools, hospitals, prisons, and courthouses; such as: (I) Mega projects of infrastructure (II) Industrial and economic zones, including that include transportation such as toll Special Economic Zones, manufacturing and road, tunnel, railroad, rapid transit link, processing zones, free-trade zones, integrated seaport and airport; communication assets, development zones, bonded zones, logistic including radio and television broadcast zones, tourism zones, and many others; (III) towers, wireless communication towers, Urban and metropolitan areas, which include https://philoforchange.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/feud0.jpg cable systems, and satellite networks; the formation of new urban and metropolitan industry-based infrastructures, including areas, rehabilitating slump areas, as well electricity transmission lines, gas and as housing projects and residential areas; oil pipelines, water distribution systems, (IV) Extractive economic activities, such as and wastewater collection and processing mining, large-scale plantations, industrial / 3 / BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS

The Economic Corridors under Belt and Road Initiative Source: https://www.lehmanbrown.com/insights-newsletter/belt-road-initiative/ forest plantations, and marine-based block well-known as ASEAN + 6 (Urata industries. In many cases, the objectives 2008). The CADP is mostly supported by of establishing economic corridors are to Asian Development Bank and World Bank. make use, connect as well as compress the space and time among sites of production, There are at least four gigantic economic distribution and consumption. Therefore, the corridors developed under CADP, they are: current economic corridors mostly involve Mekong Subregion Economic Corridors; with developing the four aspects mentioned Mekong-India Economic Corridors; Indonesia, above concurrently. Malaysia, Thailand Growth Triangle and Surrounding Regions (IMT + Subregion) and The two phenomenal economic development Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines designs in Asia are: The Comprehensive Asia East ASEAN Growth Area and Surrounding Development Plan (CADP) and The Belt Regions (BIMPEAGA). In each of those and Road Initiative (BRI). The CADP was economic corridors, several extractive formulated in 2009 and by ERIA (Economic economic activities, infrastructures, industrial Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia), and economic zones, urban metropolitan East Asia and Southeast Asia-based research areas are designed, planned and built. institute, and was initiated by several countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, However, the most influential and ambitious Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, Myanmar, economic corridor on the Asian region is The Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by Vietnam, India, New Zealand, Australia, China’s President Xi Jinping on 2013. It was Republic of Korea, Japan and China. Those previously well-known as One Belt and One countries above then formed an economic Road (OBOR) and has two main components: / 4 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st To reinforce this Initiative, the Chinese Century Maritime Silk Road (TENGGARA government consecutively launched AIIB 2018). The Belt refers to overland roads that (Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank) in link China with West Asia, Southeast Asia, 2014 at the annual leaders’ meeting of the the Middle East and Central Asia all the way Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) to Eastern and Western Europe, including forum in Bali, Indonesia (The Economist Russia. 2013). The objectives to establish of the new Bank is to provide governmental The “Road” refers to the maritime route loans and technical assistance to boost that links China with island countries in infrastructure development in several sectors the Western Pacific and littoral states in such as energy and power, transportation and Southeast Asia, South Asia, horn of Africa, telecommunications, rural infrastructure and Middle East and Europe (TENGGARA 2018). agricultural development, water supply and The Belt and Road Initiative has enrolled at sanitation, environmental protection, urban least 70 countries of the world with several development and logistics (Heijster 2016). trillion dollars worth of new investments in infrastructure such as roads, bridges, The main idea of establishing AIIB is to seaports, airports and power plants in China meet the estimated funds for financing Asia’s and BRI participating countries. infrastructure development which cost about

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$26 trillion. 57 states became founding members of the AIIB and would operate in a similar way to other International Financial Institutions such as World Bank and Asia Development Bank (Heijster 2016). However, China is the most influential shareholder of the Bank which holds 26,6 percent of the voting shares, while India and Russia come second and third largest shareholders with respectively 7,5% and 5,9% of voting shares (Heijster 2016).

/ 6 / WHAT ARE (ASIAN) ECONOMIC CORRIDORS REALLY ABOUT?

o some, Asia economic corridors sign the bright future for the life of millions Asian people. Buzzwords and jargons such as ‘connectivity’, ‘economic Tgrowth’, ‘agglomeration’, ‘infrastructure’ ‘urban development’, ‘balancing development gap’, ‘public-private investment’ are now on everyone’s lips. But, what are Asian Economic Corridors really about? Why economic corridors and giant infrastructure projects are mushrooming in the world, and especially in the Asia, now? What are the underlying conditions that drive the emergence of giant economic corridors and mega infrastructure projects in the world and Asia today? How they exactly work?

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To anwer the question adequately, first, capital surplus, which manifests in the one has to take the nature of capital into idle and unused productive capacity or as consideration. Capital is a mode of production unavailable opportunity for capital to make in which Money (M) is used to buy Commodity profit from production; labour surplus and/ (C) such as raw materials, machines and hire or the increasing of reserve labour army labour power to engage in certain production which remained unemployed. To put in to make profit or More Money (M’), which another way, capital overaccumulation is is generally called by capital accumulation. ‘capital absorption problem’, in which huge However, in such mode of production, the amount of surplus capital need and has to be profit and wealth created by capital owners reinvested. (capitalist) can only occur through the exploitation of labour: the workers produce Capital solves such overaccumulation crisis more in a day than they need to live, or in through several mechanisms: First, temporal other words, the value of labour power is fixes, which means ‘temporal displacement less than the value produced by labour. This through investment in long-term capital process is called by the appropriation of projects or social expenditures that defer surplus value which is generated during the the re-entry of capital values into circulation process of production. into the future’ (Harvey 2003: 109) such

Absorption of Capital Overaccumulation for Further Capital Accumulation Capital cannot work in one-cycle accumulation, yet, it should be a process of endless accumulation and in so doing should eliminate certain barriers and limits in order to create boundless accumulation. To sustain such endless and boundless capital accumulation, another action is required, called by ‘primitive accumulation’, ‘enclosure’ or ‘accumulation by dispossession’ which means ‘the separation of producers from the means of production’, in the forms of land grabbing, enclosuring common natural resources, looting national assets, slavery, and many more.

However, capital mode of production always produce crisis, called by “crisis of overaccumulation’, which takes several forms i.e.: overproduction—abundant commodity which can not be absorbed in the market for consumption; the falling rate of profit i.e. the general rise in the level of mechanisation and automation which lead to decreasing surplus value exploited from labour power; / 8 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia as research, community development or Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and education. Second, spatial fixes, which Extraction means ‘spatial displacements through Asia has been incorporated into global opening up new markets, new production production chain since 1960s. In the 60s, as capacities, and new resource, social, and a result of the decline of profit, some western labour possibilities elsewhere’ (Harvey companies, especially the ones based in 2003: 109). Other mechanism could be a the United States, started to incorporate combination of temporal fixes and spatial Asian countries into their production chain. fixes. Other fixes, as said by Arrighi (2003) Initially it was on Japan, but then when the is financialization which nowadays becomes wage raised, those companies shifted their the center for capital accumulation and production to Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South capital expansion. Other fixes to solve and Korean (Pratap 2014). absorb capital overaccumulation is through the role of state(s) that creates and gives By the end of 1970s, and at the dawn of a way to greater geographical expansion of 1980s, the wage increased and the rate of capital through development planning or profit fallen, companies from South Korea, spatial plan. Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore started to

https://jogja.tribunnews.com/2018/07/30/penolak-nyia-enggan-berkomunikasi-pemkab- kulonprogo-sulit-tentukan-langkah?page=2

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Coal mining exploitation in Eastern Kalimantan. (kaltimprov.go.id/dok-humasprov_kaltim) move the production processes to countries of capital formation in the whole East Asia with cheaper labour cost in South East Asia during 1990-1996 had increased as much such as Malaysia, Phillipines, Thailand, 300%, meanwhile it was only increasing as Indonesia and Vietnam (Pratap 2014). much 40% in United State and Japan, and Meanwhile, from 1980s to early 2000s, only 10% in the whole Europe. when Asian was hit by 1998 financial crisis, countries in Asia were liberalized massively Such facts above indicate that there is an through IMF’s and World Bank’s Structural enormous capital flows and expansion to Asia Adjustment Programme and were then fully which resulted on the full integration of Asia integrated into global production networks. into global supply chains and international production networks. This can be seen, at Based on David McNally’s analysis, the least, by the moving up some of the firms geographical shift of production in Asia in Asia to next tier in the global value chain. basically was started from East Asian Some of the firms in Asian industrialised countries such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, Hong and China which is coincided by the massive Kong, China, India and Singapore moved up land grabbing; the introduction of new in value chain and emerged as big contract technologies and new divisions of labour and manufacturers, or develop their own brands labour’s organization; and massive Foreign and emerge as competitive lead firms. Direct Investment to the East Asia countries. As consequences, the profit had been flowing Furthermore, new industrialisng countries from Southern developing countries to the such as Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Northern developed countries. Ultimately, in Thailand has also moved up in the level of 1990s, East Asia is considered as the center accelerating technological transfers and of capital accumulation on global scale. spillover in the global value chain (Pratap McNally (2009: 51) then noted that the total 2014). Other trend that signify the capital / 10 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia

Kuching, Malaysia. Forests and peatlands in Borneo are being destroyed to make way for oil palm plantation, a practice which researchers forecast to release 8.7 gigatons of carbon dioxide over the next 100 years. Image: Rich Carey / Shutterstock.com https://www.eco-business.com/news/rivers-in-the-sky-how-deforestation-is-affecting-global-water-cycles/ expansion in Asia is the mushrooming of With the emergence of Factory Asia Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and Export- mentioned above and with the recent plan Processing Zones (EPZs). Currently, Asia has of expanding economic corridors in Asia, it more Export-Processing Zones than other could be said that Asia is projected as the continent in the world and has more than major site of global production, distribution 85% of all EPZ workers in the world (Khanna and consumption. Therefore, this has 2016). consequences: the increasing of production of space in Asia merely for the sake capital accumulation. Other thing that signifies capital expansion to Asia is the fact that Asia is now dominating the world in terms of manufacturing The Extraction of Public Wealth through activities. Most supply chain trade happens Public Private Partnership within what have been called Factory Asia, One of the prominent aspect in the current Factory Europe, and Factory North America. economic corridors, especially in the Over the last decade or so, supply-chain development of mega-infrastructure projects, trade has shifted heavily towards Factory is the implementation of public-private Asia and away from Factory North America partnership. Public Private Partnership (PPP) and Factory Europe. From 2011, China was first introduced by World Bank’s World has edged out United States and Germany Development Report (WDR) of 1994 titled and becomes the top global manufacturing “Infrastructure for Development”. Before the exporters, while Japan sit on third, Republic Report published, the majority of infrastructure Korea is on sixth, India is tenth of the world projects in the developing world was funded largest manufacturing exporters (ADB 2011). by national governments, with substantial Meanwhile, China is now the largest trade loans from International Financial Institutions partner of more than twice as many countries such as the World Bank or Asia Development as America (Khanna 2016). Bank, while the role of the private sector in / 11 / BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS financing infrastructure was still minor. In the used in more than 134 developing countries Report, the Bank condemned the provision (Hildyard 2014). of infrastructure by the state and mentioned that the state’s provision of infrastructure However, Hildyard and Sol (2017) shows that as inadequate, corrupt and bureaucratic, PPP basically is a new mode for developing lack of professionalism and efficiency as finance rather than financing development, well as lack of technological advancement because: and modernization. Therefore the Bank was calling for privatizition of the infrastructure or making infrastructure as a business. “The idea behind the new financing paradigm is that infrastructure is packaged to attract long-term Public Private Partnership was then back institutional investors, such as pension, into international policy agenda in 2000s, insurance, mutual funds and sovereign especially in developing and newly liberalized wealth funds. In this paradigm, the Asian countries through “good governance” government would shoulder most of programmes. Now, PPP is touted and seen the risk in the early stages of design as the only best way to provide infrastructure: and construction and the institutional PPP would bring “improved operational investors would take the revenue stream efficiency” and improved efficiency; PPP over decades.” would lower costs and thus brings better value for money; PPP would contribute to poverty alleviation; PPP would spur economic growth PPP could take many forms in its’ and many more (Hildyard 2014). World implementation, but in general it has Bank, for instance, shows that the private similar mechanisms: state should give a sector now contributes about 15–20 percent guarantee to their private partners in the of total infrastructure investment and are now infrastructure business and provision. To do

The lower Sesan 2 dam site, located at the confluence of the sesan and srepok rivers, two of the main tributaries of the mekong. photos: Giorgio Taraschi. Source: http://khmercircle.blogspot.com/2015/09/china-built-dam-in-cambodia-set-to.html

/ 12 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia so, therefore, state should give subsidies to income stream. If the volume of the corporations and firms that work as the traffic falls below an agreed level, the partners of the state to provide and conduct government makes up the loss. the business of infrastructure. Above are Nicholas Hildyard’s findings (2014) related Other than giving subsidies and guarantees, to the subsidies and guarantees given to the governments are willing to provide many firms and corporations: incentives for developing economic corridors and mega-infrastructure projects, such tax Cash subsidies heaven, tax allowance and tax deductible. “The government or public authority On the other hands, to gain the public agrees to provide a cash subsidy to a funds for giving those subsidies, guarantees and incentives to the corporations and project. It can be a total lump sum or firms working in business of infrastructure, a fixed amount on a per unit basis, and government should cut the subsidies for the payments can be made in instalments poor, such as fuel and electricity subsidy for or all at once.” Example: a government the poor, fertilizer and agricultural inputs may agree to subsidise the toll fares of subsidy for the small-scale farmers; health say buses (often themselves run under and education subsidy for the poor. Therefore, PPPs) in order to allow poorer users PPP can be seen as an institution as well access to, say, privately-owned and as mechanism to extract public fund and operated motorways. value from the rest of society for the profit of capitalists. To put in Hildyard’s word (2016): Payment Guarantees it is a licensed larceny! “The government agrees to fulfil the obligations of a purchaser (typically a Social-Ecological Crisis Deepened and publicly-owned enterprise) with respect Expanded to the private entity in the case of In the last two decades, Asian has been non-performance by the purchaser.” witnessing deeper social-ecological crises, i.e. Example: a private company operating the massive land grabs for natural resources a dam has a power purchasing extraction, palm oil expansion, industrial agreement with a state-owned utility economic zones, and mega-infrastructure to take the electricity generated by the projects. Peasantries and indigenous people dam at a specified dam. The utility fails in India and Indonesia, for instance, have to honour the agreement because it can been suffering from land grabbing for the get cheaper electricity from another development of Special Economic Zones source. So the government steps in and (SEZs) and for various infrastructure projects. guarantees the payments. Palm oil companies in Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia and Philippines have cleared millions hectares of forest which are the Revenue guarantees living space for indigenous peoples and “The government sets a minimum other forest-dependent communities. The variable income for the private partner, plan for developing 88 dams along Mekong typically this income is from customer Basin for hydro-electric power generation user fees.” Example: the government and for various purposes has undermine the enters into an agreement with a toll livelihoods and food sovereignty of peasants, road operator to guarantee a minimum rural poor and fishermen in the region. / 13 / BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS

As Asia now is merely seen and defined as a space for capital accumulation, consequently, the Continent is now facing the potential lost of its’ tropical forest where more than 300.000 indigenous communites depend on it. The continent might confront huge and massive land grabs and land use changes from the agricultural land into industrial or agribusiness complex uses. This might lead the rural poor into a “no job, no land and no social security” situation. Asia is potentially lost its’ carrying capacities and more vulnerable to the climate changes threat, as shown by several scholars (Yusuf and Fransisco 2009). In short, Asian is facing the violence of economic corridors and is under continous threat of more profound and accute social-ecological crises.

As mentioned above, the current emergence of mega-economic corridor in Asia is part of global development plan to restore capital from overaccumulation crisis. It also aims at expanding capital in the less-capital intensive areas, deepening capital social relations in the more developed areas as well as accelerating the flow of commodity, people, and, surely, profit. https://www.kamerabild.se/artiklar/intervjuer/mattias-klum-det- finns-inget-d-ligt-ljus However, every drip of capital always has contradictory consequences. On one Capital also disconnects the metabolic hand, capital creates wealth, abundance, relations between human and nature (and convenience and luxury for human’s life, on therefore creates ‘metabolical rift’), as the the other hand it also creates dispossession, later is merely seen as factor of production exploitation and extraction. Capital creates that has to be extracted and exploited. connectivity: one people in some places with other people in other places, connects goods with the consumers and many more. At the same time, it also disconnects people from their land, forest, sea---above all, human’s means of life and human’s life spaces, through dispossession to create an industry, commodity as well as labour reserve army. Once human defined and forced to be labour, capital then alienates labour from their real existence and exploits their labour power.

/ 14 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia Major Economic Corridors in Africa. Corridors Major Economic Source: https://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investmentfordevelopment/41864977.pdf Source:

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Infrastructure projects in Africa Source: https://www.paragkhanna.com/home/2016/4/18/these-maps-show-how-vast-new-infrastructure-is- bringing-the-world-together

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Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA) integration corridors and hubs Source: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4204e.pdf

Canadian Arctic Corridor Source: https://euobserver.com/nordic/141142 / 17 / BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS

North America Economic Corridors Source: https://www.paragkhanna.com/home/2016/4/18/these-maps-show-how-vast-new-infrastructure-is- bringing-the-world-together

Finnish-Norway Arctic Corridor Source: https://euobserver.com/nordic/141142

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Indonesia Economic Corridors Source: goodnewsfromindonesia.id

China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor (CMREC) – Proposed railways Source: http://nigscass.cssn.cn/xshy/201701/W020170303349361882465.pdf

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Delhi and Mumbai Industrial Corridor Source: https://content.magicbricks.com/

Eastern Economic Corridor in Thailand Source: https://www.eeco.or.th/en

/ 20 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia - Crises omy and Ecological Existing Social-Econ Desertification, water supply access, poverty, air pollution, hunger, soil deforestation, debt degradation, crisis, food crisis. Debt crisis, migration, air pollution, contaminated soil erosion, water, loss deforestation, food of biodiversity, crisis, increasing unemployment rate,climate crisis, public health services, poverty, Debt crisis, climate crisis, loss air biodiversity, poverty, pollution, uncertain politic, social welfare, indigenous migration, issue, health N/A N/A (USD) Investment 163 billions (to build the construction or upgrading of 8000 km of roads, 7000 km of railways, four river ports and 8,500 km of navigable waterways) Financial mechanism Financial private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . Aims and Infrastructures Mainly for mining, gas, iron ore, copper and other mines nickel, with agriculture and tourism become secondary goals. The infrastructures are electricity, highways, rail links, pipelines and deep sea ports Consist of 579 projects with 89% of them are mainly for building roads, airports inland waterways and multi modal transports and the rest of them are for communication infrastructure and energy projects connect oil, gas pipelines as To well as water to channel it into of dry area such as South West USA. Also to connect the network of highways, railways, pipelines and electricity grids across North of one be American and claimed to “unified mega-continent of shared resources and prosperity actors Drivers, promotors, and other supporting Foreign investors Foreign Initiative for the Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA); Inter-American Development Bank (IADB); Foreign investors investors Foreign THE EMERGENCE OF ECONOMIC CORRIDOR PROJECTS IN WORLD Economic Corridor More than 30 economic corridors have been planned, developed and operated. Those corridors consist of mega infrastructure projects that traverse over 38 countries and with total 53,000 km in length. Has 10 economic corridors in national level and new frontier areas such as Amazon Andean Corridor, Mercosur- Corridor, Chile Corridor and Peru-Brazil-Bolivia Corridors Attached in NAFTA (North America Free Agreement) Trade corridors Location Africa South America North America

/ 21 / BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS - Crises omy and Ecological Existing Social-Econ Debt crisis, migration crisis, unemployment people, high cost of living, crime, health and social security, terrorism, housing, climate change, the loff of biodiversity, Climate crisis, global warming, melting ice. N/A N/A (USD) Investment Financial mechanism Financial private Public partnership; private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . Aims and Infrastructures To interconnect roads, canals, To waterways, electricity corridors and oil gas pipelines faster and cheaper To intercontinental shipping by preserving wildlife and a natural resources. Proposes comprehensive system of tiered shipping and railroads routes that will benefit Canada, the shipping industry and northern communities. And to integrate Arctic Corridor—especially through North from Russian Sea Route Arctic to Bering Strait with BRI actors Drivers, promotors, and other supporting Foreign investors Foreign Canadian government; Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB); China government; Foreign investors Economic Corridor Trans-European Trans-European Network Transport at least 9 (TEN-T); corridors throughout Europe such Western as Baltic-Adriatic North Sea- Corridor, Orient- Baltic Corridor, East-Mediterranean Rhine-Alpine Corridor, and so forth Corridor, Arctic Corridors Location The European Union North Pole

/ 22 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia - Crises omy and Ecological Existing Social-Econ Poverty, fresh water Poverty, crises, extreme drought, extreme economic inequality, sanitaiton issue, social welfare, health and education crises, living space, agricultural issue. polluted Poverty, water and air, extreme eviction, land degradation, deforestation, economic inequality, large-scale land forest fire, conversion, loss of biodiversity, climate crisis, land prices, converting agriculture land into urban or industries area. N/A (USD) Investment Maloy Batuta Kalimantan Trans SEZ= 713 million (first phase of toll roads), 8,2 billion (railways construction); Sei SEZ= Mangkei 9 milllion; The in Golden Triangle North Coastline of Java= N/A West Financial mechanism Financial private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . Aims and Infrastructures Seven dedicated freight train corridors are planned or under construction; and multiple projects are being implemented to increase the capacity of country’s twelve major ports whose throughput of iron ore, coal and containers is expected to have increased by 146 per cent, 225 per cent and 818 cent respectively between 2007 and 2026. Developing new SEZs in areas or expanding the existing SEZs i.e Kalimantan Maloy Batuta Trans SEZ (central of olechemical and mining industry in frontier area); SEZ (expanding Sei Mangkei the central of oleochemical in in Sumatra); The Golden Triangle Java (new North Coastline of West industrySEZs are for areas). Those industries purposes (downstream industries, tourism, real estate) actors Drivers, promotors, and other supporting Foreign investors Foreign Investors; Foreign Indonesian Government; China Government; Asian Development Bank (ADB); National Military Force Economic Corridor Five industrial Five development corridors (each with ‘nodal’ Smart Cities and core industrial hubs) are also being developed, including the Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial Corridor, the Bengaluru-Mumbai Economic the Chennai- Corridor, Bengaluru Industrial Corridor and the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor. The Master Plan for Acceleration and Expansion of Indonesia’s Economic Development (MP3EI); Initiative Belt Road Comprehensive Asia (BRI); The Comprehensive Asia Development Plan (CADP) Location India Indonesia

/ 23 / BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS - Crises omy and Ecological Existing Social-Econ Mongolia‘s environmental problems have become increasingly prominent due to global warming: 70% of the country‘s land faces various degrees of desertification, and there is a growing trend. The latest statistics showed that Mongolia has three and rivers, large lakes, streams 6646, among which 551 are drying The or already dry. total animal herd size now at the beginning of 2019 reached to its historic higher level, to near 70,0 mln head. Losing access to fishing areas and low lying agricultural lands for farming; the land granted for relocation have secure doesn’t title; inadequate shelter standards; income generation is become very shortage since all farming land was totally destroyed; (USD) Investment CMREC 45 million from ADB which total project is 71.64 million; CAREC program 24 million from ADB 3.8 billion and 500.4 million for next project Financial mechanism Financial private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . Aims and Infrastructures Existing mining target: Copper and mining project in Oyu Tolgoi coal mining project in Tavan Tolgoi. Economic Docking the Silk Road Across the Zone with Russia‘s and Mongolia‘s Eurasian Railway and building a Grassland Plan, Economic China-Mongolia-Russia Corridor. be a resort along the coastline, To golf complete with a casino, course, 5-star hotel, beach club and many other facilities. Recent reports unveil a master plan with “a nearly complete economy, with medical treatment centres, condominiums, resorts and hotels, manufacturing facilities, a deep- water port, and an international airport”. actors Drivers, promotors, and other supporting Mongolian Government; China Government; Foreign Investors; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Cambodian Goverment; Asian Development Bank (ADB); Foreign Investors; National Military China Force; governement Economic Corridor China-Mongolia-Russia China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor (CMREC); Belt Road Initiative Comprehensive Asia (BRI); Central Asian Economic Regional Cooperation (CAREC) programme. The Great Mekong Sub-region (The GMS); The Comprehensive Asia Development Plan (CADP); The Southern Economic Corridor (SEC) Location Mongolia Cambodia

/ 24 / The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia - Crises omy and Ecological Existing Social-Econ Land prices in Chonburi and Rayong, Chachoengsao have seen an increase of more than 50% owing to the strong demand for property for both residential and industrial development purposes. Rapid industrial development over the last few decades has already led to environmental degradation in the provinces of and Chonburi, Rayong Also, Chachoengsao. water and toxic air pollution as well illegal dumping of hazardous wastes (USD) Investment 14 billion Financial mechanism Financial private Public partnership; Foreign Direct Investment; Loan and debt . Aims and Infrastructures To enhance the first existing To S-curve industries including automotive, agriculture and bio food, highincome technology, wellness and medical tourism, smart electronics, along with the addition and development of five new S-curve industries including robotics and aviation and logistics, automation, bioenergy and biochemicals, medical hubs, and the digital industry. actors Drivers, promotors, and other supporting Asian Development Bank (ADB); Thailand Government (the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of the Ministry Transport, of Digital Economy the and Society, Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Affairs, the Foreign Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Social Development and the Human Security, Customs Department, Thailand International Cooperation Agency); the Economic Development Cooperation Agency of neighbouring countries; Foreign Investors, Economic Corridor The Great Mekong The Great Mekong Sub-region (The GMS); Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC); The Comprehensive Asia Development Plan (CADP) Location Thailand

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Contact person:

Ganies Oktaviana (Sajogyo Institute - Indonesia) +62 878 8292 0366 [email protected]

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Forest fires in Indonesia. Source: https://wsimag.com/ economy-and-politics/18767-southeast-asian-haze-fires

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