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Kognitive Strukturen Und Steuerungsprobleme Der Forschung Hans-Willy Hohn Kognitive Strukturen und Steuerungsprobleme der Forschung Kernphysik und Informatik im Vergleich Campus Verlag Frankfurt/New York Schriften des Max-Planck-Instituts für Gesellschaftsforschung Köln, Band 36 Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Hohn Hans-Willy: Kognitive Strukturen und Steuerungsprobleme der Forschung: Kernphysik und Informatik im Vergleich / Hans-Willy Hohn. – Frankfurt/Main; New York: Campus Verlag, 1998 (Schriften des Max-Planck-Instituts für Gesellschaftsforschung, Köln; Bd. 36) ISBN 3-593-36102-7 Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlags unzulässig. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Copyright © 1998 Campus Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt/Main. DTP: Thomas Pott, Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung, Köln. Druck und Bindung: KM-Druck, Groß-Umstadt. Gedruckt auf säurefreiem und chlorfrei gebleichtem Papier. Printed in Germany Für Susanne Inhalt Abbildungen und Tabellen 10 Abkürzungen 11 Danksagung 15 Kapitel 1 Forschungspolitik und Wissenschaftssoziologie – eine neue Annäherung 17 1.1 Forschungsplanung als altes und neues Problem der Wissenschaftssoziologie 17 1.2 Die Rolle der Forschungspolitik in der traditionellen und in der Kuhnschen Wissenschaftssoziologie 34 1.3 Entzauberung und Dekonstruktion der Wissenschaft durch die neue Wissenssoziologie 40 1.4 Auswege aus der konstruktivistischen Konfusion – Forschungshandeln als Problemlösungshandeln und ein Kontingenzmodell von Forschungsorganisation 46 Kapitel 2 Wege und Irrwege der Kernphysik 63 2.1 Der Aufstieg einer »small science« zur »big science« 63 2.2 Start und Stagnation der Kernphysik 69 2.3 Experimentelle Innovationen – die »glücklichen dreißiger Jahre« 75 2.4 Entdeckung der Kernspaltung und Stabilisierung ihrer theoretischen Deutung 82 Kapitel 3 Wege zur kernphysikalischen Großforschung 92 3.1 Kognitive Struktur der kerntechnischen Forschung und die Formierung des atompolitischen Netzwerks in der Bundesrepublik 92 3.2 Koordinationsprobleme der deutschen Atompolitik und das »lock-in« des Leichtwasserreaktors als suboptimale Lösung 101 3.3 Brutreaktoren als kerntechnisches Optimum und Weg in die Großforschung 108 3.4 Aufgabenstruktur und Funktionsweise der kerntechnischen Großforschung 113 Kapitel 4 Entdeckung des Computers 131 4.1 Wissenschaftssoziologische Konstruktionen und reale Konstrukte 131 4.2 Frühe Rechentechnik und formale Logik 136 4.3 Abstrakte und konkrete Maschinen 143 4.4 Die Entdeckung der Universalmaschine und das »lock-in« der Von-Neumann-Architektur 151 Kapitel 5 Entstehung der Informatik 161 5.1 Numerik, Kybernetik und frühe Computer science 161 5.2 Der Kalte Krieg und die Softwaretechnik 171 5.3 Kommerzielle Programmiersprachen und der Beitrag von ALGOL zur Entstehung der Informatik 179 5.4 Computer science als Formalwissenschaft 187 Kapitel 6 Entwicklungslinien der Informatik und Normierungsprobleme der Softwaretechnik 195 6.1 Vielfalt und Heterogenität – das Dilemma der Informatik und die Normierung der Softwaretechnik 195 6.2 Wildwuchs der Programmiersprachen und frühe Muster der Standardisierung in der Datenverarbeitung 204 6.2.1 Das ALGOL-Drama 204 6.2.2 Rechnerfamilien und das erneute Scheitern der Komiteestandardisierung 214 6.3 Symbiose der Softwaretechnik mit der Elektronik und ihr Eigenleben gegenüber der Informatik 218 6.4 Rückschläge der Informatik, Schiffbruch von Ada und die verschlungenen Pfade von C zur weltweiten Norm 228 6.5 Von der Abstraktion in die Komplexität des Einzelfalls – Entwicklungstendenzen der Programmierung 238 6.6 Vages Wissen und tiefe Modellierungen – Lehren aus der Renaissance der KI-Forschung 240 6.7 Unscharfe Systeme – neue Perspektiven der Wissensverarbeitung 246 6.8 Zwischen Formalisierung und Verstehen – die duale Struktur der Informatik 251 Kapitel 7 Steuerungsprobleme der informatischen Großforschung und die Performanz der Kontextsteuerung 259 7.1 Die Odyssee der GMD 259 7.2 Fehlstart – informatische Großforschung als Mathematik 263 7.3 Kurskorrektur ohne Landkarte 270 7.3.1 Erste Strukturreform und die Suche nach der großen Aufgabe 270 7.3.2 Zersplitterte Projekte und Transferprobleme 275 7.4 Kurskorrektur im Kurswechsel – neuer Reformversuch, die japanische Herausforderung und gescheiterte Großprojekte 284 7.5 Kontextsteuerung als Alternative – der Erfolgskurs der FhG 293 Kapitel 8 Fazit: Die Organisationssoziologie als Hilfswissenschaft der Wissenschafts- und Technikforschung 305 Literatur 323 Sach- und Personenregister 345 Abbildungen und Tabellen Abbildungen 1 Ein Kontingenzmodell von Forschungskooperation 56 2 Auszahlungsmatrix »Battle of the Sexes« 200 Tabellen 1 Finanzhaushalte der Gesellschaft für Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung sowie der informationstechnischen Institute der Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft 1980 bis 1990 298 2 Haushaltsstrukturen GMD und IITB 1984 bis 1990 299 Abkürzungen ACM Association for Computing Machinery AEC Atomic Energy Commission AiF Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen AEG Allgemeine Electricitäts-Gesellschaft ANSI American National Standards Institute AT&T American Telephone & Telegraph AVR Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor BMAt Bundesministerium für Atomenergie BMBW Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft BMEWS Ballistic Missile Early Warning System BMFT Bundesministerium für Forschung und Technologie BMI Bundesministerium des Innern BMVtg Bundesministerium der Verteidigung BMwF Bundesministerium für wissenschaftliche Forschung CCITT Consultative Committee for Telephone and Telegraph DAtK Deutsche Atomkommission DEC Digital Equipment Corporation DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFR Deutscher Forschungsrat DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung DoD Department of Defense DRZ Deutsches Rechenzentrum Darmstadt DVL Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt ETH Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich EURATOM Europäische Atomgemeinschaft EVU Energieversorgungsunternehmen FhG Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft GaMM Gesellschaft für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik GI Gesellschaft für Informatik GKSS Forschungszentrum Geesthacht GMD Gesellschaft für Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung IAO Institut für Arbeitswirtschaft und Organisation IAS Institute for Advanced Studies IBM International Bureau Machines IEEE The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. IFIP International Federation for Information Processing IFT Institut für Festkörpertechnologie IGD Institut für Graphische Datenverarbeitung IIM Institut für Instrumentelle Mathematik IIS Institut für Integrierte Schaltungen IITB Institut für Informations- und Datenverarbeitung (vormals Institut für Informationsverarbeitung in Technik und Biologie) IMS Institut für Mikroelektronische Schaltungen und Systeme IPA Institut für Produktionstechnik und Automatisierung IPK Institut für Produktions- und Konstruktionsanlagen IPM Institut für Physikalische Meßtechnik ISO International Standards Organization KfA Kernforschungsanlage Jülich KfK Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe LIFE Laboratory for International Fuzzy Engineering Research MAN Maschinenfabrik Augsburg Nürnberg AG MIDAS Missile Defense Alarm System MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MITI Ministry for International Trade and Industry MPG Max-Planck-Gesellschaft NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NORAD North American Air Defense System NTG Nachrichtentechnische Gesellschaft OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PTT Postal, Telegraph and Telephone Administration RCA Radio Corporation of America RGW Rat für Gegenseitige Wirtschaftshilfe der Warschauer-Pakt-Staaten RWE Rheinisch-Westfälische Elektrizitätswerke SACCS Strategic Air Command Control System SAGE Semi Automatic Ground Environment TÜV Technischer Überwachungsverein UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNO United Nations Organization VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure VEW Vereinigte Elektrizitätswerke Danksagung Bei der hier vorgestellten Studie handelt es sich um die überarbeitete Fassung meiner Habilitationsschrift, die die Fakultät für Soziologie der Universität Bielefeld im Dezember 1997 angenommen hat. An beiden Versionen haben viele Personen hilfreich mitgewirkt. Dank schulde ich zuallererst meinen zahlreichen Interviewpartnern aus der Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft und Politik, die mir mit großer Geduld und Engagement in ausführlichen und oft mehr- maligen Gesprächen Auskunft gaben und mich nicht selten erst gelehrt ha- ben, die richtigen Fragen zu stellen. Ohne ihre Unterstützung hätte diese Studie nicht entstehen können. Gleichwohl muß ich, um die ihnen zugesi- cherte Anonymität zu wahren, darauf verzichten, meine Gesprächspartner im einzelnen zu nennen. Namentlich danken darf und will ich aber Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Franz Xaver Kaufmann, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Krohn, Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Renate Mayntz und Prof. Dr. Peter Weingart als den Gutachtern der Habilitationsschrift, de- ren ausführliche und konstruktive Kritiken eine große Hilfe bei ihrer Über- arbeitung zur Publikation waren. Vor allem bin ich Prof. Kaufmann zu Dank verpflichtet. Er hat den Werdegang der Arbeit nicht nur mit der ihm eigenen freundlichen und verständnisvollen Unnachgiebigkeit begleitet, von der ich bereits als Student profitieren konnte, sondern auch zur Lösung von Proble- men beigetragen und mich durch schwierige Situationen gelotst, die ihre Fertigstellung zu verzögern drohten. Es ist kaum möglich, sich einen kom-
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