ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Georgia Department of Community Affairs (DCA's) Georgia Home Composting Project was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency July 1, 1992. The grant called for the establishment of five home composting demonstration sites and one workshop for volunteers willing to contribute forty hours training others in home composting. At the time of the grant awards, DCA funded seven local governments with EPA funds and offered three others the opportunity to apply for grants. Thus, in the Spring of 1992, ten sites will open. One workshop to train volunteers was expanded to five workshops where up to two hundred persons will be given a day-long orientation on home composting and educational techniques. DCA has contracted with the University of Georgia's Cooperative Extension Service to prepare educational materials for the sites and the workshops and to help with training at the workshops.

We wish to acknowledge the contributions of persons who helped prepare the grant proposal as well as those who have supported the development, expansion and execution of DCAs Georgia Home Composting Project.

Assisting DCA staff in preparation of the grant were Susan Smith of C2S2; Clark Gregory, Ph. D., Woods End Laboratories; Henry Bryant, Atlanta Clean City Commission, who also recruited the artist, Lisa South, designer of the site signs; and Don Jackson, Zoo Atlanta.

Those who provided direction, resources and encouragement during the development of the project include Robin Mitchell and Richard Kashmanian, EPA; and Joe Keyser, American Horticultural Society.

We wish to thank Dr. Wayne J. McLaurin and Dr. Gary L. Wade of the Horticulture Department at The University of Georgia for devoting untold hours compiling the material for the training handbook, and to Dr. Sylvia McLaurin, Carolyn Cox and Delores White for helping type and edit the material.

Vendors who have provided composting bins for the demonstration sites include Envirocycle, Smith & Hawken, Health & Environmental Systems, Southern Mills, Can Do Composter, Atlantic Recycle Systems, West Bay Forest Products, Shamrock Industries, Toro, and R. P. M. Pennlngton Enterprises has generously provided a ton of Georgia produced compost to each of the sites for use in planting and for display until finished compost can be produced on site.

Thanks is due to Rick Washington, Zoo Atlanta, for producing the drawing of DCA's concept of the home composting demonstration site. The staff and management of Fast Signs, Computer Images, worked patiently to produce durable signs which reflect the designs and concepts developed by DCA staff and Lisa South.

We wish to express special thanks and appreciation to Lisa South. She has given freely of her talent, spending many hours creating designs for the eleven signs to be used in each site. She is a home composter and contributed her time because of her deep commitment to alternatives which are healthy for the environment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ...... i What Is Compost ...... i Why Compost? ...... iii An Age Old Practice ...... iii Composting Is Microfarming ...... iv . The Georgia Home Composter Training Program ...... v

Chapter 1

The Decomposition Process ...... 1 Anaerobic Decomposition ...... 1 Aerobic Decomposition ...... 2 Requirements For Efficient Decomposition ...... 3 Aeration/Oxygen ...... 3 Moisture ...... 3 Particle Size ...... 3 Temperature ...... 3 Organisms Involved ...... 4 Chemical Decomposers ...... 6 Bacteria ...... 6 Actinomycetes ...... 7 Protozoa ...... 7 . Fungi ...... 7 Physical Decomposers ...... 8 Mites ...... 8 .. Millipedes ...... 8 Centipedes ...... 8 . Sowbugs ...... 8 Snails and Slugs ...... 8 Spiders ...... 8 . Springtails ...... 8 Beetles ...... 9 Ants ...... 9 . Flies ...... 9 Worms ...... 9 Earthworms ...... 9 . Useoflnocula ...... 10

. Chapter 2 Composting Fundamentals Raw Materials Quantity and Composition ...... 12

Leaf Composting ...... 12 . Grass Clippings/Woody Materials Mixture ...... 14 Leaves/Grass/Pruning Mixture ...... 14 Animal Manures ...... 14 Carbon: Nitrogen Relationships ...... 14 Blending of Materials ...... 16 Shredding of Refuse ...... 16 Environmental Factors ...... 17 Moisture Content ...... 17 Temperature ...... 18 . Aeration/Oxygen ...... 20 Climatic Conditions ...... 21 Temperature ...... 21 . Wind ...... 21 Rain ...... 21 Destruction of Harmful Elements ...... 21 . Slug Bait ...... 22 Herbicides ...... 22 Insecticides ...... 22 1 Fungicides ...... 22 Other Factors ...... 22 Reclamation of Nitrogen and Other Nutrients ...... 22 4 Time ...... 23 Unwanted Guest: The Pests of The Pile ...... 24 Animal Pests ...... 24 Flies and Related Pest ...... 24 . Chapter 3

Composting Structures ...... 26 . Holding Units ...... 26 Wire Mesh Holding Units ...... 26 Wooden Pallet Holding Unit ...... 27 . Concrete Block Holding Unit ...... 28 Garbage-Can Composter ...... 28 Turning Units ...... 29 . Wood and Wire Turning Unit ...... 29 Wooden Three Bin Turning Unit ...... 31 Concrete Block Three Bin Turning Unit ...... 32 . Barrel Composter ...... 33 Heaps ...... 34 Pit Composting ...... 34 . Plastic Bag Composting ...... 35

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! Chapter 4 . Building and Maintaining A Compost Pile ...... 36 Site of the Pile ...... 36 Placement of the Materials ...... 37 Windrows. Piles and Bins ...... 37 Adding To the Pile ...... 38 Handling Kitchen Scraps ...... 38 Moisture and Turning ...... 38 Finished Compost ...... 39 How To Build the Compost Pile ...... 39

Chapter 5

Utilization of Compost and Other Landscape Refuse ...... 43 Compost: Black Gold For Soil ...... 43 Avoid Using Compost Before It Is Ready ...... 43 Using Compost ...... 43 .. .. Mulching With Fall Leaves ...... 44 Save Some Leaves For Cold Protection In Winter ...... 45 Grasscycling ...... 45 \.~ Other Uses For Grass Clippings ...... 45

__ Chapter 6

. Answers to Commonly Asked Composting Questions ...... 46

.. Chapter 7

Guidelines For Starting A Community Composting Education Program 50 You Can Start A Home Composting Education Program ...... 50 Organization ...... 50 Planning ...... 51 Action ...... 51

Glossary ...... 59

. Appendix ...... 65 .. References/Resource Materials ...... 65 Books ...... 65 Brochures ...... 65 Trade Journals ...... 66 Slide Sets ...... 66 Videos ...... 67 Organizations ...... 67 Composting and Related Equipment Manufacturers ...... 68 Chippers/Shredders ...... 68 Barrel Composters/Tumblers ...... 69 Holding Units ...... 69 Mulching Mowers ...... 70 . Selected Articles Pertaining to Composting ...... 71 Composting in Twelve Easy Steps ...... 72 . Recipe for State of the Art Landfill ...... 73 At The Top of The Heap ...... 74

Tifton-Tift County Clean Community Commission ...... 77 . Turn Trash Into Treasure in the Garden ...... 79 One Man’s Waste is a Gardener’s Gold ...... 80 Growing Up in Georgia ...... 81 . Don’t Throw Away Garden Compost ...... 82 At Home Waste Management ...... 84 Environmental Fact Sheet ...... 86 Home Composting Program Options ...... 89 -# Backyard Composting As MSW Strategy ...... 91 Implementing a Backyard Composting Program ...... 94 . Community Compost ...... 96 Composting ...... 101

Source Reduction Through Home Composting ...... 104 I Slowing The Flow to the Landfill ...... 107 Composting Goes to School ...... 109 Waste Not ...... 110 . Grasscycling ...... 112 What To Do With The Clippings ...... 116 Home Yard Waste Chippers/Shredders ...... 119 . Composters Compared ...... 121 Backyard Composters ...... 124 Selecting A Compost System for Your Yard ...... 129 . Tools for Recycling and Composting Yardwastes ...... 132 Composting Kitchen Waste ...... 134 Compost As A Fertilizer ...... 136 . Compost As A Soil Amendment ...... 138 Compost As A Potting Soil ...... 140 Causes of Compost Odors and Their Elimination ...... 142 . Composting and Plant Diseases ...... 144 The Art and Science of Composting 145 ......

. I”

Introduction Composting and Recycling: An Overview

Today, solid waste management is one of the Organic landscape materials, including leaves, most prominent environmental issues facing woody trimmings and grass clippings typically Georgia and many other states throughout the account for between 15% and 20% of a nation. Our landfills are filling up at an alarming communities annual solid waste. During peak rate. In fact, seventy percent of Georgia’s landfills leafdrop in fall when residents are bagging and are estimated to be filled to capacity by 1994 placing leaves curbside, organic materials may unless something is done to slow down the account for as much as 50% of the incoming accumulation of waste materials. landfill volume.

Georgians generate about 4 1/2 pounds of solid The irony of this scenario is that, with the waste per person each day. Statewide this exception of large woody brush, residents can amounts to over 12 millon tons each year. recycle all their organic materials right in their Recycling programs underway in many own yards through composting, mulching and communities across the state are helping slow the grasscycling. By recycling these materials, we’re flow of wastes into landfills. However, finding not just saving our landfill space but also markets for recyclables and voluntary community- improving our home environment. Organic matter wide participation remain obstacles to the adds valuable nutrients back to the soil, improves success of these programs. While 95% of what the condition of our soils, helps insulate the soil we throw away is recyclable, less than 20% of our from temperature extremes, and helps plants household waste is presently being recycled. A survive dry periods by holding moisture in our few communities have implemented mandatory soils. recycling laws while others are using a more indirect approach by raising tipping fees at As concerned citizens and good stewards of the landfillsand increasing the cost of curbside waste environment, it’s time we take action and stop pick-up. throwing out what we can recycle and reuse. It’s time we stopped classifying organic materials as In 1990 the Georgia Legislature passed the waste and see them as Mother Nature Georgia Comprehensive Solid Waste intended..as an important link in the web of life, ManagementAct. This Act requires municipalities whose death and decay brings newness of life across the state to document a 25% reduction in and beauty to our environment. landfill volume by July 1, 1996. It also gives municipalities the right to refuse to accept organic What is Compost? landscape materials at landfills after July 1, 1990. Compost is the controlled decomposition of Stringent environmental regulations have made organic matter through biological processes, with the cost of constructing skyrocket. Costs range the end result being a nutrient-rich humus. The from $250,000 to $350,000 per acre to build a word ’compost’ is derived from the Latin verb new landfill facility, or ten times more than they componere which means to put together. cost in the past. Composting involves the putting together of a

Introduction i What's In Our Garbage?

'- Introduction ii mixture of vegetable residue, animal matter, soil involved stacking alternate layers of animal and water to form humus. Just as variety is the mature, sewage sludge, garbage, organic matter, spice of life, a variety of different organic materials such as straw, leaves, and municipal refuse. The makes the best compost. material was stacked to a height of about 5 feet or was placed in specially constructed pits 2 to 3 WHY COMPOST? feet deep. The original procedure called for turning the material only twice during the Composting is one way we can manage and composting period of six months or longer. The recycle our organic landscape materials and liquid draining from the decomposing mass was manufacturing humus for improving our soils. recirculated to moisten the pile or was added to Composting will also reduce the volume of other drier piles. The lndore process, named after organic materials by about 80% as they decay. the locality in India, with modifications and Every resident who has a landscape should also improvements, has been widely used in many be composting organic materials. It may be done different countries. An important innovation has as simply as piling organic materials in an out-of- been more frequent turning to maintain aerobic the-way place in the backyard and letting them rot conditions, thus providing more rapid on their own. Or you may want to build or decomposition and shortening the composting purchase a compost bin that will accelerate the period. composting process. Compost will improve the productivity of your soil and the growth of plants During the period 1926-1941, Waksman and his in your landscape and garden. associates carried out fundamental research on the aerobic decomposition of vegetable residues Composting is the cornerstone of waste source and stable manures. They made and reported reduction. Source reduction means putting less important discoveries regarding the influence of stuff on the curb for the garbage man to pick up temperature on the rate of decomposition, the and deliver to the landfill. As progressbe cities role of indbidual groups of micro-organisms, and initiate volume-based fee structures for refuse the effect of mixed cultures compared with pure removal, the amount of garbage for curbside cultures on organic breakdown. pickup declines as citizens realize they will save money by discarding less. Tifton, Georgia, for From 1950 to 1952, Gotaas and his associates example, has already had a 33% drop in refuse conducted research on some of the basic aspects collected since beginning its "pay-as-you-throw" of composting mixed municipal refuse containing volume-basedfee program in January, 1992 (from garbage and sewage sludge. Their investigation 60 tons per week to 40 tons per week). And as provided basic information on the effects of some home composting "catches on," even more of the different variables encountered in aerobic residents will know how to reduce the waste composting, namely: (1) temperature; (2) stream and their expenditures on it. moisture; (3) aeration by turning and by other means; (4) the C:N ratio of the organic materials; AN AGE-OLD PRACTICE (5) the use of special biological inocula; and (6) grinding or shredding the material. As a natural process, "composting" has been taking place since the initiation of plant life on Their studies also yielded data on the types of earth. Early man no doubt learned to use organisms present in composting techniques for manures and planted in soil enriched by natural judging the condition of the compost at various decay. Historians have traced composting and stages of decomposition. the use of compost in Europe to the Roman Marcus Cat0 over 2000 years ago. While composting practices were being refined in India, China, Malaya, and elsewhere, other The first important advance in the practice of investigators, notably in Europe, were devoting composting was made by Sir Albert Howard considerable effort to mechanizing the almost 75 years ago in India. He systemized the composting process, particularfy for use as a traditional procedure into a composting method method for treatment and sanitary disposal of the he called the lndore process. This process garbage and refuse from cities. These efforts resulted in various mechanical innovations, Introducfion iii usually with the objective of improving the A diversity of materials is the key to a really first- aesthetics of the process by enclosing the rate compost. In addition to the major plant materials in some type of structure, of speeding it nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and 1 up, and of making it more economical. The potassium, plants take up a host of minor mechanized and enclosed processes are primarily elements and trace elements. The more diverse designed for cities, but they are also valuable in the materials composted, the more likely that rural village composting. Various modifications of these elements are returned to the plants. This is the lndore process have been used in the not to say the materials will compost better, only - Netherlands, Germany, Austria, England, Africa, that they will feed the plants better. Australia, New Zealand, India, Malaya, Central America, and the USA. Where are materials for composting found? Well, an avid recycler of organic wastes looks longingly COMPOSTING IS MICROFARMING at the contents of supermarket dumpsters and florist shop trash barrels. These are items that - Composting is simply micro-organism farming. A would otherwise be thrown away. The quote good farmer keeps in mind the basics of soil, below from Vic Sussman's book Easv season, pests, and climate when growing a crop, CornPosting (pp. 103-4), sums up the situation: and a good composter must focus on the -_ materials being composted (their size, freshness, '..gardeners can serve an important role in exposed surface) and the climate around these collecting such kastes' that might otherwise materials (moisture, aeration and temperature) to plague the cmmuniiy and the local envhnment - ensure a healthy compost crop. Fortunately, as by ending up as poll^. But besides lifting a composters we can do much more to control the small pact of the burden off your fellow Qupjets, you'll be functionhg as an agent of change. climate in a backyard compost pile than a farmer - can do to control the weather. The micro- People wiil express surprise and curiosity at your organism farmer who keeps in mind some basic coliection and cmposting of what they had rules of thumb can cultivate good compost in any previously considered useless sluff. Your climate. recycling and humus making will act as a reminder that garbage and organic trash are 3 Anything organic - leaves on the ground, a fallen realty resources, not problems, if w8 use our collective Imaginations and practice self- tree, or a wood framed house - will decompose. - The more resistant the material Is to decay, reliance'. however, the longer the process will take. Except in some special situations, decomposition is inevitable! A total absence of air, such as in a peat bog, will prevent decomposition. In very dry places or in very cold climates decomposition may be slowed or stopped. Everything organic that's out in the weather will sooner or later be fueling the decomposition process.

The materials you need to begin your micro- organism farming venture are the very same ones falling on your yard, grass clippings from your lawn, sod stripped for a garden, weeds, squash -- vines, watermelon rinds, coffee grounds, tea leaves and fruit and vegetable trimmings from the kitchen -- all these materials come from once living organisms and can all be composted in some manner. So start right in your yard with the materials at hand and find ways to use what you have.

Introduction iv I“

The Georaia Home Composter Trainina Proaram

The Georgia Home Composter Program Is an Initiative of the Georgia Department of Community Affairs, made possible by a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and intended to serve as a model for other states. We’re proud to say that It’s also the nation’s first statewide initiative on home composting.

The main purpose of the program is to help Georgians to understand composting. By composting at home and other methods of landscape recycling, we can reduce the volume entering our landfills by at least 20%. Like other forms of recycling, home composting, mulching and grasscycling allow the individual citizen to have a hand in solid waste reduction.

-. On the other hand, this program involves more than just saving our landfills and helping the environment. We hope the training will help you gain a deeper understanding and greater appreciation for organic recycling and its benefit to your living environment. By returning to the earth what Mother Nature provides, - your landscape and garden plants will thrive. Once you learn the simple techniques and discover the benefits, you will want to show others just how simple it is to get involved.

The Georgia Home Composter Program includes training workshops, permanent demonstration sites throughout the state, and support for volunteers who will spread the word on composting at home to their friends, neighbors and relatives. The Department of Community Affairs (DCA) has made this program an integral part of its statewide solid waste management education program called for by the Georgia Comprehensive Solid Waste Management Act of 1990. The DCA expects this project to stimulate the adoption and promotion of composting at home as an Integral part of solid waste management in Georgia.

Major features of the project are as follows:

1. Volunteers are trained via home composting workshops:

L Volunteer participants attending a oneday workshop receive training on compost technology, educational techniques, and organizational skills. Volunteers then conduct similar home composter training programs in their communities using resources provided. Each volunteer promises to provide at least 40 hours of home composting training in his/her community.

2. Demonstration Sites:

The Department of Community Affairs is also providing financial and technical assistance to help local governments establish 10 permanent sites demonstrating the simplicity and benefits of compostlng at home. Each site is intended to be the nucleus for educational programs provided by the volunteers. Each site will display a variety of homemade and purchased composting bins and will offer free brochures on home composting. Attractive signs at the sites shaw how easy it is to start composting at home. Other signs promote grasscycling and mulching. Each slte also shows local plants growing in compost. The demonstration sites serve as the training locations for the Initial composting workshops.

3. Support for trained volunteers:

The Department of Community Affairs will provide slide shows, table-top models of composting bins, and educational displays for use by volunteers in instructional programs at schools, churches, civic clubs, garden clubs, and other community groups. Host governments for each of the demonstration sites will appoint a project director and an 8 to 12 person home composting team. Project directors and team members will be trained and then become the nucleus of the local home composting program. Other volunteers recruited from the regions served by each demonstration site will learn home composting and spread the concept to their communities. As Home Composters our job is to help our fdends, neighbors, and relatives learn to recycle some of the things they have been throwing away. Remember, it's not waste until it is wasted, and there is no reason to throw away what can be recycled. As you will see, composting is one of the easiest of all recycling techniques; it requires no sorting or hauling.

All you need is a little bin.

7\ - :.

3

Introduction vi Chapter 1 The Decomposition Process

The process of decomposition -- the breakdown the bottom of marshes and in buried organic of raw organic materials to a finished compost -- materials to which oxygen does not have access. is a gradual complex process, one in which both Intensive reduction of organic matter by chemical and biological processes must occur in putrefaction is usually accompanied by order for organic matter to change into compost. disagreeable odors of hydrogen sulfide and reduced organic compounds which contain sulfur, The decomposition (stabilization) of organic such as mercaptans (any sulfur-containing matter by biological action has been taking place organic compound). in nature since life first appeared on our planet. In recent times, man has attempted to control and Putrefactive breakdown of organlc material takes directly utilize the process for sanitary recycling place anaerobically. Organic compounds break and reclamation of organic waste material. Such down by the action of living organisms that do organic materials as vegetable matter, animal not require air in the normal sense. These manure and other organic refuse can be organisms use nitrogen, phosphorus, and other converted from otherwise wasted materials to a nutrients to live and to develop cell protoplasm, more stable form for use as a soil amendment by but they reduce the organic nitrogen to organic this process. This process is called "composting" acids and ammonia. The carbon from the and the final product of composting is called organic compounds which is not utilized in the "compost". Generally speaking there are two cell protein is liberated mainly in the reduced form processes that yield compost: of methane (CH,). A small portion of carbon may be respired as carbon dioxide (0,). 1. AEROBIC (with oxygen) decomposition and stabilization. Since anaerobic destruction of organic matter is a reduction process, the final product, humus, is 2. ANAEROBIC (without oxygen) subject to some aerobic oxidation when put on decomposition. the soil, that is, it may appear to decompose further after being exposed to air. This oxidation In these processes, bacteria, fungi, molds, is minor, takes place rapidly, and is of no protozoa, actinomycetes, and other saprophytic consequence in the utilization of the material on organisms feed upon decaying organic materials the soil. In other words, much less heat is initially, while in the later stages of decomposition generated in anaerobic decomposition than in mites, millipedes, centipedes, springtails, beetles aerobic decomposition. and earthworms further breakdown and enrich the composting materials. The organisms will vary in The lack of heat generated in the anaerobic the pile due to temperature conditions, but the destruction of organic matter is a definite goal in composting is to create the most favorable disadvantage if contaminated materials are used environment possible for the desired organisms. for composting. High temperatures are needed Differences between aerobic and anaerobic for the destruction of pathogens and parasites. In composting are discussed below. anaerobic decomposition the pathogenic organisms do eventually disappear in the organic Anaerobic Decomposition (Fermentation) mass, as a result of the unfavorable environment and biological antagonisms. The disappearance Anaerobic decomposition takes place in nature, is slow, and the material must be held for periods as in the decomposition of the organic muds at of six months to a year to ensure relatively complete destruction of pathogens, such as the The Decomposition Process - 1 I P

eggs of Ascaris, nematodes which are among the when the ratio of available carbon to available - most resistant of the fecal-borne disease parasites nitrogen is in sufficient balance, nitrogen is in wastes. Therefore, make compost this year released as ammonia. Under favorable 4 and use it next year. conditions, some ammonia may oxidize to nitrate. Phosphorus, potash, and various micro-nutrients - However, organic material can be decomposed are also essential for biologicalgrowth. These are anaerobically to produce compost. For instance, normally present in more than adequate amounts a heavy plastic bag can be used to decompose in compostable materials and present no problem. - grass clippings or other high nitrogen materials, shredded leaves, kitchen trimmings, a small During composting a great deal of energy is amount of stable manure or other compostable released in the form of heat in the oxidation of the - materials. However, as anaerobic compost can carbon to CO,. For example, if a gram-molecule have a strong odor (and may need to be aired of glucose is dissimilated under aerobic prior to using), it is not usually the first choice for conditions, 484 to 674 kilogram calories (kcal) of home owners. For more details see Structures. heat may be released. If the organic material is - in a pile or is otherwise arranged to provide some Aerobic Decomposition insulation, the temperature of the material during decomposition will rise to over 170'F. If the -- When organic materials decompose in the temperature exceeds 162°F to 172OF, however, presence of oxygen, the process is called the bacterial activity is decreased and stabilization "aerobic." The aerobic process is most common is slowed down. in nature. For example, it takes place on ground - surfaces such as the forest floor, where droppings Initially, mesophilic organisms, which live in from trees and animals are converted into a temperatures of 50°F to 115OF, colonize in the relatively stable humus. There is no materials. When the temperature exceeds about - accompanying bad smell when there is adequate 120"F, thermophilic organisms, which grow and oxygen present. thrive in the temperature range 115°F to 16OoF., develop and replace the mesophilic bacteria in In aerobic decomposition, living organisms, which the decomposition material. Only a few groups 3 use oxygen, feed upon the organic matter. They of thermophiles carry on any activity above use the nitrogen, phosphorus, some of the 16OOF. carbon, and other required nutrients. Much of the carbon serves as a source of energy for the Oxidation at thermophilic temperatures takes organisms and is burned up and respired as place more rapidly than at mesophilic carbon dioxide (CO,). Since carbon serves both temperatures and, hence, a shorter time is as a source of energy and as an element in the required for decomposition (stabilization). The cell protoplasm, much more carbon than nitrogen high temperatures will destroy pathogenic is needed. Generally about two-thirds of carbon bacteria, protozoa (microscopic one-celled is respired as CO,, while the other third is animals), and weed seeds, which are detrimental combined with nitrogen in the living cells. to health or agriculture when the final compost is However, if the excess of carbon over nitrogen used. (C:N ratio) in organic materials being - decomposed is too great, biological activity Aerobic oxidation of organic matter produces no diminishes. Several cycles of organisms are then objectionable odor. If odors are noticeable, required to burn most of the carbon. either the process is not entirely aerobic or there - are some special conditions or materials present When some of the organisms die, their stored which are creating an odor. Aerobic nitrogen and carbon becomes available to other decomposition or composting can be organisms. As other organisms use the nitrogen accomplished in pits, bins, stacks, or piles, if - from the dead cells to form new cell material, adequate oxygen is provided. Turning the once more excess carbon is converted to CO,. material at intervals or other techniques for Thus, the amount of carbon is reduced and the adding oxygen is useful in maintaining aerobic - limited amount of nitrogen is recycled. Finally, conditions.

The Decomposition Process - 2 I Compost piles under aerobic conditions attain a built or placed in the pile and removed after the temperature of 140°F to 160°F in one to five decomposition starts. I days depending upon the material and the condition of the composting operation. This Oxygen levels should be kept at 5% throughout temperature can also be maintained for several the entire pile. Typical oxygen percents range days before further aeration. The heat necessary from 6% - 16% in the pile air spaces or in the to produce and maintain this temperature must exhausted air; and 20% at the exposed portions come from aerobic decomposition which requires of the pile. Failure to keep all parts of the oxygen. After a period of time, the material will compost pile above the 5% oxygen level will become anaerobic unless it is aerated. cause the pile to "go anaerobic", with the accompanying odor problems. The more oxygen, In this manual the term "aerobic composting" will up to at least 10-12 percent, the more quickly the be used in its commonly accepted meaning of biodegradation will take place. that process. It requires a considerable amount of oxygen and produces none of the Moisture characteristic features of anaerobic putrefaction. In its modern sense, aerobic composting can be Adequate moisture is essential for microbial defined as a process in which, under suitable activity. A dry compost will not decompose environmental conditions, aerobic organisms, efficiently. Proper moisture encourages the principally thermophilic, utilize considerable growth of microorganisms that break down the amounts of oxygen in decomposing organic organic matter into humus. If rainfall is limited, matter to a fairly stable humus. water the pile periodically to maintain a steady decomposition rate. Add enough water so the REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFICIENT pile is damp but not soggy. Avoid over watering. DECOMPOSITION Excess water can lead to anaerobic conditions which slow down the degradation process and Decomposition of organic material in the compost cause foul odors. If the pile should become too pile depends on maintaining microbial activity. wet, turn it to dry it out and restart the process. Any factor which slows or halts microbial growth also impedes the composting process. Efficient Particle Size decomposition occurs if aeration, moisture, particle size, and a sufficient source of carbon Grinding the organic material before composting and nitrogen are in evidence. greatly reduces decomposition time. The smaller the size of the organic refuse particle, the more Aeration/Oxygen quickly it can be consumed by the microbes. A shredder is useful for chipping or shredding most Oxygen is required for microbes to decompose landscape refuse and is essential if brush or sticks organic wastes efficiently. Some decomposition are to be composted. A low-cost method of occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic reducing the size of fallen tree leaves is to mow conditions); however, the process is slow, and the lawn before raking. Wind-rowing the leaves foul odors may develop. Because of the odor into long narrow piles one foot high will make the problem, composting without oxygen is not shredding process more efficient. If the mower recommended in a residential setting unless the has an appropriate bag attachment, the shredded process is conducted in a fully closed system leaves can be collected directly. However, (see plastic bag method under Composting grinding is entirely optional. Structures). Mixing the pile once or twice a month provides the necessary oxygen and Temperature significantly hastens the composting process. A pile that is not mixed may take three to four times Temperature of the compost pile is very important longer to decompose. Raising the pile off the to the biological activity taking place. Low ground allows air to be drawn through the mass outside temperatures slow the activity down, while as the material decomposes. Coarse materials warmer temperatures speed up decomposition. should be placed on the bottom as the pile is The microbes that make up the bulk of the decomposition process fall into two categories: The DecompositiOn Process - 3 mesophilic, those that live and function in Fungi, and other biological populations. Since temperatures of 50 to 113"F, and thermophilic, each is suited to a particular environment of those that thrive at temperatures between 113 to relatively limited duration and each Is most active 158°F. A well-mixed, adequately working In decomposition of some particular type of compost pile will heat to temperatures between organic matter, the activities of one group 110°F and 160°F as the microbes actively feed complement those of another. The mixed on the organic materials. These high populations parallel the complex environments temperatures will help destroy weed seeds and afforded by the heterogeneous nature of the disease organisms within the pile. compostable material. Except for short periods during turning, the temperature increases steadily ORGANISMS IN COMPOSTING in proportion to the amount of biological activity until equilibrium (state of balance) with There are many organisms that breakdown subsequent heat losses is reached, or the material organic materials. Most are not seen by the becomes well-stabilized (humus-like). human eye, but they are there throughout the process. Others that are large enough to see, In aerobic composting bacteria, actinomycetes, are usually associated with the later breakdown and fungi are the most active. Mesophilic (low stages. temperature 50-115°F) bacteria are characteristically predominant at the start and in The most important organisms in the breakdown the early part of the process, soon giving way to process are the bacteria. The bacteria present in thermophilic (high temperature 110-1 50 +OF) any given pile are dependent upon the raw bacteria which Inhabit all parts of the stack where material present, amount of air In the pile, the temperature is satisfactory, eventually most of moisture conditions of the pile, pile temperature the stack. Thermophilic fungi usually appear and numerous other factors. Bacteria are very after 5 to 10 days, and actinomycetes become small--20,000 + laid end to end may span no more prominent in the final stages, when short duration, that an inch. Compostable organic materials rapid composting is accomplished. Except in the normally contain a large number and many dif- final stages of the composting period, when the ferent types of bacteria, fungi, molds, and other temperature drops, actinomycetes and fungi are living organisms. Only very limited data are confined to a sharply defined outer zone of the available regarding the variety of different stack, 2 to 6 Inches in thickness, beginning just organisms and their specific functions. It under the outer surface. Some molds also grow appears that more species of bacteria are in this outer zone. The population of fungi and involved in aerobic decomposition than in actinomycetes is often great enough to Impart a anaerobic putrefaction. distinctly grayish white appearance to this outer zone. Although many types of organisms are required for decomposition of the different materials, the The sharply defined inner and outer limits of the necessary variety is usually present in the shell (In which actinomycetes and fungi grow materials to be composted, and the organisms during the high temperature active composting thrive when environmental conditions are period) are due to the inability of these organisms satisfactory. During decomposition, marked to grow at the higher temperatures of the interior changes take place in the nature and abundance of the pile. The thermophilic actinomycetes and of the biological population. Some of the many fungi have been found to grow at temperatures species will multiply rapidly at first but will dwindle between 120" and 150°F. Frequent turning-- as the environment changes and other organisms such as Is sometimes necessary for fly control-- are able to thrive under more varied conditions. inhibits their growth, since the cooler outer shell Temperature and changes in the available food is turned into the interior before they can develop supply probably exert the greatest influence in in large numbers. determining the species of organisms comprising the population at any one time. Aerobic Various Investigations have shown that many composting is a dynamic process in which the different types of thermophilic bacteria apparently work is done by the combined activities of a wide play a major part in decomposing protein and succession of mixed bacteria, actinomycetes, other organic matter. They appear to be solely

The Decomposition Pmess - 4 I I i 1 I t I I

FOOD WEB OF THE COMPOST PILE responsible for the intense activity characteristic protozoa, that also play an important role. .. of the first few days, when the temperature Together, these are chemical decomposers that reaches 150" to 170°F and major changes in the change the chemistry of the organic wastes. The nature of the compost pile are taking place, i.e., larger fauna in the heap include mites, millipedes, when the pile is drastically shrinking and the flatworms, centipedes, sowbugs, snails, slugs, appearance of the material is undergoing rapid spiders, springtails, beetles, ants, flies, nematodes change. They continue to predominate and, most importantly, earthworms. Collectively, throughout the process in the interior of the piles, these are called the physical decomposers since - where temperatures are inhibitory to they bite, grind, suck, tear and chew the materials actinomycetes and fungi. into smaller pieces, making them more suitable for the chemical work of the microscopic In spite of being confined primarily to the outer decomposers. .. layers and becoming active only during the latter part of the composting period, fungi and All of the organisms, from the microscopic actinomycetes play an important role in the bacteria to the largest of the physical - decomposition of cellulose, lignins, and other decomposers, are part of a complex food chain in more resistant materials, which are attacked after the compost pile. They can be categorized as the more readily decomposed materials have first, second and third level consumers, - been utilized. There are many bacteria which depending upon whom they eat and by whom attack cellulose. However, in the parts of they are eaten. First level consumers attract and compost piles populated chiefly by bacteria, become the food of second level consumers, who cellulose (paper) breaks down very little, whereas in turn are consumed by third level consumers. - in the layers or areas inhabited by actinomycetes The organisms comprising each level of the food and fungi it becomes almost unrecognizable. chain serve to keep the populations of the next Considerable cellulose and lignin decomposition lower level in check, so that a balance can be - by actinomycetes and fungi can occur near the maintained throughout the compost. For end of the composting period when the example, according to Daniel L. Dindal, in temperatures have begun to drop and the Ecology of Compost, environment in a larger part of the pile is 3 satisfactory for their growth. . . . mites and springtails eat fungi, Tiny feather-winged beetles feed on fungal spores. It should be noted that since the necessary Nematodes ingest bacteria. Protozoa and rotifers - organisms for composting are usually present and present in water films feed on bacteria and plant will carry on the process when the environment is particles. Predaceous mites and pseudo- suitable, an extensive knowledge of the scorpions prey upon nematodes] fly larvae, other - characteristics of the various organisms is not mites and collembolans. Free-living flatworms necessary for understanding a compost pile. ingest gastropods, earthworms, nematodes and Normal maintenance as described in this manual rotifers. Third level consumers such as - will help to insure proper balance and numbers of centipedes, rove beetles, ground beetles, and beneficial microorganisms. ants prey on second level consumers. These creatures function best at medium or mesophilic

Since decomposition is the crux of the temperatures] so they will not be in the pile at all I composting process, let's take a look at the times. various organisms that play an essential role in the working compost heap. Most are Chemical Decomposers - microscopic, some are large enough to be observed with the unaided eye, but all are These organisms are the initial inhabitants of the beneficial, each having a role in breaking down pile. Many of them are unseen and come in with raw organic matter into finished compost. They the materials that make up the pile. These - are known as decomposers. By far the most organisms are around all of the time and only important microscopic decomposers are bacteria, need to find the conditions right "to their liking" in which do the lion's share of decomposition in the order to start their normal functions of breaking - compost heap. But there are other microscopic down organic materials. creatures such as actinomycetes, fungi, and . - The Decomposition Process - 6 Bacteria render bacteria inactive or kill them. When the environment of a heap begins to change, bacteria t Bacteria likely to be found in a compost heap are that formerly dominated may be decimated by aerobic bacteria that specialize in breaking down another species. organic compounds and thrive in temperatures ranging up to 170°F (77OC). Bacterial Actinomycetes populations differ from pile to pile, depending - upon the raw materials of the compost, degree of The characteristically earthy smell of newly heat, amount of air present, moisture level, plowed soil in the spring is caused by geographical location of the pile, and other actinomycetes, a higher form of bacteria similar to -_ considerations. Bacteria are single-celled and fungi and molds. Actinomycetes are especially can be shaped like a sphere, rod, or a spiral twist. important in the formation of humus. While most They are so small that it would take 25,000 bacteria are found in the top foot or so of topsoil, - bacteria laid end to end to take up one inch on a actinomycetes may work many feet below the ruler, and an amount of garden soil the size of a surface. Deep under the roots they convert dead pea may contain up to a billion bacteria. Most plant matter to a peat-like substance. While they bacteria are colorless and cannot make are decomposing animal and vegetable matter, carbohydrates from sunshine, water, and carbon actinomycetes liberate carbon, nltrogen and dioxide the way more complex green plants can. ammonia, making nutrients available for higher Some bacteria produce colonies; others are free- plants. They are found on every natural living. All reproduce by means of binary fission. substrate, and the majority are aerobic and mesophilic. Five percent or more of the soil's In binary fission, the nucleus splits in two and a bacterial population is comprised of new cell wall grows crosswise over the middle of actinomycetes. the cell. Each half contains one of the two nuclei, so that a new individual is produced from The reason bacteria tend to die rapidly as a single bacterial cell. actinomycete populations grow in the compost pile is that actinomycetes have the ability to Under the best conditions, a colony of bacteria produce antibiotics, chemical substances that can multiply into billions in a very short time. inhibit bacterial growth. The life span of one generation of bacteria is about 20 to 30 minutes, so that one cell may yield Protozoa a progeny of billions of individuals in half a day. Protozoa are the simplest form of animal Bacteria are the most nutritionally diverse of all organism. Even though they are single-celled and organisms, which is to say, as a group, they can microscopic in size, they are larger and more eat nearly anything. Most compost bacteria are complex in their activities than most bacteria. A heterotrophic, meaning that they can use living or gram of soil can contain as many as a million dead organic materials. Some are so adaptable protozoa, but a gram of compost has many that they can use more than a hundred different thousands less, especially during the thermophilic organic compounds as their source of carbon stage. Protozoa obtain their food from organic because of their ability to produce a variety of matter in the same way bacteria do, but because enzymes. Usually, they can produce the they are present in far fewer numbers than are appropriate enzyme to digest whatever material bacteria, they play a much smaller part in the they find themselves on. In addition, respiratory composting process. enzymes in the cell membrane make aerobic respiration possible as an energy source for Fungi compost bacteria. Fungi are many-celled, filamentous or single- Since bacteria are smaller, less mobile and less celled primitive plants. Unlike more complex complex than most organisms, they are less able green plants, they lack chlorophyll, and, therefore, to escape an environment that becomes lack the ability to make their own carbohydrates. unfavorable. A decrease in the temperature of Most of them are classified as saprophytes the pile or a sharp change in its acidity can because they live on dead or dying material and The Decomposition Process - 7 obtain energy by breaking down organic matter in 15 or more pairs of legs--1 pair per segment. dead plants and animals. Like the actinomycetes, They hatch from eggs laid during the warm fungi take over during the final stages of the pile months and gradually grow to their adult size. when the compost has been changed to a more Centipedes are third level consumers, feeding easily digested form. The best temperature for only on living animals, especially Insects and active fungi in the compost heap is around 70" to spiders. 75°F though some thermophilic forms prefer much greater heat and survive to 120OF. Sowbugs

Physical Decomposers The sowbug is a fat-bodied, flat creature with distinct segments. In structure, it resembles the The larger organisms that chew and grind their crayfish to which it is related. Sowbugs way through the compost heap are higher up in reproduce by means of eggs that hatch into the food chain and are known as physical smaller versions of the adults. Since females are decomposers. The following is a rundown of able to deposit a number of eggs at one time, some of the larger physical decomposers that you sowbugs may become abundant in a compost may find in nearly any compost heap. Most of heap. They are first level consumers, eating these creatures function best at medium or decaying vegetation. mesophilic temperatures, so they will not be in the pile at all times. Snails and Slugs

Mites Both snails and slugs are mollusks and have muscular disks on their undersides that are Mites are related to ticks, spiders, and horseshoe adapted for a creeping movement. Snails have a crabs because they have in common six leg-like, spirally curved shell, a broad retractable foot, and jointed appendages. They can be free-living or a distinct head. Slugs, on the other hand, are so parasitic, sometimes both at once. Some mites undifferentiated in appearance that one species is are small enough to be invisible to the naked eye, frequently mistaken for half of a potato. Both while some tropical species are up to a half-inch snails and slugs lay eggs in capsules or in length. Mites reproduce very rapidly, moving gelatinous masses and progress through larval through larval, nymph, adult and dormant stages. stages to adulthood. Their food is generally living They attack plant matter, but some are also plant material, but they will attack fresh garbage second level consumers, ingesting nematodes, fly and plant debris and will appear in the compost larvae, other mites and springtails. pile. It is well, therefore, to look for them when you spread your compost, for if they move into Millipedes your garden, they can do damage to crops.

The wormlike body of the millipede has many leg- Spiders bearing segments, each except the front few bearing two pairs of walking legs. The life cycles Spiders, which are related to mites, are one of the are not well understood, except that eggs are laid least appreciated animals in the garden. These in the soil in springtime, hatching into small eight-legged creatures are third level consumers worms. Young millipedes molt several times that feed on insects and small invertebrates, and before gaining their full complement of legs. they can help control garden pests. When they reach maturity, adult millipedes can grow to a length of 1 to 2 inches. They help Springtails break down plant material by feeding directly on it. Springtails are very small Insects, rarely exceeding one-quarter inch in length. They vary Centipedes in color from white to blue-grey or metallic and are mostly distinguished by their ability to jump Centipedes are flattened, segmented worms with when disturbed. They feed by chewing decomposing plants, pollen, grains, and fungi.

The Decomposition Process - 8 I-

Beetles If you keep a layer of dry leaves or grass clippings on top of your pile and cover your f The rove beetle, ground beetle, and feather- garbage promptly while building compost, your winged beetle are the most common beetles in pile will not provide a breeding place for compost. Feather-winged beetles feed on fungal horseflies, mosquitoes, or houseflies which may spores, while the larger rove and ground beetles become a nuisance to humans. Fly larvae will prey on other insects as third level consumers. not survive the thermophilic temperatures in the Beetles are easily visible insects with two pairs of well-managed compost pile. Mites and other wings, the more forward-placed of these serving organisms in the pile also keep fly larvae reduced as a cover or shield for the folded and thinner in number. However, though many flies die with back-set ones that are used for flying. A beetle’s the coming of frost, the rate of reproduction is so immature stage is as a soft-skinned grub that rapid that a few survivors can repopulate an area feeds and grcws during the warm months. Once before the warm season has progressed very far. grubs are full grown, they pass through a resting or pupal stage and change into hard-bodied, Worms winged adults. Most adult beetles, like the larval grubs of their species, feed on decaying Nematodes or eelworms, free-living flatworms, vegetables, while some, like the rove and ground and rotifers all can be found in compost. beetles, prey on snails, insects, and other small Nematodes are microscopic creatures that can be animals. The black rove beetle is an classified into three categories: those that live on acknowledged predator of snails and slugs. decaying organic matter; those that are predators Some people import them to their gardens when on other nematodes, bacteria, algae, protozoa, slugs become a garden problem. etc.; and those that can be serious pests in gardens where they attack the roots of plants. ants Flatworms, as their name implies, are flattened organisms that are usually quite small in their Ants feed on a variety of material, including aphid free-living form. Most flatworms are carnivorous honeydew, fungi, seeds, sweets, scraps, other and live in films of water within the compost insects, and sometimes other ants. Compost structure. Rotifers are small, multicellular animals provides some of these foods, and it also that live freely or in tubes attached to a substrate provides shelter for nests and hills. They will in the pile. Their bodies are round and divisible remain, however, only while the pile is relatively into three parts, a head, trunk, and tail. They are cool. Ants prey on first level consumers, and may generally found in films of water and many forms benefit the composting process by bringing fungi are aquatic. The rotifers in compost are found in and other organisms into their nests. The work of water which adheres to plant substances where ants can make compost richer in phosphorusand they feed on microorganisms. potassium by moving minerals from one place to another. Earthworms

Flies If bacteria are the champion microscopic decomposers, then the heavyweight champion is Many flies, including black fungus gnats, soldier doubtlessly the earthworm. Pages of praise have flies, minute flies, and houseflies, spend their been written to the earthworm, ever since it larval phase in compost as maggots. Adults can became known that this creature spends most of feed upon almost any kind of organic material. its time tilling and enriching the soil. The great All flies undergo egg, larval, pupal, and adult English naturalist, Charles Darwin, was the first to stages. The eggs are laid in various forms of suggest that all the fertile areas of this planet have organic matter. Houseflies are such effective at least once passed through the bodies of distributors of bacteria that when an individual fly eart hworms. crawls across a sterile plate of lab gelatin, colonies of bacteria later appear in its tracks. The earthworm consists mainly of an alimentary You can see how during the early phases of the canal which ingests, decomposes, and deposits composting process, flies provide ideal airborne casts continually during the earthworm’s active transportation for bacteria on their way to the pile. periods. As soil or organic matter is passed The Decomposition Process - 9 through an earthworm's digestive system, it Is adapted than forms produced under laboratory - broken up and neutralized by secretions of conditions, multiply rapidly. Thus the rate of calcium carbonate from calciferous glands near composting is governed simply by the 1 the worm's gizzard. Once in the gizzard, material environmental conditions. is finely ground prior to digestion. Digestive intestinal juices rich in hormones, enzymes, and Special enzyme preparations are also advertised other fermenting substances continue the as necessary compost "starters." However, the breakdown process. The matter passes out of vast number of enzymes Involved in the worm's body in the form of casts, which are decomposition, as well as the difficulty and the richest and finest quality of all humus material. expense involved in isolating and synthesizing Fresh casts are markedly higher in bacteria, them, would make initiating the composting organic material, available nitrogen, calcium and process with enzymes alone highly impractical magnesium, and available phosphorus and even if satisfactory preparations were available. potassium than soil itself. The addition of enzymes to raw compostable materials Is unnecessary because bacteria Earthworms thrive on compost and contribute to synthesize efficiently and rapidly all the enzymes its quality through both physical and chemical required. processes, and reproduce readily in the well- - managed pile. Since earthworms are willing and Another popular starter is "hormones," a term able to take on such a large part in compost popularly used to designate the growth factors making, it is the wise gardener who adjust his and vitamins needed by bacteria or other - composting methods to take full advantage of the organisms. The organic constituents of mixed earthworm's special talents. compostable materials usually contain all the growth factors needed for normal growth. Also, USE OF INOCULA growth factors and vitamins are produced by - micro-organisms and will undoubtedly be Composting developments have been produced in sufficient quantities in a mixed accompanied by considerable discussion of the microbial population to meet normal require- importance of special inocula (bacterial ments. --i activators), supposedly containing several pure strains of laboratory organisms or other biological A third group of additives are "biocatalyst" or factors essential in the decomposition of organic "activated factors," various biological materials - matter and nitrogen fixation, e.g., "enzymes," which are supposed to activate and accelerate "hormones," "preserved living organisms," decomposition and stabilization of organic "activated factors," "biocatalyst," etc. In fact, material. In some cases the "activator" supplies -- several commercial composting processes are some material which is lacking in the compost. built around the use of some special inoculum, For example, straw or paper, which does not often known only to its discoverer and proponent, contain the necessary biological nutrients, is not - who claims it to be fundamental to the successful readily composted alone, but If nitrogen and operation of the process. The need of such phosphorus are added, the straw and paper will inocula has always been debatable, and most serve as the source of carbon for decomposition. composting studies have strongly indicated that they are unnecessary. Agricultural experimentation has found starters or additives usually unnecessary. In one experiment, That inocula in composting organic waste horse manure, compost material, normal soil, and containing refuse, manure, vegetable wastes, etc. special commercially prepared bacterial cultures are not necessary or advantageous seems logical, were mixed with garbage and refuse to form one since bacteria are always present in very large set of compost piles. In another set of piles, numbers in such material and can be eliminated materials were composted without these special only by drastic sterilization methods. In any commercially prepared bacterial cultures. It was case, the number of bacteria is rarely a limiting found that, although rich in bacteria, none of the factor in composting. Provided that the inocula accelerated the composting process or environmental factors are appropriate, the improved the final product. There was no indigenous bacteria, which are much better significant difference in the temperature curves or The Decomposition Process - 10 in the chemical analyses of the material at different intervals during the composting period. I Therefore, it was concluded that when the environment is appropriate, the varied indigenous - biological population will multiply rapidly and composting is not delayed.

Don’t Treat Me Like Trash!

The Decomposition Process - 11 3 Chapter 2 Composting Fundamentals

RAW MATERIAL greener and more succulent the material, the QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION quicker the breakdown period. All materials that are high carbon should be cut or shredded into In the homeplace are many sources of raw small pieces and mixed with high nitrogen materials for the compost pile. From the kitchen materials, such as manure or fresh grass comes coffee and tea grounds, and vegetable clippings. and fruit trimmings, which amount to 0.2 to 0.9 pound (90 to 400 g) per capita per day. From Do not discount the rough or coarse materials the landscape comes leaves, grass clippings, because they can be used as bulking agents in brush trimmings, old plant material, and many the pile. Coarse matter will break down slowly in weeds, yard trimmings that represent 15 to 20% the pile and will improve the pile structure by of the municipal waste stream. Leaves present allowing air circulation. A bulking agent is very less of a challenge in both collection and important when there is not a good mixture of composting than do other organic sources while materials or when raw materials tend to pack representing a major portion of the waste stream. together. In most cases the home compost pile will be built with landscape trimmings and rakings. Starting It might take several attempts to get the right with leaves and grass clippings, for example, and mixture of materials that will give you the perfect adding some brush or wood chips for a bulking recipe for composting. Mixing different types agent could prove to be the right mix to begin and sizes of organic materials will provide a well- composting in the first year. Kitchen wastes can drained and arable compost pile. The more be added to the pile as they occur (see Chapter varied the materials going into the pile, the better Four). chance of maintaining the proper C:N ratio and efficient decomposition. Most all organic materials will compost, but not all of them should be put in the pile. Some organic Leaf Composting wastes will attract rodents, dogs and cats, white weeds and pathogen-infected materials may Microorganisms need nutrients, primarily carbon survive the composting process. Also, fatty and nitrogen, for both energy and growth. The foods and bones should be avoided because they ideal carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio is not found in will attract rodents and create odor problems. any one organic source. However, it is possible Cat and dog fecal materials as well as cat litter to create compost out of primarily one raw should not be used in the pile due to harmful material, such as leaves. pathogens. in looking at compostable materials one consideration should be the amount of time each material needs for breakdown. High nitrogen materials, like grass, will break down very readily while wood chips may take up to two years to reach the humus stage. The higher or wider the carbon:nitrogen ratio (C:N), the longer time it will take for breakdown to occur. Coarse materials, such as straw, nut shells, corncobs and stalks, will also take longer to breakdown. However, the

Composting Fundamentals - 12 Due to their high carbon content leaves may take ducted at Rutgers University by Dr. Peter Strom 5 months to 2 years to compost by themselves. indicates a mix of 2-3:l (1eaves:grass clippings) as However, leaves will compost and turn out a being the optimum for decomposition in the good finished product if moisture is adequate and compost pile. if the pile is turned frequently, ensuring a good supply of oxygen. However, as the material decomposes, the problem of maintaining an optimum 1eaves:grass Mixing other organic wastes with leaves to utilize ratio increases. After leaves are collected in the these other sources in recycling is important. The fall and wind-rowed, they undergo a substantial high nitrogen source, such as grass clippings or reduction In volume due to the burst of microbial other plant wastes, animal manures, food scraps activity that occurs within the first month of or other high nitrogen materials can speed up the composting. By the time grass clippings are decomposition process and increase the nitrogen being collected the following spring and summer, content of the end product making it more the leaves have been reduced in volume as much suitable for use as a soil amendment. The high as 50%. nitrogen component must be carefully controlled because the addition of too much nitrogen can If leaf/grass clipping mixes are to be composted, result in the formation of ammonia, creating an leaves collected in the fall should be stockpiled odor problem. The rapid decomposition also without turning until grass collection begins. At uses up oxygen, causing further problems as the that time, form a pile with the appropriate mix of aerobic microorganisms are replaced by stockpiled leaves and grass clippings. The leaf anaerobic ones. piles will likely be anaerobic and some short term odors may be generated when the piles are Grass clippings are high in nitrogen and can be disturbed. added to the leaf pile. However, high moisture and high nitrogen content in the grass clippings Leaves act as a bulking agent, allowing more require that they be mixed into the pile with other oxygen into the windrow to maintain aerobic materials in order to reduce the anaerobic conditions. Grass clippings, because they are conditions that can occur from grass being high in nitrogen and moisture provide needed "clumped together" in the pile. Research con- nitrogen and speed the decomposition, and

Composting Fundamentals - 13 restore vigorous composting activity to pile. composting process, but must be carefully Again, experimenting with mixes is a good way to monitored to maintain aerobic conditions and find the mix that works for you. prevent odors. The addition of livestock manures to the piles will also increase the nitrogen content It should be noted that grass clippings do not of the flnlshed product. need to be removed from the lawn when mowing. If lawns are mowed frequently, and the clippings A C:N ratio of 25-3O:l is optimum for efficient allowed to fall back into the lawn, their collection composting. It is important when blending raw is not necessary. Grass clippings, being high in materials to create a mixture that will approximate nitrogen, will decompose rapidly and actually this ideal and provide the proper characteristics return nitrogen to the soil, reducing the need to for aerobic composting. A higher C:N ratio will apply nitrogen in the form of fertilizers. This is result in a slower rate of decomposition. A lower discussed in more detail under Grasscycling in ratio results in excess nitrogen loss and possible Chapter 5. odors if the mix is not turned often. Leaves have a C:N ratio of about 40-80:1, and manures Grass Clippings/Woody Materials Mixture typically have a C:N ratio of about 10-18:l in the fresh state. Addition of carbonaceous bedding Due to the potential problems associated with such as sawdust, straw or newspaper will leaf/grass clipping compost mixes, a viable increase the C:N ratio. Other factors, such as alternative may be a chipped woody moisture content and turning schedule will affect materials/grass clipping compost. The wood the blend of materials, so some experimentation chips would provide the needed air spaces to will be necessary. prevent anaerobic conditions in the pile or windrow, while the grass clippings would supply Compost contains less nitrogen than fresh a nitrogen source to maintain active manure, because much of the nitrogen is decomposition. The wood chips would not break volatilized during the composting process. Much down entirely, but would take on a weathered of the remaining nitrogen is incorporated into dark-brown color and result in an attractive mulch organic compounds and is released slowly when when finished. the compost is applied to the soil.

Leaves/Grass/Pruning Mixture CARBON : NITROGEN RELATIONSHIPS It would be an ideal situation if all of the yard trimmings produced could simply be mixed There are two chemical elements that are of together and composted. However, since woody utmost importance in all phases of organic matter materials, such as prunings, decompose so slowly - Carbon (C) and Nitrogen (N). Of even greater this may not advisable. Woody materials in the importance is their proportion or ratio to each compost pile can also cause problems with the other. This relationship is called the C:N ratio. turning. In order to better understand this ratio suppose that a material is made up of 60 parts C and 2 Another alternative in certain situations, is to grind parts of N by weight. It would have a C:N ratio the woody wastes to mix with the grass and of 30:l. This means that the material has 30 leaves. Woody materials should make up no times as much C as N. If you are trying to more than one-third of the pile. Remaining compost leaves with an 6O:l C:N ratio for every ground woody materials should be kept separate 60 pounds of leaves, you will need 2 pounds of N. to be used as a mulch, while the leaf/grass mix is It is important to remember that a small used as a compost. percentage of the carbon and nitrogen may not actually be available for decomposition. The Animal Manures decomposition of organic matter is brought about by living organisms which utilize the carbon as a Other solid organic wastes, such as livestock source of energy and the nitrogenfor buildingcell manures, can be added to leaf compost piles as structure. More carbon than nitrogen is needed. a nitrogen source. This will speed up the However, the amount of nitrogen needed varies with the type of organic materials and the type of

Composting Fundamentals - 14 P

.- micro-organisms present. When the nitrogen escapes to the atmosphere. content is too low for the amount of carbon (for example, 80:1, C:N), organisms will have to A C:N ratio of 20:l (also known as a ratio of 20), recycle the nitrogen through many generations in when C and N are available, has been widely order to breakdown the carbon containing accepted as the upper ilmit at which there is no material. As organisms die, their stored nitrogen danger of robbing the soil of nitrogen. If a is then used by other organisms to form new cell considerable amount of carbon is in the form of material. (The average C:N ratio of the bodies of lignins or other resistant materials, the actual C:N bacteria and fungi fails between 4:l and 1O:l.) In ratio could be larger than 20. Because of the the process more carbon is used. Thus the potential for robbing the soil of nitrogen and the amount of carbon is reduced to a more suitable need for conserving maximum nitrogen in the level while the nitrogen is recycled. More time Is compost, the C:N ratio is obviously a critical required for the process, however, when the initial factor in composting. C:N ratio climbs above 30:l. Since living organisms utilize about 30 parts carbon for each part of nitrogen, an initial C:N (available quantity) ratio of 30 would seem most favorable for rapid composting and would provide some nitrogen in an immediately available form in the finished compost. Some research workers have reported optimum values from 20 to 31. A majority of investigators believe that for C:N ratios above 30 there will be little loss of nitrogen. The University of California studies on materiais with a Initial C:N ratio varying from 20 to 78 and with nitrogen contents varying from 0.52% to 1.74% indicated that initial C:N ratio of 30 to 35 was optimum. These reported optimum C:N ratios may include some carbon which was not available. The composting time will increase considerably with increases in the C:N ratio above the range 30. If the unavailable carbon is small, The presence of nitrogen in the soil can cause a the C:N ratio can be reduced by bacteria to as slightly different process when soil and low a value as 10. Fourteen to twenty are composting materials mix, as in sheet or trench common C:N ratios depending upon the original composting or in mulching. When the C:N ratio material from which the humus was formed. is too great, living microbial cells make maximum These studies showed that composting a material use of the available carbon by drawing on any with a higher C:N ratio would not be harmful to availabie soil nitrogen in the proper proportion. the soil, however, because the remaining carbon This condition is known as "robbing" the soil of is so slowly available that nitrogen robbery would nitrogen and has the effect of delaying the not be significant. availability of nitrogen as a fertilizer for growing plants, until some later season when it is no Materials should be proportioned on a 30:l ratio longer being used in the lifecycles of soil bacteria. by weight in order for optimum decomposition to (As a result of this process, additional nitrogen occur. However, C:N of 25:l-351 will result in may be needed when partially decomposed proficient decomposition. If the compost pile is compost around plants as a mulch or soil maintained at a steady ratio of 30:l amendment.) On the other hand, when the microorganisms will reach their optimum energy source, carbon, is less than that required decomposition rates and materials will quickly for converting available nitrogen into protein, decompose. When the C:N ratio becomes too organisms make full use of the available carbon high (too much C) decomposition slows down. and get rid of the excess nitrogen as ammonia. When the C:N ratio becomes too low (too much This release of ammonia can produce a loss of nitrogen), N will be lost to the atmosphere as nitrogen from the compost pile if the ammonia ammonia gas and can lead to odor problems.

Composting Fundamentals - 15 The C:N ratio of 30:l is an ideal. However, this BLENDING OF MATERIALS ratio is usually given for materials on a dry weight basis, but composting materials are usually not Most people tend to use the materials that are completely dry. Though composting is not exact, easily accessible for composting. Most homes the composter must use judgement in combining have leaves, trimmings of some kind, vegetable compostable materials. Generally, the dry, coarse scraps from the kitchen, coffee and tea grounds. materials such as straw, wood chips, etc. are high Composting works best when different materials, in C and low in N. Opposite to this, the "green" both wet and dry, are mixed together. materials such as grass clippings, fresh plant material, kitchen scraps and manures, are high in Each day or every other day you will be taking N and lower in C. some type of material out to the compost pile. Most of the everyday materials that come from The proper blending of these materials will come the kitchen are listed as high N materials. Even about over time as you try recipes and add to if you start with mainly C material, this everyday others and as materials become available for your adding will lead to a suitable C:N ratio. When use. Achieving the exact ratio of 30:l may never adding material from the kitchen, make a hole in happen, but composting will take place in and the pile and bury the debris. Move the burying around this magical number. Over time and with site around throughout the pile. With this experience, you will develop your own mixes that method you will bring about the proper C:N ratio work and compost well. if you cannot achieve it in the beginning.

The C:N ratio of plant material is dependent on its SHREDDING OF REFUSE growth stage, conditions under which it has been grown, plant parts (leaves vs. limbs), and dryness Shredding or grinding the raw materials for of materials . composting can produce several beneficial results, particularly when using leaves, woody Following are some of the C:N ratios of organic plants, corn stalks, and other bulky materials. matter for use in composting : Shredding or grinding organic materials makes it more susceptible to beneficial bacteria in the pile Sandy loam (fine) 7:1 because a greater surface area is exposed and Humus 1O:l the natural defense resistance of vegetation Food scraps 151 against microbial invasion is disrupted. Alfalfa hay 18:l Moreover, a piece of wood, a pile of corn stalks, Grass clippings 12-2511 or leaves packed together take much longer to Coffee grounds 20: 1 compost than do small particles of materials. Vegetable trimming 12-2O:l Packed materials can also block sufficient oxygen Cow manure 20: 1 from reaching the pile, slowing aerobic Horse manure 251 decomposition. Horse manure w/litter 60:l Rotted manure 20: 1 Poultry manure (fresh) 1O:l Poultry manure w/litter 18:l Sandy loam (coarse) 25: 1 Oak leaves (green) 26: 1 Leaves, varies from 35-85: 1 Peat moss 58:1 Corn stalks 60: 1 Straw 80: 1 Pine needles 60-1 1O:l Farm manure 90: 1 Newspaper 50-2OO:l Douglas fir bark 491:l Sawdust weathered 625: 1 2 months

Composting Fundamentals - I6 I-L A wide variety of organic materials makes the best compost.

Shredding the material makes it more necessarily particular about the uniformity of the - homogenous, produces better aeration and compost structure when preparing the compost. controls moisture. Shredded refuse heats more Nor is the uniformity as important for agriculture uniformly. It withstands excessive drying at the fields as for the hobby gardener. surface of the pile, is insulated against heat loss, --I and resists moisture penetration from rain better Initial shredding of all the material is not than does unshredded refuse. Fly control Is also necessary in the composting operation. It is often more easily accomplished when refuse is the best practice to limit the initial shredding to - pulverized or shredded. Also, users of compost large pieces of organic materials. Some as mulch find that a shredded or ground material composters believe that permitting some larger can be applied more readily and uniformly to the irregular pieces to remain tends to create greater land. air spaces in the mass and entrap more oxygen. - Undecomposed pieces can be screened out of The most desirable size of particles for the final compost and put back through the composting is less than 2 inches, but larger decomposing process. - particles can be composted satisfactorily. The particle size of the material being composted Vegetative and herbaceous matter should not be depends on the final use of the compost. ground because it becomes soggy. The high moisture content of these materials makes them However, on farms and large gardens, it is useful In small quantities throughout the doubtful whether the advantages of shredding will composting process. be sufficient to justify the additional cost and labor. In ordinary composting any particles that ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS are too large can be forked or screened out and broken up when necessary. If the material is to Moisture Content be used on lawns or flower gardens, it can be screened after composting through a l-inch or Microbes are working on the surface of the smaller screen to give it a better appearance and decomposing materials and are easily subject to to make it easier to apply and work into the soil. drying out, temperature fluctuations, and oxygen The individual farmer or gardener may not be depletions.

Composting Fundamentuls - 17 E-

The compost pile should be kept moist but not out. If excess water comes out, the pile is too soaked. This environment provides comfortable wet. The pile should be turned to remove excess t and conducive conditions for microorganisms, water, to loosen materials and to oxygenate the mainly bacteria and fungi, to accomplish the pile. Also, the addition of dry materials will soak decomposition process. up the excess moisture.

Aerobic decomposition proceeds best between In hotter climates, covering a compost pile will 40% and 70% moisture with good aeration. A high help retain moisture. Also, covering compost moisture content must be avoided because water piles in the summer may conserve moisture, while displaces air from between the particles and gives in very rainy winter areas covering the pile may rise to anaerobic conditions which limit help to keep it from becoming too soggy. composting organisms. However, too low a moisture content deprives the organisms of the If the compost pile is not in a structure and is left water needed for their metabolism, and, freestandlng, it will develop an "A" shape. When consequently, also inhibits their activity. this occurs water will be shed just like old haystacks and the pile may become dry. An Maximum moisture content for satisfactory unstructured pile will need to be checked for aerobic composting will vary with the materials dryness more often than a structured pile. used. If the material contains considerable amounts of straw and strong fibrous material, the Temperature maximum moisture content can be much greater without destroying the structural qualities or Microorganisms, which cause the generation of causing the material to become soggy, compact, heat in a compost pile, are classified into two and unable to contain enough air in the categories: mesophilic, those that live, function - interstices. But if the material has little structural and reproduce In temperatures between 50" - strength when wet, or if it is granular, like ash and 1 13OF, and thermophilic, those that thrive soil it may be difficult to maintain aerobic between 1 13' - 158°F. - conditions at a moisture content above 70%. The term "critical mass" is often used in conjunction with heating of compost piles. This term has to do with the size of the compost pile. The minimum size for proper compostlng to occur is usually 1 cubic yard (3'X 3' X 3'). This size allows heating to occur; anything less in size will not have enough mass to generate internal temperatures high enough.

Proper temperature is a very important factor, L particular in the aerobic composting process. In Georgia, the winter months temperatures will slow the process but most of the year temperatures will be sufficiently high enough for the intense microbial activity to take place.

Considerable amounts of heat are released by If the moisture content fails much below 40%, aerobic decomposition. Since the composting many of the organisms will cease to function. material has relatively good insulation properties, Moisture content above 70% may cause the pile a sufficlently large compostlng mass will retain the to go anaerobic, thereby producing foul odors. heat of the biological reaction and high Also, nutrients may be leached and temperatures will develop. decomposition will be very slow at the higher moisture content. When the composting High temperatures are essential for the materials are picked up in the hand and destruction of pathogenic organisms and squeezed, just a few drop of water should come

Compsting Fundamentals - 18 P

undesirable weed seeds. Decomposition also Variations in the moisture content between 30% proceeds much more rapidly in the thermophilic and 70% have Vile effect on the maximum temperature range. The optimum temperature temperature in the interior of the pile. The Initial I range is 135"-175OF, with 150°F usually being temperature will rise a little more rapidly when the the most satisfactory. Since only a few of the moisture content is 30% to 50% than when it is thermophilic organisms actively carry on 70%. Studies, however, show an important and decomposition above 170°F, it is undesirable to significant correlation between the moisture have temperatures above this for extended content and the temperature distribution within periods. the pile. When the moisture content is high, the temperature near the surface will be higher, and Although the eggs of parasites, cysts nematodes the high temperature zone will extend nearer to and flies are usually destroyed in a short time at the surface than when the moisture content is temperatures above 135"F, these eggs and cysts low. For example, In experiments at the have been found to survive in cooler parts of University of California during mild weather when compost stacks for days though the temperature the air temperature fluctuated between 50" and in the interior of the stack is above 135°F. 80°F, the zone of maximum temperature in a pile Turning the pile exposes cooler materials to the with a moisture content of 61 % extended to within interior heat of the pile. All the material should about one inch of the surface while the maximum be subjected to a temperature of at least 150°F. temperature zone in a pile containing 40% moisture began 6 inches below the surface. High temperatures vaporize ammonia, produced when the C:N ratio is low. Any small nitrogen loss due to high temperature is outweighed by the advantages of destroying pathogenic Organisms and weed seeds, controlling flies, and providing better decomposition.

A drop in temperature in the compost pile before the material is stabilized indicates that the pile is becoming anaerobic and should be aerated (high temperatures do not persist when the pile becomes anaerobic). The temperature curve for different parts of the pile varies somewhat with the size of the pile, the ambient (surrounding) temperature, the moisture content, the degree of aeration, and the character of the composting material. Aerobic conditions, however, are important in maintaining high temperaturesduring decomposition. The size of the compost pile or windrow may be Increased to provide higher It is seen that the deeper pile caused higher temperatures in cold weather or decreased to temperatures and better temperature distribution keep the temperatures from becoming too high in and subjected a much higher proportion of the warm weather. Experience will show that turning material to a high temperature at any one time. or aeration releases the heat of compost piles Hence, the actual mass of the material evolving which have become so hot (170"-180°F) that heat Is Important in providing adequately high bacterial activity is inhibited. When the material is temperatures. actively decomposing, the temperature, which falls slightly during turning, will return to the Shredding or pulverizing the material will also previous level in two or three hours. However, it provide better temperature distribution and less is usually not effective to reduce temperatures by heat loss. However, materials with a high C:N watering the material because the mass may ratio or containing large amounts of ash or become waterlogged. mineral matter will usually attain high temperatures more slowly in the compost pile.

Composting Fundamentals - 19 Aeration and Oxygen

The compost pile must have a structure that allows for the movement of air. Sufficient air space within the organic material ensures an adequate oxygen supply, the removal of carbon dioxide and uniform moisture content throughout the organic material. Research indicates that 30%-35% of the initial volume of a pile should be made up of air spaces for optimum composting u to occur. Bulking materials may need to be added to increase the porosity of fine-textured materials such as soil and livestock manure. Once air space has been provided, the finer the organic material is in structure, the more surface area will be immediately exposed to the microorganisms. The concern for maximum exposed surface area must always be balanced with the requirement for adequate free air space.

Keep over 5% oxygen throughout the entire pile. Typical oxygen percents range from 6% - 16% in the pile and 20% at the exposed portions of the pile. Failure to keep all parts of the compost pile less interstitial or air space in the pile. Materials above the 5% oxygen level will cause the plle to with a high C:N ratio may not have to be aerated "go anaerobic", with the accompanying odor as often as material which decomposes more problems. The more oxygen, the more quickly actively and rapidly. the composting will take place. Studies at the University of California indicate that Aeration is also useful in reducing a high initial turning at fairly frequent intervals during the first moisture content in composting materials. 10 to 15 days of composting achieved Several different aeration techniques have been approximately the same degree of stabilization as utilized with varying degrees of success. Turning making the same number of turns over a longer the material is the most common method of period. Greater aeration during the initial stages aeration when composting is done in piles. Hand of decomposition intensifies the activity of the turning of the compost piles is most commonly microorganisms, shortens the period of active used for small garden operations. The most decomposition, and, consequently, reduces the important consideration in turning compost, apart time needed for composting. from aeration, is to ensure that the material of the outside of the pile of units is turned into the Experience soon enables the composter to center where it will be subject to high estimate the need for adding water and the need temperatures. If desired, piles can be combined for turning. A good rule of thumb is to turn the when they are being turned, particularly if long pile daily if foul odors of anaerobic and composting periods are used. putrefactive conditions are evident when the pile is disturbed either by turning or by digging Into it The frequency of aeration or turning and the for inspection purposes. The pile should be amount of aeration or the total number of turns turned daily until odors disappear. No matter are governed primarily by the moisture content how anaerobic a pile may become, it will recover and the type of material, the moisture content under a schedule of daily turning which reduces being the most important. A high moisture the moisture and provides aeration. A content reduces the pore space available for air temperature drop during the first 7 or 10 days of as well as reducing the structural strength of the composting is a good indication that turning for material. This permits greater compaction and aeration Is necessary.

Composting Fundamenttrls - 20 Daily turning apparently inhibits the development evaporation takes place, and when the material I of molds and actinomycetes, characteristic of becomes too dry, bacterial activii is inhibited. piles disturbed less often. In piles turned daily \ these organisms develop only sporadically. This Shredding or grinding to produce a maximum effect of daily turning is probably due to the daily particle size of about 2 inches provides a more exposure of the microorganisms to inhibitory homogeneous mass which is not as easily temperatures within the interior of the pile. Such penetrated by winds. Thoroughly wetting the exposure prevents their accumulation in the exterior of the pile, particularly on the windward cooler outer shell. side, will reduce wind penetration and permit the interior high-temperaturezone to extend nearer to In summary, the avoidance of anaerobic the surface of the pile. Wind cooling and drying conditions, and the maintenance of high temper- of compost piles is of little significance when piles atures, are the important criteria for the degree of or bins are used, since the material is protected aeration. on all sides except the top, which wetting will protect.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS Rain - Climatic conditions, particularlytemperature,wind, Rain usually does not seriously affect composting. and rainfall, influence the composting operation. If drainage at the bottom of the pile is inadequate, The effect of atmospheric temperatures, the pile should be finished with a rounded top so - particularly the lowest temperature at which that the rainwater can run off. If the compost composting might be satisfactorily done, is not piles or bins are adequately drained so that water fully known. However, having a larger compost does not stand around the piles and penetrate the pile in cooler weather will reduce the heat loss. bottoms, then a slight depression helps maintain - moisture in the pile (and will occur naturally Temperature anyway as the material decomposes). Heavy rains accompanied by high winds will penetrate a Organic refuse has excellent insulation properties. pile of coarsely shredded material as much as 12 3 Research has shown that a steep temperature to 15 inches on the windward side, but the gradient exits between the outer and inner surface resulting effect on large piles can be readily of compost piles. The difference in temperature overcome by subsequent turning. - between the outer and inner parts of the compost pile may be several degrees Fahrenheit difference Turning should not be done in the rain, because per inch of material. It seems reasonable to the material may become waterlogged. If the believe that composting can be satisfactorily material cannot be turned on the regular schedule conducted even during severe freezing due to rain, it is better to let it become deficient in temperatures. It is probable that turning Is not as air for a short time than to have the material advantageous in cold as in warm weather, soaked. Rainy weather can present more of a because there would be a longer temperature problem when composting is done in pits or bins. recovery period after each turn when the colder The top of the pit should be rounded to turn the exterior of the pile was turned into the interior. water, which will, however, seep along the edges to the bottom. The bottom should therefore be Wind adequately drained to remove the water and to allow a minimum of penetration into the compost. Strong winds markedly lower the temperatures on the windward side of the compost pile. Two factors play an important role in temperature DESTRUCTION OF HARMFUL ELEMENTS reduction by winds: (a) the coarseness of the - material, which affects the porosity of the pile and The destruction of harmful elements is a most the evaporation, and (b) the moisture content. important problem of compost containing weeds, Unshredded or coarsely shredded material has a grass seed and other plant pathogenic organisms. - greater porosity and permits greater penetration of wind into the pile. Consequently, more

- Composting Fundamentals - 21 An analysis of the typical temperature and of the A few weeks of composting will degrade the thermal death points of a number of pathogenic fungicide enough so that it will not affect the I micro-organisms and parasites indicates the decomposition process. unlikelihood of survival of some of the common disease-bearing organisms. The magnitude and Composting bins are often made of pressure duration of the high temperatures, results in very treated wood to prevent rot from destroying the few pathogens or parasites surviving the aerobic compost bin. Contrary to what you might composting process. intuitively expect, it's apparently safer to use wood treated with CCA than wood treated with As previously described, the high temperature either creosote or pentachlorophenol. Several zone usually extends only to within 4 to 8 inches studies have found no evidence that CCA of the surface. Turning materials is therefore migrates from treated wood into garden plants necessary, for ensuring pathogen and parasite growing in planter boxes of CCA treated wood. destruction, particularly if a cornposting period It seems reasonable to assume that CCA would under six months is used. In some composting not migrate into compost either. operations the material is turned only once or not at all. A thermophilic temperature is developed Table 1. Persistence of some common herbicides in soil after the initial aerobic stacking. This is considered to be sufficient to destroy the Longevity in Soil pathogens and parasites. Common Name Trade Names Jmonthsl. Beneiin Wan, Batfin 4-8 Is it safe to use compost from yard wastes that DCPA Dacthai 4-8 have come in contact with pesticides or other Bensulide Betasen, Prefar 6-12 Glyphosate Roundup, Kieenup

Insecticides: All contemporary insecticides will Two of the most important purposes for home break down during the decomposition process. composting of organic wastes are (1) decreasing the amounts of usable organic materials that are Fungicides: Vegetation recently sprayed with a being deposited in landfills, and (2) reclamation or fungicide may suppress the development of conservation of the nutrient and fertilizer values of decomposing fungi if added to the compost pile. the organic materials. Of the major nutrients--

Compstiitg Fundamentals - 22 nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potash K)- If ammonia is present, it will escape more easily nitrogen conservation is the most important. when the material is disturbed and exposed to the Nitrogen is more difficult to conserve in the atmosphere. However, If the Initial C:N ratio is compost pile than phosphorus and potash. sufficiently high, the nitrogen losses during turning Nitrogen may be lost by leaching, but the maJor will be small. loss of nitrogen in the compost pile comes from the escape of ammonia or other volatile High temperature increases volatllization and nitrogenous gases from the compost material to escape of ammonia. Since high temperatures are the atmosphere. fundamental in aerobic composting and de- struction of pathogen, there is little to be done Nitrogen loss as ammonia in aerobic composting about contrdling temperatures other than to avoid is affected by the C:N ratio, the pH, the moisture temperature above 170°F. content, aeration, temperature, and the initial form of nitrogen compounds in the organic materials. Some materials, such as cellulose and porous fibrous matter, have the capacity to absorb or A ratio of available carbon to available nitrogen of hold moisture and volatile substances, thereby about 30 or more permits minimum loss of reducing the tendency to escape. There is nitrogen. A C:N ratio of considerably over 30 considerable evidence that material of this type may be necessary to provide maximum plays a part in reducing nitrogen loss from conservation of nitrogen. On the other hand, compost. Materials containing considerable nitrogen losses of around 50% were observed in quantities of horse or cow manure seem to exhibit the University of California studies when the C:N less nitrogen loss at a low C:N ratio than other ratio was in the range 20 to 25. materials and should be considered to be nitrogen carriers. Ammonia escapes as ammonia hydroxide as the pH rises above 7.0. In the later stages of Loss of nitrogen by leaching may occur in rainy composting the pH may rise to between 8.0 and weather or if the composting material has too 9.0. At this time there should not be an excessive high an Initial moisture content and excess liquid amount of nitrogen present as ammonia. Mater- drains away. Loss by leaching depends on the ials which contain large amounts of ash will have amount of soluble nitrogen in the compost and on a high pH and may be expected to lose more the amount of rainfall. Leaching may be nitrogen. minimlzed by arranging the compost piles so that water is prevented from entering the material. Some compost operators have suggested the addition of lime to improve composting. This Conservation of phosphorus and potash in should be done only under rare circumstances, composting is not difficult since about the only such as when raw material to be composted has loss occurs through leaching during rainy a high acidity due to acid wastes or contains weather. materials which give rise to highly acid conditions during composting. It is recommendedthat when TIME the pH remains above 4.0 to 4.5, lime should not be added. The pH will be increased by biological There Is no time period after which you can say action and nitrogen will be conserved. you have "total", "perfect", "complete", "finished" compost. The current rule of thumb is that The moisture content of compost affects nitrogen organic materials must be composted correctly conservation but to a much less extent than the and aged for at least one year, before the C:N ratio and the pH. Ammonia escape is greater resulting compost can be called "safe for most when the moisture content is low. The water uses." Some composting methods will produce serves as a solvent and diiuent for the ammonia, "finished compost" before twelve months, and thereby reducing the vapor pressure and some of the very low maintenance methods may volatilization. A moisture content range of 50% to take up to two years, or more, to produce 70%, which is also satisfactory for other aspects "finished compost." of composting, will assist in conserving nitrogen.

Composting Fundamentals - 23 How long it takes to turn organic materials into pathogens and parasites to be destroyed and for compost depends on many factors including the nitrogen to be conserved is not exact. (See techniques used, seasonal temperatures (both Heat-Destruction of Pathogenic Organisms). So outside and inside the pile), the balance of brown long as satisfactory compost can be produced, to green materials or C:N ratio, the slze of the the turning, time of compostlng, storage, and material, and moisture levels. In general the other factors is generally flexible for home more time the compost material has had to "age," compostlng. the more stable and fully decomposed it will be. Time is one indicator that the compost is "mature." With present methods "completely UNWANTED GUESTS: finished" compost is not likely in less than 120 THE PESTS OF THE PILE days. Animal Pests Assuming that the moisture content is in the - optimum range, that the compost is kept aerobic, Given a comfortable or even marginally nourishing and that the particles of material are small enough environment, pests, as well as beneficial species to be readily attacked by the organisms present-- will show up to "get in on the action." Rats are - all factors that can be controlled in the probably the least wanted guests of all. With a composting operation-the C:N ratio determines hospitable environment and plenty of food, their the time required for stabilization. Low C:N ratio numbers can increase quickly. Because rats can materials are decomposed in the shortest time be transmitters of disease, measures should be - because the amount of carbon to be oxidized to taken to discourage them from visiting or reach a stabilized condition is small. Also, in low inhabtting composting areas. It is important to C:N ratio compost, a larger part of the carbon is keep high protein and fatty food wastes out of the

~ usually in a more readily available form, while in compost pile, such as meat and fish scraps, higher C:N ratio materials more of the carbon Is bones, cheeses, butter and other dairy products. usually in the form of cellulose and lignin which As an additional precaution, bread and other - are rather resistant to attack. As the breakdown hlgh-carbohydrate wastes should not be process nears completion, cellulose and lignin are composted. attacked last by the changing biological population. When the available C:N ratio is Dogs, cats, and raccoons won't usually attempt - above 30, additional time is required for the nesting in the compost, as rats mlght do, but they recycling of nitrogen present. are interested in much the same foods. Thus the (See Carbon:Nitrogen Relationships) same restrictions on food wastes are appropriate c if a problem exists. Processing raw compost If the material is not kept aerobic so that hlgh materials within simple structures, such as wire temperatures can be maintained during the active cages and wooden pallet bins is usually sufficient decomposition period, or if the particle size Is so to discourage domestic animals from digging in L large that the bacteria cannot readily attack the the pile. material, longer composting periods are required. Flies and Related Pests L Under aerobic conditions at high temperatures when the initial C:N ratio is in the optimum range One of the most important considerations in or below, some of the material in the interior of composting is the control of flies. Many flies, the pile may take on the appearance and odor of including houseflies, can spend their larval phase L humus after 2 to 5 days of active decomposition. as maggots in compost. Though they play an However, active decomposition is not complete at important part in the recycling and breaking down this stage, and the C:N ratio may not have been of all types of organic debris, they are unwanted L lowered to the level desired for plant use. guests around human households. Moreover, in the average compost pile, materials on or near the outside of the pile probably would Garbage, livestock manure, and food scraps can still be uncomposted. be a media for the breeding and development of a fly population. If adequate control measures The actual composting time sufficient for are practiced, and materials are covered there will

Composting FundamentrJs - 24 not be a problem.

It is well to note that the life cycle of the ordinary housefly, musca domestica is usually from about 7 to 14 days when conditions are favorable. The time of the various life stages varies with the temperature and other conditions, but on the average, stages are as follows: egg, 1 to 2 days; larva 3 to 5 days; pupa, 3 to 5 days; emergence of young fly, 7 to 10 days; and egg laying by new fly, 10 to 14 days. Fly control measures must interrupt this cycle and prevent the adult flies from emerging so that no new eggs can be laid.

The composting procedures, turning, and systematic cleanliness, which are useful in providing compost of good quality and in destroying parasites and pathogens, are also effective for controlling flies. Initial shredding or grinding to produce a material which can be more readily attacked by bacteria destroys a large number of the larvae and pupae in the raw material. Also, the texture of material shredded to a particle size no larger than 2 inches seems to discourages fly breeding.

To control the numbers of these pests, keep attractive food wastes out of the compost pile, turn compost piles frequently (larvae die at high temperatures), cover piles with a dry material that has a lot of carbon in it such as straw or old grass clippings, or bury your food wastes. Fly- breeding can be satisfactorily controlled in most home composting operations during the fly season with a little more effort than is normally necessary for good sanitary composting.

Happy Composting!

Composting Fundamentals - 25 Chapter 3 Composting Structures

The type of structure or method you choose to turning easy. make compost is really a matter of personal preference. If you are the do-it-yourself type, Regardless of the type of structure you choose, you may want to build your own structure using make certain it is well-ventilated for good air materials like wood, welded wire, concrete blocks circulation throughout the composting materials. or wooden pallets. Pre-fabricated ready-built Also, the Ideal size for the structure is 3 ft. X 3 ft. bins and drum turning units are also available X 3 ft. If the bin is higher or wider than 3 feet, from local building supply stores and garden aeration becomes a problem and the composting centers or through mail-order catalogs. Many process occurs more slowly. manufactured bins are being made from recycled plastic. (See the Appendix for a listing of The following are do-it-yourself instructions for manufacturers). If aesthetics are of concern, you building some of the commonly used holding may want to purchase a manufactured bin. units. Feel free to modify the plans to best fit your purpose. The Appendix lists manufacturers On the other hand, home composting does not of some commercially available units. have to be done in a structure. It can be done simply by placing organic materials in a pile or Wire-mesh Holding Untt heap in the backyard. It can also be done in a pit dug in the ground or simply in plastic bags In A wire-mesh holding unit is one of the most the backyard. Still another indirect way of inexpensive and easiest units to build. It can be composting is simply to incorporate organic made from galvanized chicken wire (ungalvanized matter, like fall leaves and declining annual plants, wire will not last long) or hardware cloth. The into garden soil just like farmers do at the end of wire-mesh bin also provides for easy turning of a cropping season. the organic materials. Simply Ilft the wire, set it to the side, and use a garden fork or shovel to In this chapter, we’ll discuss five methods of scoop the organics back into the pile while composting using a wide variety of structures: harvesting finished compost from the bottom. holding units, turning units, heaps, pit composting, and plastic bag composting. Materials Specific plans are also provided for a wide variety of structures. * 10-foot length of 36-inch-wide l-inch galvanized chicken wire HOLDING UNITS or 1O-foot length of 1/2-inch-wide hardware cloth Holding units are containers, bins or structures for * heavy wire for ties holding organic materials in place during the * three or four 4-foot tall wooden or metal composting process. Portable units may be posts (for chicken made from light-weight materials, such as welded wire bin) wire or hardware cloth, chicken wire on a wood frame, or old wooden pallets tied together, while Tools permanent units can be made from landscape timbers, concrete blocks or bricks. * Heavy-duty wire or tin snips Manufactured holding units are also available. * Pliers Holding units differ from turning units in that * Hammer (for chicken wire bin) organic materials within holding units are usually * Metal file (for hardware cloth bin) not turned while turning units are built to make * Work gloves

Composting Structures - 26 3. Cut the heavy wire into lengths for ties. Attach the ends of the hardware cloth together with wire ties, using pliers......

Wooden Pallet Holding Unit

Old wooden pallets make and excellent holding unit for organic materials. Used pallets are often available free from local businesses.

Materials

* Four wooden pallets (Five pallets if you want a bottom in the unit). * Nails * Baling Wire

Construction Procedure Using Chicken Wire Tools

1. Fold back 3 to 4 inches of wire at each * Saw end of the cut piece to provide a strong, * Sledge hammer clean edge that will not poke or snag, * Claw hammer and that will be easy to latch. * Work gloves

2. Stand the wire in a circle and set it in place for the compost pile.

3. Cut the heavy wire into lengths for ties. Attach the ends of the chicken wire together with the wire ties, using pliers.

4. Space wood or metal posts around the inside of the chicken-wire circle. Holding the posts tightly against the wire, pound them firmly into the ground to provMe Construction Procedure support. 1. Nail or wlre four pallets together to make a four-sided bin. Construction Procedure Using Hardware Cloth 2. A fHth pallet can be used as a base to allow more air to get into the pile and to 1. Trim the ends of the hardware cloth so increase the stability of the bin. that the wires are flush with a cross wire to get rid of edges that could poke or ...... scratch hands. Lightly file each wire along the cut edge to ensure safe handling when opening and closing the bin.

2. Bend the hardware cloth into a circle, and stand it in place for the compost pile.

Composting Structures - 27 Concrete-Block Holding Unit 4. Add a second layer of blocks, staggering them to increase stability and leaving i A concrete-block holding unit is sturdy, durable, about 1/2 inch between each block. and easily accessible. If the concrete blocks There should be a layer of four concrete must be purchased, a concrete-block holding unit blocks on each of the three walls of the may be slightly more expensive to build than the enclosure. wire-mesh or snow-fence holding units. 5. Add a third layer of blocks, again Materials staggering them to increase stability, with five blocks across the back of the * approximately forty-six concrete blocks enclosure and three on each side. for the first bin * (optional) about thirty-two blocks for a 6. The last, and top, layer should have four second bin blocks across the back and three on * wooden or metal posts to stabilize the bin each side. * work gloves 7. To make the bin more stable, drive wooden or metal posts through the holes in the blocks.

a. (Optional) If you wish to decrease your composting time, build a second bin next to the first, so that the wastes in one can mature while you add wastes to the other. Use one side wall of the first bin so that you only need to build two additional walls......

Garbage-Can Composter

A garbage-can composter is inexpensive and easy to build. However, the disadvantage of a garbage can composter is that the materials Construction ProcedureUsing Concrete Blocks within the unit are difficult to turn.

1. Place five concrete blocks in a row along Materlals the ground at the composting site, leaving about 1/2 inch between each * garbage can with cover block to let in air. * coarse sawdust, straw, or wood chips

2. Place four concrete blocks in another row Tools along the ground perpendicular to, and at one end of, the first row, forming a * drill square corner, leave about 1/2 inch * pitch fork, shovel, or compost turner between each block. * work gloves

3. In the same way, place four concrete blocks at the opposite end of the first row to form a three-sided enclosure.

Composting Structures - 28 Wood and Wire ThresBin Turning Unit

If space permits and if you need more space for the annual supply of organic materlals, a three-bin turning unlt is recommended. It provides more space for composting than a single unit. Organics can be turned from one unit to the next, with each of the three units at dlfferent stages. In other words, bin 1 can be used for fresh incoming organic materials, bin 2 for half-done compost, and bin 3 for finished compost. The materials are turned periodically within each bin and shifted from one bin to the next when they reach the desired level of decomposition.

Materials

* 4-12-foot lengths of pressure-treated2 X 4 lumber Construction Procedure Using Garbage-Can * 2-1O-foot lengths of pressure treated 2 X 4 lumber 1. Drill three rows of holes 4 to 6 inches * 1--lO-foot length of constructlon-grade2 apart all around the sides of the garbage X 4 lumber can. Then drill several holes in the base * 1-1 6-foot length of 2 X 6 lumber of the garbage can. The holes allow air * 6--8-foot lengths of 1 X 6 lumber movement and the drainage of excess * 1-22-foot length of 36-inch-wide 1/2-inch moisture. hardware cloth * 16d galvanized nails (2 pounds) 2. Place 2 to 3 inches of dry sawdust, straw, * poultry wire staples (250) or wood chips in the bottom of the can to * 12-1 /2-lnch carriage bolts 4-inches long absorb excess moisture and let the with washers and nuts compost drain. * one quart wood preservative or stain

Optional Materials - for lids

TURNING UNITS * 1-4 X 8 ft. sheet of 1/2-inch exterior plywood As the name implies, turning units are designed to * 1-4 X 4 ft. sheet of 1/2-inch exterior allow mixing of organics periodically during the Plywood composting process. The most commonly used * 1-3-inch zinc-plated hinges types of turning units are three-bin turning units * twenty-four 3/16-inch galvanized steel and barrel composters. Like holding units, each bolts with washers and nuts bin of a three-bin turning unit should be approximately 3 ft. X 3 ft. X 3 ft. in size to provide good aeration throughout the composting organics.

The following are detailed plans for do-it-yourself construction of some commonly used turning units. Again, feel free to modify the plans to fit your purpose. Sources of several manufactured units are listed in the appendix.

Composting Structures - 29 Construction Procedure lumber. Attach the board to the back of the top by repeating the process used to 1. Cut two 31 1/2-inch pieces and two 36- attach the base boards. Using the inch pieces from a 12-foot length of carpenter's square, or measuring pressure-treated 2" X 4 lumber. Butt- betweeen opposing corners, make sure joint and nail the four pieces into a 35- the bin is square. Tighten all the bolts inch X 36-inch "square". Repeat, secuurely. building three more frames with the remaining 12-foot length of 2" X 4" 7. Fasten a 9-foot length of hardware cloth lumber. to the back side of the bin, with staples every 4 inches around the frame.

8. Cut four 36-inch-long pieces from the 16- foot length of 2 X 6 lumber for front runners. (Save the remaining 4-foot length.) Rip-cut two of these boards to two 4 3/4-inch-wide strips. (Save the 2. Cut four 37-inch length of hardware cloth. two remaining strips). Fold back the edges of the wire 1 inch. Stretch the pieces of hardware cloth 9. Nail the 4 3/4-inch-wide strips to the front across each frame. Make sure the of the outside dividers and baseboard so corners of each frame are square and that they are flush on the top and the then staple the screen tightly into place outside edges. Center the two every 4 inches around the edge. The remaining 6-inch-wideboards on the front wood-and-wire frames will be dividers in of the inside dividers flush with the top your composter. edge and nail securelv.

3. Set two dividers on end, 9 feet apart and parallel to one another. Position the other two dividers so that they are parallel to and evenly spaced between the end dividers. Place the 36-inch edges on the ground. Measure the position of the centers of the two inside dividers along each 9-foot edge. 10. Cut the remaining 4-foot length of 2 X 6 lumber into a 34-inch-long piece, and 4. Cut a 9-foot piece from each 10-foot then rip-cut this piece into four equal length of pressure-treated 2 X 4 lumber. strips. Trim the two strips saved from Place the two treated boards across the step 8 to 34 inches. Nail each 34-inch tops of the dividers so that each Is flush strip to the insides of the dividers so that against the outer edges. Measure and they are parallel to, and l-inch away from mark on the 9-foot boards the center of the boards attached to the front. This each inside divider. crates a l-inch vertical slot on the inside of each divider. 5. Line up the marks, and through each junction of board and divider, drill a 1/2- 11. Cut the six 8-foot lengths of 1 X 6 lumber inch hole centered 1 inch from the edge. into eighteen slats, each 31 1/4 inches Secure the boards with carriage bolts, long. Insert the horizontal slats, six per but do not tighten them yet. Turn the bin, between the dividers and into the unit so that the treated boards are on the vertical slots. bottom. 12. (Optional) Cut the 4 X 8-foot sheet of 6. Cut one 9-foot piece from the 10-foot exterior plywood into two 3 X 3-foot length of construction-grade 2 X 4 pieces. Cut the 4 X 4-foot sheet of

Composting Structures - 30 exterior plywood into one 3 X 3-foot piece on one of the three bins, and attach each to the back, top board with two hinges.

13. Stain all untreated wood......

Wooden Three-Bin Turning Unit

This turning unit is a permanent, sturdy structure, but it may be difficult to space the posts to the exact dimensions illustrated. Before cutting the removable slats that slide into the grooves at the Construction Procedure Using Wooden Slats front of each bin, cut one slat and check for proper fit in each bin. 1. On level ground, set the eight posts as shown below using a post hole digger. (The posts are shown as darkened Materials squares.) Place each post 2 feet into the ground. Be sure all posts are plumb (All lumber should be pressure treated) (perpendicular to the ground). The top * 8-4-inch x 4-inch x 6-foot posts of each post should be at the same * 7-1 -inch x 6-inch x 12-foot back slats distance above the ground (48 inches). * 14-1 -inch x 6-inch x 4-foot end/side slats * 4--l-inch x 6 inch x 4-foot fronts * 14-4-inch x 6 inch x 46 1/4-inch dividers * 24-1-inch x 6-inch x 42 13/16-inch (approximate) front slats [Note: before cutting all the front slats, cut one and check for proper fit in each bin.] * 4--1-inch x 1(+)-inch x 4-foot cleats, rip cut from one four-foot 1 x 6 (the cleats are retainers for slats) * 8d galvanized deck nails or deck screws [Note: Dimensions given for the back are * one tube exterior construction adhesive included to assist in post spacing.] * (optional) one 1-inch x 6-inch x 12-foot top rail 2. Nail (or screw) on the back and side slats and dividers (predrill all holes to prevent Tools splitting). Use adhesive on all joints. The bottom slats should be at ground * post hole digger level. Leave 1 1/2-inch (horizontal) * hammer spaces between slats. Note that the * saw ends of the dividers should come out to * tape measure 1 Inch behind the front of the front posts, * drill as shown in the illustration above.

Composting Structures - 31 Construction Procedure Using Concrete Blocks

1. Place twenty-five concrete blocks along the ground at the compostlng site as shown in the illustration below. Leave 3. Install the fronts and cleats, as shown about 1/2 inch between each block to let for one of the center divider posts shown in air. above.

4. After the front slats have been sized and cut, slide them into place between the fronts and cleats as shown in the completed bin illustration above.

5. (Optional) Nail the top rail to each front post, as shown in the completed bin illustration above. Do not use adhesive, and do not drive the nails in fully, as they 2. Add a second layer of blocks, staggering will be removed to allow access to the them to increase stability. Using the slats. The top rail is suggested to turning unit illustration above as a guide, prevent the front posts from moving place ten full and two half-blocks along laterally. Another option to discourage the back wall, and three blocks along this is to use 4-inch x 4-inch x 7-foot each side. Leave about 1/2 inch posts and embed them one foot deeper. between each block.

Concrete-Block Three-Bin Turning Unit

A concrete-block turning unit looks like three concrete-block holding units in a row. It is sturdy and, if used concrete blocks are available, The illustration above shows a concrete it is inexpensive to build. block with a central slit that makes it easy to split into two half blocks. Score each side of the block in the plane of the slit Materials and Tools with a chisel. Then use the chisel and a hammer to split the block along the * eighty-six concrete blocks score. * four concrete half-blocks * work gloves 3. Add a third layer of blocks, again * wooden or metal posts to stabilize the bin staggering them to increase stability. Place twelve blocks across the back of the enclosure and three blocks on each side.

4. The last, and top, layer should have ten full and two half-blocks across the back and two full blocks along each side.

5. To make the unit more stable, drive wooden or metal posts through the holes in the blocks......

Composting Structures - 32 Barrel Composter For uniform compost, the barrel is rotated several times whenever new material is added. Air holes The advantage of a barrel composter over are drilled opposite the opening. other structures is that organic materials can be easily turned simply by rotating the barrel. A barrel corn poster is relatively easy to construct Construction Procedure using the following plan. Several manufactured barrel composters are also commercially 1. Start by obtaining a good 55-gallon drum available. preferably one that has not had any toxic chemicals in it. Paint barrels are a good Materials choice, as they already have a protective coating of paint inside. If not already * 1--55-gallon drum (composter) 2--23/4" painted, adding a protectbe coating is a dia. x 3/4" (bearings) white good idea. * 4--40 x 2 x 4" (frame uprights) * 4--29 3/4 x 2 x 4" (frame horizontal) 2. Drill a 1/2-inch hole in the exact center of * 2--40 5/8 x 1 x 3" (cross braces) white both ends of the barrel to accommodate pine the 1/2-inch steel rod. (Refer to the * 4--23 3/4 x 1 x 3" (corner braces) white illustration for making a simple tool to pine locate centers.) Hold the rounded end of * 2-71 /2" dia. x 3/4" (bearings) white pine the gauge anywhere along the * 2--1 1/2 x 2" hinges circumference and scribe a line on the - * 1--small hasp approximate center. Move the gauge 90 * 1-1 /2 x 40 1/2" steel rod degrees and scribe another line. The * 12--1/4 x 11 /4" stove bolts intersection of these lines will be the - * 28--1 1/2" #10 wood screws exact center. * 1 pint of flat black paint.

U 3. Next scribe the lines for the opening in the barrel making sure to round the corners slightly. Drill a 1/4-inch hole somewhere along one of the lines to start I the saber saw. If your barrel has ribs, as most do, you will have to cut a 1-inch vee notch on each rib to facilitate opening the door. Attach the hinges and the hasp to I the barrel and lid using l-by-1/4-inch stove bolts.

4. From 3/4-inch white pine, cut two circles 7 1/2 inches in diameter and two circles 2 3/4 inches in diameter. Drill a 1/2- The steel axle rod fits into 1/2-inch hdes in the inch hole in the center of each and apply horizontal two-by-fours. Wooden bearing disks glue to the 2 3/4-inch circles. Glue the bolt onto the drum with four 1 1/4-inch stove 2 3/4-inch circles to the 7 1/2-inch bolts. circles. This can be done easily if the circles are temporarily slipped over the

Composting Structures - 33 1/2-inch steel rod and clamped. After the glue has dried, remove the disks, insert the rod through the barrel, and assemble as shown in the illustration, using four 1 1/4-by-1/4-inch stove bolts in each.

5. To build the support frame, cut the 2-by- 4’s to length and, using a corner lap joint, assemble with two 1 1/2-inch #10 wood screws in each joint. The uprights will also have to be dadoed 23 inches from 5 ft. the bottom to accept a 1-by3-inch board. To make a corner lap joint, simply remove one-half the thickness of the ...... stock to a length comparable to the width of the stock on both ends of all pieces. Pit Composting

6. Half-inch holes to accommodate the rod Pit composting refers to composting in shallow will have to be drilled in the exact center pits dug in the ground as opposed to above- of the top horizontal pieces before ground structures. The pit is dug approximately assembling the top portion of the support 2 feet deep, 3 feet wide, and any length. The frame. Slip the 1/2-inch steel rod, with walls of the pit can be lined with treated wood, barrel attached, through these holes and brick, or masonry, or it may be left unlined if the insert the cross members into the dadoed surrounding soil packs well and remains firm. If uprights. Fasten with 1 1/2-inch #10 construction materials are used, the walls may wood screws. Next cut the 1-by-3-by-23 extend above ground level. 1/4-inch piece at 45-degree angles at both ends, and attach with 1 1/2-inch #10 wood screws across corners as shown in the illustration.

7. Drill several rows of 1/4-inch holes along the bottom of the barrel exactly underneath the door opening to eliminate excess moisture. Paint the unit a flat black color to help absorb heat.

Figure 1 shows several other structures that have been used for home composting...... Heaps

Heap composting is simply composting without a structure. Organic materials are added to the pile as they become available. For best Pit composting does not provide good aeration decomposition: the heap should not exceed three and occurs primarily under anaerobic conditions feet in height, but the length can vary according (in the absence of good air flow). Therefore, the to the materials available. When a sufficient size composting process takes longer in pits than in is reached, it is best to start another heap for above-ground structures. fresh materials while allowing the original heap to decompose with the help of occasional turning......

Composting Structures - 34 Plastic Bag Composting

Plastic bag composting is perhaps the simplest of within the bag). Then add about a quart of all composting methods requiring no structure water, close the bag tightly and set It aside for six other than a black plastic garbage bag. months to a year. You should not have to turn the mixture or add water after closing the bag. If possible, set bags in a sunny spot where they The bags should be 30 to 40 gallon in size and at can absorb heat. In the winter, move bags to a least 3 ml. in thickness. This size bag should heated garage or basement. hold approximately 3 bushels of organic materials. Plastic bag composting is convenient, but, like pit For best decomposition, try to place a composting, the process occurs mainly under combination of both brown and green organic anaerobic conditions and much slower than materials in the bag. To each bag add 1 cup of composting in well-ventilated structures. ammonium nitrate and about 1/4 cup of hydrated lime (in this case lime is used to counteract the ...... acidity that will occur under anaerobic conditions

Figure 1. Other Composting Structures

Twin-bin Pit with cisterns to collect "off water

Simple Block Bin Snow-fence Bin

Composting Structures - 35 r

Chapter 4 Building and Maintaining a Compost Pile

Since there are many ways of making compost, Excess rain tends to sour compost, because its actual composition will vary considerably. anaerobic (airless) decay predominates instead of While the raw materials going into the compost aerobic decomposition. Live vegetation--trees, pile are important, the value of the final compost shrubs and hedges--provide good shelter when depends upon the construction and management available. It should be kept in mind that what of the pile. There is a vast difference, for may be a good site in a warm, dry climate or in instance, between compost from a well-made, summer may be unsuitable under winter well-managed pile and that from the all-too-com- circumstances. mon untidy dump or hole in the ground. Also, a well-made pile is agreeable to work with while a 2. Convenient location. Because of the labor in random pile is generally messy and may breed moving the materials to and from the pile, it flies and other problems. Following the general should be located in a convenient location. If you principles below will produce a neat and are going to be making compost in bulk, it may productive compost pile. be advisable to have piles in several places to save labor. On the other hand, speedy Always remember -- NATURE MAKES THE decomposition may be promoted by the COMPOST -- you only furnish the area and do interaction between piles grouped together. Such the work to help. an arrangement is also conducive to good management. When several piles are sited SITE OF THE PILE together, sufficient space should be left either for making two heaps into one when turning, or for The composting site should be chosen with wheelbarrows or carts to get in and out of the regard to these requirements: area. The corner where little will grow is often a suitable compost site in a small garden. 1. Favorable conditions for the activities of the living organisms--fungi, bacteria, earthworms, Also, remember that you are going to want to turn etc.-which carry out the processes of the pile and will need room enough to do so. decomposition. Organisms need free contact with both soil and atmosphere and suitable After you have decided on the site of the pile, environments of warmth and moisture. The pile your next step Is to consider building the pile. should not be directly exposed to sun, wind, rain, Ask yourself several important questions: nor sited in a low-lying place subject to unnecessary dampness and standing water. 1. Am I going to build the pile all at one time or Strong sun not only dries, but also is hostile to build it up as materials become available? micro-organisms. Wind cools and dries the pile, while excessive rain results in coldness, 2. Will I use different materials or try to make it waterlogging, leaching of plant nutrients, and out of primarily just one material such as leaves? slowing of the composting process. 3. What will be used as a nitrogen source?

Building and Maintaining a Compost Pile - 36 4. How big will the compost pile be, and what organisms and decomposition by thermophlles type of structure is to be used? (high temperature microorganisms) are not obtained. Also, if the piles are too small, the loss 5. Do I want quick compost that requires more of moisture may be excessive, especially near the work or do I want a static pile? edges, and decomposition will be retarded.

6. Am I willing to cut, chop, shred, and pulverize Experience will quickly demonstrate the most suit- materials in order to have compost earlier? able height of the pile for any particular refuse. Four to five feet is about the maximum height for PLACEMENT OF MATERIALS any refuse, and 3 1/2 feet is the minimum for most shredded home compost piles. The height Compost will occur in a pile of assorted organic can be greater in cold weather than in warm debris that simply sits passively in the weather weat her. with no attention from human hands. However, a carefully constructed and tended pile will usually Constructing the compost pile, in bins, windrows result in more satisfactory compost more quickly. or in piles, is usually described in terms of layers. In actual practice, such layers are less well The bin, open pile, or windrow are by far the most defined. Layering helps to control the quantity widely used methods for the aerobic and type of materials as well as the unlformity of decomposition and maturing of organic refuse. the pile. Turning the pile incorporates materials The exact use and arrangement of these systems for the quickest and most complete depend on available materials, labor, cost of decomposition. systems, climatic conditions such as temperature, rainfall, and wind. The daily quantities of materials available for home gardeners will often be too small to permit the satisfactory use of windrows. in this case circular or rectangular piles approximately 3 feet in diameter and 3 to 5 feet high, with a rounded top for running off of the rain water, could be used.

If it is desired to maintain the composting process aerobically by frequent turning for aeration, windrows and piles and bins above the surface of the ground appear to be more efficient than pits. On the other hand, if the decomposition is to be entirely anaerobic, or aerobic only during a short initial period, pits 3 to 4 feet deep can be used. Figure 1. A wire bin is one of the easiest and cheapest composting structures to make. WINDROWS, PILES AND BINS

The material in aerobic composting piles should The pile may normally be started directly on the be loosely stacked to allow as much space for air ground. However, to provide aeration to the between particles as possible. The windrows or bottom of the pile and improve drainage, dig a piles may be of any convenient length, but the trench across the base of the area and cover with height of the pile is somewhat critical. If piled too stiff wire mesh (hardware cloth) before the layers high, the material will be compressed by its own are begun, or stack small sticks or tree branches weight, thus reducing pore space and resulting in in a single layer to prevent the pile from resting increased turning labor or in an extended period directly on the ground. Aeration and drainage of cornposting because anaerobic conditions may also be improved by making a channel in the develop. foundation in which is laid a core of brushwood, drain ties or air-bricks placed in a "herring-bone" Piles that are too low lose heat rapidly. Optimum pattern. temperatures for the destruction of pathogenic

Building and Maintaining a Compost file - 37 I

ADDING TO THE PILE to begin breaking down without delay. The material needs to be incorporated because it may Non-fatty food scraps may be composted by attract flies and gnats if it is left on the surface. A 1 incorporating them into the soil where they will covering of leaves will also work if they are break down to fertilize established or future available. plantings. Food scraps incorporated into the soil can take from one month to one year to fully Moisture and Turning decompose; and aerobic composting can compost a mixed load of food and yard trimmings All life on earth needs a certain amount of water in six weeks under optimum conditions. Below is and air to sustain itself. The compost pile is no an indicator of some of the food scraps that can different. The amounts of air and water in a and cannot be successfully home composted at compost pile is a delicate tradeoff which must be home. balanced for rapid decomposition to take place. At less than 40% moisture the bacteria are slowed by the lack of water. At greater than 60% What Kinds of Food Scram moisture there is not enough air for aerobic Go Into Home ComPost? decomposition, and anaerobic bacteria take over the pile. -Yes .w A micro-organism farm, compost requirestending Apples Butter to its moisture needs just as the farmer tends to Apple Peels Bones the irrigation of crops and ventilation of livestock Cabbage Cheese enclosures. Fortunately, we have a simple rule of Carrots Chicken thumb: Compost should be about as moist as Celery Fish Scraps a wrung-out sponge. It should be obviously Coffee Grounds Lard moist to touch, but yield no liquid when Egg Shells Mayonnaise squeezed. This provides a thin film of moisture Grapefruit Meat Scraps on materials for the decomposer organisms while Lettuce Milk still allowing air into their surroundings. Onion Peel Peanut Butter Pears Salad Dressing If the pile is too wet it should be turned (pulled Pineapple Vegetable Oil apart and restacked). This will allow air back into Potatoes Yogurt the pile and loosen up the materials for better Pumpkin Shell draining and air drying. A compost aeration tool Squash is a good investment for the wet pile problem and Tea Leaves for getting air into the pile in general. Simply jab Tomatoes it deeply into the pile and give it a small turn as Turnip Leaves you pull it out. The propeller at the end will fold Vegetable Trimmings out on the upstroke, loosening the materials and admitting more air.

Handling Kitchen Scraps

All composters will have their own methods for storing food scraps until they are ready to compost them. You can drain them in a colander as they are generated at each meal and place them into a container and take them out once a day to the compost pile. Place the scraps into a hole dug out of the pile and cover over with 4 to 6-inches of compost. It is best to use the "Clock Method" and dig a different hole around the pile clockwise each day. This will allow the material

Figure 2. Compost tuming auger Building and Maintaining a Compost pile - 38 If the pile is too dry you can try soaking it from 2. Chop, cut, or shred any coarse materlals to above with a soaker hose. A more effective increase their surface area for mlcrobes to work. practice is to turn the pile and re-wet the materials in the process. Certain materials will shed water or absorb it only on their surface. Dead leaves, sawdust, hay, straw, and some dried weeds and vegetables must be gradually wetted until they glisten with moisture. Then they should be mixed until the water has been absorbed into their fibers.

Finished Compost

The compost will be finished when the pile cools Figure 4. Reducing material size will give off and decreases to about one-third of its original more surface area for microbes to feed. volume (depending on the original ingredients). It will be dark, crumbly, and have an earthy odor. The C:N ratio will be less than 15:1, approaching 3. Start the foundation of the pile by placing a 6- the value of humus in the soil, and the inch layer of bulky materials on the ground. temperature will be within 10°F of the air Materials such as brush trimmings or wood chips temperature. Unfinished compost can be can be used. phytotoxic, especially to seedlings and newly established plants. Therefore, compost must be 4. Next add to the pile a 6-inch layer of high- allowed to decompose thoroughly before uslng. carbon material (high C:N ratio) such as leaves, While most compost will greatly improve soils for straw, hay or a mixture of these. plants, unfinished compost, or compost resulting from anaerobic decomposition, can contain acids or alcohols that can harm or kill seedlings or sensitive plants.

How to build the compost pile

1. You will need to collect enough material to create a l-cubic-yard pile. The mixture should ideally approximate a 30: 1 carbon-to-nitrogen ratio.

Figure 5. Build the pile in layers like a cake

5. Water the pile - Conduct a squeeze test to gauge the moisture content of the compost materials. Add water until squeezing a handful will yield one or two drops of water. Adding too much water may leach out nutrients. Conduct this test each time you add composting materials Figure 3. Gather materials for the compost pile and water.

Building and Maintaining a Compost Role - 39 ...... a ', - . -..e.. -u,..... G ,.,. .-., dJ1TIUi.i.. a:..-

Figure 6. Compost should be about as wet as a damp sponge Figure 7. Sprinkle a nitrogen source over the layers

Consider the porosity of the mixture as you add As each layer is added, mix the layers together by it to the pile. If dense materials, such as manure interfacing them with the preceding one. This or wet leaves, are used, wood chips, straw, or procedure will help to inoculate the pile and begin other dry, bulky material should be added to the composting process. improve the porosity. The thickness of the layers will depend on the C:N ratio of the materials. Thicker layers (6-inch) of high C:N ratio or thinner layers (3-4 inches) of lower C:N materials should be used.

Add a nitrogen source, such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, an inexpensive high nitrogen lawn fertilizer without herbicide (NO WEED AND FEED FERTILIZERS) or a complete garden fertilizer such as 8-8-8 or 10-10-10. Add 1 cup of ammonium nitrate or 3 cups of 10-10-1 0 to each 3 bushels of leaves added to the pile. Less nitrogen will be needed if green nitrogen- Figure 8. Mix the layers as they are made containing trimmings or grass clippings are added. If fresh livestock or poultry manure is available, a 1 to 2-inch layer of manure can be Water the pile used as your nitrogen source and substituted for the commercial fertilizer. Also, blood meal, 6. Now add a 3 to 4-inch layer of high-nitrogen cottonseed meal and other organic nitrogen material (low C:N ratio). Vegetative kitchen sources can be used for nitrogen. You may scraps should be added in this layer. If very high- choose to add a 1/4-inch layer of soil or nitrogen materials are used, or materials that tend completed compost over the nitrogen to increase to mat such as grass clippings, kitchen scraps, the number of decomposing microbes in the pile. etc., layers should be only 2 to 3-inches thick. If Much of the time leaves and plant scraps have food wastes are added, an additional thin layer of enough micro-organisms to get the job done with- soil, leaves, straw, or compost should also be out the addition of soil or compost. added to absorb odors.

Building and Maintaining a Compost Pile - 40 matter, the weight loss will be much greater than when the mineral or ash content of the initial material is high.

Figure 9. Watering is esential after every addition of material to the pile

7. Next, start again with the 6-inch layer of high C:N materials with the nitrogen sources sprinkled over them. These layers can be 4 to 6-inches deep. If you do not have the lower C:N ratio materials to put over the second layer of higher C:N materials, just add another layer of the higher C:N materials (leaves) and add a little more nitrogen (2/3 to 3/4 of a cup on nitrogen fertilizer per 3 bushels of material).

Figure 11. Continue altering and mixing the pile until it is 3 to 4 feet high t-’ # Figure 10. Manures should be spread lightly over the pile as it is built

8. Continue to alternate the layers of organic materials, fertilizers or manure, and soil until a maximum height of 3-5 feet is achieved. Firm each layer as it is added, but do not compact it Don‘t Let Your Leaves Leave Home so much that air can’t move freely through it. COMPOST!!! Water each layer as it is added. As organic materials decompose, their volume will decrease 20% to 60% depending on the character of the materials and the amount of compaction. The weight of finished compost is usually 50% to 80% of the original weight of the refuse. If the raw material contains a large quantity of organic

Building and Maintaining a Compost Pile - 41 COMPOST TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

Problem Possible Causes Solution

ROlTEN ODOR Excess moisture turn pile, or add dry, (anaerobic conditions) porous material, such as sawdust, wood chips, straw, or dry leaves

Compaction turn pile, or make pile (anaerobic conditions) smaller

AMMONIA ODOR Too much nitrogen add high carbon material, (lack of carbon) such as sawdust, wood chips, leaves or straw

LOW PILE Pile too small make pile bigger TEMPERATURE Insufficient moisture add water while turning

Poor aeration turn pile

Lack of nitrogen mix in nitrogen sources such as grass clippings, fertilizer or manure

Cold weather increase pile size, or insulate pile with an extra layer of material like straw or leaves

HIGH PILE Pile too large reduce pile size TEMPERATURE (>146F) Insufficient ventilation turn pile or add bulking material

PESTS Presence of meat scraps remove meat and fatty Rats or fatty food waste foods from pile, or cover Racoons with a layer of soil or Insects sawdust, or build an animal-proof compost bin, or turn pile to increase temperature

From: COMPOSTING TO REDUCE THE WASTE STREAM Available from the Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service (607)255-7654

Building and Maintaining a Compost Pile - 42 P Chapter 5 Utilization of Compost and Other Landscape Refuse

Recyling organic materials in the home landscape slow-release fertilizer, releasing small amounts of makes sense, not just because it helps save our plant nutrients slowly throughout the growing valuable landfill space, but because it will actually season. It also helps latch onto nutrients added improve our soils and growing conditions in our in the form of fertilizer and prevents them from home environment. leaching out of the soil.

With the exception of large woody brush and In addition to benefiting soil fertility, compost stumps, we can recycle most of the organic improves the structure and texture of our native materials generated from our home grounds each soils. It helps clay soils drain and improves soil year. porosity, allowing plant roots to easily penetrate the soil. When added to sandy soils, compost Fall leaves can be used as a major ingredient in helps hold water and plant nutrients, making them - compost, or they may be shredded and used as available to plant roots on demand. a mulch in the garden or landscape. A blanket of fall leaves can be used to insulate tender Compost also attracts earthworms by serving as vegetation from winter freezes. their food source. Earthworms enhance soil c structure by burrowing and aerating the soil. Compost is a wonderful soil amendment for the Their tunneling also brings valuable minerals from vegetable garden or landscape, improving soil the subsoil up to the plant root zone. L structure and texture while adding valuable plant nutrients. It can also be used as an amendment Avoid Using Compost Before It Is Ready in potting soils or as a top-dressing on lawn and

L ornamental areas. You may be tempted to use compost as a soil conditioner before it is ready. If the organic Even grass clippings left on the lawn area have materials have not completely decomposed, been shown to add valuable nutrients back to the plants growing in the amended soil may turn L turf without contibuting harmful thatch as we once yellow and appear stressed. As the thought. decomposition process continues near plant roots, sol1 micro-organisms compete with plants In this chapter, we’ll discuss the utilization of for nitrogen. Organic acids in undecomposed finished compost as well as three additional compost may also be harmful to plant roots. recycling options: mulching, cold protection and grasscycling. Compost is finished when the the orignal organic materials are no longer recognizable and are no longer generating a significant amount of heat. COMPOST: BLACK GOLD FOR SOILS Finished compost should have a dark, crumbly appearance and an earthy odor. The end result of the composting process is a rich earthy-smelling humus. Most finished Using Compost compost has a pH near neutral and contains low levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium. When Compost is best used as a soil conditioner in the incorporated into the soil, compost acts like a vegetable garden and when planting ornamental

Wtibtion of Compost and Other Lundscape Re fuse - 43 plants. Broadcast compost one to two inches Compost can also be incorporated into the soil deep over the planting area and incorporate it into for new turf areas or used as a top-dressing on the top six to eight inches of soil. established lawn areas. On established lawns, verticutting or aerating will help improve the It requires about 1/2 cubic yard of compost (6 infiltration of compost to the root area. Then use bushels) to cover 100 square feet to a l-inch a rake to help distribute the compost into the depth. crevices.

Avoid placing compost and other organic Still another use for compost is as a potting soil amendments in individual planting holes because for container plants. For best results, mix it 1/3 research has shown that it results in a significant by volume with other amendments, such as milled stuctural difference in the soil within the planting pine bark and sand. Avoid using pure compost hole and the surrounding native soil. Fine- as a potting soil because organic salts leaching textured organic materials, like compost, added to from the material may damage roots. the planting hole, may act like a sponge in a bathtub, holding excess moisture while discouraging plant roots from growing outward MULCHING WITH FALL LEAVES and exploring the native soil. Therefore, it’s best to amend the entire bed when possible instead of An excellent way of utilizing fall leaves, in addition an individual hole. to composting them, is to use them as a mulch in the vegetable garden or around ornamental A thin layer of compost (1/2 to 1 inch) can also plantings. Mother Nature has been mulching with be applied as a mulch around established leaves for millions of years, and it’s time we ornamental plants or directly beneath mulches. followed her example. Compost will slowly release nutrients to the plants while protecting roots from temperature extremes Mulches help hold moisture in our soils and and erosion. However, avoid disturbing or prevent wet/dry fluctuations in soil moisture. injuringthe roots of established ornamental plants They also help insulate the soil and protect the when adding compost. roots of plants from severe winter cold and

Apply l-inch of compost or 3 inches of leaves under ornamental plants

Utilizlrtion of Compost and Other Landscape Re fuse - 44 intense summer heat. Mulches also help prevent Successful grasscycling also Involves mowing certain soil-borne diseases and some weeds. often enough so that no more than 1/3 of length i of the grass blades are removed at each mowing. Shredded leaves stay seated better on the soil That's because small clippings decompose more surface than whole leaves that tend to blow quickly and can more easily sift downward around. If you don't have a shredder, an easy through the grass than long clippings. way to shred leaves is to place them in small windrows, approximately three feet wide and one foot high. Then, with the lawnmower set in the Other Uses For Grass Clippings highest wheel setting, run over the row. A bagger attached to the mower or a tarp laid along side If clippings are too long to grasscycle, or if you the windrow will help collect the leaves efficiently. bag your cllppings, they make an excellent green nitrogen souce for mixing with "browns" in the Place leaves three inches deep under trees and compost pile. If the turf area is weedy, the heat shrubs, and extend the mulch two to three times of composting wlll also help destroy certain the canopy spread if possible. A thick layer of noxious weeds. mulch ( > 3 inches) is not recommended because it will encourage roots to grow out of the Grassclippings can also be used for mulch, but native soil into the mulch layer where they wlll it's best to mlx them with leaves or other organic become more susceptible to damage from winter materials. Pure grass clippings tend to mat down freezes and intense summer heat. on the soil surface and inhiblt oxygen penetration to plant roots. Shredding will also accelerate the decomposition of leaves added to the compost pile.

Save Some Leaves for Cold Protection in Winter

Fall leaves provide a better insulation from winter When advised to use old cow freezes than sheets or blankets that are manure on the compost pile the commonly used, so save a few bags of fall leaves for this purpose. homeowner asked how old the cow had to be A good way to protect tender vegetation is to shape a cylinder of chicken wire large enough to fit over the plant, then fill it with leaves. The cylinder will help hold leaves in place and prevent them from blowing off if strong winds accompany the cold.

GRASSCYCLING

Grasscycling is the newest concept in landscape recycling and one of the easiest to do. It simply involves letting the clippings fall back onto the lawn area when mowing.

Research has shown that grass clippings do not contribute to thatch build up. Instead, they recycle valuable plant nutrients back to the grass while helping enhance the topsoil.

Utilization of Compost and Other Landscape Refuse - 45

Chapter 6 I Answers to Commonly Asked Composting Questions

What is really meant by the process of Is it necessary to add lime (calcium) to the composting? compost pile?

Composting is a microbial process that converts It is not necessary, nor is it recommended. Too plant materials such as grass clippings and leaves much lime may cause a loss of nitrogen from the to a more usable organic soil amendment or pile. Most finished compost will have a near mulch. Gardeners have used compost for centu- neutral pH without the addition of lime. ries to increase soil organic matter, improve soil physical properties, and supply some of the Is it necessary to add Inoculum to the compost essential nutrients for plant growth. pile to activate the composting process?

What is compost? Inoculation with prepared microbes may hasten the process. However, there are enough mi- Compost is the partially decomposed remains of crobes present on the material being composted plants. In its final state of decomposition it is to initiate the process. referred to as humus. What are the best materials for composting? Does compost have any value as a fertilizer3 Most plant material can be used for composting. Yes, because decomposed materials have some Leaves are perhaps the best materlal because of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium content their availability and organic content; however, even though in small amounts. The addition of other types of organic materials such as animal garden fertilizers to speed up decomposition manures, grass clippings, vegetable refuse, small supplies some of the nutrients as well. tree limbs and shrub trimmings, coffee grounds, and rotted sawdust are considered good Can compost be used as a substitute for composting materials. Do not compost diseased fertilizer in the garden? plants, weeds with seeds, or invasive weeds such as morning glory and nut grass; avoid It can be used as a source of nutrients, however, composting feces, meat products, or materials there are not enough nutrients present in the contaminated with chemicals. compost to supply the needs of vegetable crops and ornamental plants. The lack of large amounts Is it necessary to shred materials for the of nutrients in compost is far outweighed by the compost pile? other advantage of the organic material. The finer the material is that goes into the com- post pile the quicker and more thorough the decomposition.

Answers to Commonly Asked Questions - 46 Can a rotary mower be used to shred much nitrogen can cause an odor materials? problem.

Yes, it works best on dry materials that are not (c) Be sure to explain the benefits of too woody. For example, leaves can be shredded composting every chance you get. Tell effectively by a rotary mower. It is best to use it them why you do it and how it works for on a hard, level surface. you. They’ll catch on sooner or later.

What is meant by Carbon to Nitrogen ratios? Are earwigs bad? What is their composting role? When combining any organic materials to make compost, the concept of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) Earwigs are rarely a serious threat to crops and ratio is critical. The micro-organisms in compost they can be an aid to the composting process as use carbon for an energy source, and nitrogen for scavengers. They prefer coder piles. making proteins. The proportion of these two elements used by the micro-organisms averages How do you compost when you have too many about 30 parts carbon to 1 part nitrogen. Given materials that are high in nitrogen? a steady diet at this 30:l ratio they can work on organic material very quickly. The larger the (a) Store high carbon materials (sawdust, number the greater the amount of carbon in leaves, shredded newspaper) and use proportionto nitrogen and the slower the decom- them when needed. posing process. Sawdust has a very high C:N ratio and decomposes fairly slowly unless some (b) Buy peat moss and combine with the additional nitrogen is supplied. Grass clippings materials that are high in nitrogen. have a relatively low C:N ratio and decompose relatively quickly. Providing a mixture of high and Can newspaper be composted? low C:N materials usually results in better or faster decomposition than too much of either material. Yes, if shredded and mixed well with other materials. Newspaper is also a good mulching Do compost piles need turning? materials and be placed beneath wood chips for a path. The inks used today are not generally Yes, turn the pile to supply more oxygen for the non-toxic. microbe population and to shift undecomposed material on the edge of the pile to the center How do you know when compost is finished? where it too will be decomposed. When is has become dark, loose and crumbly; Do compost piles have offensive odors? and if in a hot pile, when it doesn’t re-heat upon turning. Sifting out unfinished materials is helpful Not if composting is done properly (i.e. provided if the aesthetics are a problem. good aeration and moisture for rapid decomposi- tion). If animal manures are used, some odor How are food scraps stored and used to make may be detectable in the beginning but will compost? dissipate as the process accelerates. Store them in sealable plastic containers and What do you do about a neighbor who layer with sawdust to minimize odor problems. complains about composting even though it They can be used by burying them under at least doesn’t smell? eight Inches of soil or turned in a hot compost.

(a) Set a good example by keeping your Can noxious weeds and thorny plants be compost system as neat as possible. composted?

(b) Remember the essentials when you com- Yes, but care must be taken so the compost post, especially the C:N ratio because too produced does not replant the weeds where they are not wanted.

Answers to Commonly Asked Questions - 47 How are noxious weeds such as morning When is a pile too small to heat up? glory, crabgrass, buttercup, ivy roots and blackberries composted? For a hot compost, we recommend a minimum dimension of 3" X 3' X 3'. Insulation of the sides Plants that propagate vegetatively should be very or top would help hold the heat of the process. thoroughly dried in the sun and then used as a compost ingredient. Or they should be How do you know when to turn the pile? composted alone and covered with black plastic to sit for as much as two years. A thorough If you are making hot compost, turn the pile ween composting in a hot system should kill most weed the internal temperature decreases below 100 F. seeds. Are slugs a problem? What is their role in Can bones and meat scraps be composted? composting?.

Yes, but there is too much potential for pest They are not a problem for the composting problems, so we do not recommend compostlng process - they actually contribute to the process these materials. by feeding on decaying and fresh wastes. Their proximity to the garden can, of course, be a Can pet wastes be composted? problem.

Do not compost pet waste. Not only are they What is the easiest way to compost? smelly, but they can be dangerous to your health. A holding unit or bin is the easiest way to How do you balance carbon and nitrogen to compost. make a hot pile? Can fruit waste be composted? (a) Learn C:N ratios of materials and balance mathematically. Yes. With citrus, it is best to chop the rinds as much as possible to aid decomposition. (b) Learn C:N ratios of materials and balance Compost them like other food wastes. intuitively. Should diseased materials be used to make (c) Use brown and green materials in compost? approximately equal proportions. As a general rule, it would be best to not compost Can wood ashes be added to the compost diseased plant materials because of the chance of pile? re-infecting your garden.

Yes, but in limited quantities. When is compost ready to use?

Can sod be composted? When the pile returns to normal temperature and the organic material crumbles easily. At this point Yes, stacked in a pile, grass side down, kept you should not be able to recognize the material moist and covered with black plastic. It can take that you put in the original pile. The composting up to two years to fully compost. process In the average pile takes about 6 to 8 months, though an ideally mixed and tended pile Should the compost pile/bin be placed in the may take less than as 8 weeks to become shade or sun? compost.

A sunny spot is best because the heat of the sun How can I use compost? speeds decomposition. However, the pile also dries out faster and requires more frequent Compost can be used to enrich the garden, to watering than a pile in the shade. improve the soil around trees and shrubs, as a soil amendment for houseplants and when

Answers to Commonly Asked Questions - 48 screened, as a part of seed-starting mix or lawn top dressing.

Can I compost grass clippings that have been treated with pesticides?

Some lawn herbicides may persist In the soil for 6 to 8 months. However, composting accelerates the degradation process. If treated grass clippings are composted for at least one year, pesticide residue should not be a problem when the compost is used in the garden or landscape.

Answers to Commonly Asked Questi~m- 49 Chapter 7 Guidelines for Starting a Community Composting Education Program

You Can Start a Home Composting Educet ion Progfa m

The material in this chapter is designed to help with many cells, linked to all others, directly or you start a local public-private approach to indirectly. Guidelines for Starting A Composting At community wide home composting. One or more Home Program found in the Appendix explains people can take the initiative to begin a home how to identify this network and how to use it to composting program. get the program going.

In a community with an established Keep America One way to explain what to do in order to start a Beautiful System (KAB), the home composting home composting education program Is talk program can be put in place almost immediately. about its three parts. In the beginning these parts The home composting committee or will be in order, like steps 1, 2 and 3. After the subcommittee can be incorporated into this action begins the program will be involved with all system because the mission of the home three parts simultaneously. Then your program composting group fits in with that of the KAB. If will be a dynamic and effective one. The steps there is no KAB look for another established are: organization within which to work. Often the Chamber of Commerce or the Garden Club has 1. Organization an environmental concerns committee which 2. Planning would incorporate the effort. An affiliation with an 3. Action established organization is most helpful and will save time and energy which could otherwise be Organization spent working directly with friends and neighbors to encourage lots of people to start composting Organization begins with an introductory at home. meeting(s) which puts a leader and team in place. The first meetlng(s) with local elected officials and Affiliation with another organization with a similar other leaders will acquaint them with home mission is desirable, but what if this is not compostlng and how it can be a cost saver for possible? How can one or just a few begin a the government as well as for each home owner. simple but well organized program to encourage These meetings may be initiated by a local composting at home? Each individual is the elected official, a citizen interested in a home center of a network of resources, contacts and composting inttiative, a civic and/or a special information. This network can be used to help a interest group. Endorsement and support of the small group create a community-wide program. local elected officials for the mission of reducing Picture the network as a badly knotted fish net the amount of yard trimmings which is collected

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Program - 50 and buried in landfills is the objective of the first participation In the program. meeting(s). The outcome one expects from these meetings is the appointment by the chief elected It is worth repeating that the mission of the home officer of at least one person charged wlth finding composting initiative is to reduce the amount of ways to accomplish the mission. yard trimmlngs which is collected and buried in landfills by encouraging individuals to begin At this point spend the time needed to get the composting at home. Build on community first meeting(s) in local media. acceptance of recycling as you work on home composting. Composting at home is recycling. A well planned publicity program is an integral part of a home composting initiative. Next on the agenda is the writing of a plan. To avoid stalling out and to keep the enthusiasm Even if the action is taken by one person, this high when the talk turns to goals, point out that aspect of the effort Is of primary importance. goals are the Ideas of an individual or a group See the appendix for publicity techniques. about how to accomplish the mission. When these ideas are shared in open discussions with Getting the word out about home composting has respect for personal preferences, a plan or four (4) purposes: calendar for the year will soon emerge.

* to create and/or improve the image of a One of the best tools for a home composting community working together on initiative is an annual calendar. It is easy to important solid waste management produce and provides a guide for everyone. issues, especially on home composting of Although its dates may be tentative at first, this yard trimmings, listing helps expose the scope of the Initiative to * to tell the community the negatives of each and all. A quattetiy revision may be helpful. making yard trimmings leave home and the positives of keeping them at home At this point, make a special effort to recognize and making them work, everyone who has worked to create the calendar * to provide all media with organized (goals). A pat on the back can do wonders to information on home composting and the motivate them to start to share thelr enthusiasm program on a regular basis: and and knowledge about composting at home. Have * to provide recognition for local elected a covered dish supper, invite the local officials officials and volunteers. who have been briefed on the contributions made by volunteers. It will provide a media event at Planning which the calendar can be publicized.

In a community education program made up of Action volunteers committed to the orientation of others to home composting, two elements dominate The activities on the calendar must reflect the during planning. They are: personal preferences of volunteers that are involved. Each volunteer will have talents which 1. Identification and affirmation of the can be used in the program. Two primary kinds of preferences of each volunteer working in activities they can choose from are: the program. Preparation of materials: 2. Setting up an annual calendar (plan) of actions which reflects these individual writing, typing, copying, organizing, preferences and takes into account other graphics, photography; important community activities. Organizing The publicity component, vital at the beginning, continues. It will ensure community awareness of workshops/conferences/p hone individual and group activities related to consulting; composting at home and recruit more

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Pmg” - 51 Teaching/tal king: work. t on the phone, at meetings, workshops, at You are an expert on your community. You know the demonstration site (this may be in a its unique characteristics, the preferences and yard in the neighborhood); attitudes of these people. Use this knowledge. It will lead you to people that can help get the The guiding principle for effectiveness in this program started. volunteer work is to know yourself, express your personal preferences and to begin right away in Hold on to your vision. "Think globally. Act activities in which you are comfortable. You are locally is a slogan which applies to a home composting at home because you are convinced composting education program. You will be that it is in your best interest as well as being a joining millions of others on Earth who are way you make a positive contributionto efforts to concerned about the management of solid waste. address one of the greatest challenges of the late You are participating in a positive local action twentieth century: solid waste management. Your when you begin to compost at home and sincerity will win others in the settings of your encourage others to do the same. choice. Remember, you are not alone. You are the Seek assistance in organizing the home center of a network of resources, contacts and composting education. Contact a KAB Executive Information. Now is the time to make yourself Director in a nearby county for ideas and support aware of what and who is in this network. How if you are "on your own". If she cannot provide can you do this? Begin by thinking about who what you need she will suggest another contact. you want to talk to first about a home composting program. Work on finding out who can help the Above all, keep the mission in mind. Involve effort and ask them to support it. yourself in actions which encourage others to reduce the amount of yard trimmings which are Suggestion: Make a list of the first people with going into the landfills by composting at home. whom you want to share your ideas.

Getting Started When you return home from the workshop, begin to share your vision, mission and convictions Putting together a program to encourage about composting at home with close supporters. composting at home is a simple process which Hey, you have located part of your network. A requires organization, planning and action. The spouse, friend or other peer will build your process involves getting answers to key questions confidence and allow you to talk about how to and asking local elected officials as well as friends start a composting at home program. They will and neighbors for their support. suggest other persons with whom they communicate or remind you of persons you The work begins when you start composting at yourself can talk with about the mission of home and decide to share your conviction that reducing the amount of yard trimmlngs being composting at home should be promoted as an buried in the landfills by composting at home. alternative to burying yard trimmings in landfills. They are likely to include local elected officials, You will begin to encourage others to begin solid waste directors, compost advocates, county composting at home and at the same time be on extension agents, Master Gardeners, KAB the look out for others who will join you in the Executive Directors, recycling enthusiasts. Such mission until lots of volunteers are involved. people can open doors and make contacts for you with others who are vitally concerned with Recognition of volunteers working with you is an waste reduction, solid waste management costs essential part of an effective home composting as well as environmental concerns. Watch your program. Your efforts to find ways to praise, say network grow! thanks and provide recognitionto the others must be unceasing. Studies show that recognition by Suggestion: Make a list of persons likely to be peers is the single most important motivator in interested In composting at home. organizations, even those that provide salaries for

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Program - 52 There are people in your community who can Publicity make things happen. They are called "movers and shakers" sometimes, right? Some are visibly 1. Purpose active in many community and economic activities, others aren't but they can shake others The purpose of the publicity program is two-fold: up so they will act. If such people become convinced that home composting is a viable * To provide public information on home alternative to high costs in solid waste composting as a means of recycling and therefore management they can and will provide the a way of reducing costs of collection and influence you need to get your program going. landfilling yard trimmings. They can give credibility to the mission. * To encourage all citizens to begin Suggestion: Make a list of "movers and shakers". recycling yard trimmings right away. Ask some of them this question. "Who can help give the home composting message clout?" When the mission of the individual or group involved In the home composting program is There are groups in your community that have a successfully communicated,the entire community vested interest in this project. These are people will learn how to participate in its activities and/or that think it can benefit them. These are also how to begin composting at home. The most people who think it can hurt them. Remember that effective kind of publicity is happening when each self interest is working in all of us. Find out which volunteer talks about home composting with organizations are likely to benefit. These will be a friends, at work, meetings, church during the source of all kinds of support for your program. day's routine. However, a publictty plan is very Be alert to actions and talk which are negative for important in all kinds of public education your program. Know your opposition. initiatives, including that relating to solid waste management. Home composting activities should Suggestion: Make a list of organizations already be presented in various ways In order to let all involved in sdid waste issues and waste citizens know that home composting is easy and reduction. is an important part of the solid waste management program In the community. Continue to meet with the persons you have found to be helpful, widen your network. Citizens who do not yet participate may still make Communication with them will get your program valuable contributions by making suggestions to going and keep it lively. those who are active, if they are kept well informed. Citizen Involvement in community In the beginning the most important output of activities is directly related to the quality of information on home composting will be personal communication available to them about the and local. Spreading the word on a personal and positive activities of those promoting home local level will remain important throughout the life composting. A welidesigned publicity program of the program. You start your publicity program can raise the level of awareness and interest in when you begin to talk with your closest solid waste management issues such as home supporters about composting at home. In order to cornposting within the community and with other encourage lots of people to compost at home an communities. organized publicity plan will be needed. Suggestions on how to create one can be found A directory of all local and regional media which in the final chapter and in another part of the lists contact persons, addresses, phone numbers Appendix. and deadlines is basic to a good publicity program.

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Pmgram - 53 IV. When To Start with grass clippings

A publicity plan (calendar) should be in place Jun 17 Fall poster contests at schools within a couple of weeks after the decision is arranged with elementary principals; made by one or more persons that home re: home composting, landfills composting is a worthy community improvement effort. A segment of a publicity calendar (plan) is Jun 25 Tv arrangements complete for August provided below to indicate that publicity should fllming re: Chief Elected Official filling be regular, often and varied for best results. Like his compost bin at home any effective plan it should include input from the volunteers interested in and willing to work on the Jul 30 Feature in magazine section of home composting project. regional newspaper: plctures of local officials, Home Composting Home Composting Program Committee. Publicity Plan Example Publicity Techniques Apr 20 News releases to local/regional newspapers; re: Special home Newspapers ... How to Use Them composting workshop in Hahira including April Grand Opening Dates for all The printed word in the columns of the daily and demonstration sites in Georgia weekly newspapers is the most accepted form of indirect communication. Figure out which Apr 30 Tape report on workshop for local radio newspaper(s) are actually read In your station. community. In dealing with the working press, there are nine good rules to follow in establishing May 4 Invite local media to cover the workshop "good press relations." presented to local elected officials; provide brochures on home composting, 1. Know the newspaper's deadlines. mulching and grasscycling prior to the Send your news release at least four meeting days before the date of the event you are publicizing. May 8 Report to City Council; ask for support and propose appointment (have list of 2. Do not ask the editor to take your name(s) prepared in case its asked for) notice over the phone. Write names, of persons interested in home facts and figures down for him ... composting to a home composting fewer mistakes! committee 3. Have some ideas of your own before May 10 Radio Station plays PSAs on home calling the paper to ask for a feature composting made by local elected official or pictures. If the editor likes your if possible. ideas, he will help you develop the story. May 20 News release/Pictures of people appointed with local elected official to 4. Keep your copy clean (short and to local print media the point). Don't add a lot of extra details just to fill up space. May25 Radio Tapes produced - PSAs for promotion of home composting 5. Don't complain to the editor that other community projects get more Jun 16 News release; re: calendar of activities headlines than yours but do write or planned in Fall; special feature on call with a thank you when a story grasscycling and other kinds of mulching does appear even when your story is not published as submitted.

Guidelines for Starting A Community Compsting Education Pmgram - 54 6. Do not send a follow-up story about a Towns County Sole Commissioner Jack Dayton meeting unless asked. If an event or announced today that the county's public speech is outstanding, the newspaper will education program in solid waste reduction was send a reporter to cover it after your first given a boost on March 2,1992, when the Georgia announcement. Department of Community Affairs (DCA) awarded a grant to Towns County for the construction of a 7. If a major project is slow in reaching permanent home composting demonstration site. completion, don't keep sending the same The grant has been made possible by funding information to the editor. Create fresh from the United States Environmental Protection news angles, generate news by stressing Agency for the purpose of encouraging the the people involved. recycling of yard clippings in Georgia through the Georgia Home Composting Project. 8. Remember that editors are human. A thank you for good press coverage Is Each year in Georgia, about one million tons of always appreciated. material from our yards are buried in landfills which are costly to the taxpayer and may cause 9. Contact only one person about the story. environmental concerns. Yard clippings can be an Don't give the story to the society editor asset instead of a liability. Georgia citizens, on Monday and then call the news editor recycling yard clippings in every region, can help the next day and give him the same item. reach the statewide goal of reducing the amount of material deposited in landfills by 25% by 1996.

How to Write a News Release Many residents of Towns and other Georgia counties will participate in the Georgia Home Here are some specific suggestions concerning Compostlng Project according to County the physical preparation of a news story. A Extension Director Robert N. Brewer, Jr. A strong professional appearance will get better reception Impact on the region's population is expected for your release. Just give the facts! A good news because the site, Georgia Mountain Fairgrounds, release is written in simple, readable style. It is is an established state attraction. In addition, a short, factual, easy to read, easy to understand regional educational program in recycling by and must be accurate. home cornposting will be centered at the site.

To write a news release, follow the five "Ws."Tell: Grants from DCA were also provided to establish Who, What, When, Where, Why, and in most home composting demonstration sites in other cases, How. When you answer the fie"Ws,' you communities. They include the Elatchee Nature have a news story! Incorporatethese facts in your Science Center In Hall County; Tift County first paragraph. Other information that follows Neighborhood Service Center, Tifton; The should be arranged in order of "decreasing Recycling Center, Jerger and Douglas Middle importance" so that the release may be cut from Schools in Thomasville; The Georgia Mountains the bottom up if necessary. Fairgrounds in Towns County; The Community Gardening Project, St. Simons Island in Glynn When in doubt, ask a one of the newspaper staff. County; and the Lake Park and Hahlra Elementary See example below. Schools in Lowndes County.

Each site will carry the message that whereas For more information contact: burying materials from our yards and gardens in Mr. Robert N. Brewer, landfills carries a high cost, recycling them by County Extension Director mulching and composting is easy, low in cost and Post Office Box 369 highly beneficial to all soils and plants, including Hiawassee, GA 30546 grass. Inexpensive homemade compost bins and (404) 896-2024 a variety of purchased composting containers will be on display. The uses and benefits of mulch For Immediate Release: and compost will be visible in areas planted with shrubs and flowers. Signs and other educational

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting &hcation Program - 55 materials such as hand outs will offer information The Wire Service and Community News to visitors of all ages. Also, information showing f them how to start a system at home which will Most news stories on community topics are of turn their yard clippings into mulch and/or interest to local citizens only. But, there are times compost will be available. when a story will have regional or national appeal. This is where the national wire services come into To further expand home composting education the picture. throughout the state, DCA will provide fie These wire services include the Associated Press regional home compostingworkshops this Spring. and the United Press International. You local Up to 125 local volunteers willing to provide 40 newspaper editor can give you the phone hours of home composting training in their numbers and addresses of the wire service offices communities will participate. Commissioner in your area. Remember that wire services are a Dayton will appoint eight to eleven persons in communications tool for your community. addition to Mr. Brewer to represent Towns County at the training workshop. Radio and N ... How to Use Them Technical assistance in the construction of the site as well as in the design of the home There are three types of program publicity composting educational program is provided by available to you from radio and TV stations in DCA. Ms. Marjorie Chandley, Consultant, DCA's your community: news broadcasts, spot Off ice of Governmental Management, and Dr. announcements and interviews. Rely on radio and Clark Gregory, Composting Consultant, Wood's TV for the speed they offer in getting your End Laboratories, Inc., visited Towns County message to the community. Take advantage of March 17 to help get the project started. For community service notices provided by Cable TV. more Information contact Robert N. Brewer, Jr., Towns County Extension Service. Steps to Follow in Preparing News Releases for ...... Radio and TV

Some news story suggestions: 1. Copy should be brief. Give only the key facts. 1. Develop a series: "Composting at Home and---LocalElected Officials, Garden Club 2. Writing style should be conversational. Members, etc." Use easily understood words and short sentences. 2. Special events, Grand Openlngs, Workshops, Reports to local elected 3. For radio and TV, the heart of the officials story is usually in the middle or end rather than at the beginning. 3. Profiles of team leader or other volunteers. 4. Opening sentences must lead to the core of the story so that people who 4. Recognition by local elected official, are "half listening" will still catch the awards of composting team members story when the commentator presents it. 5. Editorials --the front page is important but people read the editorials, too. Letters to 5. Spot announcements should be short the editor and classified ads are read and lively! No announcement should closely, especially in smaller be longer than one minute; 20-30 communities. second spots are preferred.

6. Picture stories --it's stili true " A picture is 6. For TV, furnish a 35mm slide (2" by 2" worth a thousand words". mount) when possible with your story. If your local station has a mobile

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Program - 56 camera unit, get film coverage when possible. Call assignment editor in Mayor: advance to give schedule of CDC I, is a fine city. Working event. together, we can make it better, even the best. Our present goal for progress is reducing the amount of materials going into the landfill. Each Public Service Announcements (PSAs) resident can begin composting at home. It's the Examples right thing to do."

Ask city officials, team members and other leading citizens to make tapes. The radio and TV President, Chamber of Commerce: stations will cooperate. Y is a thriving city. Together, we can really put it on the map. Our goal for Script examples: progress is recognition as a well managed community. Do your part to make it happen. "Why make your leaves leave home? Make them Recycle yard trimmings. Call the Chamber office work for you by composting and mulching at for more information." home. Support the statewide goal of reducing the amount of material buried in landfills by 25% by 1996. Help make this happen. Do your part by City Clerk: composting at home." Y is a great hometown. We can Improve it for ourselves and new residents by "Composting at home helps make Georgiaton an working together. Our goal for progress is attractive and Progressive city, a good all around involvement of all citizens. place to live and work. Help make this happen. Do your part by composting at home." Do your part by composting at home. It saves tax money and makes the town more beautiful. Call "A good solid waste reduction effort means pulling City Hall for more information." our community together. Everyone can take part in composting at home. It can make a difference in our community. Do your part." Garden Councll: I, is a lovely city. Working "Visit the Georgiaton Home Composting together, we can give it a lift by composting at Demonstration Site. The Grand Opening is April home. Join in the effort to reduce the amount of 28 at the Neighborhood Service Center on Central yard trimmings the city must collect and bury in Avenue. Learn how easy composting at home can the landfill. Use the compost In the garden. It's be. You can do it". great for OUT sandy soil and saves on the water bill. Do your part. Call for more "Making Georgiaton the best. That's the goal of information." our local officials, the Garden Council, and the Clean Community Commission. They are joining In all cases, when working with radio and N together to carry out our city's Integrated Solid stations, give them as much advance time as Waste Management program. Congratulations to possible. Their programming schedules are all involved for working together to improve our developed weeks in advance. Get to know your community and good luck." station manager and the program director. These people are valuable members of your publicity team. Keep records of the use of radio and TV because you won't have clippings to show. Record the date, type of program and subject matter of each radio and TV exposure.

4

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Pmgram - 57 Magazines 1. The county library will have lists of films available from the University of There are quarterly and monthly magazines which Georgia Center for Continuing accept well-written articles about small town Education Film Library, Athens, community development efforts. Examples are: Georgia 30602; Cooperative Extension Urban Ga., GMA, ACCG, Small Town. This is an Service; Georgia Forestry excellent means of promoting your community Commission; The Georgia Municipal efforts in home composting. Association and other State and Federal agencies.

Newsletters 2. Slide presentations can be assembled by arranging 35" slides in sequence Many local groups (don't overlook the churches, to complement your script for the industries and businesses) publish newsletters presentation. Slide projectors can be that are read closely by their members. It is a rare rented from audio/visual supply shops newsletter editor who won't welcome a short or borrowed from civic clubs, article about members involved in the home churches and schools. composting effort. Use this source. 3. Posters and charts on civic improvements make good projects for Popular Direct Mail Formats school art classes ... and good Direct mailings of booklets, bulletins and leaflets viewing for your audience. It gets are useful after projects are started. young people involved, too!

4. Engage a local video enthusiast to film Public Speaking your meetings, local recognition dinner and other acttvities. Speaking before clubs, business groups and other community organizations is a most effective and desirable method for reaching audiences with Other Ways to "Toot Your Horn" specific information. The Publicity Chairperson may wish to establish a "Speakers Bureau" and 1. Window Displays ... get your local prepare a list of knowledgeable persons who will merchants in on the act. Put a display speak to groups on CDC activities. This on composting and mulching in a communications approach will raise community shop window for a week or month. awareness and promote active citizen This might be a good way to use an participation. empty store front.

2. Bumper Stickers and Car Tags ... Educational Films and Visual Aids novel ways to remind everyone that your community is on the move. The use of 8 and 16" films, slide presentations, VCRs and other visual aids such as posters and 3. Theater/Motel/Bank Marquee Signs or charts is an effective and often dramatic way of Portable Signs ... get the manager to telling the good news about local people spell out your message once a month composting at home. when the group meets.

In addition, educational films relating to home 4. Church Sermons ... get the local composting may be motivating. church groups behind your efforts, especially during stewardship programs.

Guidelines for Starting A Community Composting Education Pmgram - 58

Glossary

Acid - pH below 7 on scale of 0 to 14; normal provide a gummy substance (a mucus) that binds product of decomposition characterized by soil particles together. hydrogen ions. Berm - A barrier adjacent to a facHity to intercept Actinomycete - A group of microorganisms, and deflect water and noise; can also provide between the bacteria and the true fungi, that visual screening. usually produce characteristic branched mycelium. These organisms are responsible for Bin - A structure for holding compost. the earthy smell of compost. Biodegradation - The transformation by Aerated static pile composting - See Static pile microorganisms of organic materials, such as composting. fallen leaves, Into stable humus. See decomposition. Aeration - The process by which the oxygen- deficient air In compost is replaced by air from Bulking agent - Relatively large sized particle the atmosphere-Aeration can be enhanced by materials, such as wood chips, brush, and bark turning compost. which creates air space withln compost.

Aerator - A tool used to create new passages for Carbohydrate - Any compound containing only air and moisture in a compost pile. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (such as sugars, starches, and cellulose). Aerobic - Characterized by the presence of oxygen. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio - (expressed as C:N) - The ratio of the weight of organic carbon (C) to Aerobic composting - Decomposition of organic that of total nitrogen (N) in an organic material. materials by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen. See Composting. Catalyst - Substance which facilitates a chemical reaction. Alkaline - pH above 7 on a scale of 0 to 14; containing bases (hydroxides, carbonates) that Cation exchange capacity - The ability of clay neutralize acids to form salts. and high organic matter (humus) soils, which contain negatively charged particles, to attract Ambient air temperature - The temperature of and exchange positively charged ions called the air in the vicinity of the compost pile. cations. These cations, such as calcium, potassium, magnesium and ammonia, are thus Amino acids - An organic compound that Is held in the soil and are not lost due to leaching. essential as a building block of proteins. Cellulose - A long chain of tightly bound sugar Anaerobic - Characterized by the absence of molecules that constitutes the chief part of the oxygen. cell walls of plants.

Anaerobic fermentation - Decomposition of Chemical persistence - The time a chemical organic materials in the absence of oxygen. remains essentially unchanged In the environment. Bacteria - A group of microorganisms having single-celled or noncellular bodies. Some bacteria

Glossary - 59 Chipper/Shredder - A machine used to reduce Decomposers - The microorganisms and volume of yard debris by chipping or splitting the invertebrates that cause the normal degradation refuse into smaller pieces. of natural organic materials.

Compaction - Compressing wastes to reduce Decomposition - The breaking down of organic their volume. Compaction allows for more efficient material, such as fallen leaves, by micrwrgan- transport, but may reduce aeration. isms. This process turns small biologically active molecules, such as starches, Into large, very Compost - Decomposed, humus-like organic complex and stable molecules that make up matter produced through composting. Depending humus. on the waste source, compost may have some nutrient value and generally improves soil charac- Dripline - A line on the ground defined by the teristics. outer edge of a plaht's branches.

Compost pile - A stack of mixed organic Ecology - The study of the relationships of living materials prepared for decomposition. things.

Composting - The biological degradation or Enzymes - Any of numerous complex proteins breakdown of organic matter by a managed that are produced by living cells to catalyze process. specific biochemical reactions.

Composting facility - A facility which produces Evaporative cooling - The cooling that occurs compost from the organic part of the waste when heat from the air or compost pile material is stream. used to evaporate water.

Cooperative Extension Service - The county- Fast composting - An intensive composting based office of the state land grant university, method that produces finished compost in two providing education in youth development, family months, more or less. This method requires an and consumer sciences, and commercial and ideal mixture of materials and frequent turning to home agriculture. maximize aeration. When temperatures of 140°F (60%) are achieved, a "thermal kill" of pathogens, County agent - The local professional educator or "partial sterilization," occurs. employed by the Cooperative Extension Service and the state land grant university. Fermentation - Anaerobic decomposition involving only organic compounds. Cubic yard - A unit of measure equivalent to 27 cubic feet or 22 bushels. A box that is 1 yard Flail - A metal flange or tine attached to a rotating wide, 1 yard long, and 1 yard high has a volume shaft for moving, mixing and aerating leaves. of 1 cubic yard. For compacted leaves, one cubic yard is roughly equivalent to 500 pounds or Fungi - A group of simple plants that lack a 1/4 ton, assuming an average rate of compaction photosynthetic pigment. The individual cells have and moisture content. a nucleus surrounded by a membrane, and they may be linked together in long filaments called Curing - The final holding stage of composting, hyphae. The individual hyphae can grow together after much of the readily metabolized material has to form a visible body. been decomposed, which provides additional biological stabilization. Green manure - Plant material that while still green is incorporated into the soil, to Improve the Damping off disease - The wilting and early soil. death of young seedlings caused by a variety of pathogens. Groundwater - Water in a zone of ".ration below the ground surface.

Glossary - 60 I-

Heavy metals - Metallic elements with high Leachate - Liquid that results when ground or molecular weights. Some elements present surface water comes In contact with solid waste, human health risks at certain concentrations; and extracts material, either dissolved or some may be phytotoxic to plants, and others suspended, from the solid waste. may adversely affect livestock. While high concentrations can be harmful, low Leaching - The washing out of soluble concentrations of some heavy metals such as substances by a solvent. Usually used in copper and zinc are essential trace (or micro- connection wlth soil and rain. nutrient) elements for life processes. Leafate - Liquid resulting from composting leaves Herbicides - The agents used to inhibit plant and brush. It consist of tannic acid and is dark in growth or kill specific plant types. color.

Humic acids - The chemical or biological Leaf mold - Compost composed entirely of compounds composed of dark organic leaves, sometimes only partially decomposed. substances that are precipitated upon acidification of a basic extract from soil. Leaf pile - A passive method of composting, where leaves are placed in large piles until a Humus - That more or less stable organic usable product is developed, a minimum of 2-3 remnant of soil matter remaining after the major years. portion of plant and animal residues have decomposed. Usually it is dark in color. Legume - Plants belonging to the clover or pea family. They have the characterlstic of being able Hydrogen sulfide - A gas, H,S, with the to utilize atmospheric nitrogen, by the aid of characteristic odor of rotten eggs, produced by certain bacteria in their root zone. anaerobic decomposition. Llgnln - A substance that, together with cellulose, Inoculant - The dried or inactive microorganisms forms the woody cell walls of plants and the that become active when added to the compost connecting material between them. Lignin is pile. Inoculants are not required for composting. resistant to decomposition.

Inorganic - Containing no carbon-to-carbon Limb chipper - A machine pulled behind a truck bonds; examples of inorganic substances include to chip tree limbs and brush; used by tree ammonia, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, trimming companles. phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur as well as chlorine, boron, iron, sodium, LULUs - "Locally undesirable land use." An copper, sulfur, manganese, molybdenum, zinc. acronym employed to describe a local development which members of the public In-vessel composting - A system of composting oppose. organic matter involving mechanical agitation, and/or forced aeration, normally enclosed within Mesophilic - Favoring an envlronment of a building. moderate temperature between 4041 1O°F (4O- 43OC). Mesophilic mlcroorganlsms are most Landfill - Georgia law refers to landfill facllitles as common at the beginning and later stages of the "municipal solid waste landfills," which may be compost process. operated by either municipalities, counties, or private firms. Metabolism - Chemical processes necessary for life. Landfill capacity - The predicted life span of a given facility, based on a stated loading rate. Microbe - See microorganism

Landfill site - Location for present or projected Microorganism - Microscopic plants or animals facility. that they can be seen only with a microscope.

Glossary - 61 MSW - Municipal solid waste. Oxidize - To combine chemically with oxygen. Mulch - Material put between rows or around the Oxygen demand - The requirement for oxygen bases of plants to conserve moisture and to exerted in aerobic decomposition by microbial discourage the growth of weeds. Wood chips respiration. and fallen leaves make excellent mulches. Pathogen - Any organism capable of producing Municipal solid waste (MSW) - Garbage, refuse, disease or infection. High temperatures (above trash and other solid waste from residential, 131OF or 55OC) over a consecutive period (3 commercial, and industrial activities. days) have been shown to effectively kill pathogens. Mycelium - The collective term for fungus filaments or hyphae. Peat - The unconsolidated soil material consisting largely of undecomposed, or only slightly NIMBY - "Not in my back yard." An acronym decomposed, organic matter accumulated under employed to describe the position of those conditions of excessive moisture opposed to some type of development, such as solid waste sites. Percolation - Downward movement of water through the pores or spaces in rock or soil. Nitrogen - The element that comprises four-fifths of the earth's atmosphere. The essential element pH - An indicator number showing how acidic (pH for energy for the microbes in composting. less than 7) or basic (pH above 7) a material is. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. It is a measure of N:P:K Ratio - The ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus the concentration of hydrogen Ions in a solution. to potassium in a compost product; indicates Materlal that has a pH of 8 has ten times fewer fertilizer value. hydrogen ions than something with a pH of 7. The lower the pH, the more hydrogen ions Non-compostable - Incapable of decomposlng present and the more acidic the material is. The naturally or of yielding safe, non-toxic end higher the pH, the fewer hydrogen ions present products. Non-compostable materials Include and the more basic It is. Compost decomposes glass, batteries, cans, etc. fastest with a pH of around 6.5 (slightly acidic).

Noxious weeds - A group of weeds that harm Photosynthesis - The ability of a plant, with the cultivated plants by crowding them out. aid of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to form sugars. Nutrient-holding capacity - The ability to absorb and retain nutrients so they will be available to the Phytotoxic - An adjective describing a substance roots of plants. that has a toxic effect on plants. Immature or anaerobic compost may contain acids or alcohols Nutrients - Minerals and organic compounds that that can harm seedlings or sensitive plants. provide substance for organisms. Porosity - The volume of pores divided by the Organic - Containing carbon-to-carbon bonds. total volume.

Organic matter - The matter derived from living Pre-cycling - Waste prevention considerations or once-living organisms that gradually can be prior to the purchase of the item such as extra broken down to yield important plant nutrients packaging. composed of materials which contain carbon-to- carbon bonds and are biodegradable; includes Putrescible - With a tendency to become putrid. paper, wood, food scraps, yard trimmings and Some organic materials are prone to degrade leaves. Organic matter content is said to be the rapidly, giving rise to putrid odors. single most important indicator of a soil's fertility.

Glossary - 62 I-

Recycling - An integrated, comprehensive Soil profile - An indicator showing how approach to solid waste management; involves characteristics of the soil change with depth. ! separation of materials from the waste stream Coloration and other features can be used to which can be reused to manufacture the same or determine soil types, texture, and seasonally high different materials and products. water table.

Red worms [Eiseniafetidae] - These worms, Soil structure - The combination or arrangement deep maroon in color, thrive only in manure of primary soil particles into secondary particles, compost or garbage and are rarely found in units, or peds. Compost helps bind primary ordinary soils. particles to improve the structure of soil.

Resource recovery - A term used to describe the Soil texture - A characterization of soil type, extraction of economically useful materials and/or based on the relative proportions of sand, silt, and energy from solid waste. See "Waste to energy." clay In a particular soil.

Respiration - Metabolic function consumlng Solid waste - Any unwanted or discarded solid oxygen. materials discarded by the community that goes to the landfill. Runoff - Any liquid originating from any part of a composting facility that drains over the land Solid waste stream - The total amount of surface. municipal solid waste generated by a given community. Screening - The process of passing compost through a screen or sieve to remove large organic Stabilization - The decomposition of compost to or inorganic materials and improve the the point where it neither reheats when wetted nor consistency and quality of the end-product. gives off offensive odors.

Self-heating - Spontaneous increase in Static pile composting - A method of temperature of organic masses resulting from composting In which oxygen and temperature microbial action. levels are mechanically controlled by blowing air through a large stationary pile. Shredder - A mechanical device used to break up materials into smaller pieces, usually in the form Swale - A slight depression, often for drainage, in of irregularly shaped strips. Shredding devices the midst of generally level land. include tub grinders, hammermills, shears, drum pulverizers, wet pulpers, and rasp mills. Thatch - Dead grass plant parts (such as roots, stems, and shoots) that have accumulated above Slow composting - A minimal effort composting the soil surface of a lawn. method that produces finished compost in a year or more. Slow composting requires little Thermophilic - Favoring higher temperatures maintenance. ranging from 113O-155"F (45O-68OC). Thermophlllc microorganisms thrlve when the Soil amendment/Soil conditioner - A substance compost pile heats up. such as lime, sulfur, gypsum, or sawdust, which stabilizes the soil, improves its resistance to Topdressing - Applying a layer of compost, or erosion, increases its permeability to air and other material, to the surface of soil. water, improves its texture and the resistance of its surface to crusting, makes it easier to cultivate, Trimmings - Plant pieces clipped from trees or or otherwise improves its quality. Fertilizers are shrubs. one type of soil amendment. However, many soil amendments or conditioners do not have Turning unit - A system used to compost large significant fertilizer value. amounts of yard and kitchen scraps in two months, more or less. Ingredientsare stored until

Glossary - 63 enough are available to fill an entire bin. Materials are then chopped, moistened, and layered to ensure a hot compost. Piles are turned regularly (weekly) to enhance aeration.

Vector - Any organism capable of transmltting a pathogen to another organism, such as mosquitoes, or rats.

Vermicomposting -The process by which worms convert organic matter into worm castings.

Volume reduction - The processing of materials to decrease the amount of space they occupy. Compaction, shredding, composting and burning are all methods of volume reduction.

Waste stream -The total Row of solid waste from homes, businesses, Institutions, and manufacturing plants that must be recycled or disposed of in landfills.

Waster to energy - Refers to the burning of waste for energy.

Wet ton - Two thousand pounds of material "as is". It is the sum of the dry weight of the material plus its moisture content. Yard wastes weighed 3 on truck scales would typically be reported this way.

Windrow composting - A method of composting leaves in long piles. The piles or "windrows" are turned periodically to aerate and mix the leaves, speeding up the decomposition process and reducing odors.

Worm castings - The dark, fertile, granular excrement of a worm. Granules are rich in plant nutrients.

Yard trimmings (waste) - Leaves, grass clippings, yard residue, brush, and other organic garden debris.

Glossary - 64 t v Georgia Home Composting Program Specifications for Demonstration Site February 5, 1992

The inviting site will function as a passive and an interactive educational facility for a region in . Georgia It will be passive in that the “posting process will be clear to persons who walk through the area iust to look at the various home omposting systems and graphics which explain them. It will be interactive in that it will be the site of an educational program for the region which provides hands-on experience to trainers, local elected officials and to citizens of all ages in setting up and maintaining home composting systems. Every effort will be made to show the importance of solid waste reduction in costs and where home composting fits into an integrated solid waste management program .

Dimensions: about 40x50, around 2,000 square feet;

Paths of natural material which follow the demonstration of the process of composting ie. how to start near the entry to how it is used near the exit;

A covered area for storage/display of educational materials;

Water sources;

Good drainage;

A partially sheltered area for assembling/storage of organic materials which are being used in the bins-in view and accessible to tools/ equipment/people who wish to participate in maintaining the bins (sign with recipe using these local organic materials):

An area for storing/packaging finished compost (sign showing reduction obtained) ;

Tool Storage:

Xeriscape (low water needs, natural flora when practical) designed to create park-like ambiance,showing plants growing in natural soil natural soil with compost/natural soil, compost and mulch (sign to indicate effect of compost and mulch on root systems, water/fertilizer needs of plants):

All signage to include more graphics and less wording as a rule, to support passive use and to appeal to all ages.

I I

I JJ

KEY I .Entrance 2.Entrance 3.Bin 4.Bins 5.Bins 6.Bins 7.Bins 8 .Compost displayed 9.Plant Beds 10.Covered arealeducational materials

I-

Suggested Sinage for Deomonstration Sites

!Recipe For Comport

1.Mlx Green StM kSprhkk With &BromStUtf soil dr w8ta Fill ywrbhand keep Rfutl. Add me(IS It stuinks...... 7 I-

Suggested Sinage for Deomonstration Sites

Demonstration

Lcavcs, g8ss dippings, pine straw, bark, 8ndwodchipsmakegood mukh.

fertilize it end weMer.

J

Look at the plants around you. They are growing in compost 7 Selected References on Composting

Books

Home ComDostina: A Trainina Guide. N. Dickson, T. Richard, B. Kozlowski, and R. Kline. 1989. Available in January from: NRAES, Riley Robb Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853.

Let It Rot: The Gardeners Guide to ComDosting. S. Campbell. 1975. Garden Way Publishing. Storey Communications, Inc. Pownal, Vermont 05261. 152 pp.

The Incredible HeaD: A Guide to Compost Gardening. C. Catlon and J. Gray. 1983. St. Martin's Press, Inc., New York, NY 10010. 63 pp.

The Rodale Guide to Comoostinq. J. Minnich and M. Hunt. 1979. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA 18049. 405 pp.

Worms Eat Mv Garbaae. M. Appelhof. 1982. Flower Press, 10332 Shaver Road, Kalamazoo, MI 49002. 89 pp.

The Earth Worm Book. J. Minnich. 1977. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA 18049. 327 pp.

The Comdete Book of CornPosting. J. I. Rodale. 1960. Rodale Books, Inc. Emmaus, PA 18049. 1007 pp.

The Incredible HeaD: A Guide to Compost Gardening. C. Catton and J. Gray. 1984. St. Martln's Press, New York, NY 10010.

Easv ComDosting. V. Sussman. 1982. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA 18049.

Rodale Guide to ComDostinq. J. Minnich. 1979. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA 18049.

ComDost Gardeninq. W. E. Shewell-Cooper. 1974. Newton Abbot, David and Charles.

The ComDost Hean H. Rockwell. 1974. Doubleday, New York.

Backvard ComDosting. Harmonins Technologies, 199L, Box 1865, Ojai, CA 93024. 96 pp.

Brochures:

"Home Composting." Fact sheet series, Cornell University Cooperative Extension. Available from: Distribution Center, 7 Research Park, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850.

"Compost for the Home Garden." L. H. MacDaniels and R. E. Kozlowski. March 1985. Home- Grounds-Garden fact sheet series, page 700.00, Cornell University Cooperative Extension. Available from: Distribution Center, 7 Research Park, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850.

Selected References on Composting - 45 "Ecology of Compost: A Public Involvement Project." D. L. Dindal. Available from SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Public Relations Office, 123 Bray Hail. Syracuse, NY 13210.

"A Guide for Municipal Composting of Organic Landscape Refuse". W. A. Thomas, W. J. Mclaurin and G. L. Wade. Publication 91-005, available from Extension Ag. Economics Dept., The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.

"A Guide for Organizing and Promoting a Community Composting Program". W. A. Thomas, W. J. McLaurin and G. L. Wade. Special Report 233, available from Extension Ag. Economics Dept., The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.

The following publications are available from local county Extension offices in Georgia:

Fact Sheet MP426: "Composting" Fact Sheet MP438: "Mulching" Fact Sheet MP427: "Grasscycling" Circular 81 6: "Composting and Mulching: A Guide to Managing Organic Landscape Refuse".

Other publications available:

Joe Keyser, American Horticultural Society, Compost Fact Sheets (1-1 0), Alexandria, VA (800)777- 7931.

Trade Journals:

Biocycle, J. G. Press. Emmaus, Pa. 18049.

Organic Gardening. J. G. Press, Box 351, Emmaus, Pa. 18049.

Resource Recycling. Portland, OR 97210 (800)227-1424.

Composting News. Cleveland, OH 44142 (216)255-1454.

Reusable News. U.S. EPA(05-305), Washington, DC 20460 (202)260-5363.

Slide Sets:

"Guide to Recycling Organic Landscape Refuse" 62 slides and script on home composting, mulching and grasscycling. Available on loan from county Extension offices in Georgia.

"Home Composting" 48 slides and script on backyard composting, developed by Cornell Cooperative Extension. Available from Home Grounds Lending Library, 20 Plant Science Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850. $35 purchase price.

'The Decomposer Food Web." Copyright 1980 by Daniel L. Dindal. 70 slides and script focusing on the organisms of aerobic decomposltion and composting. Available from: J. G. Press, Inc., Box 351, Emmaus, PA 18049. Available on loan from Home Grounds Lending Library, 20 Plant Sciences Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850.

Selected Re femmes on Compsting - 66 "Home Composting". 55 slides and script on backyard composting. Available from: Community Compost Education Program, 4649 Sunnyside Avenue, N., Seattle, WA 98103. $85 purchase price. Available on loan from Home Grounds Lending Library, 20 Plant Science Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850.

Videos:

"Zoo Doo and You Can Too." August 1987. 60 minutes focusing on a composting program at the Seattle Zoo and the demonstration composting facility run by the Community Compost Education Program in Seattle. Produced by Dr. Paul Connett, Chemistry Department, St. Lawrence University, Canton, NY 13617. Available on loan from the Cornell Waste Management Institute, Hollister Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853-3501.

"Composting: A Recipe for Success". 1991, A 21 minute video on home composting. Host A. Cort Sinnes says in the video "there are as many ways to make compost as there are to bake a cake." The focus in this program is on one foolproof "recipe" that virtually guarantees success for even the first-time composter. Best of all, this fast, high-heat method can produce finished compost in as little as 14 days. Cost $14.95 t $3.00 shipping and handling. Available from International Marketing Exchange, Inc. P.O. Box 775, McHenry, IL 60051 -0775, 815/363-0909.

"Home Composting:Turning Your Spoils to Soil". A 17-minute video that teaches what makes compost happen, what items you should and should not compost, how to build your own compost bin, the recipe for great compost, and how to utilize finished compost. Available for $10.00 from Connecticut DEP Recycling Program, Home Composting Video, 165 Capitol Avenue, Hartford, CT 06106. Make check payable to CT DEP.

"Waste Management AS If The Future Mattered". June 1989. 60-minute.

c Organizations

Solid Waste Composting Council L 114 S. Pitt Street Alexandria, VA 2231 4 703/739-2401

National Recycling Coalition, Inc. Suite 305

L Washington, DC 20007 202/625-6406

Georgia Recycling Coalition C/O Ms. Frances Kennedy, Secretary Ga. Dept. of Community Affairs 100 Peachtree Street Atlanta, GA 30303 404/656-385 1

Georgia Clean & Beautiful C/O Ms. Lynn Cobb 1200 Equitable Bldg., DCA Atlanta, GA 30303 404/656-3855

Selected Refemmes on Composting - 67

Composting and i Related Equipment

C himers/Shredders Rober-Stott Bonner Ltd. ._ P.O. Box 292 Amerind-Mackissic, Inc. Allendale, NJ 07401 P.O. Box 111 Parker Ford, PA 19457 Royer Founder & Machine Co. 158 Pringle Street Armstrong International Kingston, PA 18704 Flowtron Division 2 Main Street SGK Inc. Melrose. MA 021 76 2 Davis Avenue Frazer, PA 19355 Barclay Rothschild Mfg. 949 Wilson Avenue Sterling Associates, Inc. Downsview, Toronto 687 Seville Road CANADA Wadsworth, OH 44281

The C.S. Bell Co. Trans-Sphere Corp. 170 W. Davis Street P.O. Box 1564 Tiffin, OH 44883 Mobile, AL 36633

Lindig Mfg Corp. W-W Grinder, Inc. 1875 W. Country Road C P.O. Box 4029 St. Paul, MN 55113 Wichita, KS 67204

MTD Products, Inc. Wheel Horse Products, Inc. P.O. Box 360900 515 W. Ireland Road Cleveland, OH 44136 South Bend, IN 46614

National Greenhouse Co. White Outdoor Products 400 E. Main Street White Farm Equipment Pana, IL 62557 2625 Butterfield Road Oak Brook, IL 60521 Piqua Engineering, Inc. P.O. Box 605 Winona Altrition Mill Co. Piqua, OH 45356 1009 W. 5th Street Winona, MN 55987 Promark Products, Inc. 330 9th The Yard Man Co. Industry, CA 91 746 P.O. Box 36940 Cleveland, OH 44136 Robo Hoe Lawn & Garden Equipment 8125 Main Duerr Newbury, OH 44065 N 207 Crestiine Spokane, WA 99202

Composting and Rebd Equipment - 68 Tumblers: Shape Plastics 206 New Factory Road Ro-Si 260 Compost Tumbler P.O. Box 538 Lescha North America Sharon, WI 53585 Box 266 41 4-736-8888 Bolton, Ontario LOP1A0 Gedye Compost Bin Kemp Compost Tumbler Waste Master Kemp Company P.O. Box 2501 160 Koser Road Palm Springs, CA 92263 Liiity, PA 17543 61 9-325-1035 1-800-441-5367 Scepter Manufactuiing Green Magic Tumbler 170 Midwest Road Gardener’s Supply Co. Scarborough, Ontario Canada 128 Intervale Road M1P 3A9 Burlington, VT 05401 4 16-75 1-9445

Can Do Tumbler Smith & Hawken Becky Taylor 25 Corte Madera Avenue 5990 Old Stilesboro Rd. Mill Valley, CA 94941 Acworth, GA 30101 415-389-6061 404-974-0046 Century Plastics, Limited E-Z Spin 12291 Horshoe Way Garden Way Inc. Richmond, British Columbia Canada 102nd Street and 9th Avenue V7A 4V5 Troy, NY 12180 604-271-1 324 1-800-833-6990 The Natursoil Company Rotating Enviro Cycle 1015 West Saint Germain Visions Recuperation, Inc. Zapp Bank Plaza Suite 400 1875 C. Panama Brossard St. Cloud, MN 56301 Quebec, Canada 612-253-6255 J4N2S8 514-923-9995 Rohig Pacific Co. Atlanta, GA Covered Bridge Organic Farm Coop. 404-448-4861 P.O. Box 164 Jefferson, OH 44047 BioBin 21 6-576-8402 8407 Lightmoor Court Bainbridge Isla, WA 981 10 206-842-6641 Holdina Units: Compost Cage Soil Saver Box 739 Barclay Horticulture Mfg. Ltd. Clear Lake, IA 50428 230 Canarctic Drive 51 5-357-5225 Downsview, Ontario M3J2P4 41 6-736-1476 SSI Schaefer Systems International, Inc. P.O. Box 7009 Thermal Compost Bin Charlotte, NC 28241 Ringer Corporation 704-588-2150 9959 Valley View Road Eden Prairie, MN 55344-3585 Composting and Related Equipment - 69 Bio Industries, Inc. Omega Engineering, Inc. 450 South Lombard Road One Omega Dr. i Addison, IL 60101 P.O. Box 4047 708-953-9040 Stamford, CT 06907 800/826-6342 We Recycling Corporation P.O. Box 447 Reotemp Instrument Corp. 342 Bronte Street South 11568 Sorrento Valley Road #10 Milton, Ontario Canada San Diego, CA 92121 L9T 5B7 61 9/481-7737 41 6-875-4929 800/648-7737

Wisher Mower & Machine Company Tech-Line Instrument P.O. Box 67 P.O. Box 1236 Warrensburg, MO 64093 Fon du Lac, WI 54935 800-222-8183 8001328-7518

Mulchina Mowers: Walden Inst. Supply Co. 910 Main Street Deere and Company Wakefield, MA 01880 John Deere Road 61 7/245-2944 Moline, IL 61265 309/765-4459

Tor0 81 11 Lyndale Ave. S. Minneapolis, MN 55420 91 3/829-7950

(Mulchina Attachments for Mowers)

Power Tool Co. P.O. Box 5967 EKS Johnson City, TN 37603-5967 61 5/926-2174

Temperature Probes

Atkins 3401 Southwest Fortiers Dr Gainesville, FL 32608 904/378-5555

Camx Scientific P.O. Box 747 Rochester, NY 14603-0747 71 6/482-1300

Meriden Cooper Corp. 112 Golden St. Park Box 692 Meriden, CT 06450 203/237-8448

Compsting and Related Equipment - 70

I- -

Selected Articles on composting, Mulching, and Grasscycling

Selected Articles - 71

H. Clark Gregory, Ph.D. The Compost Man Atlanta, GA

1. Get a simple enclosure to hold about one cubic yard of compostables.*

2. Get a long-handled pitchfork for loading and turning the compost.

3. Get a 5-gallon plastic bucket from a house painter or sheetrock man for carrying water and compost, or use a hose and wheelbarrow.

4. Put your bin on a flat place convenient to the kitchen and on the way to the garden.

5. Start your compost bin now, no matter what time of year.

6. Fill your bin and keep it full. Start with leaves, yard trimmings, food scraps, and wet paper towels. Turn your bin one month after starting it, then as you wish, maybe never.

7. Get a nice 5-quart stainless steel soup pot at a yard sale to collect food scraps in the kitchen. Make sure it has a matched, tight-fitting lid to discourage fruit flies.

8. Add food scraps into the center of your bin. Do not "Dump and Run". Use your pitchfork. Never leave food scraps showing.

9. Make compost this year, use it next year.

10. Late next fall, put your compost to bed for the winter by removing the compost from your bin, or the bin from the compost. Mound up your compost and cover it with a piece of scrap plastic, or plastic bag torn open to keep it dry over the winter. This makes your compost easy to screen in the spring.

11. Start a new bin every fall. Plenty of leaves are available then. Add kitchen scraps, yard trimmings, and non-recyclable paper to your bin regularly, the whole year. You will see the material shrink continuously. Keep your bin full. Use last year's bin. Stockpile leaves to add to your bin over the next 12 months.

12. Use your finished compost in the garden next spring as a mulch or soil enricher. To make compost into potting soil, screen it and mix 2 parts screened compost with 1 part sand. Build your own screen by nailing hardware cloth onto a 28-inch square frame made of 2" x 4" boards.

Happy Composting! If you do not garden, donate compost to your neighborhood park or roadside.

*For a simple, inexpensive bin use an 11 ' length of welded fence wire cut from a 36" wide roll and having 2" x 4" mesh, available at most hardware, building supply, and farm and garden stores. Join the two ends to form a hoop. For a larger bin get 5 wooden shipping pallets. Lay one down flat on the ground, good side up; then stand the other 4 pallets up, good side out, to form your bin. Tie the corners together with a piece of rope. Load as directed above.

Selected Articles - 72 RECIPE FOR STATE OF THE ART LANDFILL

1 environmentally sound site 1 or 2 liners 1 or 2 leachate systems 3 or more monitoring wells 1 gas venting system tons of garbage tons of soil 2 cap system top soil vegetation

First find a site that you can afford to sacrice. Be sure you are not sacrificing your water supply. - Add at least a clay liner. If over an aquifer consider a flexible membrane liner and possibly combine with a clay liner. if you are burying hazardous waste apply - two liners. If you use a synthetic liner you may need to use additional fabric protector liners and sand above and below to protect liner from tears. -J Note: you may need a leachate system below the liners for hazardous wastes since all liners eventually leak. - Put in placed a leachate system above liners since essentially you are creating a bathtub that will eventually overflow if you do not remove the liquid. - Put in place leachate monitoring wells and piping for methane gas. - ADD TONS OF GARBAGE AND SOIL ALTERNATING IN LAYERS LIKE LASAGNA.

When full cover with cap composed of clay, sand and gravel. Cover with top soil - and vegetation. Let decompose monitoring periodically for at least 30 years and possibly a second 30 year period. Hope it doesn’t leak before you quit checking. But understand it will eventually leak! -

The National Solid Waste Management Association Estimates that the ingredients for such a recipe for a 100 acre site. 20 year life, 30 year post care period and - correctional activities will be in 1988 dollars $65,950,950.

Selected Articles - 73 I

Manage its Trash By AM Men

.-

hen Jim “Local governments are Kundell says primarily responsible for he wants to managing solid waste, while “tak trash,” he the state is involved from a --means it literally. regulatory standpoint,” he The senior associate explains. “Problems have with the University’s Carl been increasing in recent years with the growing -Vinson Institute of Govem- ment recently completed the amounts of waste and siting first extensive research study controversies. When things of what is considered “the” aren’t working right, people

~ environmental issue in the tum to the legislature for state this year-the manage- action. It was becoming ment of Georgia’s solid increasingly apparent that we waste. needed to look comprehen- “When you consider the sively at the solid waste fact that all of Georgia’s management issue in order to publicly operated landfills resolve it.” be Kundell’s research is -will at capacity in a few years and, that by the year presented in a Vinson 2000, more than six million Institute report, Municipal tons of solid waste may be Solid Waste Management in -generated in Georgia, you Georgia: Policy Alterna-

can see the severe solid tives. The A.mlicv is art of waste problem that policymakers have to address now,” the Vinson Institute’s Public Policy Research Series, ihich is Kundell says. intended to provide decisionmakers with long-term objective - KundelI, who is a science adviser to the Georgia General research on complex issues currently facing the state. ‘ ssembly, began the solid waste research study approximately Solid waste management is a complicated public policy ..vo years ago, when controversy and concern about its manage- issue for several reasons, Kundell notes. “It directly involves ail levels of government, both the public and private sectors, -men1 began to appear before the General Assembly. Selected Articles - 74 Research Reporter 17 and takes in many economic The critical impact of the products or changing patter and environmental factors,” loss of federal funds on of production and consump he explains. The topic has Georgia’s solid waste tion. “A large pcem also traditionally been a low management program is one solid waste is created priority one, he adds, fact brought to light from this overpackaging and Oi?::.-’aki: The research presented segment of the research, use items,” Kundell in the report not only reviews Kundell notes. addressing solid s\a the current solid waste “From a funding level of management it is impc3nw.r.r problem in Georgia, it also nearly $800,000in 1979, during product design TC. provides timely information financial support dropped to consider the pokn:ial for and recommendations to under $200,000 in 1980, caus- reducing the amount ,2-.,! guide the state in adopting its ing a loss of more than half toxicity of waste restrkirig first integrated solid waste the program positions,” he from the prodvxr for rec! - - management program. says. “Although state cling it, and the protiienis “Effectively managing solid funding for solid waste associated with incinerating waste will be challenging and management has increased or landfilling it, the researd will require a comprehensive since 1980, in constant dollars report says. “The stn!e, - effort on the part of state and less than half as much sup- however, has a iimircd rck local govemments and the port is available as in 1979.” dealing with prodm ciisig, citizens of Georgia,” Kundell Identifying alternative Kundell notes. “Tk federal says. approaches to help manage govemment must tdx the - The study first addresses Georgia’s solid waste was the lead in working with industv the dramatically increased next step in the research to address product desigx” need for solid waste manage- study. These alternatives Recycling, inciuding thc ment, looking at the compo- relate to waste reduction, composting of yard waste, is- sition of this waste, how it is recovery of materials and not a new idea, but it reinainc generated, and waste man- energy from waste, and the subject of seriijxs agement efforts to date by landfilling. Each approach, concern. Kundell’s res<:zrch- federal, state and local as well as relevant benefits focuses on potential msreriak govemments. This was done and problems, are explored. to be recovered through to give policymakers a clear For example, waste recyciing. the developmer

understanding of how the reduction is defined as the markets for recycled mTip’LI “1; - state came to be in the posi- prevention of wastes at their als, collection alternatives, tion it is in today. source by redesigning and financial incentives.

Because of his expertise in solid waste management, Jim Kundell was chosen fc serve CVI Governor Joe Frank Harris’s Study Committee. - Selected Artides - 75

18 The llniversitv of Georm’a - The incineration ap proach to solid waste man- agement is appealing because it may reduce the community’s need for landfill capacity. If this incineration is to be used to generate steam or electricity which can be sold, it is a very attractive option. The research study identifies some important warnings, however. “Costs of incineration facilities and the need for large volumes of waste mean that it will only be economically viable in a few instances in Georgia,” Kundell says. He also cautions that concems with air quality and the concentra- tion of toxic substances in the ash resulting from incinera- tion must still be addressed. Nationally, about 80 percent of municipal solid waste is landfilled; in Georgia, the percentage is even higher, according to the research. Because landfilling will always be part of an integrated solid waste program, the report states that siting, operation and monitoring, closing and postclosure care all need to be addressed duing the management planning stage. In fact, comprehensive planning by local, regional and state govemments, along with adequate funding, are all vital components of an I effective, integrated solid regional and state govem- Hams included the waste management program ments.” committee’s recommendation for Georgia. “Comprehen- Kundell has been in his overall legislative sive planning by different actively involved in efforts to package. levels of government is do something about the solid The future will require a needed,” Kundell explains. waste management issue. He great deal of work on the part In addition, he warns, “the recently sewed on Govemor of govemments and citizens state’s responsibilities in Joe Frank Harris’s Study in dealing with Georgia’s managing municipal solid Committee on Solid Waste solid waste problem, Kundell waste will not be met without Management. “In the past, I believes. “With the altema- adequate funding. “The was providing information to tive policies outlined in the research points out strategies committees like this. It was research and the flexibility that will enable Georgia to especially gratifying to that we built into the forth- adopt policies that support actually be part of the group coming legislation, commu- integrated solid waste that took the research and nities can adopt an integrated management by local, used it to help design legisla- system that best suits their tive recommendations.” needs.”@

Selected Articles - 74 Research Reporter 19

-~ ~ - TlFrON-TIR COUNTY CLEAN COMMUNITY COMMISSION Telephone (912) 382-6231, Ext. 129 P.O. BOX 229 TIFTON, GEORGIA 31793

CITY OF TIFTON VOLUME-BASED RESIDENTIAL GARBAGE SYSTEM JERRY PATTY January 1, 1992

MARIANNA KEESEE TIFTON, GA -- In the process of updating equipment and vier ch.n#Ron collection schedules for the 4,000 households on the DALE :AcOR!FF residential garbage route, the Tifton City Commission carried -rvnmuxn their plans a step farther by developing an equitable system SUSAN HAMAN of dealing with the volume of garbage each household places Pur cru- on the curb each week. With a volume-based garbage fee, each MIKE BRUMBY household pays according to the amount of garbage Qenerated BRUCE GREEN for disposal. An economic incentive which will lower the individual garbage bill is automatically built into this PAUL GRISHAM system: RECYCLING reduces the amount of garbage collected BIU KELLEY and in turn, buried in the landfill. FRANCES MCOINTY A synopsis of this volume-based system is described below. ED MOORE Each household has the choice of any one of the three STONEWALL PERflLU options. Also, each household will be provided with an 18- of RYBY LEE SPINKS gallon recycling bin regardless which option they select. Additional recycling bins are available for $5.00. Residents L JSPROUSE are to use their existing 32-gallon garbage cans for garbage. MARLA NLER VOLUME-BASED RATES: HELEN WALLER OPTION 1 - Monthly Rate $6.50 9ne ( .1) 32 oallon container of garbase per iAURA 8. TUCKER week and recycling bin EMCU~IHDirmw OPTION 2 - Monthly Rate of $12.00 Two (2) 32 9 allon co nta iners of aerbase per week and recycling bin

OPTION 3 - Monthly Rate of S17.50 Three (3-1 32 gallon containers of satbaae per week and recycling bin **For special occasions causing over-capacity of selected container size, the city sells a special tag for $2.00 to affix to an extra bag of garbage. This bag will be picked up on your garbage pick-up day. City personnel will affix one identification tag (3' x 3" decal) to a resident's existing garbage can. Garbage collection crews only pick up garbage cans labeled by the city with these appropriate tags. Initially, every household is Provided with one tag and their garbage bill remains at 36.50 per month. If additional tags for other cans are needed, the City Billing Department should be contacted. (For additional information, act City Manager, Hunter Walker at 912-382-6231, ext . €855.

'scvclea Paoer selected Articks - 77 I- nAA IIUUDDIIVAU~ WAAA up PI OVAUOU WIL~I arl AO-L)OLAUII I ~L~LAAII~~ bin where they can "co-mingle" their recyclables into this bin. Xtems accepted are as follows: Aluminum and all other metal cans Glass: Clear, Green, Brown Plastic: PETE (#1) - Soda, HOPE (#2) - Milk jugs Cardboard boxes Newspaper

Any items not appropriate for recycling are left in the recycling bin by the employee along with a form stating the explanation--such as "item are not recyclable". (For more information, contact Clean Community Director - Laura Tucker at 912-382-6231, ext. 120)

COLLECTION SCHEDULES: Garbage and recyclables will be picked up once per week and on the same day of the week. Two separate vehicles are used by the city for these pick-ups. A rear-loader packer truck, used for garbage collection with its 3-person crew, will service 1000 homes per day. The recycling trailer (modified swa-car), operated by 3 employees and servicing the same 1000 homes, has compartments for each of the items listed above. The recyclables are sorted by the employee into the appropriate sections while at each household.

c \ (For more information, contact Public Works Director - John - I Schotta at 912-382-6321, ext 211 or Sanitation Supt. - Danny Hillhouse at ext 208). - RECYCLING PLANT: The recycling trailer filled with recyclables is trsnsported - to the Tifton-Tift County Recycling Plant located in the Industrial Park. Incarcerated labor is used st the plant to bale these items and ship by truck or rail to markets. (For more information, contact Recycling Plant Manager - Larry Miller at 912-382-1475). Reduction in Volume: Since the inception of the recycling program the volume of residential garbage transported to the landfill has decreased by 33% from 60 tons per week to 40 tons per week.

Selected Articles - 78 I

I !* -.-- Turn trash into treasure in tJze garden ! If you think a lot of waste (resource) goes out of your yard, try keeping track of the trash (treas- ure) that goes out of your house. It is estimated that 20 percent of thi stufr in our landfills is outdoor material: fallen leaves, grass clippings, shrub prunings, weeds, etc. I don’t have the figures on inside waste, but if your household is like mine, it includes just about ail of the remaining 80 percent. That fact was brought home to me recently ume of kitchen waste. when I did a weeklong audit and inventory of the Mer thinking about it, 1 believe I can reduce recyclable material that leaves my house. I am by 75 percent the volume of paper products that I ashamed of myself. send to the Jackson County landfill. In fact. I am I don’t have a problem with yard waste. All of in the process of doing that right now. .it is returned to the garden in the form of com- One of my goals this year is to recycle every- post, mulch or erosion-control material. thing that can be safely saved. So far. I’ve ruled And I feel like I do a pretty good job with out only two things: colored newsprint and slick kitchen waste - inedible and leftover food. I magazine paper (because of the lead content) and bury it in the ga,rden every day. bathroom toilet tissue (because of pathogens not Nevertheless, I included it in my inside audit killed during the decomposition process). and inventory and was surprised at both the vol- ume and number of items I found. Earthworms like paper products Mary and I, with occasional help from the kids Why I used to throw away paper towels and and grand-kids, generate, on the average, one full napkins, 1’11 never know. Now I toss them in the gallon of garbage a day. bucket with the food products and bury them in a But, I prefer to call it something other than common grave. garbage. It is a high-powered earthworm food, Earthworms like paper products. too. And the soil amendment and fertility enhancer. Trench paper they seem to like best of all is brown: composting (burying it) is one of the most benefi- brown grocery bags and corrugated boxes. cial practices that I carry out in my garden. . Just lay a sack or piece of cardboard in the walkway between two of your raised beds. Lifl it Items in yesterday’s burial up a few days later and count the worms. Notice You may be interested in the items included also how much of the material they have eaten in yesterday’s burial: coffee grounds and filter, and recycled into rich. fertile castings. two eggshells, wilted lettuce leaves, tomato core, Some gardeners don’t use paper of any kind carrot peels, radish roots and tops, celery foliage, because they feel it will interfere with seedbed grapefruit rind, two orange peels, two banana preparation and planting of future crops. I have peels, two apple cores, two leftover Brussels not found this to be the case. sprouts, two small fish bones. Soil, moisture, earthworms snd bacteria be- And to think we used to send this “waste” gin to breakdown paper products almost immedi- through the disposal, down the sewer lines, into ately. Curry Creek Thank goodness, Jefferson now has By harvest time, it has decomposed enough to an oxidation pond. be chopped up and tilled into the soil along with But in creek or pond, it is still garbage. It is the spent vegetable plants. treasure only when it is recycled in the good One of the most interesting discoveries I earth from whence it came. made during the recent brainstorming session Our disposal wore out more than 20 years ago was a brand new ingredient for my compost piles. and we never replaced it Curry Creek didn’t It occurred to me that the cardboard tubes on need that stuff. I’d like to see all disposals wear which paper towels and bathroom tissues are out and not be replaced. The Chattahoochee Riv- wound are good;too. er doesn’t need that stuff either. The same goes for the hollow tubes for wrap- Lest you think I am holding myself up as some ping paper, aluminum foil, waxed paper etc. holier-than-thou role model, let me tell you about The logical place for these hollow tubes is the a couple of weaknesses or blind spots. compost pile. Not only are they a high-carbon ma- I haven’t done too well recycling waste paper terial, they also absorb and hold moisture in the products. But I am doing better, thanks to the au- pile. And because they are hollow, they enhance dithventory and a brainstorming session on how air circulation throughout the mixture. I might use this organic material in the garden. This became a higher priority (urgent incen- Write to Virgil Adams. c/o Home & Garden, tive) when I realized that our volume of paper The AUanta Journal-Constitution. P. 0.Box 4689, waste is four or five times greater than our vol- Atlanta, Ga. 30302. Selected Articles - 79 -R-2 arAtlanta fmmtal AND CONSrrnmON SUN., MARCH 16,1990 ..-. One man’s waste is a gardener’s gold They say we are getting serious about recy- ing erosion. Over time, nature will recycle them, cling. It‘s about time. Anyone who reads the pa- decompose them, return them to the earth from pers, watches television or listens to the radio whence they came. knows we’ve got a problem. Used Chrirtnur beer aren’t the only things Half the landfills in America will be full by my non-gardening neighbors share with me. It is the end of the decade, and it seems no individual, an unwritten Ibw that they don’t bag anything, but city, county or state wants a new one in their back pile it in the yard or at the side of the road, know- yard. I don’t blame them. Most of us have enough ing that I or another gardener will pick it up be- trash of our own without somebody else dumping fore the sun goes down. theirsBut on isus. it trash? Consequently, my strawberries and shrubs 17,mulched with pine needles, the walkways be- are Much of what we call tween my raised beds are filled with leaves, grass trash is treasure. clipping are composting in wire bins, and shrub Much of what we call prunings and brush are preventing runoff and waste is resource. For Adams erosion at the south boundary. And the birds are example: playing in the Christmas trees. Twenty percent of It has become a good-natured joke as to who what the average gets to this treasure first household sends to the I know for a fact that while commission chair- landfill is yard waste man Henry Robinson was tending to Jackson - leaves, grass clip County business, three neighbors raked his pine pings, shrub prunings, needles. brush, etc. During the I called to ask Henry’s wife, Sue, if anyone growing season, the had spoken for the needles someone had piled in percentage is closer to the woods at the edge of the lawn. She answered, 50 percent “Yes, Jack Seabolt” Jack lives across the street If we could change our attitude, the figures on from me. yard waste would become positive instead of neg- Earlier, I headed down Westmoreland to haul ative. Yard debris does not have to be a problem a load of Henry and Sue’s yard “waste,” and there and would not be one if we would stop interfering was C.L Potts loading it onto his pickup. with Mother Nature. But thanks to Mother Nature and good neigh- Cken the th”,nature would take care of bors,there is enough organic matter to go around. yard waste and turn it into a resource. She used There is not, however, enough to waste. Can we to do this job very efficiently, did it for millions of get to the point where we feel that one leaf buried years, in fact in plastic or burned in fire is a*waste? Then people got in the way. We began sacking, We hrvo I good thing going on Westmoreland bagging, packaging and tying our waste in nonde- Avenue. We need to get the city government in- gradable plastic. Nature can’t get to it anymore. volved more in what we are trying tc do. Consequently,our landfills are overflowing- not Occasionally, sanitation workers beat us to with waste, but treasure. the treasure. They are happy to haul fallen leaves It is obvious that we are going to have to to a gardener‘s back yard upon request Rut if change, and I don’t believe it is going to be all that their truck is loaded and they have DO request, dificult it’s offto the landfill. On Westmoreland Avenue in Jefferson, we I’d like to see n y town, your to&, everybody’s are already doing it Fourteen famiiies live on town, start a compost pile. Composting reduces that street, and we are about equally divided be-- by more than half the volume of organic matter. tween gardeners and non-gardners. I am talking Furthermore, gardeners pay good money for backyard vegetable gardeners here. All of us have good compost every day. If the city did not wish to lawns,landscapes, trees, shrubs and flowers, and sell its compost, it could open up the pile to the in that sense we are all “farmers.” public on a first-come, first-served basis. But a true vegetable gardener doesn’t have If the city didn’t like that option, it could use any reason or excuse to ever let yard waste out of the compost in its own plantings. his yard, and the seven who live on Westmore- There are shrubs around city ha11, flowers in ’ land don’t We use it in many different ways for raised beds downtown, grass at the city park, many different purposes: compost, mulch, ero- trees on the courthouse lawn. They all look like sion control, soil amendment, bird habitat.. . they could use a little something. Right now, standing upright in brush I hauled Maybe a little compost? to the back of the lot, are five Christmas trees - Write to Virgil Adams. c/o Home & Garden. my own and four of my neighbors’. The birds are The Atlanta Joumal-Constitution, P.O. Box 4689, having a ball in them, and the trees are prevent- Atlanta, Ga. 30302. . Selected Articles - 80 .. . Feed Landscape, Not Landfill Gtorgiahomcowncrshowthey dark, carthy-smelling humus Gary L. Wade can turn landscape oash into from the bot” of thc pile. Georgia Extension Service nutrient-rich treasures that will Compost can bcustdasa enhance thc productivity of the soil amendment in thc vep- We’vtoitdburyingit,sink- landscape and garden. lable garden or landscapcaas ing it in the axan, and, who Composting is no kmga a a potting soil for housepln~. knows, one day m may be practice just for fannus or Fall leavtsananuisance in shooting it into spacc. scriousgardeners. Anyonecan gum. but as a mulch they Call it garbage, trash, ref- make compost with just one canstbebeat Shredthunto ust OrwaSteS, but any way you casy Itsson. When properly help rhm stay al the land- say it, it’s accumulating at an constructed and maintained, a scapeandnotblow away. Place alarming rate. canpost pile will not smell or them in windrows about two According to officials with attract rodents or flies becaust feet high and two to threc feet the Georgia Deparunent of it heats to more than 100 de wide. ’hen with the lawn- Natural Rcsouxes, 70 percent grces F, killing odor-causing mower set for the highest pos- of our landfills statewide will bacteria. sible cut, run over the lcavcs be filled to capacity within the To get stam4 all you need two to three times until they arc next three years unless we ga is a stmcture about thnc fact finely shredded. suious about recycling and high and three feet wide with Turfgrass experts say reducing curbside wastes. openings in the sides for good tha9sn0 harm in itaving Most of us an now sorting vurtilation. You can purchase clippings on the lawn after andrecyclinghouseholdwaste, fancy composters made from mowing, regardless of thc type including tin ms,glass, plas- recycled plastic, but $5 WORh of grass you have. In fact,grass tic and newspaper. But did you of welded wire made in the clippings rekase valuable nu- know that 20 percent of what shape of a cylinder works just trients back to the soil as they we “garbologists” dump in as well. decompose. landfills is landscape nfw, When the structure is in Grasscycling,am coined including fall leaves, grass clip- place, toss in anythrng organic, by the Professional Lawn Care pings and trimmings? This too including old vegetable pIants, Associarion of America to can be easily recycled right in lawn clippings, fall leaves and describe the pxwxss, is now OW own bacLyards by c~m-twigs. A variety of mattrials part of its national campaign to posting. mulching and grasscy- makes the best compost Vege reduce curbside wastes. cling (letting grass clippings table and fruit peelings, coffee Grasscycling, cornposting fall back onto the lawn). groundsandeggshellsangreat and mulching an provcn and This fall, the University of additions to the pile, but don’t effective mcthods of landscape Georgia Extension Service, in use meat or table scraps be- recycling and curbside waste cooperation with the Georgia cause they attract rodents, dogs reduction. Tolearnmortabout Depanment of Natural Re and cats. these techniques, contact your sources. the Georgia Gteen Once the day’s landscape county Extensionagent andask Industry and the Professional leftovers axt placed in the pile, for fact sheets on these sub- Lawn Care Association of add three to four shovelfuls of jects. Americakickedoff anew state- garden soil or previously (Gary Wade is a horticul- wide campaign called “Feed cookedcompostand water. then twkt with the Uniwrsio of Your Landscape ... Not Your wait. In two to four months you Georgia Extenswn Sewice) I LandfiiL” Theprogram teaches should bc able to harvest rich. Selected Articles - 81

’The University of Georgia College of Agriculture . Agricultural Experiment Stations Cooperative Extension Service Resident Instruction .,.a e,rnr-r .,n,r P,* nrrrn DONT THROW AWAY GARDEN COMPOST i Don’t Throw Away Garden Compost tice, beneficial to the soil, clippings or a mixture. The By Wayne J. McLaurin satisfying to the &ardcna and mortshnddedthematerialthe Georgia Extension helpful in preserving cnvi- quickathebrtaLQwn -. Service rwuntntel quality. Add a layu of manure or ’he compost process con- Sedhandfuls Of 8 cOm@C& Organic matter - what sists of turning waste matui- ftrtilizu.Thcorjplimsnaed gardeners call OM - is als into a rich, high organic a nitrogen source u) feed on. essential to most healthy matter, soil conditioning To this add a layer of top growing plants. But most MIurdmtntOlpiCmPtcrials soil and kitchen scraps - gardeners have a hard time pertially decompose by kt~eggshells, coffee or tea Lyrr OOmQort mlsnolr lp get emunwnt of CugwiC IMm, getting as much OM as they ria, fungi and other soil grounds, vegetable peelings, Mil, lime ud InMUm. would like to have. Yet, cach OQ8nhlS. etc., but no boncs, fat or me81 year homcownus throw away During the composting scraps. cry 2-3 weeks. Proper air cir- plenty of OM they could con- process, the most readily de- Smover again with the culation will discourage odor - vextintogoodgardenhumus. mposedorganicco~plant material and continue and flies d speed updecay. Composting dates back to are consumed, leaving a layering until materials are At the same time, move the the beginning of seuled agri- wblyproduct that is rcla- used up. You can add to the outer, undccomposed material culture. With many varia- tively stable in the soil and pile at any time but keep the into the center, where it will - tions, composting combines contains many of the mineral proportions of materials the be broken down. Mix fresh organic materials, such as elements necessary for plant same. plant “id,such as grass manure, with soil and allows gIDWth. Use horse manure or clippings, with woody or dry the material to decompose. A properly operating a” chicken liw rather that cow “ialto hasten breakdown. Recent incrU interest in post pile heats up, by bactc- manure due to the high weed Thc compost pile ne& to gardening has prompted a rial action, to 120-160 dew seed COnWlt of cow manun. be kept moist but never soggy greater need for information F, a temperam high cnwgh Heat buildup is essential to or waterlogged. Excessive - on this ancient practice. to kill some weed seeds and composting. Too small a pile water will cut off the air sup Composting is the process plant disease organisms. But cannot generate or hold ply, stopping the process. If of converting raw organic it’s still not a good idea to enough heat, causing a slow- the pile becomes too wet, fre- materials into humus through recycle diseased plant parts ing down of the de- quent turning will help resmre - decomposition. Farmers arc into a compost pile because of composition of materials. A thenaavalbreakck)wnp.ocess. conipsting organic materials potential problems they may properly consuuctcd compost Compost will usually be when they plow crop residues aeak pile 44 feet high will bold in ready to use from 4 to 6

I or cover crops into the soil. What you use in your the heat and laair circulate. months &cr starting the pm Homeowners arc composting compost piie will depend on Some type of bin will cess. It depends on the condi- organic materials when they the waste materials available contain and support a pile of tions under which the break- work their gardens, turning to you. But follow a few basic this size and make it easier to down occumd and the type of under flower stems, leaves, rules and don’t create a trash work. When you see steam mataialuscd twigs and kitchen refuse. pile. rising, you know breakdown (Wayne McLanrin is a Composting of organic Cieara spaceandspreada of the organic materials is horticultwisr-vegetables with refuse for use on home gar- layer 6 inches deep of plant -g Ph tk Univcrsify of Georgia Ex- dens is a time-honored prac- material such as leaves, grass Turn the compost pile ev- tension Service)

le^ - 82 neUniversi~$8&rsol1ege of ~gricdture Asicultural ExDeriment Stations CwDerative Extension Service Resident Instruction DONT THROW AWAT GARDEN OST

I'\ I' 1)

Here axe two types of compost bins that can bebuilf with liule cost.

Selected &ticks - 83 The University of Georgla College of Agriculture Agricultural Experiment Stations Cooperative Exlension Service Resident Instruction Athmnr CA1N;n3 (AM\5A7-RQN1 hinges and latch. Then he attached hard- SAGA OF THE BACKYARD BtN ware cloth to the bottom half of the drum, adding ventilation holes, and a round baffle inside. Clark’s conclusion: “he use of domeetic composters should reduce the cost of garbage collection, improve the fertility and I soil condltions around the average home and decrease the overall health hazard. Using garbage from a family of four, grass cut- tings, weeds and some paper, the composter will produce about 2 cu ft of good humus ev- ery 45-60 days.” ST MEW RELEVANCE I# THE BIG PICTURE Backyard composting always made sense to the home gardener. In the 199Os,it’s mak- ing great sense to solid waste professionals in the public and private sectors. Ella Loven of Schaefer Systems International-the North American subsidiary of the German Schaefer group of companies-is extremely enthusiastic about their new ‘Compostain- er.” It’s designed to create an effective sys- tem for the separate collection and transport of biodegradable organic waste, Loven ex- plains. ’Anyone who wants to considerably re- duce domestic waste will have to include the recycling of biodegradable waste in their plans,” says a Schaefer brochure. ‘Biowaste accounts for almost half of the total house- hold waste.” The compost containers-which have ven- tilation openings in lid and sides plus stain- less steel drain grating and can be wheeled-will be manufactured in a new fa- cility alongside Schaefer’s corporate offices in Charlotte, North Carolina, Containers are becoming part of public percent post-consumer kcyckd HDPE. policy, as evident from these two develop- ments in Georgia and Washington. Last ANY of the leading ex- month, at what was described as the first perts in municipal solid compost heap at any governor’s mansion in -It used to be waste compo6tmg today the nation, Georgia governor Zell Miller got their start in research wore a ‘Compost Man” t-shirt while kicking as well as commercial de- off a statewide backyard composting cam- that only avid velopment around the paign. We hope Gov. Miller’s lead will be gardeners backyard compost heap. followed by many Georgia citizens and pub- The object of the activity was to produce hu- lic officials to eliminate the loss of 2,000 tons composted at mus for the vegetable garden, and methods per day of potentially compostable yard varied all over the lot-layering leaves, clip- trimmings in Georgia,” said the Fulton home. Now the pings, vegetable scraps, manure, etc.; some- County Soil and Water Conservation Dis- times shredding materials first and turning trict which had presented the governor with periodically. Containers were made of chick- a simple wire compost hoop to start him off. activity has en wire, concrete blocks, barrels, wood fenc- ing-and many used no containers at all. BIN CREATES MARKET taken on new Researchers often came up with their own FOR RECYCLED PLASTIC significance in special angle to improve process efficiency. Developed as part of the city’s Backyard At Chandler, Arizona in the 1960s, for ex- Compost Program, meSeattle Composter” reducing wastes, ample, USDA scientists used a wire mesh consists of a mesh cylinder with a solid top bottom in a raised barrel to allow more air and bottom. The cylinder is made of 100 per- saving tax to penetrate decomposing materials. And a cent post-consumer HDPE (#2) plastic, pri- civil engineering professor at New Mexico marily from recycled milk jugs. The top and dollars-and State University, J. W. Clark, constructed a bottom pieces are made of a 50/50 blend of ‘domestic composter” in 1964 from a 55-gal- post-consumer and recycled industrial plas- stimulating the lon steel oil drum. This was equipped with a tic. By weight, the total finished bin is ap- support and central rotating bar with hand proximately two-thirds post-consumer recy- economy. crank attached. A 16-inch square door was cled plastic. cut into the side of the drum and fitted with Seattle currently collects 20,000pounds of Setecsed Articles - 84 76 BI~YCLE MAY 1991 HDPE plastic per month at eight dropoff sites. Production of The Seattle Composter will reuse more than 40 percent of that plas- HOME COMPOSTING BIN tic. The bins ordered for this year will utilize an estimated 100,000 pounds of HDPE. MANUFACTURERS Based on a design by Lorenzo Mele of the Barclay Recycling, Inc. Gedye Compost Bins Vancouver, BC-based City Farmer organi- 75 Ingram Rd. Waste Master zation and Tom Button of Century Plastics, Toronto, Ontario P.O. Box 2501 the Seattle Composter is jointly produced by Canada M6M 2M2 Palm Springs, CA 92263 Century Plastics of Richmond, BC and Re- 416-240-8227 619-325-1035 cycled Plastics Marketing of Kent, WA. This year, 7,400 of the bins were distributed to BioBin residents by the Seattle Solid Waste Utility, 8407 Lightmoor Court Kemp Company with a total of 70,000 slated for distribution Bainbridge Island, WA 98110 160 Koser Road by 1998. Each Seattle household is estimat- 206-842-664 1 Lititz, PA 17543 ed to generate 600 pounds of yard waste an- 7 17-627-7979 nually. According to Carl Woestendiek of Bio Industries, Inc. the Utility, 20 to 25 percent of Seattle’s sin- 450 S. Lombard Rd. R Jonsson & hsoc. Addison, IL 60101 gle family households presently compost * 3077 Crescentview Dr. their yard wastes. 708-953-9040 North Vancouver, It is anticipated that, by the end of 1998, British Oolumbia total investment in the Backyard Compost Bonar Inc. CanadaV7R2V2 Program will exceed $5 million. Jennifer Plastic Molding Div. 604-988-1682 Bagby, Utility economist, says that the city 401 Chrislind St. expects to make a good return on this in- Winnipeg, Manitoba vestment. Canada R3W 1A!2 Natursoil Company It costs the City $75 per ton to haul and 204-222-2577 1015 W. St. Germain tip yard wastes at the Cedar Grove Compost Suite 400 Facility which last year processed 50,000 Century Plastics, Ltd. St. Cloud, MN 56301 12291 Horseshoe Way 612-253-6153 tons. ‘The best estimate we have,” says Bag- Richmond, British Columbia by, “is that we’re saving $20 per ton” when Canada, V7A 4V5 residents use compost bins distributed by 604-271-1324 Ringer Corporation the city. She calculates that total savings 9959 Valley View Rd. over the life of the Backyard Compost Pro- Eco Atlantic, Inc. Eden Prarie, MN 55344 gram are $3.5 million. 2200-C Broening Hwy. 614-941-5036 When people compost in their back yards Baltimore, MD we save more than money,” Woestendiek 301-633-7500 adds. Wealso eliminate the environmental Shape Plastics costs of trucking, fuel, equipment mainte- 3317 Rt. 31 Elite Greenhouses Ltd. P.O.Box 1037 nance, and other expenses associated with 52 Crooked Street centralized composting.” ’ Crystal Lake, IL 60012 Scotia, NY 12302 815-455-6310 Tim Brehm, project manager for C2S2, 5 18-399-7624 prime contractor for the Backyard Compost Program, sees additional advantages. “It Evergreen Bins Smith & Hawken helps people hook into the idea of recycling P.O. Box 70307 495 Miller Avenue and waste reduction,” he says, “benefiting Seattle, WA 98107 Mill Valley, CA 94941 the city in less quantifiable ways.” w 206-783-7095 415-389-6061

COMPOSTING IN WORM BINS SSI Schaefer Systems Intenational, Inc. Because of their potential to attract rats, the 10021 Westlake Dr. City of Seattle discourages people from putting food P.O. Box 7009 scraps in yard waste compost, encouraging the use of Charlotte, NC 28241 worm bins instead. Worm bins are boxes in which red 704-588-2150 worms are raised to consume household food wastes, transforming them into nutrient-rich fertilizer. Since 1986, the city has been educating residents We Recycle Corporation about composting with worms. As a result, according to P.O. Box 447 Carl Woestendiek, Waste Reduction Planner for the Solid 342 Bronte Street S Waste Utility, “Seattle probably has the highest number Milton, Ontario of worm bins per capita of any city in the country.” Canada L9T 5B7 A recent survey showed that of Seattle’s 155,000 416-875-4929 households (single family through four-plex), 2.6 percent, or approximately 4,000 Seattle households, use West Bay Forest Products worm bins to compost food wastes. That represents a 6750 Cariboo Road whole lot of people--and a whole lot of worms. Bumaby, British Columbia In a healthy bin, worms can build large Canada L9T 4A4 populations and canconsume four to six pounds of food 604-421-7632 scraps per week. For a good introduction to the construction, care and feeding of worm bins, see Worms Eat Mv Garbaae, by Mary Appelhof, 1982. Available for $9.50 postpaid from: Flower Press, 10332 Shaver Rd., Kalamazoo, MI 49002. WY1991 77 -. --MM Selected Articles - 85 m-I I '1 -

I GEPA Environmental I Fact Sheet 1 YARD WASTE COMPOST€NG

T Across the nation, wwsiing Q gab@ haeased aiiention as an environmentaUy sound way to manage yard waes. Yard wastes are such materials as leaves, grass dmings. brush, and tree prunings. Many wmmunifjesand I2 states have banned T yard wastes from hnd/r;'ls.Conposthg diverts yard wastes hmhndfius and wmbus- tors. The US. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends composting yard wastes. Not only is wmposthg sensiUe from an environmental pmpctive, it also T effedively convents yard wastes into a usefit1 soil additive or mulch.,

r I What Are the Facts gradable, disposal in land- content, which can inhibit p About Yard Wastes? fills may be unnecessary complete burning. When and wastes space. In add- burned, yard wastes emit Yard wastes account for c-- tlon. as yard wastes decom- certain gases which contrib- nearly a fifth (over 31 million I pose in landfills, they genw- ute to the formation of tons) of &llgarbage gener- ate methane gas and acidic smog-causing nitragen ated in the U. S. each year, i leachate. Methane is a oxides. making yard wastes the colorless, explosive gas that second largest component is released as bacteria de- Why Not Bum Leaves h by weight) of the munldpal compose organic materials solid waste stream. The And Other Yard in landfills. Ifmethane is Wastes? amount of yard waste gener- not controlled at a landfill, It b ated varies considerably can seep underground and Bunring leaves and other from region to region, during into nearby buildings, where different seasons, and &om yard wastes pollutes the air it has the potential to ex- and can lead to uncon- one year to the next. In fact, plode. Yard wastes also during peak months (primar- trolled fues. Leaf smoke can contrfbute acidity that ciin make breathing difEcult for ily summer and fall), yard make other waste constltu- wastes can represent as people who suffer from ents more mobfle and there- asthma, emphysema, much as 25 to 50 percent of fore more toxic. municipal solid waste. chronic bronchitis, or aller- gies. A number of states currently ban leaf burning, Why Not Put Yard Yard wastes also are gen- Wastes in Landfills? and some communities emUy unsuitable for com- either ban leaf burning or * Since these materials are bustion in incfnerators due restrict when it can take relatively clean and biode- to their high zwfsture place.

Printed recycbd paper. on Selected Articles - 86 What Is Composting? - Comptingis thecon- tocoverlandfillsandcarry spot about three-feet squar. out reclamatton projects. near a water source and - tmlled decomposition of preferably out of direct - organicmatterbymicm- Nurseries use compost for sunlight. Clear the area of enhancing plant and forest organisms (main€ybacte- sod and grass. Ifyou build ria and fungi) into a hu- seedling crops in reforesta- tion projects. a composting bin, be sure to - mus-like product. Many leave enough spaEe)or air home gardeners have Public agencies use com- to reach the pile. Materials - created compost piles in post for landscaping high such as chicken wire, scrap their backyards. Towxis way median strips, parks, wood, or dnder blocks can and cities have set up recreational areas, and be used to build the bin. - other public property. One removable side makes community-wlde it easier to tend to the pfle. compostingfadlltles that ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~ furnish the mhed com- What Materials Can Place coarse brush at - varfety Be Composted? the bottom of the pile to post to a of users. allow air to circulate. Then - Yard wastes such as add leaves, grass, weeds, How Can Compost leaves, grass, prunings, etc. You may layer the yard

' wastes with if you . Be Used?. weeds, and remaLIls Of gar- soil, - den plants all make excel- want. Keeping the pile Compost can be used for a lent compost. To speed the moist and tuning it every variety of gardening projects. few will help speed composthg process, woody weeks 7 It can enrich gardens, im- yard wastes should be up the natural decomposi- prove the sofl around trees clipped and sawed down, or tion process. In dry and shrubs, and be used as run through a shredder. weather, sprinkle water on - a soil additive for house- Vacuum cleaner lint, wool the pfle, but don't let it get plants and planter boxes. and cotton rags, sawdust. too soggy. Don't be sur- Compost can enhance soil shredded newspaper, and prised by the heat of the - texture, increase the abiltty .fireplace ashes also can be pile or if you see worms, of the soil to absorb ah and both of which are just part composted. Although many - water, suppress weed foods can be composted, you of the process. In most growth, decrease erosion, should check with your local climates, the compost is and reduce the need to apply Board of Health to see if any done in three to sfx months, chemical fertilizers and peat sanitary co&estrictions or when it becomes a dark -, - moss. Following are some apply to food compostfng In crumbly material that is other successful uses of your area. Dc not compost in texture. - compost: uniform -n --,, d meats, dahy foods. kts, oil, I - ,.d - farmers use compost for or grease. I enhancing crops and for Can Christmas Trees - sod farms. .* I. BeUsed?; - I How Can 1 Set Up : I Landscapers use compost Many communities have - as a sail amendment and A Compost:a Pile? begun programs to reuse for decorative purposes at ,' Composting.is easy. You the m&e than 30 million ) properties, golf' courses, can set up a compost pfle in trees discarded each year - and athletic fields. Land- a comer of your yard with after the holiday season. scapers also use compost few supplies. Choose a level The trees are picked up at - Selected Articles - 87 compost pile. The HMdbodc Solid Waste (OS-305),401 ais0 "ns over 75 prac- M-Street SW., Washington, acal Bps for reducing and Dc 20460- rtcycling Solid waste. An- Another report for ded- other publication, the Dect- sion-makers, Yard Waste sion-Maker's Guide to SOU COmpasthg: ASMyof WasteMonngemenf devotes wht Apgmms, is available an enttrc chapter to com- for a fee &om the National po& % Guideis targeted Technical Information Ser- at local government ded- VlCes ("IS). Call (703)487- sion-makers, and contab 4650 and ask for publica- solution^ to many Zrolid . tfon number PB90-163 114. Was& management pmb- EPA Is also developing a lems. Both of these publica- GuidetoComthat tfons 8n avaflable at no will assist policy-makers in cost. detumtntng what type of Contact the RCRA Hot- composting they should - . line. call Monday through promote in their commmty Fnday, 8:30 a.m. to 7:30 and in planning and operat- How Can I Leam More p-m. EST. The national toll- hg compost hciIities. A Composting? fkenumber is (800)424- bout 9346. For the hearing fm- In addition, EPA has EPA & deweloped seved paired, the number is TDD drafted a report entltled publications related to com- (800)553-7672. Copies of Markets for Compost which posting. EPA recently issued these publications can also provides infoxmation on a booklet entitled The be obtained by writlng: markets and uses for com- , ~iro~alc0nsU"sRCRA Information Center post. These two documents H"ok that describes @UC)*U.S. Environmental should be available in early how to set up a backyard Protection Agency, Oface of 1991 from the Hotline. €PA Regions support outreach efforts include brochures, GETTIXG STARTED such as those previously described, slide shows and portable displays. Demonstra- tion sites provide the opportunity to actual- ly show residents different types of working composting systems. By demonstrating the variety of composting methods and bins available, the site-and workshops held there-an help residents choose which SVF- tem(s) would best suit their needs. The site can be set up for self-guided tours, or volun- teers can give guided tours on specific days. Volunteers can also be encouraged to de- sign their own outreach methods, such as working with media to get local coverage, o encourage composting at home, building a float for a community parade, or residents must first be informed of working with students to set up bins for food their options (via distributing in- waste generated at school cafeterias. Out- formation), then assisted with im- Diversion reach programs are very cost-effective if vol- plementing their choices (through unteers are used, and can be very successful outreach). Educating residents is percentage from in motivating people to try composting be- the cornerstone of any home com- cause methods are demonstrated, the ap- posting effort. Many communities, such as backyard proach is very personal and a support net- Portland, Oregon and Vancouver, British work is in place to assist newcomers as they Columbia have developed various kinds of com osting venture into the world of composting. The literature to motivate residents and teach challenge for outreach programs is to con- them how. cou d amount stantly try new techniques that target dif- Literature can be distributed through P ferent audiences so that everyone can be ex- mass mailings, as enclosures with utility to three percent posed to the program. bills or by volunteers during outreach ef- A few communities are actually providing forts, or via local newspapers. It can also be of the residents with compost bins as a strong in- set out for pick up in schools, libraries, gov- centive to begin composting. Seattle gives ernment buildings. Telephone hotlines and municipal bins away at no charge, while other juris- radio and television Public Service An- dictions such as Toronto, Ontario and Kmg nouncements are other ways to provide in- waste stream. County, Washington, provide a subsidy SO formation about the program. residents pay only a portion of the cost (see f Workshops, demonstrations, slide presen- BioCycle, December, 1990, "Implementing L tations and tours can all be helpful when es- Craig H.Benton Backyard Composting Program,"). For these 8 tablishing outreach programs. Utilizing programs to be successful, however, resi- 6 trained volunteers through a Master Gar- dents must know how to use the bins. Al- f dener or Master Composter program, such though brochures are usually distributed 3 as the ones operated by the City of Seattle with the bins, they sometimes do not provide 0 and the State of Wisconsin, has proven to be enough information, or are simply not read. f cost effective. Tools that can be developed to Thus, hand-outs should be complemented by workshops, a hotline ser- vice, or a technical assistance program where program staff visit residents' homes, help them set up the bin, explain how to use it and answer an?' - questions. Potential problems with ro- dents and odors can be avoided with a thorough education pro- - gram that demonstrates how to properly start and maintain a home composting system. Also, a bin distribution pro- - gram can be expensive, with costs up to $75 per household. Actual costs depend on the type of bins used, whether - they are made of new or recy- cled materials, how they are distributed (resident pick-UP or delivered), and the extent Of - outreach and education use6 to support the program. i

Seattle's backyard comporting - demonstration site.

90 BIOCYCLE Selected Articles - 89 Taken separately, each of the above ap 1s more easily measuraa. nuwevei, O-UIII- proaches has its strengths and weaknesses. ing that about one-third of the residential BACK YARD Development of easy-to-understand and at- waste stream is comprised of food and yard COMPOSTING_- tractive hand-outs is the foundation of any wastes (Washington Department of Ecology, program, but depending solely on the distri- 1988), and that one-third of the households GUIDE bution of brochures to motivate people to will compost half their food and yard wastes, compost has its limitations. Peoples’ percep- about six percent of the residential waste THE BASICS of home com- tions of composting as messy, time consum- stream could be diverted through a home posting are presented in ing, smelly or complex is a major bamer to composting program. If the residential Composting to Reduce the implementation. A compost education pro- waste stream is half of the total waste Waste Stream, a 48-page gram that utilizes both information and out- stream, the program’s diversion potential is manual released in January reach methods maximizes the chances of at best three percent. In a community with 1991 by the Northeast Re- breaking down these misconceived but nev- a population between 80,000 and 120,000 gional Agricultural Engine ertheless real barriers. There is simply no that generates 100,000 tons of garbage a enng Service (NRAES). Writ- substitute for personal instruction. year, three percent should represent the di- ten by Nancy Dickson, Tom version of 3,000 tons per year. If disposal Richard and Robert Ko- COMMUNITY SPECIFIC PROGRAMS costs are $50 per ton, such a community zlowski, it includes guide- The type of home composting program a should be willing to spend $150,000per year lines for constructing a com- community eventually develops depends on on a home composting program based on post pile; step-by-step plans the desired impact in terms of participation avoided disposal costs alone. for making containers, bins and waste diversion. Obviously, a goal of A home composting program has the po- and holding units; methods any program would be to maximize partici- tential to reduce both waste and overall solid for maintaining correct pation. But to reach everyone and get them waste management costs. It can be used in C/N ratios, and regulating to compost would require substantial effort conjunction with a curbside program, be- aeration, temperature and and cost. Getting 50 percent of the residents cause not all yard wastes can be easily han- moisture. A sections for vol- to compost would be an ambitious goal be- dled at home. The most important thing to re- unteers, teachers and com- cause there are people who do not have the member is that whatever combination of munity leaders contains space or time to compost, or who cannot approaches is used, it will be necessary to de- ideas for starting home com- move materials around due to age or physi- vote staff time and resources to promote the posting education programs. cal handicaps. Reaching that goal would program and make people aware of it. Copies are available for probably require that a community utilize $6.00 from NRAES, 152 Ri- all three approaches discussed above. Craig Benton is planning director for Sound ley-Robb Hall, Ithaca, NY The potential impact on waste diversion is Resource Management Group, Inc. in Seattle. ’14853;(607) 255-76!54. I I. Y . b. somewhat difficult to assess because waste Working with Seattle Tilth in 2985, he started is being reduced rather than recycled, which the Master Composter Program.

Myer has the equipment and the experience to solve your composting problems.

The Royer Enclosed Dynamic Composting sjstem can cum a sludge disposal problem inio a cost- effective composting program. lust load sludge and bulking agent at one end; unload compost from the other. In between. the Royer Compost R”r automatically mixes, tums and mwes the material through the cornposting cycle. Royr screening systems are widely used for sludge, leaf mold humus. woodchips and other organics. WeLe designed and manufactured in- stallations ranging from fully mobile xreening units to large, futed systems capable of process- ing 9OOO cubic yards per day Royer also designs and builds feed, transfer and sucking conveyors, plus the Royer Shredder. vibrating grates and hoppers so we can gve you a complete screening system for your com- posting operation. Write or phone for literature and additional details on how we can help solve your com- posting problems. Royr Industries. Iric.. Environmental Products Division. 158 Pringk St., EO. Box 1232. Kington. PA 18704. Tel: 717-287-9624. Fax: 717-283-0578. ROYER’” ORGANICS IS TOROXTO

BACKYA------AS M

CROSS ONTARIO, there is a FIRST PROGRAM WITH SO-GALLON DRUMS growing movement to munici- Perhaps the first program to distribute palities providing free back- backyard composters free to residents took - yard composters to residents. Public place in the City of Kitchener in 1984. This ’ The movement is consistent was a Laidlaw Waste Systems initiative with the recycling emphasis participation spearheaded by Laidlaw employee Nyle Lu- that dates back to 1981 with dolph, the same gentleman who created the - the pilot “blue box” program. Today, virtu- provides impetus first blue box program. ally any township and village worth putting Nyle used a federal grant to produce 600 on the Ontario map has a blue box program, for growth of backyard composters out of surplus 50- offering quality, weekly, multimaterial curb- gallon drums and scrap wood (for the lids). - side collection. The roughly $60 million capi- informal programs, Some modest promotion was put out to let tal cost to build these programs was shared residents know that these units were avail- equally by the Provincial government, the and a four#month able for the asking, and all disappeared in municipal governments and the soft drink in- study indicates short order. It is worth noting that a survey - dustry. Increasingly, we’re seeing these pro- showed approximately 85 percent of those grams being extended rapidly into high-rise backyard original units still in regular use last year, buildings, schools, hospitals and the like. five years after they were distributed. We haven’t done nearly as much work on composting can A few years after the Kitchener program, - the organic side, but Ontario is now turning the Region of Peel (A Region is similar in its attention to both backyard and central- a structure to a county government), as part of ized composting in a big way divert significant its plan to reduce the volume of waste to be Ontario is about one and a half times the landfdled, began a small, but regular pre - size of Texas, and home to roughly nine mil- portion of the gram to produce and distribute a few thou- lion people, or about onethird of the nation’s sand backyard composters each year. Peel population. Almost all of us live down in the residential waste. made theirs out of surplus plastic bo-gdon southeast corner of the Province, where it’s stream. drums, with most of the labour performed by - warm, and where the arable soils are. Ontario local Boy Scout troops. A brochure describ is the-industrial, commercial and financial heartland of the country, and so is generally Pad Ziyfor the most prosperous and stable Canadian Province. Most of our waste is landfilled. Incinera. tion is not popular in the Province, especially since the Environment Minister decreed last year that all municipalities will have to di- vert 25 percent of solid wastes from disposal by 1992 and 50 percent by 2000. In defining disposal, he included incineration in any form as one of the things that we have to get away from, and stated that incineration proj- ects would not be suitable for inclusion in the 25 and 50 percent targets.

Several thousand 50-gallon plastic barrels have been converted to backyard composters and distributed to homeowners. Selected Articles 91 BIOCYCLE - SEPTEMBER1990 77 ~~ inghow to use theunita was prepared by Re picking up the remSining.25 percent. gional staff, and a rteady streem of home one of the moot a"g aspects of this olmrers came ta Regional Works yards to dramatic and forceful move towards wide pick up the units and take them home. spread distribution of backyard composters In recent years, the Region of Waterloo, is that none of these programs have ever which is where the City of Kitchener is lo been well monitored. We don't know how cated, and the Region of Durham have much material these units are diverting from started similar programs. the waste stream, or how much the per-ton cost of the programs might be. Even in the COMMERCIAL UNITS case of the massive Metro Toronto program, It was becoming apparent however, that an attempt to design a monitoring protocol the labour required to produce composters was only begun after all of the units were al- out of the barrels was considerable, and that ready out in the field. this might not be an effective way of ap proaching this problem as demand for the DATA IN DURHAM composters grew. As well, there were a lim- The Region of Durham had been distribut- ited number of clean, plastic barrels available ing its own 50-gallon plastic barrels, with in- for this type of use. structions to residents on how to produce a A Toronto company, now called Barday useful backyard composter from it. Durham Toronto purchased Recycling, had for many years been manu- had also considered using the Soil Saver, but commercial backyard facturing a backyard composter called the wanted to get some sense first of what the comporting units in Soil Saver, for retail sale (about $100 CDN), units might actually accomplish. Also, dur- -. bulk rather than in Canada, the United States, and Europe. ing the summer of 1989, a number of prom monufocture Metropolitan Toronto decided that if it types of a new commercial unit called the comporterr from were to get into providing backyard com- barrels. Ecolyzer became available for testing, and posters the numbers involved meant that it Durham decided they wanted to have a look would make more sense to purchase a com- at those as well. mercial unit in bulk rather than try to manu- The Region went ahead and selected a facture composters from barrels. So Metro group of 60 homes in the Town of Newcastle, placed an open-ended order for what eventu- and hired Compost Management to oversee ally became close to 20,000 Soil Savers, and a four-month trial of 20 Soil Savers, 20 Eco made them available to area residents. lyzers. and 20 of the Region's own barrels. Up until this time, backyard composters The actual study period lasted from Septem- had been given away free to residents. Metro ber 1 to the end of 1989. chose to charge a token fee, based on the the- We were looking for information OD the ac- ory that if residents had to pay something tual weights and volumes of material that for these units-in this case about $12-they were put by residents into each of the three would be more inclined to value and use the units tested;we were looking for householder composters. Since then, a number of munici- comments on odours, dents, insects, and palities have followed this example, while ease of use; and we were looking for some others have continued free distribution. data to suggest the cost per ton of this mu- nicipal waste management strategy FUNDING ASSISTANCE In the past year, a couple of dozen other REPORT RESULTS municipalities, from other towns and cities, Generally, the participants were happy right down to some of the smallest town- with the aesthetics of their various compos- ships and villages, have inaugurated similar ters and all 60 participants were unanimous programs, and have begun distributing no in their willingness, when asked, to recom- cost or lowcost backyard composters. Ap mend backyard composting to neighbours. proximately 120,000 such units have been Some had already done so. There were no re distributed since Metro made its first com- ports of neighbours' complaints, and some of mercial purchase. And the momentum is well the neighbours were inquiring about where established, with most of the municipalities they too could get similar units. Only one re that built blue box programs now moving to spondent in the group described using the add backyard composting to their waste di- unit as timeconsuming or troublesome. This . version arsenal. particular woman found that it was a bit of a In the last year, the Ontario Ministry of nuisance taking the material outside, partic- the Environment has moved to provide fund- ularly given the coldness of the winter, , ing assistance to municipalities for these pro though had solved this by, as she said, "send- grams. Technically, the Ministry will provide ing her husband to do it." up to 50 percent funding to purchase these A significant number of users of each of units, and in fact, have generally provided the three types of units reported one or an- the full 50 percent. In the past year, the other type of problem with it, including Province has spent close to $3 million in sup odours, insects, and some animal attacks. port of these programs. Most of the compos- (some of the pilot homes were in a rural area, ters have been bought at a wholesale price of and were subject to raccoon attacks). We're ' around $40 CDN. not sure how much these compiaints were in- . In the case of those municipalities that are dicative of real problems, or how much they selling their composters to residents, the were simply produced by our asking. We be general approach has been to get 50 percent lieve, for instance, that some respondents funding from the Province, and 25 percent who simply saw insects inside the composter from the homeowner. The municipality is when it was opened up, reported this as 'a

78 BIOCYCLE Sekcted Arlicks - 92 SEPEMBER19% problem with insects' even when the insects hotline for composter users to d actually didn't represent any kind of nui- In Ontario, the Environment Mi,r~istry'r50 - sance. Some of the problems listed by the us- percent funding program reduces this Cost Households in ers could be and are being fixed by minor de further still to around the $10 per tonne sign changes to the various composters. range. By comparison, the Region is now Ontario generate paying a tipping fee of $961tonne, and local - DIVERSION AND COSTS municipalities are incurring a further $40: about 88 kg of Average Ontario waste generation data tonne or so collection cost on top of that. 1 suggests that for households of the size Backyard composting has no collection residential waste found in the Town of Newcastle, 88 kg of res- cost and virtually no operating cost. Even - idential waste is produced each month. This the capital cost is remarkably modest. We each month. The study found that 28 kg, or 32 percent of this found that we were spending about $19! average waste generated, was intercepted by tonne to divert 32 percent of the residential composter s the composters. Even during this period of waste stream. Backyard composting works. - heavy yard waste generation, almost two While this study identified a number of sig- intercepted 32 thirds of the material diverted into the com- nificant concerns that participants had with posters was food waste. their composting units, we also found a very percent of that Finally, an attempt was made to calculate warm response to the idea, and a clear me+ - the actual costs to the municipality for run- sage that people were going to continue to total. ning such a program, on a per-ton basis. We use these composters. found that over a conservative 10-year mor- What we still don't know is what the ac- tization period, these composters would di- tual diversion might be on an annual basis, - vert an average of 2.4 tonnes of waste each. taking all the seasonal fluctuations into ac- If it is assumed that the cost to the munici- count. And we don't know what percentage pality of purchasing and delivering these of a typical town will want to use these units. units is approximately $45 each, you can cal- At this point, the Region has decided to - culate a system cost for this option of $18.751 expand to a 20,000-home study to try and tonne. $18.75 CDN per tonne is roughly answw some of these questions. I equivalent to $18.75 US per ton. There is no further operational or collection cost associ- Paul ?bylor is President of Compost Manage - ated with this type of program. Once the ment Associntes, LTD., Toronto, Ontario. This composters have been installed, the munici- report is based on a presentation at the 20th pality's involvement is ended, but for the Ann& BWCycle National Conference in Min- possibility of providing for a troubleshooting neapolis, May 1990. -

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Selected Articles - 93 80 BIOCYCLE SEPTEMBER1990 - I- one day. DIVERSION STRATEGY Twenty five percent of the participants en- listed in response to the direct mail cam- paign. Cards were sent to three targeted ar- eas based on high, medium or low curbside - recycling participation rates. The goal was to deliver 1,000 bins to each targeted area The remaining 3,000 bins were to be distributed within city limits according to demand. Ex- pecting a higher rate of return, fewer cards were mailed to residents in the high and me dium target neighborhoods. However, only half the anticipated number of residents re sponded. A more concerted effort was di- rected toward the low participation area, re sulting in more sign-ups than expected, compensating for the lower rate of return from high and medium target areas. HOME VISITS Since 1985, Seattle has contracted with Se attle Tilth Association to educate volunteers on backyard composting techniques through the Master Composter Program.The city de cided that an even higher percentage of mi- dents would be motivated to compost their yard waste if they received a free bin, as well HE SEAIITLE, Washingeon Solid as individualized composting instruction in Waste Utility has a threepronged their own backyards. Consequently, Seattle yard waste management strategy Tilth designed and conducted the expanded - Free binsand consisting of curbside yard waste compost trainers program with the C’S’ collection, expansion of yard Group. Training focused on organic waste home instruction waste collection at city transfer management problems and alternatives; stations, and backyard compost- composting biology: composting systems; - are part of Seattle5 ing, designed to reach a 60 percent waste re problem troubleshoo-, and customer ser- duction and recycling goal by 1998. Its back- vice techniques. efforts to promote yard program consists of a three hase During Phaee I of the program, six “train- straw. In August, 1989, Phase I kan e”’were responsible for contacting partici- - backyard with the distribution of 6,000 free cedar com- pants in their area and setting up a one hour post bins and home instruction on compost- home composting visit. Trainers delivered a composting and ing techniques for interested participants. bin and an instructional brochure to mi- The utility budgeted $430,000 for implemen- dents, helped them assemble the bin and - ultimately tation from August, 1989 to June, 1990, with demonstrated the basics of composting. 75 percent of the cost covered by a Washing- distribute 70,000 ton State Department of Ecology Grant. PROGRAM AND BIN EVALUATION Phase I1 is currently in operation with a Phase I was evaluated through a telephone -- units over a seven goal to distribute a minimum of 4,400 bins survey of program participants, focus between mid-July and December 31, 1990. groups, and a debriefing by compost train- year period. The relative number of bins distributed in ers. In response to questions regarding the - Phase I1 has been increased because of re cedar compost bin, 87 percent of people inter- duction in costs and more efficient logistics. viewed by telephone said they had started Carl Woestendiek and Phase I11 is in the planning stages with im- using the bin to compost yard waste. All re Susan Smith plementation slated for January 1 to Decem- spondents said they were either “very satis- J. ber 31,1991. Ultimately, Seattle plans to dis- fied” (90 percent) or “satisfied” (10 percent} tribute 70,000 composting units over a seven with the bin. Ye= period. The focus groups recorded attitudes te ward backyard composting in general. and PROGRAM PROMOTION more specifically, elicited reactions to differ- All Seattle residents living in single family ent composting bins and delivery service lev- homes through four-unit apartment com- els. Discussants thought it was a good idea plexes were eligible to receive a compost bin. for Seattle to promote composting by citi- The primary promotional tools for Phase I zens. As one woman said, “I felt really good were direct mail sign-up cards and news re about living in a city that cared that much.” leases in area newspapers. Due to the rapid This general sentiment of approval perme rate of response, promotional activities were ated the discussion and composting was seen discontinued halfway into the six month dis- as a logical extension of the whole recycling tribution portion of the program. Most pee mentality. ple (75 percent) signed up as a result of brief Focus group members were also asked to announcements in the local newspapers end evaluate three types of compost bins - word of mouth. The first newspaper an- wood, wire and plastic - being considered nouncement resulted in over 300 sign-ups in for subsequent years of the Seattle compost-

70 BioOlc~~ Selected Articles - 94 DECEMBER1990 I ing program. They were evaluated because of Presenting concerns of long term durability about the wood bin used for the first year of the back- yard composting program. Each has approx- "il imately the same capacity. Although the wood and plastic bins were the most popular, FlexbDump the plastic bin received' the most votes in both focus groups. In response to service levels, focus group members felt that the program would be more attractive if the home visitation were optional. Now, instead of trainers delivering the bins at the time of their visits, all bins are delivered by a driver. Soon afterwards, the resident receives a telephone call from the composting trainer asking whether they would like to receive a free half-hour or hour home composting visitation. This newer method is proving to be more popular. WEIGHING YARD WASTE To estimate the amount of material being composted in residents' yards a weighing program is scheduled to begin in November 1990. Twenty-five participants will be se- lected to weigh yard waste before compost- ing and make monthly reports for one year. Although the number of participants is not significant enough to extrapolate into city- wide yard waste collection figures, the infor- mation will help to evaluate existing pre grams and plan for future efforts. FUTURE OUTLOOK The city reached its Phase I goal of distrib uting 6,000 bins and providing home com- posting instruction to 80 percent of partici- pants in nine months. Improvements are being made for Phase I1 and Phase 111. Ac- A BREAKTHROUGH curate estimates of the amount of yard waste composted through this program probably FOR CONVENIENT cannot be made until at least two years after COMMERCIAL RECYCLING implementation and after final results from the yard waste weighing program have been Call for a Dealer Nearest You11 compiled. The goal for Phase I1 is to deliver 4,400 composting units and to make home visits to HOLDEN TRAILER one half of the bin holders. Group compost- ing demonstrations also are being planned. SALES, INC. These can be conducted at a person's home Route 1, Box 151 and can include neighbors or church groups, Southwest City, MO 64863 boy and girl scouts, senior groups, coopera- 417-762-321 8 tives, garden stores, etc.

In addition, fewer promotional dollars will ~~~ ~~ be spent on direct mail. Instead, other. less Position Open expensive methods of promotion will be EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR used, such as newspaper articles. An up- Association of Vermont Recyclers dated home composting brochure includes a Hiring new Director tor overall man- reminder not to compost food waste in the agement of nonprofit state association. Responsible for overall management, unit. The city is currently researching a vari- technical programs, planning, tundrais- ety of recycled plastic and other composting ing, staff supervision. Dynamic growing bins, one of which will be implemented in membership organization with national Phase 111. reputation for school education. Starting salary: up to $25,000.Deadline: Feb- Carl Woestendiek is the waste reduction plan- ruary 8th. ner for the Seattle Solid Waste Utility andproj- Send resume, 5 rets., writing sample ect manager of the Backyard Composting Pro- to : gram. Susan J. Smith president of Search Committee is c"s' AVR Group, Inc., consultants on recycling and com- P.O. Box 1244 Montpelier, VT 05601 posting strategies and program design and im- or call: Glenn McRae, 802-229-1833 plementation Selected Articles - 95 DECEMBER1990 ur landfills are full. Our garbage has nowhere to go 0By now we all know about the mountains of disposables - plas- tic bottles, tires and paper products - we run through. But most of us overlook one of the biggest culprits yard waste. Leaves, lawn clippings and brush trimmings conipriw 18% to 20% of the stuff that goes to the dump. And that number may riw to as high as 50% in the summer In fact, yard waste is second only to paper products as a contributor to our solid waste dilemma. What a waste! Most people who bag their leaves and grass clippings for trash pickup don’t realize that there’s go1@in them thar’ piles With a little effort, all forms of yard waste can be turned into valuable compost or mulch. W gardeners appreciate coni- post, and gladly do our part to reduce the waste stream by rounding up bags of leaves and grass clippings from our neighborhoods. But now even those neighbors will have to do their share. “Out of sight, out of mind” is no longer a viable solution for yard waste. Ten states have passed legisla- tion that will ban the dumping of some or all forms of yard waste in landfills. Fortunatel); there are other solutions. As gardeners, you can spread the word about backyard composting Or you can help your city or town get going on a community-wide com- posting program. To get you started, here are a few examples of successful programs from around the country Wellesley, Massachusetts “The small, suburban communiy ofWllesley has prided itself on being in the forefront of the environmental movement,” says Dave Pilkington, re- cycling coordinator for the town “We were one of the first communities to

separate and compost leaves ” Help your town make use of In the early 1970s the town’s in- 2 cinerator was shut down for not meet- valuable leaves, grass clippings : ing air emission standards Since the and tree trimmings instead of I in-town landfill was nearing capaciv E trucking them to the landfill 2 Residents in Montgomery County, Mary. $ land, are discovering that composting 0 by Cbarlie Nardozzi 3 leaves makes good economic and en- 2 vironmental seme. Here. “vacuum”

34 Narlonal Gdrden~ng April ‘30 Selected Articles - 96 - YARD WASTE: GOING,GOING, GONE?

TIMET0 COSTS INCLUDING ENVIRONMENTAL METHOD DECOMPOSE LABOR\ CONCERNS

Buming Immediately No cost for at-home Fire hazard burning. If community- Air pollution wide, collection & Release of CO, transport: t102/ton.’ will increase global warming

Landfill 10 years or Collection & transport Leachate may pollute more, if ever costs: S62.S0/ton. hd- groundwater fill dumping fee: Waste-gas accumula- 654/ton.Total costs: tion may be explosive t116.S0/ton. Fills already limited landfill space Unattractivesite, may be noisy Topsoil needed to cap landfill

Central 6 weeks to Collection & transport Leachate may pollute composting 1 year costs: t 102/ton. groundwater facility Processing costs: Site may be noisy (Pickup) t l6Jton. Cost of land- filling rejected material, S4/ton. Recovered costs from sale of compost Wton. Total costs: Ill7/ton.

Backyard 6 weeks to Construction of bins No concems if coniposting 1 year and labor to turn piles. constructed and tended properly

‘Costs bawd on Montgomery Coung! Marykand, satisIics for 2988-89,including wuumcollection ojtlx leal es. Ijresidents bnng leu ws to conipostingsite, there are no collectionand trampa costs. and dumping or “tipping” fees were to purchase a screener for separating lecting brush to make wood chips rising, townspeople decided to try rocks and other debris from the com- and selling that in the future.” - something different. ‘kfirst we set post. “Now we windrow leaves for A Recycling and Disposal Center aside an area for residents to dump one year, then run the compost also evolved at the site for residents their leaves, creating a huge, rotting through the screener. W have a bet- to recycle bottles, cans and paper. pile,” says Pat Berdan, director of ter final product that we can sell to “The participation by our residents - Wllesley’s Department of Public residents and local landscapers. W is phenomenal. W estimate more Works. “When we realized the poten- not only avoid the costs of landfilling, than 80% of the residents recycle and tial value of the compost we began but also make a few dollars,” says Pil- we’ve reduced the amount of landfill - windrowing and turning the piles. We kington. “W’re encouraging land- waste by 42%,” explains Berdan. formed windrows 10 feet high and scapers to dump their yard waste at b 30 feet wide and turned the rows the center for a reduced fee. W’d Burlington, Vermont monthly with a front-end loader.” like to triple the amount of compost This northern city of 42,000 people - In 1989 Kkllesley received a grant we sell. W’re even considering col- set up a unique city-business panner- Selected Articles - 97 April ’90 National Gardening 35 - I, -BACKYARD C0MPOSI”G ......

1. Gather at least three cubic feet of ma- 2. Shred for faster decomposition. - 3. Mix in a bin or pile. terial. Use four parts “brown” (carbon- rich) to one part “green”(nitrogen-rich) or one part manure.

ship to deal with a closing landfill. In 1987 Gardener’s Supply, a mail-order -company based in Burlington, initia- ted a pilot yard waste composting program, asking city residents to -dump leaves at a composting. site rather than having them collected by private garbage companies. The city md Gardener’s Supply enticed resi- - Lents to bring their leaves by offering coupons for one free bushel of com- post for every participant. 4. Water thoroughly to get the material 5. Turn once a week to once a month.

~ “The city provided an interest-free evenly moist. start-up loan, allowed us to use the land rent-free and provided citywide to get the finished product, it lowers leaves, but we still haven’t broken public relations, while Gardener’s our costs. The ideal procedure is even on the project. W get secondary -5iip!\!-;,~mmaged the composting op- probably somewhere between the benefits, however, such as compost 3.zdtI~~I,” cxplains Paul Zabriskie, co- two,” says Zabriskie. for our Gardener’s Supply demon- ordinator of the recycling program. “Wsold compost to landscapers stration gardens, good communiry re- -~“The first year we collected 3,600 and residents who didn’t contribute lations and more traffic in our retail cubic yards of leaves, and added 1,150 yards of cow manure from the Univer- siry of Vermont’s dairy farm and 500 I MASTER COMPOSTER making compost and teaching pounds of a commercial compost ac- PROGRAM techniques. Finally, the volun- tivator to the four-foot-high by 14- teers are asked to give another 40 foot-wide windrows. We cooked the Emulating Seattle, Washington, hours of community Service compost real fast, turning it every 10 many communities have insti- teaching composting in schools, days with a Wildcat compost turner tuted Master Composter pro- garden centers and community pulled by a tractor. That gave us a grams. Volunteers interested in centers. For all their efforts, vol- finished product in six m7eeks,” he teaching composting techniques unteers are given a compost bin, are given 36 hours of mining. a pitchfork and a selection of - says. “However, this process was costly because of the labor required, Master Composters also learn books on the subject. transportation of materials and rent- how to construct outdoor worm For information on Master bins to process food waste. Composter programs in your -ing the Wildcat. So in 1988 we just windrowed the leaves, didn’t add ma- After the training, volunteers state,contact your local Coopera- ?ure and turned the piles monthly spend 24 supervised hours at a tive Extension Service or Solid iather than eve7 10 days. Though this demonstration composting site, Waste Utility. -method means it takes up to a year Selected Articles - 98 36 Narional Gardentng April ’90 store, which is near the composing running out. Composting costs ~ E ,-*.7 3 . *-, . +.: .,.- .* A.u; site. And, of course, the city has fewer shouldn’t rise as quickly,” she says. leaves going to the landfill,” he adds. In 1989 Montgomery County initi- :. TO FIND OUT MORE”...’. For more information on how , , The next step for Paul Zabriskie is ated a grass collection and compost- i to promote this idea to other private ing project. Every week county truck5 your community can begin a yard businesses in the state. “Wreceived collected grass clippings left in I waste composting program, con- a grant from the state to help recruit biodegradable plastic or paper bags tact your IdPublic Works De- . and educate people to start other by the curb. The clippings were partment or Solid Waste District composting programs in krmont. hauled to the composing site where ‘, and the following: W’d like to see other businesses crews mixed grass clippings with . Organization: 1 - . ... I sponsor similar composting pro- leaves collected the previous fall. The EPA Solid Waste Hotline tele- grams in their towns,” he says. county experimented with different phone number 1-800-424-9346. leaf-to-grass ratios and found that two Montgomery County, Maryland parts leaves to one part grass clip- Magazines: Collecting leaves separately from pings keeps the pile decomposing Garbage, The Ptuctical Journal other garbage started in 1984 in without any bad smells. ‘Although for the Envitvnmenl;’ do Old Montgomery County, Maryland, a grass takes up more room at the site, House Journal Corp., 435 Ninth large suburban area outside of it quickens the composing process St., BrWklyn, NY 11215; 1-800- Whington, D.C. Then, in 1985, in- and the turnover rate,” Cantor 274-9909. stead of sending the leaves to the explains. BioCycle, ‘TbeJoumalofwaste landfill, the county’s Department of “Of course the best method is to Recycling,’Box 351, Emmaus, PA Environmental Protection began reduce the amount of yard waste com- 18049. Also inquire about the composing leaves at a 270-acre plot ing into the system. W are trying to organization’s book, Yard Waste originally built for sewage sludge encourage backyard composing as a Composting Guide composting. “W use vacuums at- way to do this,” says Cantor. “W’ve - tached to snowplow trucks to collect sent ‘How to Compost’ brochures to State Guides: the leaves twice in the fall and once 200,000 residents. W’ve also held New Jersey: Office of Recycling, in the spring,” explains Doreen Can- composing workshops across the Dept. of Environmental Protec- tor, recycling specialist with the county and are currently setting up a tion, CN 414, 401 E. State St., .- Montgomery County Division of En- backyard composting demonstration Trenton, NJ 08625. vironmental Planning. “Notices of the site in cooperation with the Exten- collection times are placed on tele- sion Service,” she adds. Michigan: Waste Management . phone poles and residents are asked Division, Department of Natural 4 to rake the leaves to the curb. W’ve Seattle, Washington Resources, PO. Box 30028, Lans- had 90% participation in the pro- Probably the most ambitious re- ing, MI 48909. gram. The only problem has been res- cyclingkomposting program in the idents bagging leaves. Crews then country is in Seattle,Wshington.Seat- have to spend time debagging them,” tle’s residents were recycling and she says. Leaves are windrowed in composting long before it became tion, was contracted to start the first six-foot-high by 15-foot-wide rows fashionable. Even before the city set Master Composer program in the - !-d turned monthly. The finished out on its goal of recycling 60% of country. Each year 25 Master Com- product is sold under the name “Leaf- its garbage by 1998, Seattle residents posters were trained and then re- gro” to local landscapers and nursery- were privately recycling up to 25% quired to do 40 hours of community - nien for $7.50 per cubic yard. Since of their waste. work teaching composing in schools there was already an existing market Backyard composing is a key ele- and to community groups. for composted sludge, selling all the ment in the plan to reduce the In 1989, with the advent of an ordi- leaf compost has not been a problem. amount ofwaste entering into the sys- nance banning yard waste disposal in - The county now recycles about tem. “Our backyard composing pro- the landfill, the most comprehensive 13% of its trash; one-fitth of that is gram started back in 1980 when the backyard composting program to leaves. “The goal is to increase the city of Seattle set up neighborhood date was initiated. A state grant recycling rate to 27% by 1992. Com- composing demonstration sites,” funded the purchase of 6,000 36-inch posting more yard waste is one way says Carl Westendiek, recycling spe- by 36-inch by 35-inch wooden back- to help reach that figure,” explains cialist with the city “Residents were yard composing bins to be distrib- Cantor. Currently, the total cost of col- asked to bring their leaves and grass uted free to residents on a first come, - lecting and composing leaves ($117 clippings to a neighborhood site and first serve basis. ‘X hired compost- per ton, including the sale of the com- volunteers would do the composting. ing expert delivers the bin to your post) is even with the cost of sending The program was actually too suc- home and conducts an hour-long - them to the landfill ($116.50 per ton), cessful - we had more yard waste consultation on how to make com- but Cantor believes that in the long than our volunteers could handle,” post. A composting hotline num- run composing will pay “The landfill he says. In 1985 Seattle Tilth, a local ber is available for further questions. 1 fees are steadily rising and room is nonprofit urban gardening organiza- continued on page 46 - Selected Articles - 99 April ‘90 NarionalGardcnlng 37 COMPOST PEAKS conrinuedJhm pge 37 mtlinuedfrom pap 39 The only problems we’ve had are flies Fifth season, and beyond and smells in the bin, usually result- Because the pear tree has a strong ing from residents trying to compost tendency to grow vertically, you will ESTATE WAGONS & TRAILERS meats and fatty food..,” says Wsten- occasionally be faced with vigorous diek. “The program has been so suc- vertical sprouts shooting up from cessful it will be expanded over the branches. When the tree is young and next seven years to reach 70,000 of you are trying to build fruitful laterds, the households in Seattle,” he says. work at bending these uprights into (For more on home composting the position. Sometimes, though, you Tilth way, see National Gardening, will have to cut (see diagram). April 1988.) Commercial pear growers figure Seattle has two other approaches on the first significant harvest in the 1 ton hauling capacrty to reduce yard waste as well. “For $2, fifth season. The crop should get Hand operated hydraultc dumpopbon(Sn.W) residents can have a private collec- steadily bigger until the tree reache:, Heavy structural steel frame Removable side racks tion company pick up the leaves, full size in about its 10th year. Pears High Rotatton tires grass clippings and brush once a generally need less fruit thinning All models available wlthout wood at lower Pr- week and haul them to a composting than apples. One fruit per cluster re- AL.0 avallable: 6’. 7’ (L 8‘ Tandem Trailers at site. Or residents can drop the mate- mains a good rule of thumb through ~c~xwnic~lprices rial off at a transfer site themselves, the life of the tree. A niature pear tree and let the city haul it to the compost will yield between one and fi!.e Model IO,$ site,” says Gabriela Ular-Hefner, solid bushels of fruit, depending on the waste specialist with the civ. At the size of the tree and the vigor of the $239.00 site the material is visually inspected variety Freight for any rocks, plastic and metal, then Over the years as spurs Ixcome -- LI Included ground and formed into windrows. large and branched, they’ll produce Finished compost is screened and fruit that is smaller and less luscious ESTATE sold to landscapers and nurserymen. than they did when the tree was “PRESSURE” “W’vegiven Seattle residents three younger. Thin out overgrown spurs SPRAYER options to recycle their yard waste,” to force new growth within them, or PERFECT FOR SPRAYING SMALL FRUIT TREES, SHRUBS, YARDS, PASTURES, OR says Ular-Hefner. “We hope that even- cut old spurs out entirely if there are FENCE ROWS. tually curbside collection, voluntary young replacements nearby Heavy duty 14gal. poly tank. Adjustable booms spray 10-h. swath. hauling of leaves, grass and brush to When the tree approaches your Comes with hand held sprayer, and 10 R. a transfer station and backyard com- height limit, say 12 feet, begin ;1 long- hose. posting will reduce the amount of term program of leader renewal on Sprayer operates on 12-volt power, with easy access onloff switch. yard waste sent to the landfill by each of your three scaffolds. The year Lightweight.easy to store (41 Ibs.) 75%;’ she adds. you begin, cut the leader all the ~5’3). out -back to the end of the previous Model \ CM 136 - ESTATE What can you do? season’s growth. The following sum- There are countless other towns mer a new leader will shoot up, ;rlong and cities composting leaves, grass with several lesser sprouts. The fol- clippings and brush as a way to re- lowing dormant season, choose one duce their overall waste management of the weaker secondary sprouts for $47900 problems. As gardeners, we can advo- a replacement leader and remove all cate community composting in our the others. Head the replacement towns and teach others that compost- back, leaving only a handful of buds SUPER DUTY LAWN SWEEPER ing isn’t magic, but an easily learned at its base to form the new leader High speed brush tor sweeping at slow science that benefits gardeners and and secondary sprouts. mowing speeds nongardeners. At the very least we In all of this work, the most impor- Big 16” OD pneumatic tires Heavy structural steel chassis wlth 14 cubic can set an example in our own back- tant thing is to attend to the training toot bag yards. We can mow our lawns at a faithfully ever). par. Winch the tree The only sweeper wlth a clutch tor towing wlthout sweeper action higher setting so collecting grass clip- through the seasons, and when you Also available is the economical Model 236 pings isn’t necessaq: compost leaves see growth that is getting too strong Lawn Sweeper tor SBg.00 and garden debris each fall and chip or headed the wrong way, correct it. trees and brush to spread as mulch It can be hard to restore fruitful around our shrubs. young gromTh to the older, low branches that have become shaded ’ Charlie Nardozii b the borriculru??sfat out by too-vigorous growth above. If National Gardening. you tend to the work regularly, !’c)u

46 National Gardening April ‘90 Selected Articles - 100 Wayne J. McLaurin Extension Horticulturist - Vegetables Universlty of Georgla

Anyone growing up in the South during the late 40's and early 50's knew what cool October Saturdays meant. It was time for listening to Southeastern Conference football games when you could get a break from raking leaves. The towering oaks, Live oaks with their erie Spanish moss, sweet gums with their sticking balls, tulip poplars and sassafras had provided shade all durlng the long hot summer and now due to physiological processes not known to young boys leaves were falling and fathers said they needed to be raked into piles, picked up and placed in a back corner of the lot to be used in the making of compost for the vegetable garden next year. However, prior to the piles being hauled to the back they were used for many jumps and tussles, reraked and used agaln. The making of the compost was not much fun - layering leaves, chicken litter and small amounts of soil -then starting over again making sure that the center of the pile had a slight dip to catch the winter rains. There was ais0 the turning of the piles during the following months to make sure that the "black gold" would be ready for the spring use.

The work was never appreciated until you held the first vine-ripened tomato in your hand. It didn't hit you as a young boy but looking back that process made both you and that tomato better.

Organic matter is essential to most healthy growing plants. However, most gardeners find It very difficult to obtain as much organic matter a they would like to have. Yet, each year homeowners dispose of large amounts of organic matter which could be converted Into good garden humus.

The history of composting dates back to the beginning of settled agriculture. With many variations, it is accomplished by combining organic materials, such as leaves and brush with manure or fertilizer, and a small amount of soil and allowing the material to decompose over a period of time. In the early settlement of the Eastern United States many o? the coastal farmers used washed up seaweed and other organic materials along with manures to fertilize their crops. Recently, increased interest in gardenlng has brought about a greater need for Information on this ancient practice.

Composting is the process of converting raw organic materials into humus through decomposition. Farmers are composting organic materials when crop residues or cover crops are plowed into the soil. Homeowners are composting organic materials when they work their gardens, turn under flower stems, leaves,

Selected Articks - 101 I-

twigs and kltchen refuse whlch may have been added to the 8011.

Compostlng of organic refuse for use on home gardens is a tlme-honored practice, beneficial to the ~011, very satisfying to the gardener and helpful in preserving environmental quality. Basically, the compost process consist of turning waste materlais (otherwise unusable materials) Into a rich, high organic matter, soil - conditioning amendment. The process consist of the partial decomposing of organic materials, mostly of plant origins, by bacteria, fungi and other soil organisms. During the composting process, the most readily decomposed organic - constituents are consumed, thereby leaving a crumbly product that is relatively stable in the sol1 and which contains many of the mineral elements necessary for plant growth.

A properly operating compost pile heats up, by microbial action, to 16OoF, a temperature high enough to kill some weed seeds and plant disease organisms. However, diseased plant parts are not generally recycled Into a compost pile due to the potentlal problems they may create.

- What you use in your compost pile will depend on the materials available to you, but you should follow a few basic rules and not create a trash pile. Clear a - space and spread a layer of coarse plant material about 6" deep such as small branches,and sticks. On top of this add a layer of leaves and grass clippings or other organic material. The more shredded the material the quicker the breakdown. - On top of this add a layer (1" deep) of manure or a handful of a complete fertilizer. It Is best to use horse manure or chicken litter rather that cow manure due to the high weed seed content of cow manure. The organisms need a nitrogen source to feed on. To this a thin layer of topsoil ((1/8 Inch). Start over again with the plant material and continue layering until materials are used up. Fresh plant material, such as grass clipplngs, should be mixed well with dry material prior to adding. Grass clippings tend to matt together and will not let air enter. When this condition occurs a foul odor will be detected

At each layer remember to add water. The pile should be damp but not soggy. The pile can be added to at any time but the proportions of materials added should be kept the same. Kitchen scraps - eggshells, coffee or tea grounds, vegetable peelings, etc. can be added to the pile but should be put into a hole or dug out place and covered. Do not put bones, fat or meat scraps into the pile as they can attract rodents and the neighbors dogs and cats. Also, do not use any pest waste including cat litter as they can harbor infectious diseases and parasites.

Heat buildup is essential to composting and too small a pile cannot generate or hold enough heat thereby causing a slowing down of the decomposition of materials. A properly constructed compost pile 4-5 feet high and 4-5 feet in diameter will hold in the heat and at the same time let air circulate. Some type of bin will contain and support a pile of this size and make it easier to work. The pile needs containment in order for water to enter and keep it moist. An A-shaped pile

Selected Articles - 102 tends to shed water and will be dry on the inside and will not decompose properly. A contained pile will have a slight dip in the mlddle that will allow water to penetrate into the middle of the pile and maintain moisture. When you see steam rising from this size pile you know that breakdown of the orgsnlc materials is taking place.

Turn the compost pile every 2-3 weeks. Proper air clrcuiation is important and turnlng also speeds up decay. At the same time, you will move the outer, undecomposed material into the center, where it will be broken down.

The compost pile needs to be kept moist but never soggy or waterlogged. Excessive water will cut otf the alr supply thus stopping the process. If the pile becomes too wet, frequent turning will help to restore the natural breakdown process.

Compost will usually be ready to use from 4 to 6 months after starting the process. It is dependent on the conditions under which the breakdown occurred and the type or types of material used.

Selected &les - 103 TWO FOR ONE! That's what you get with the new Millcreek 2 cu. yd. Model 75TD top-dresserK2ompost Spreader equipped with a grass Clippings dispersing attachment. E REDUCTI 1. A superb topdrerrer with rd)urtrblc prttem. :s 2 The rnrwer lo your grass cllDDlna Droblemr. OUG 1 -

Join the incredng number Of Satisfied ME COMPQSTI professionals who use thrs new time iwork-/money-saverfor Spreading cbm posted topdressing products You'll re duce or eliminate those rising grass

~~ -~~ clipping disposal costs at the same time We'll show you how to get two jobs done with one machine in our free Alameda County, California survey shows brochure A new demo video is available that residents reduce household waste Call today. 717-355-2446 generation by 750 pounds per year. FW 717-3552272

- Doron Amiran and Steven E. Sherman The Spreader Specialists 112 S. Rallroad Ave. HOME COMPOSTING pants have been, on average, middle- New Holland PA 17557 program was established aged, middle class homeowners who in 1990 by the Alameda garden at home. Women have attend- County Waste Manage- ed the workshops in far greater num- Ndk.UhtmtbhawAMCa ment Authority, a joint bers than men, perhaps because of an Appi- IW 'Ib hmdp.qh ~E?d-L.cuksscrp powers agency whose dis- inclination for women to seek avenues --ngsld.m trict includes 1.25 million for continuing education in a friendly people in Oakland, Livemore, Berke- social setting, and perhaps because The Matyzd Errrlra" Snwac HAll ley, Dublin and Pleasanton. Like other women may take greater responsibili- lssuc anR" IfKMfAE&ardFima to ty for home gardening or are more con- parwpate hMar)(ad'sScrapTwe California regions, Alameda County is RWmg S" mandated by law to achieve a 25 per- scious about waste disposal from the cent reduction in waste disposal by home. The low number of workshop at- Thm aa RtSubmttal Meetmg oentb 1995 and 50 percent by 2000. tendees that utilize professional gar- ~sdled&dfOcP@rilZ,1992n The main emphasis of the Alameda deners (six percent) may be at- BanYnore County Home Composting Education tributable to the 'do-it-yourself' Cqns ofthe RFA car^ be obtained ty Program (ACHC) is educating resi- attitude of home composters. This in- bwltten requat m. dents, with four demonstration gar- formation also suggests that yard dens serhgas educational centers as waste from professionally landscaped -Le--Zo2okdurOldmh well as sites for workshops. Each has dwellings is more likely to be handled k.updk"1 an array of homemade and commercial off-site, such as at a yard waste dropoff compost bins, information bulletins, and garden beds with vegetables and Equipment For we ornamentals to demonstrate benefits of compost. Three gardens are in pub- Table 1: Demogmphies of Home ConQosting IMS VERSI-DREDGE lic parks and one is located in a com- Workhop Aftendew 1990 Model 4010 Hydraulic munity recycling dropoff center. One or Dredge two workshops are held monthly at the Category Survey Response 10" submersible pump gardens, with more than 1,600 persons 0 8 cutterhead attending since March, 1991. Average Age 40 ACHC conducted a detailed mail Average Family Income (Qr) $49,OoO 77 hp Cummins. 280 hours TEN survey of its first 600 workshop atten- Homeowners (YO) 85% 0 2500' of 10" dredge hose with dees to determine demographic char- Renters (YO) 15% rh&lOC COMcctOrS & acteristics and how much material Female (YO) 64 Yo they were composting. Over 50 per- Male (%) 36% Never used (backup) 10" pump cent (314 of 600) surveys were com- Households with gardens or landscapes (YO) 94% Immaculate condition, pleted. Information in Table 1 shows well maintained that, based on the survey results, Households that hire professional home composting workshop partici- gardeners (%) 6% (604)561-0342

APRIL1992 97 BIOCYCLE Selected Articles - 104 hvlronmcntal Anah Omcer wof-krgckr bby $4.853 - 56.029 ronthly Drects subordinate super" and Percent 01 Percent W professrmt enployees in air qualtty, Household Amount Composted Household water resources, bnd and matenah Household Waste By Households Waste management NOTE The current va- Material Generation Generation That Compost Reduction cancy IS n the krOualrty Manage ment Rwm. Yard Waste 600 20% 450 15% Requires gradwbm from a recog Food Waste 450 15% 300 - 10% ruzed four-year college or unrvwuty, Total 1050 35% 750 2590 and two years of full-ome paid pie fesslonal expenme as XI hronmental Supm over profes- aonal employees involved in air quail- andFor processing the foreseeable site. future, the home I ty, bnd use management or water composting workshops will be geared cpalny issues and problems; or fw toward middle class homeowners who Fanof full-bme paid professional garden at home. Efforts will also be in- expenme in ernnrmtal mes creased to educate residents of ap& vvfuch includes vgnim responslbli- menta and other multitenant dwellings Before Altar ty for pdKydeKlopment and mter- about ways to compost on the premises. Number W CompOstinQ &mposting prmon for air qualtty, land use Cans Set Out (Number Of (Number W "ent or water qoalrty wes HOW MUCH DIVERTED? 6y Households Respondents) Respondents) and problem Howmuch material are the home FGfmonillb" composters who responded to the sur- Less than 1.0 32 134 ~~Kaomm.~ vey diverting from the waste stream? 1 .o loo 71 1.5 27 14 wmDepamnent- The survey addressed this question in 2.0 55 7 Callfoma at 800-252-7790; two ways to provide an internal con- artvde Cdrtorma at 800421-9555 More than 2.0 12 7 to we wne pah mul "I" VrtKn sistency check on the results. Ftespon- denta were asked first to estimate the the number of trash cans they set out Rerpad IMiq percentage of their total food waste in a typical week, both before starting ~nEEOIMQwf and yard waste that they are compost- to compost at home and after this ing. Next, they were asked to estimate waste reduction activity began. I'

98 BIOCVCLE APRIL1992 - Selected Articles - IO5 I-

- On average, respondents estimated that they compost approximately three-quarters of their yard waste and two-thirds of their food waste. The result translates into an av- erage annual reduction in waste of approxi- mately 750 pounds per household. This amount constitutes a reduction of approxi- mately 25 percent of the waste discarded an- nually by residents that compost at home. These results are shown in Table 2. To corroborate these data, respondents also were asked to estimate the number of trash cans they set out on an average week, both before and after starting to compost at home. The results are presented in Table 3, and show a reduction in waste disposal after starting to compost at home. A rough aver- age of the figures in Table 3 indicates that, before composting, the average respondent set out 1.3 cans. After starting to compost at home, that figure dropped to approximately 0.8 cans. This reduction is about half a can per week. IMPLICATIONS The survey showed that the residents who have attended workshops on home compost- ing are reducing their household generation of waste by approximately 750 Ibs. per year on average, or by approximately 25 percent. Even if there is attrition in either the rate of participation or the percentage of yard and food wastes that are composted by each com- posting household, it seems reasonable to estimate a long-term waste reduction rate of 500 Ibdyear for each household that attends a composting workshop and begins to com- post at home. In other words, for each com- posting household that has received proper and sufficient information and encourage- ment on composting at home, one-quarter ton of waste can be assumed to be reduced each year in perpetuity. The broader implications of composting eduction also must be recognized, although they are not as easily measured. Whether it is making a useful substance out of one’s own kitchen scraps or a neighbor’s discarded lawn trimmings, home composting instills in people a sense that they bear greater re- sponsibility for waste - the effluents of our lifestyles. Source reduction and recycling ed- McLanahan‘s quallty craftsmen have ucation programs can benefit immensely manufactured the best In from a well-established home composting ed- ucation program in the community. We en- vision that, with proper local government at- ROTARY SC E tention to public education and through the AND COMBINATION SCRUBBER SCREENS use of positive incentives (such as bin subsi- dies or discounts), composting at home will for more than slxty years become a source of pride for the middle class, Our new brochure puts as homeowners seek visible and immediate MODELS ENGINEERED FOR: these machines right in ways to =do something good for the environ- ment” while simultaneously reducing their 0 MUNICIPAL ASH RECOVERY your hands, and it‘s the trash bills. 0 RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITIES yours for asking. JUST CALL OR WRITE: 0 MINING APPLICATIONS Doron Amiran is Promotions and Outreach Co- ordinator, Alameda County (Californiu)Home Composting Eduction Program. Steven E. Sherman is Principal ofApplied Compost Con- sulting in Berkeley, California.

- BIOCYCLE Sekcted Articles - 106 ADD,! 1003 on THE "DOY'T BAG IT" MOVEMENT

significant savings. Also considerably less- diesel fuel and plastic bags were used. We figured the program saved the town well SLOWING THE FLOW over $100,000." But interest simmered until about two-- years ago, when landfill space got really tight. Ft. Worth officials dusted off Knoop's "Don't Bag It" program, sat down with hum TO THE LAND to discuss how to implement it in a large-- city, and the rest is history. "We went into F't. Worth big time," says Knoop, %enefitting from the lessons we'd learned in Plano. Some 120,000 homes were- involved. The response was phenomenal. And the program is epreading all over Texas, spurred by the intensity of the envi- ronmental movement and the lack of land--- fill space. San Antonio for example has only TURF GRASS specialist is not about a year and a half left till it runs out. normally the kind of person to Last year, 27 cities got involved in letting start a national trend, but Bill grass clippings remain on the lawns, and- B ill Kno op 's Knoop at Texas A&M may just this year over 100. The Extension Service have done that. For many has 75 agents working on the program with "revolutionary years he cherished a notion so these cities. We are absolutely over- radical that he hesitated to whelmed. I am quite sure that in a couple of - notion" about mention it out loud: He thought it was silly years there will be no market for baggers on to be hauling grass clippings to the landfill, mowers." grass clippings or anywhere else for that matter. With prop- After the fact that returning grass clip- er lawn management, clippings could al- pings to the lawn is a sensible idea, the set --$ cuts waste flow most always be leR right on the lawn and in ond biggest reason for Knoop's success is the fact provide it sustenance. thorough, detailed plan he and Bob Whit- to the landfill by But by the 19808, when landfills were fill- ney, a County Extension Agent nearby, have ing up at an all too rapid rate, he would oc- worked out to sell it to the public. Their - 13 percent, suves casionally voice his notion, heresy or not. manual not only tells what to do, but in- Bagging grass clippings was, well, stupid. cludes samples of survey forms, letters, and a Texas town "It's a funny thing," he says today, looking other publicity tools needed. back. 'Agronomically, no one ever recom- The core of the program is making use of - mer $100,000 and mended the removal of gram clippings from the state's Agricultural Extension Service the lawn. Grass catchers just got to be the personnel who are already in place as edu- puts 'u)as t e thing to have, sort of a sign of affluence. cators and disseminators of information and Someone on the block got one, and pretty who are familiar with the basic agronomy - reduction to the soon everyone had one." Also people started involved. "The first step is a meeting be- thinking of a lawn as a rug, and then of tween city officials and Extension Service fore. Here's how course, clippings were seen as dirt on the personnel," says Knoop, "to review the com- rug to be vacuumed off. plete program and how it will unfold and - to do it in y.our Eventually a friend who worked for the who is responsible for what. This should be town of Plano, a suburb of Dallas, heard done in the winter preceding the grass cut- community. about Knoop's "revolutionary" notion about ting season."

grass clippings and decided to investigate Publicity then begins in earnest. Civic I the savings that might result if the clippings groups are contacted to see if they would like weren't bagged and hauled away. He had his to have a speaker talk on the "Don't Bag It" workers ride the garbage trucks to see just Program. Counties (in Texas) that already how much grass clippings contributed to the have Master Gardener programs in place - total haul. can ohncall on these people to give the pre- Quite a bit. About 35,000 bags full from sentations. "When communicating by mail 17,000 homes. Every week. to the homeowner, piggyback as much as 'So we did our first 'Don't Bag It' program possible on other city communications, like - in Plano," recalls Knoop. "We managed to service bills, to save money," says Knoop. persuade enough people to let their grass A press conference should be held about clippings rot back into the lawn to put a 13 two weeks before the program's kickoff date. 'I percent dent in the amount going to the "The most effective place to hold the press - landfill. Immediately that stopped all over- conference is at the local landfill," adds time in picking up garbage, and that was a Knoop. "Involve the local officials, especial-

74 BIOOICLE MAY 1991 - Selected Articles - 107 - ly the city solid waste managers. Emphasize the need to conserve landfill space, not im- prove lawns. The latter will become evident in time.” Next, a brief, clear brochure that explains the proper lawn care for the ’Don’t Bag It” ( program in your particular location needs to be passed out. It should be in every home be- - fore lawns begin to grow. Include a letter from the city inviting everyone to the kick- off meeting. The luckoff meeting should precede the -- cutting season by about two weeks. More than one meeting may be necessary, de- pending on the size of the city. Try to sched- ule meetings in areas that city officials have - identified as heavy bag users. A program should have as a goal getting at least one person on every block to stop bagging grass. When neighbors see good re- sults on this “demonstration”lawn, they will be inclined to try it too. Signs are given to residents to put in their yards indicating that they are following the fort I’ve ever seen. I’m out to make Bill ’Don’t Bag It” program. Sponsors for the hoopthe most famous person in the world. signs are not hard to get if the sponsor’s logo Starting late last year with a media blitz, we - is put on the sign. A Master Gardener is were able to keep 25,000 tons of grass clip- ‘We are seeing a scheduled to visit each cooperating home to pings from going to the landfill, out of a to- behavior change ~ answer questions. Each homeowner is pro- tal of about 40,000 which is enough to fill a vided with all the detailed information nec- football field seven stories high.” coming over essary to make the program work, from the What Lyman added to Knoop’s carefully height at which the grass should be cut to detailed, step by step program, was a pub- people. When you - frequency of cutting to amount of fertilizer licity program that is rather amazing too. needed. He has 16 billboards blazing with huge can show them an Two weeks before the second fertilizer ap- “Don’t Bag It” signs in red around the city. pIication, a letter is sent to all demonstra- “These are the first billboard signs in the environmental - tors, containing a survey of their results so world to use recyclable paper,” beams Ly- program that really far. Fertilizer is made available, and a date man. T-shirts and coffee cups proclaim the set for the summer public meeting. The “Don’t Bag It” slogan, and he has fairly in- makes sense and same is done two weeks before the third fer- undated homeowners with flyers telling - tilizer application, and again after the last them exactly how to maintain and mow so doesn’t try to feed application. Survey results are then printed that baggers aren’t necessary. He even per- and published. By this time, experience suaded a local professional singing group, them a bunch of shows that momentum is established and The Crescendo Three, to come up with a - the program in the next year will gain ad- catchy rap song, called “Don’t Bag It, Leave bull, the American hwents as the word gets around. ”I can It On The Lawn,”which is played frequent- public will ggarantee you that once you get into this ly on the radio. program, your phone will ring right off the “The total cost was only $32;000,”he says. respond.” - wall,” says Knoop. “Next year we think we can pull another Helping the program succeed are the new 10,000 tons out of the waste stream. People “mulch-mowers” with blades that chop and recognize that it is just plain stupid to pay a spread the grass clippings a little finer than dollar a bag to send something to the land- - previously. The mowers will help sell the fill that can be returned to the lawn.” program,” says Knoop, %ut most mowers Neither Knoop nor Lyman sees the same were always capable of clipping fine enough enthusiasm for home composting of grass to make bagging unnecessary most of the clippings and both believe that leaves will - time. It is more a matter of lawn manage- for the most part still have to be picked up ment and frequent mowing.” Some officials and composted at a central location. Howev- worry that homeowners will resist more fie- er, as the number of people learn the agro- quent mowing, but that doesn’t seem to be nomic value of grass clippings either re- the case. turned to the lawn or used as mulch around ornamentals where they compost naturally ACTION PLAN IN OHIO without their effort involved, their interest Ohio is one state that has borrowed the in doing the same with their leaves should - “Don’t Bag It” program lock, stock and bar- increase. rel, especially in Montgomery County (Day- “I think we are seeing a behavior change ton). “It is just the most amazing thing,” coming over people,” says Lyman. When says Jim Lyman, Chief of Plans and Pro- you can show them an environmental pro- - gram Division of the Solid Waste Manage- gram that really makes sense and doesn’t ment Department. “Unequivocably, this is try to feed them a bunch of bull, the Amen- the most successful waste management ef- can public will respond.”

BIOCYCLE MAY1991 75 Selected Articles - 108 Presenting FOOD WASTE LESSONS

FlexbDump- COMPOST1NG GOES TO SCHOOL Students at Massachusetts elementa y school gain firsthand knowledge in recycling 3,000 pounds of residues from lunch program.

Jamie Bemis

EARNING to be responsible for scraps, which amount to about five lbs. the waste we generate may be one daily, are collected three times each of the best lessons taught in our week for a New Hampshire pig farmer. schools. In March, 1990,the Alcott And with the exception of December Elementary School in Concord, Mas- through February, when it also goes to sachusetts became one of the first the farmer, between 60 and 55 lbs. of schools in the United States to start a food and paper waste are composted food waste composting program. Dur- daily. ing that school year, more than 3,000 The compost site, which is approxi- pounds of food, paper napkins and mately 500 square feet in size, is lo- lunch bags were composted. cated about 100 feet from the school. It Although administrators are often contains four off-ground, enclosed viewed as more of an obstacle than an composting tumblers and an open bin asset in implementing recycling pro- that has just under a one cubic yard ca- A BREAKTHROUGH grams, in this case when the Alcott pacity. Each of the tumblers was ani- FOR CONVENIENT School Principal, Philip Benincasa, mal-proofed by screwing screens over was presented with the idea he offered the lower air holes and is secured with COMMERCIAL REC YCLlNG nothing but his total support. In fact, a lock to prevent vandalism. To mini- everyone at the school and at Con- mize overloading, this spring we will Call for a Dealer Nearest Youll cord’s Board of Health has been very increase the number of tumblers to six. supportive of the program. Each day fiRh graders (along with a HOLDEN TRAILER Four days each week, lunch is served parent volunteer) take the com- to 350 students in first through fifth postable waste to the site, place it in a SALES, INC. grades. This results in between 50 and tumbler and turn all four. We fill one Route 1, Box 151 60 lbs. of food waste and a small tumbler each week with food and pa- Southwest City, MO 64863 amount of paper waste, including pa- per waste (approximately 200 lbs.), per bags, napkins and drinking straw and add leaves and wood shavings as 417-762-3218 covers. bulking agents. After four weeks, the Since the composting program was mixture is put in the open bin to finish set up, the students have been respon- composting. With this system it took MANUFACTURER’S sible for sorting their own waste. At three and one-half months to compost SALES REPS WANTED the center of the cafeteria is a cart our first 3,000 lbs. of waste. In all it which contains four, 20 gallon trash takes 10 to 15 minutes each day to op- Leading manufacturer of backyard cans. One of the trash cans is used for erate the system. composters seeks aggressive indi- compostable food waste (anything but The compost we produced last year viduals who are currently selling to meat and fish) and paper waste; an- was used primarily as “starter”for this municipal markets. Specific ter- other is used for the meat and fish year’s compost and for school displays. ritories now available. scraps; and the other two are used to Ultimately it will be used in landscap- collect the milk cartons and plastic ing projects around the school. H Please send resume to: utensils. The polystyrene trays are

also collected on the cart. Those are re- ~~ ~~ ~~ Municipal Sales Manager cycled. Jamie Bemis is an Alcott parent, who, 75 lngram Drive The net result of this change in pro- along with her husband John, initiated Toronto, Ontario cedure is that the volume of trash that the project. John designed the cafeteria M6M 2M2 Canada comes from the cafeteria has been cut cart and installed and modified the tum- by about two-thirds. The meat and fish blers. Selected Articles - 109 62 BIOCYCLE FEBRUARY1991 A publication of Work On Waste USA, Inc., 82 Judson, Canton, NY 13617 31$378-9200 March 7, 1991

482 CO MMUN ITY CO MPOST PROJECTS IN THE CIT Y OF ZURICH. SWITZERLAND For the last five years Zurich has financed a community composting office to distribute information to apartment dwellers on why and how to become involved in composting food wastes. Currently then are 482 community compost projects operating. Two-thirds of the 482 compost projects serve between 3 and 30 households with the rest serving up to 200 households. In a VideoActive interview, filmed 2-13-91, between Thomas Waldmeir, who heads up Zurich's Community Compost Program, and Paul Connett, Waldmeir provided the following information:

How to build an interest group within your housing complex. Waldmeir suggests that ifa household is interested in the project that the best way to get started is to start talking to your neighbots. If other residents are interested the next step is to get approval from the owner of the housing complex. Once that is done, Waldmeir's group will come and give a talk to all the residents to explain and advise on the following:

How to find a place to compost. Waldmeir's group will advise the residents on how to select the best place for their compost center. A large space is not needed. An 8' by 10' space will do nicely. Materials they will need. Waldmeir's group supplies wood chips which are added daily to help aerate the compost pile. But residents are encouraged to collect their own wood chips (small twigs etc.) from their own area.

How to collect compost in the household. Special containers for kitchen scraps can be purchased but ai one community compost cenier filmed by VideoActive, a woman entered the compost site with two waxed milk containers filled with her kitchen scraps. She emptied out the contents neatly on the pile, then left with her waxed-milk containers. Her reaction to the compost center was very supportive and enthusiastic.

What materials to collect for composting. Waldmeir explained that all kitchen waste, house plants, flowers, anything from the garden, and kitty litter were acceptable. Residents are advised not to put paper or disposable diapers into the compost pile.

How to work the compost. Waldmeir estimated it would takea total of two and a halfhours Der month to tend the compost properly. The chores are shared by the members of the participating households. For a compost for 50 households, he estimated that 5- 10 people per month would be needed. VideoActive filmed a compost center which served approx 30 people. There were four 'piles'. The first pile accepts the organics on a daily basis. This was s simple screened (chicken wire) enclosure. The material will sit in that enclosure for two weeks. The second pile accepts the material from the screened enclosure every two weeks, with thorough mixing with each addition. After two months this pile is shifted to a third pile. The third pile of material is ready for use after a period ofanother 2 months. The fourth pile is a "holding" pile of ready-to-use compost. There were a few rules Waldmeir stressed for successful community projects: The first was that someone had to oversee the compost on a daily basis and add wood chips to aerate the pile. The second was that if the compos1 center was kept clean and tidy it would not smell. The compost piles were covered 10 protect them from rain and snow. When the cover of the second pile was lifted steam wafted out - a visible sign of an "active" compost.

What to do with the composted material. It is used for window-boxesand the gardenssurrounding the housing complex. The compost center that VideoActive filmed had a park next to it. It was pointed out that

Printed on recycled paper, naturally CI7JI7-v - 110 - ---.--- the majority of the compost material at this site was used by the schoolchildren for their gardens. The role of th'e residents. They get advice and information from Waldmeiis group, but the residents run the compost operation. Compost chores are shared, with someone different in charge on a weekly basis. The name and telephone number of the individual in charge for the week is posted on the compost gate.

What is the best thing about the community compost programs. Waldmeir replied that it was the "social implications"! In big cities where "anonymity" can separate people, composting brings them together. It's "their compost"and they take pride in running it. It also gives people, especially children, a further appreciation of the ecological cycle. What is the worst thing about the program. According to Waldmeir, there arc not enough compost plots yet! He hopes to have 300-400 more programs undenvay by the end of 199 1.

Roger Bailey of VideoActive Productions is in the process of editing this video. Community composting is an idea whose time has come: it's elegant, simple, successful, and replicable. Waste Norwill give you the details for ordering the video when it is availiible. "DISCARDING THE THROWAWAY SOCIETY" Worldwatch Paper 101 $4 From Worldwatch Institute, 177 I Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20036-1904 This excellent 45-page monograph, written by John E. Young, is a must for anyone involved in the waste battles. With so many regulators preoccupied with the "back end" of the waste problem, it is a timely reminder both from the local and the global point of view, we would be better served by shifting our major effort to the "front end". In short, we are dealing with a resource management crisis not a waste management crisis. "Increasing the cost of raw materials is an essential first step toward improving the efficiency of materials use and reducing waste. Virgin materials are now artificially cheap, in relation both to secondary materials and to other factors of production. Prices that accounted for the real costs of using materials would be the single most effective incentive for source reduction, reuse, and recycling. Governments' first task is to eliminate the wide variety of subsidies for virgin production. In mining, depletion allowances are the most explicit subsidies: the United States grants massive tax exemptions to the mining industry, theoretically to compensate for the depletion of mineral reserves. The allowances, usually set between 7 and 22 percent of gross annual income, are not'available to those who produce the same materials from recycled goods. Many governments also give large subsidies to logging, artificially reducing the price of virgin paper and other wood products. For instance, in 1989, U.S. timber on public lands was sold to private firms at prices so low that sales revenues failed to cover government costs in 102 of the 120 national forests. Archaic laws that make public mineral or timber resources available at low or no cost to multinational wrporitions also underwrite v.irgin materials extraction and environmental destruction. A particularly egregious example is the U.S. General Mining Act of 1872, which allows anyone who finds metallic minerals in public territory to buy the land for $12 per hectare or less, and does not require the miner to pay the govemment anything for the minerals extracted. The U.S. Treasury received nothing fox the $4 billion worth of hard-rock minerals (such as gold, silver, lead, iron and copper) taken from former federal lands in 1988. Weak or nonexistent regulation of the environmental effects of natural resource exploitation allows industries to reap profits while nature and future generations pick up the tab. Mining rules are notably lax in most nations, and logging firms are also rarely forced to repair or mitigate the environmental damage they cause..In the long run, more efficient use of materials could virtually eliminate incineration of garbage and dramatically reduce dependence on landfills. It could also substantially lower energy needs, which would help slow global warming, the most ominous of all environmental threats. Taken together, source reduction, reuse, and recycling - the elements of a soft materials path - can not only cut waste but also foster more flexible, resilient, diverse, self-reliant, and sustainable economies.... Finally, the soft materials path offers societies the chance to solve garbage problems without creating new ecological risks. It moves us toward the ultimate goal of providing, in the words of E.F. Schumacher, "the maximum of well-being with the minimum of consumption." -- It costs $25 to join the Worldwatch Institute and get these monographs on a regular basis. This has to be the best investment in environmental literature available. aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa~aaagaaaaaaaaaanaagOaaaaaa~a~aa_aaa~aa~aaaaaaaaaaaaa~aaaaaaaaaa~aa~~aaaa~~a~-~~~~

WASTE NOT ## 14 1 A plrblicnlion of Work on Wasre USA, published 48 times B year. Annual mes are: Groups &? Non-Profirs $50; Srudents R. Seniors $35; Indjviduz?l$40; Consultants R For-Profits $1 25; Canadian Subscriptions fUS-45. Editors: Ellen &? Paul Connett, 82 Judson Street, Canton, NY 13617. Tel: 315-379-9200. Fax: 315-379-0.148. Selected Articles - 111 PrinfPd nn wrvrlmi nanpr nrtrrrrllv INIWNOUIANI 01 lN3W11WW03 SINVW VV3ld iOLlUM M3N SN103 W31d ;

UVIA AUW SllI4aNWl NI AUn9 AlLNIUUll3 SNV3 -IUIWV IISVM alios do SNM 313A33U 01 l"tlU9OUd NOllllW OS1 MHl NI SUHM 3tIlMNOIlWN 4OSNOdS - Ysel a41 4 S'tl lUW3 NMWl - ISOUd V31YlHIV 40 NOIlV130SSV NV3 NMVl lVNOISS340!ld PROFESSIONAL LAWN CARE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

(iiiitiiiiitvl lrtuii pn'\xiii>pay<*..

de1)ris. In recent studies. it Iia\ IKWI found YARD WASTE that grass clippings init!. Iw respoiisiI)lc~for In the quest to save landfill capocity, yard woste is an attractive target. According mort' tlm 50% of the total \.oIrimt~of land- scapi- \vastr. hiiuiy states recogiiizc~tlw to EPA, this material accounts for 18 percent (by weight) of total discards. In some prol)lrin iind are piissing lqisliitioil to I)on states with year-long growing seasons, the percentage can be much higher. Ten liiiidsciipt, wiiste fi-on1 Iiuidfills. states plus Washington, D.C, hove now bondyard wmte from landfilk (the Distria Tlw I~in(1sciipe\\xstc tlisposal proI)l~~iiiis of Columbia, Iowa, Ohio, and North Carolina enacted such bans this year). While vie\ved 1)). iiian\' as ii proldeiii ciiiiwl in most lawns provide for separate collection, residents of Illinois, Wisconsin, and part 1)). Iinw entliusiiists wlio tliroiigli fer- Minnesota may have to bring the material to facilities themselves or keep the tilizatioii aid proper niiiintcw;iiic.t~Iiinv materials at home. Yard debris can be composted to make mulch ond soil stabilizers. iiiatlc Iiwns grow quicker and tlrickrr. thus Louisiana, florida, Maine, and Ohio are among the states in the process of drafting creiitiiig more grim clippings to I)rIiaiiled regulations for compost production and use. to tlie duinp. GRASSCYCLING IS THE ANSWER Grasscycling is ;I term created 1)). I'LCAA Filling Up ...Our Diminishing landfill Capacity \vliich drscrihes the natural rec!Zcling of grass clippings b!, simpl!. Ie;i\-iiig tlwin on tlir Iit\\~i\\.hi Ilio\\ilig. Tl~egriiss plii11t's nutrients iire tlien rec!ded to tlie soil with the added benefit of lielpiiig hiislwcoine healtliier.

GRASSCYCLING is part of B!. encoul-aging grasscycling. \w 1rin.e tlie the answer to the serious potcwtial to siwe more than 10% of'thr total notional solid waste niunicipal landfill spice. Tliih is ;I twiiien- disposal crisis. dous acliievement when we consider that Ten stotes oireody hove onl!. piper at 35G% takes up inore landfill legislation banning yard sp"ce tlLlll landscapc- \vaste. wastes and many more are drafting new laws. LAWN CARE ENTHUSIASTS yJ SHOULD TAKE LEADERSHIP .... 1. GRASSCYCLING is sound turfgrass U management. The return of grass clippings to the Imii and to the soil has d\vays been considered by turf experts as a natural step in the proper maintenance of' a hii. Current Yard Waste Bans 2. GR.ASSCI'CLING is an opportiiiiit\. for STATES LEAVES GRASSnAEE EFFECTIVE the indi\idual citizen to make a tliffi.I-ence TRIMMINGS DATE in protecting the einironinent. Connecticut...... % ...... 1-91 3. hlore than GO million households partic- Distrid of Columbia ...... % ...... % ...... 10-89 ipate in some t\lx of Imii ~irc.If tlirse iiiuii Florido ...... X ...... X ...... 1-92 enthusiasts practiced GRISSCYCLISG. die hfe of a laiidfll codd be drsbcdh exteirdc-(1. Illinois ...... X ...... X ...... 7-90 Iowa ...... X ...... X ...... 1-91 Minnesota ...... X ...... K ...... 1-90 * New Jersey ...... X ...... 9-88 North Carolino ...... X ...... X ...... 1-93 Ohio ...... Y ...... X ...... 12-93 Pennsylvonio ...... % ...... 1-90 Wisconsin ...... X ...... X ...... 1-93

*The Minnesoto low took effect in the seven county metro arm in January 1990; and in 011 other counties in Jonuory, 1992. SOURCE Notionol Solid Waste Monogement ksociotion, 1988 Selected A&kS - 113 .~ PROFESSIONAL LAWN CARE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

I HOW YOU CNN Features CANHELP GRASSCY CLING As the gras sc\~li n~ program t.\.ol\~s.there \\ill he llliili!' W~YSin - \vliich YOU c:11i participilte. 1. BE A GRASSCYCLER. Follo\v I'LCAA's guidelines for - nm\Viug. \\atering and f &tilizntion . 2. SPREAD THE WORD. Tell \'our friends d)oiit grAssc~.cling.1 ntroduce griisscvcliiig to yoiir coininunit\, h!. speithig ut local meetings, sending information to tile loci11 IW\VS iiiedia and t)!! getting in\d\vd - BARRY TROUlMAN IS INTERVIEWED AT HIS \vitll local goverlllllrllt. ATLANTA HOME BY CNN 3. ASK YOUR LOCAL PLCAA MEMBER FOR A GRASSCYCLING lie refined thr prograin, and iii 1989, - COMMUNITY ACTION PLAN. under the iiiliiie "Don't Bag It," his This step-b!.-step guide udl Fort \Vorth, Tex;is pilot prugi-aiii help your conmunit\. leaders \van the national Keep Americil to develop a local p"'Ycliiig Beautiful A\vard in the local govern- public a\vareness c;iiiipaigii. iiieiit categor): 4. LEARN MORE ABOUT In Forth \Vorth. lh4 residents fol- GRASSCY CLING. lowed Kiioop's guitleliires for mo\v- Contact \.our local PLC.44 ing, \+ratering. and fertilizing. A member or count\, extension survey of tlie participiults re\wiled a~etit for addition a1 they reduced the a\.erage time vc..-.- --- -=?q ' AT. i, [(!! II..itiOll. spent mo\ving b;\. iiioi'e than 30% ,-, .;'.. even t h ou gh t 1i e!. 111 owed 111 ore rTRY SWING THIS . START NOW often. klore t1wi 20 cities in Trxi~s f ONETHREE Joiil PLCAA's commitment to gi-~s- non7 follo\\r tlie "Do11.t Bag It" pIa11. TIMESFkST BILL KNOOP, TEXAS A&M EXTENSION SPECIALIST cycling' It benefits our communi- In its first year, the project smwl How much gross bes. ou eii\n'oni~ientdid our la\nis. one tit). SG0,OOO in g;irbugr collec- "DON'T BAG IT" PIONEER IS would o Grosscycler ENVIRONMENTAL HERO tion costs; participants sa\,ed SZ!.OOO by purchasing fe\ver plastic cycle if o I' LCA A's G R A S S CYC L I NG ~0111- bags: and the landfills sa\d sub- Grosscycler would tiiuiiip. action plan is being adapted s tan tial waste space. cycle gross? from the "Don't Bag It" plm de\ael- oped in 19S9 11). Dr. Bill Knoop. Dr. Knoop has proved tliere ;ire priicti- Turfgrass Specialist at Texas A h- M ciil solutions to our en\~ironiiient~il Uni\.ersipr. Dr. Gnoop became the crises. ASPLCAA 1;tunclies this impr- first chanipion of plssc?.cling in lW1, tait en\ironment;d c;unp;upi. wr iiiust when lie conducted his first public thank Dr. Gnoop for Ius \ision. ingeicnu- a\\weness caiiipaign (cailled \\';iste- it\; and cominltment. He is tiilly an her)in Plnno, Texas. O\.er the !ears en\ironinental hero. I I - PROFESSIONAL LAWN CARE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA I iziition. and sliarpiwss of'tlic niouw Ihle II;I\.(> a inucli grc*;itvr iiifli1c.iir.c. oii tlii, REASONS ot'ciirreiice of (listwe tliiui griisscycliiig. On The Light Side CLIPPINGS ARE TOO WET TO INCINERATE. Crass A ciever young man named Michael, to GRASSCYCLE clippings ;ire Yor;', watvr I>!. \\.eight. It takes With clippings he hod to recycle, GRASSCYCLING IMPROVES LAWN QUALITY. more enerp' to Iwrn tliem tliiiii c;in I)(* Said with a boast, 11 \\Iieii grass clippings are allowed to recotwed for po\ver generation. It iilso "I hate to compost, I. de cay n ii t ii rill 1y on t I I c 1ii\vn, t 1I e? takes more truck spice mid fuel to haul Instead Ijust think 1'11 Grosscycle" r c 1 e ;I se \.it1 ii a111 e n ii t ri P n t s \vIi i ch them to the incinerntor. hian!, states ;ire There was an old man 'name of Ewing, inipro\.v tlie soil. Ijoineo\vners \vho recognizing tliis pm1)Ieiii and outlaving the A wad tobocco he's chewing, griissc!'clcJ eiijo! greener healthier incineration of grass clippings. of Says he with a spit, l:l\\7ls. LAWN CARE SERVICES RECOMMEND GRASSCYCUNG. "I ain't raking this ...., GRASSCYCLING SAVES TIME AND WORK. A Lnirn care coni pati i e s Ii ave iithwcat e d It's Grasscycling that I will be doing." recent stud!- coiit1iictc~tlin Fort \Voith, griisscycliiig for yem. Tlioiis;iiitIs of Iiiwn 2. Texas. foilid tliat 1-17 hieo\\iiers \vho sc.r-\ice custoiners Iiin~Iwtw gr;issc!~cliiig There was a young lady nomed Flo, qiiit ixigging their clippings iiiowed 5.4 with excellent results. With a lawn that she hated to mow, times per month versus -I.when it wasn't the mower, I tile!. ALL LAWN MOWERS CAN GRASSCYCLE. No spci:il 'Twos the clippings left o'er, hagyed clippings. hit sa\d iiii werage equipnient is necessan to grimcycle. h4any of IiIiiiiites per iiio\ving 1)). not Now, Grasscycling has saved her that woe. 3.5 hg- 8 manufacturers have attocliii~entsthat giiig clippiiigs. Af'tcr six nionths or iiriprove vour mower's grasscycling perfor- Send us your best limerick about retiirniiig clippings, tliese lioiiieo\wiers mince. Check with yoiir dealer for iid\ice. GRASSCYCLING! \!*e miry use s;i\.ed an awriige of seven lioiirs of yrtl For the best results keep your mower sharp yours in one of our publications. ndi. and mow when the griiss is d?. Mowing \Vhy not give it a try? CLIPPINGS DO NOT CAUSE THATCH. In the more frequently ill dso help minimize ~Y~os,it \vas commonl>.believed that e y ui pm en t problems . Remember, each 3. yrass clippings \{'ere a major component vear the average Texas grasscycler saved ot' thatch and that renio\ing clippings seven hours of mowing time even though woiiltl clraniaticall!~slo\v thatch develop- lie mowed more often. iiient. In 1969, researchers at the CDUECTING CUPPINGS IS BECOMING MORE EXPEN- Universih. of Iiliode Island completed SIVE. Today, clipping dispsal is affordable, and pu1)lislied a tletiiled study of thatch hit most states will ban landfill disposal of \\.Iiicli sliowed that tliatcli \4m toinposed landscape wxte, incluhng clippings, in the of grxs roots. Theii. findings have been neht two to five years. Gfis.scyling elillhates coiifirnied in nuinerous other studies. the need to pay my fees associated with dis- 1 1 \WI- stud!. at die USDA research posal of clippings. stat ion in He1 ts\.illc., kI anland. found

For iidditional inforination on - C, K.4SSCYCLI NG or on menil~erslii 11 in tlie PLCA.4. contact: PLW lann to its proper Iieight over a period of ticipate in curbside waste ;eduction. 1000 JOHNSON FERRY ROAD, t\\u or tlure ino\\%igs,rather tliilli salping SUITE t 135 it 1)d:to its noiiii;lj lieiglit in one "niig. MARIITA, GA 30068-21 12 DOESN'T SPREAD LAWN DISEASES. Diseuses of 1-404-977-5222 tiirfyrass (JC'CIIY \\.lien disease causing FAX 404-578-6071 5. spores contact susceptible grasses under idriil einiroi iinent:il condltions. Disease spores are present \~.-lietherclippings are collected or returiied. \\'atering, fertil- Setected Articles - 115 e)0 Copyright June 1990 - I- AT TO DQ WITH THE CLIPPI S? I. I. ”. .. . , . -_ . ..r, Regulations regarding lawn clipping . . . ,a;;::, - disposal are popping up all over. So are alternatives to dumping them in overcrowded landfills. by Will Perry, managing editor

hat more can be said about 0 lawn care professionals have got- the proliferation of land- ten in front of the issue by spearhead- scape regulations? Today ing the “Grasscycling: Today’s Turf, even the most innocuous byproduct Tomorrow’s Earth” campaign; of a hard day’s work-grass clip- 0 turfgrass breeders have begun pings-falls under the legislative measuring the total volume of clip- thumb. pings accumulated when evaluating Is that it now, Mr. Senator? Have all new tall fescues; bases finally been covered? 0 mulching or recycling mowers Probably not. But this recent tide of are gaining wider attention; legislation, enacted to preserve 0 a wealth of research is emerging rapidly diminishing landfill space, that shows the value of returning t may actually work to the landscaper’s organic material to the landscape; and benefit. In today’s increasingly envi- 0 composting is becoming a more ronment-conscious market, using al- viable service for landscapers to offer ternative disposal methods reinforces (see related story, “Meeting Tomor- the industry’s ecological concerns. row’s Recycling Challenges.”) Also, it may make mowing less time- The “Grasscycling” campaign is consuming and burdensome. being spearheaded by the Profes- sional Lawn Care Association of Too much waste America (PLCAA).It’s an offshoot of a a’acbologists claim that organic lawn “Don’t Bag It” program begun by Dr. and ornamental matter, or grass clip- Bill Knoop, a turfgrass specialist at pings and tree limbs, is hogging as Texas AkM University, and county much as 20 percent by weight of this extension agent Bob Whitney in 1989. country’s landfill space. Only paper “None of the textbooks or any of and paperboard products account for the research papers ever written sug- more space. The Environmental Pro- gest that the bagging of grass clippings tection Agency projects that half of is a necessary part of lawn care,” says this country’s 6,000 landfills will be Knoop. “The return of grass clippings closed within five years. The solution: to the lawn and eventually to the soil banish all yard wastes. has always been considered to be a Consequently, many states have naturally accepted part of maintain- done exactly that. The first bans on ing a lawn by the true turf experts.” landfill disposal of grass and tree trim- mings appeared in late 1989. Today, 11 One man’s trash... states have enacted legislation to keep Knoop calls grass clippings “a valu- yard waste out of their landfills by able resource,” noting they contain 1993. In the District of Columbia, Illi- over four percent nitrogen, about two nois, and a seven-county metro area percent potassium and around a half- of Minnesota, it is already illegal to percent of phosphorus, as well as dispose of yard wastes in landfills. lesser amounts of other essential nu- Responding to the issue Kurtz Brothers of Valley View, Ohio, The landscaping industry is respond- uses this Scat windrow machine to ing to the landfill crisis in a variety of recycle organic yard waste into sale- ways: able fill material. Sekted Articles 116 30 LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT/OCTOBER 1990 - I

trients. Clippings are between 20 and 30 percent protein and are rapidly at- tacked by bacteria and fungi, which cause their fast decomposition. Therefore, they don’t lead to thatch accumulation. Knoop’s study involved 184 Fort Worth residents who followed his guidelines for mowing, watering and fertilizing. Each was given a Tor0 mulching mower for the summer. In a follow-up survey, homeowners said they achieved healthier, better look- ing lawns with 30 percent less effort than they did bagging grass during the course of a typical summer. ‘In today’s The PLCAA’s “Grasscycling” pro- gram is designed to educate home- increasingly owners to leave grass clippings on the environment- lawn. The campaign includes devel- oping a community action program, conscious market, technical guidelines for mowing, wa- tering and fertilization, and a public using alternative relations strategy to promote public disposal methods participation and support. reinforces the More study industry’s ecological News concerning the expansion of studies on clippings volume and the concerns.’ effect of returning organic matter to Dr. Knoop the landscape is becoming more fre- Bill quent. Researchers at the Rodale Re-

practice. So says Tom Richard, a Cor- ne11 University senior research spe- Early indications from cialist in the Department of a large-scale study Agricultural and Biological Engineer- ing. being conducted by “We think we can show that com- Cornell University posting municipal yard waste works, that it doesn’t have to be offensive, indicate that muni- and that it can save taxpayers money,”says Richard. “We are seeing cipal composting is a pesticide levels of just a few parts per safe and efficient billion, well below the FDA tolerance level for food. As far as pesticides are practice. concerned, you could eat this com- post.” Cornel1 researchers have esti- mated the average annual cost of com- search Center in Kutztown, Pa., and posting to be $15 to $20 per ton, Garden Way, Inc. have expanded a considered to be far below the escalat- three-year test program to determine ing cost of other waste disposal meth- the benefits of returning grass clip- ods. pings to the soil with a mulching mower versus the bagging of clippings Attention on mulching with a conventional walk-behind Mulching mowers enjoyed a brief mower. heyday in the mid-1970s. But a com- “We are expanding the program bination of early bad experiences, because the disposal of grass clippings limited commercial application, and has become a major environmental ignorance about their use and bene- concern,” says Terry M. Schettini, fits kept them from gaining wide- horticultural coordinator. Initial re- spread acceptance among industry search showed that mulch mowing professionals. However, as the pub- returns nitrogen and other nutrients lic and regulatory agencies continue to the soil. to demand alternatives to tradi- Early indications from a large- tional chemical controls and more is scale study on municipal composting learned about the benefits of return- indicate that it is a safe and efficient ing organic matter to the soil, mulch- Selected Articles - 117 OCTOB‘E IR 199O/LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT 31 --

c. .$.4 v- “major league” recycling equip- ment; and invest in manpower, re- search and technology. . - - Composting is not an old science and industry, Kurtz notes. The tech- nology is new, so his company is staying on the cutting edge by work- ing closely with researchers at the Ohio Agricultural Research b De- velopment Center in nearby Wooster. Drs. Harry Joitink and Ed McCoy continue to research the composting process; the expertise of Kurtz staffer and Penn State Univer- sity graduate Sam Stimmel and com- pany founder Melvin Kurtz is also drawn upon. Kurtz composts lawn wastes for the cities of Brookpark, Maple MEETING TOMORROW’S’ Heights and Brecksville, Ohio, and RECYCLING CHALLENGES ’ ’ markets 40,000 cubic yards of com- post per year for the city of Akron. Kurtz Brothers Recycling Systems fee for processing, then composts the Soil mixed with composted matter Inc. has a solution for people who material. The compost is then re- has been used at Cleveland Munici- don’t know what to do with all the turned to the environment by incor- pal Stadium, Firestone Country grass clippings and debris manufac- porating it into topsoil blends that Club, the Cleveland Metroparks, the tured by a typical landscaping job. the company sells to landscapers, National Park Service and the Gal- The Ohio-based company-and excavators and golf courses. leria shopping mall in downtown other such commercial enterprises The debris must be processed, Cleveland. across the country-offers an effi- windrowed and cured for three to . “The golf course and landscape cient and cost-effective composting six months before it is ready to be markets are both exploding,” Kurtz service to municipalities, land- used as organic material. This is not relates. “We look at this as being a scapers and golf course superinten- an inexpensive process. hell of an opportunity. And there’s dents. “We’ve spent upwards ‘of.‘ more to it than just making money: In Ohio, H.B. 592 (which goes into $400,000 on equipment; plus site de- we are prepared to meet the envi- effect in December, 1993) will pro- velopment is typically $15,000 to ., ronmental challenges set- forth by hibit organic waste from being taken $25,000an acre.” Kurtz notes. “If we our law-makers.” . ... to solid waste landfills. Such legisla- weren’t in the soil business, we The company’s slogan? “The tion has either passed or is pending wouldn’t have the built-in advan- ; in 11 states, most of them in the tage of being able to use the compost; either. . -- _., . .. *. . ,. . country’s northeast corridor. I - . ., “\2/e’re going to be an option for “If we were to go into business ...”I that waste diversion,” notes com- just to compost, I don’t know if the pany vice president Tom Kurtz. market for the compost would be ., ,,. - “Some municipalities have started there.” Tom Kurtz: up their own composting operations In order to open its organic com- or have gotten someone like our posting site, the company had to buy composting company to do it for them.” property on Cleveland’s south side, is “...a hell Waste shrubs, grass clippings and removed from residential areas be- wood are either picked up by Kurtz cause of odor considerations; de- of an or delivered to its composting facil- velop the site to conform to EPA 99 ity. It charges the customer a tipping standards; buy what Kurtz calls opportunity

ing mowers are again being looked quickly. Mulching mowers, on the blade chamber and are repeatedly at. other hand, are built to re-cut grass chopped into finer particles. These Commercial mulching riding blades several times before returning small particles are then returned into mowers with at least 18 horsepower them to the soil/turf interfcce. the turf near the soil level where they - are available from Jacobsen Division Mulching mowers accomplish this decompose quickly. of Textron and Excel Industries. Man- by incorporating a deeper mowing Landscapers not ready to invest in ufacturers of smaller units include deck and using specially engineered a full-fledged mulching unit should Ariens Company, Lawn Boy and multi-pitch or staggered blades. The inquire about mulching plates that Garden Way. blade and deck combine to both circu- can be used on their present units. - The clippings generated from side late the clippings and create a suction Mulching plates cover discharge discharge mowers are too long and effect that holds grass upright. Once chutes, forcing the clippings into the too clumped together to break down cut, clippings are suspended in the blades for a finer cut. LM - Selected Arricles - 118 32 LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT/OCTOBER 1990 Home Yard Waste MINNESOTAEXTENSION SERVICE ChippersIShredders: UNIVEJUITY OF MINNESOTA Safety Is lmporfant! NR-FS-3949 Thomas R. Halbach, Tom Brennan, and D. Walter Halbach 1990

Wrth the 1990 prohibition on disposal of yard wastes in landfills in the Twin Cities' metropolitan area and the upcoming 1992 state-wide ban, many people are trying to find a way to manage yard waste. l

One option is to use chippers/shredders. This method will n reduce particle size of yard waste, particularly prunings and woody materials2 These machines usually have a 2.5 to 8.0 horsepower gas engine and cost between $400 and $1,800. Rental rates are usually $30 to $1 80 per day depending on the type of machine and the season. Most will chip tree limbs up to 2.0 inches to 3.5 inches in diameter. They all use spinning cutters, blades, hammers, or flails to cut the material into smaller pieces. Because these chippers are sharp enough and tough enough to chip wood they have the potential to destroy human fingers, hands, arms, etc. They can also propel solid materials at high speeds. Most are noisy enough to cause loss of hearing, if used for long periods without hearing protection. These machines are very powerful and have the potential to cause personal injury and in extreme cases death, if safety precautions are not followed.

Follow these suggestions to reduce the risk of personal injury: I When purchasing or renting a chipper, evaluate it for safety of design and use. Are the belts, shafts, and cutting mechanisms covered? How are wood chips prevented from "kicking back" or Vying out" of the intake feed area? How is the chipped material discharged from the machine? When the machine becomes "ja"& how can it safely be cleaned out? Read consumer and other chippers on performance, safety, and maintenan~e.~Ask types of publications for evaluations of different makes of questions. The best time to consider machine safety is before you buy or rent it. Many machines are heavy and I Grass clippings in most cases shwld be left on the lawn where they were may be difficult to move and set up. If you are unable to grown. This reduces the need tor addiional nittogen fertiluer and follow the safety and operating procedures llsted In conserves water. It is a direct way to 'recycle' organic material to the soil. For more intonnation see: Lswn CrrPpng Manegement by Phil S. Allen and the owner manual, or physically cannot handle the Donald 8. White, Minnesota Extension Service, AG-F0-3915,1990, St. machine, don't buy one. It may be better to hire Paul, MN. someone else to handle your yard wastes for you. * tf yw Intend to compost tall tree leaves you will usually not want to go to the bme and expense of shredding the leaves, because you will lose tree 2. Read, study, understand, and follow all safety 81r space within a static pile system. If you are using a torced air compost procedures and use all safety equipment listed in the system. shredding the leaves may be advantapeous. tf you are having owner/operator manual for the chipper you are using. This your leaves disposed of by B garbage hauler, shredding the leaves will should include operation and maintenance procedures reduce the volume of leaves substant~ally. Reduced volume may rclduw all your yard waste cdlectiorJdispo6aI bill. For meintonnation EBB: as well. Camp-trng and Mulching: A Guide to Menegiw Organic Yard Wasfa by Carl J. Rwen, et el., Minnesota Exlension Service, AG-FO-3296,1990, a Check the magazine InOexes at your library tor r-nt articles on yard St Paul, MN. waste shredders. wood chippers, and lawn end yard equipment. Selected Articles - 119 - 3. Wear the pfoper crothiq and protective gear when 6. Put only approved materials Mo the machine at operating this kind of machinery. claming should include recommended feed rates. Materials such as metal or a long sleeve shirt, and pants that are canfartable but not rocks can be accelerated to speeds in excess of 140 baggy or loose. Remove all jewelry or items of dothing m.p.h. creating B danger for the operator and bystanders. that may become caught w tangled In the operating machinery. 7. Use of a written pre-start-up safety check list, and a - post-shut-down safety Check list can help to assure that At a minimum, the protective gear package should include: you are following all of the necessary safety procedures. Protectlve eyewear wtth side shields that meet or exceed American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard 287.1. bok for the ANSI label with this standard before you buy. Current prices range from $4.23 to $19.75. A hearlng protector that is etther the ear insert or the ear muff style. In either case you want the device to have an EPA Noise Reduction Rating (NRR) of 20db (loudness reduction) or more. The higher the rating the better. The current price range is from $8.99 to $29.75 for muff style hearing protectors, and $0.27 to $1 1.95 for Oar insert style hearing protectors, both single use and re-usable types. Leather work boots, preferably with safety toes that meet ANSI standard 241 .l.Current prices range from $33.92 to $97.00 and up. Leather work gloves to provide hand protection from wood slivers and reduce skin abrasions. Current prices range from $2.1 1 to $9.99 and up.

This 'minimum lever four-piece protective gear package

~ could be purchased for between $40.53 and $156.49 in Minnesota during March of 1990.' If you are figuring the cost of a chipper, you need to include the cost of the personal protective gear that will allow you to operate it ~- safely. Even ifyou are only renting a machine for a day or AbouttheAuthors: iess you will need this type of protective gear for your own Thomas R. Halbach is an Assistant State Specialist, Water personal safety. Other optional gear might include: a Oualii and Waste Management, Minnesota Extension Service, - Logger's safely helmet (a helmet with attached screen face Department of Soil Science; Tom Brennan is an Extension Safety shield and muff style hearing protector attached into one Specialist, Minnesota Extension Service, Department of unit), $27.99 to $49.00 and up; dust mask, $0.40 to $1 50; Agricultural Engineering; and D. Watter Halbach is a Research and chainsaw chaps, $47.99 to $67.50 and up. In every Fellow, Oepartment of Agricultural and Applied Economics. All case you need to choose speclfic protective gear that are with the University of Minnesota. fits you and that you are comfortable wearing. A piece of protective gear that is so uncomfortable that it is not issued in lurtherance of ccoperatrve extension work in agnculture anU home used, cannot provide you with any protection! economics, ecfs of May 8 and June 30.1014. in c0operat.m mm the U.S. Deparbnent of Agncutture, Pack J. Bonch, Dean and Director of Minnesota LR"I Se~ce,Ummity of Minnesota St Paul, MinnesMa 55106. 4. Keep children, observers, and pets well away from the The Unm~fltyof Minn6so@ including the Minnesota Extension %MW, is - area where you are operating the chipper. committed tothe poiicy that dl persons shell heve equal access to Its programs, ladlh,Md einployment wtthout regard to race. religion. calor. 5. A chipping team of two people, working together, sex,nabanal OnQihhpnbcep, ape,veteran status. or Oexw or"on. - provides an added measure of safely and quicker access The intonnabon gwm herein is ouppl@clwith the undemanbing tha! no &"ination is i- and no eneom€" by the Minnesota Extmon to help should an accident occur. The second person's Service is implmd. primary job is to keep children and others away. This Copyright lggo by Minnesota Exlension Service, Uruversity of MinnesotcL - person needs to wear at least the minimum recommended All nghts reserved. No pert of these materiels mybe ntproduced. protective gear. transmitted, transaibed, Stored in a retnevel rytem. or translated into any language or computer Lengua~e,VI any tom or by MY mew, dectrmc, "d,IMQ~KJIIC, opbcal, chemical, "ud. or othemlse. wlWthe prior minen psrmlssion of Minnesota ExI~Servi~ DstnWon, ROO^ 3 - 'These price ranges are meant only as a g"d Qui&. Cattey Hall, 1420 Eckk Ave., University of Mi" St Paul, MN 55108. Selected Articles - 120 aim was not to test comwster evtlvd on the market but to Iook at repre- sentative types, including popular homemade designs. "Recycling yard waste is now mandatory In some Flonda counties, and many new peo- ple are genmg mvolved III compost- Florida researchers take a close look at the mg We wanted to see how easy It was to use these units and how well performance of stationary bins, rotating barrels they composted typical Flonda yard waste," says Bnnen. and popular homebuilt designs The demonstration area was -.partly - shaded, which Brinen recommends by Charlie Nardozzi to help conserve water during com- posting. The weather was dry during the testing period with low humidity omposting isn't just for the clippings in a pile out back and and high temperatures. The compost serious vegetable garden- expect a harvest of humus six months materials consisted of 50% grass clip ers and organic farmers later. Anticipating problems, canny pings, 50% mix of shredded leaves - anymore. With landfills Extension agents all over the country (mostly oak and pine), small branch- brimming over and trash have been gearing up to help with es and garden debris and a few collection charges rising steadily the hard questions on composting bucketfuls of cow manure. The re- - cevery year, there has been a surge of that are starting to come their way. searchers mixed the materials, moist- interest among even the most apa- One of the most interesting programs ened them and filled each bin to ca- thetic lawn owners. And so 1991 we've heard about is in Florida. pacity. The compost was turned finds many urban and suburban In June of 1330, Gary Brinen, an weekly and watered when needed. - homeowners trying their hands at Extension horticulturist in Gainesville, "Ideally, we'd turn the compost in composting for the first time. set up a trial of 11 different compost- each bin whenever declining temper- Easy as composting can be, there ing systems, in cooperation with the atures indicated it was needed, but - are bound to be problem for some University of Florida's Institute of once a week was all we could man- people. After all, you can't just dump Food and Agricultural Sciences. The age with our personnel," says Brinen. As expected, the fresh grass clip- REVOLVINE BINS pings and manure caused a quick reac- tion. "Almost all the units had internal -l temperatures above 135'F after four to five days," reports Brinen. "After one week the temperatures slowly declined -

Ro-Si 260 Compost Tumbler MANUFACIURER: Lescha North America, Kemp ComposTumbler Box 266, Bolton, Ontario LOP 1AO Kemp DESCRIPTION: Holds 9.5 cubic feet. 29" MANUFACIZTRER/DISTRIBUTOR Company, 160 Koser Rd., Lititz, PA deep x 39"wide x high. Octagonal 17543; 41" 1-800-41-5367 Green Mag& Tumbler metal drum on metal stand. Side door and - DESCRIPI1ON: Holds 22 cubic feet. MANLFACTLJREWDISTRIBLTOR Garden- a crank for turning. $229'. 40" deep x 40" wide x 68" high. Galvanized er's Supply Company, 128 Intervale Rd., COMMEhTS: Compost easy to dump onto steel drum and metal stands. Gear-driven Burlington, VI' 05401 the ground. Waist-high door makes filling crank with built-in cogs; internal mixing DESCRIPTION:Holds 7.2 cubic feet. 37" - simple. Hard to maintain moisture levels fins; bottom and side vents and side door. deep x 27" wide x 41" high. Drum made with so many large aeration holes. The from recycled plastic; steel frame with material didn't decompose even though it $369'. COMMEhTS: Turns readily, but large size aluminum axle. Aeration holes and clamp- was watered every other day. Also, the makes it heavy when full. The unit is high on lid. $129.95*. holes were so large that uncomposted enough to push a wheelbarrow under, COMMEFTS: Once going, it turns easily. particles fell out when turning. which is convenient when emptying, but it Finished compost is easy to drop out onto the ground. *Price does not include shipping and bundling. means you have to lift the material higher when filling. 38 National Gardening September/Oaober '91 Selected Articles - 121 m STATIONAIY BUNS

Yard Guard Composl Bin hIANLJFACRJREWDISLWBUI’OR Ringer Corporalion DESCRIPTION: Holds 15 cubic feet. 20” in diameter, 36” high. Made from recycled DESCRIPTION: Holds 12 cubic feet. 28 T;bermaI Compost Bin plastic; vented side walls with an anached ~ deep x 28” wide x 30” high. Made from MANUFACIIJ’REWDIUTOR Ringer 50% recycled UV-stabilized plastic. Door lid. Three steel stakes driven into the Corporation,9959 Valley View Rd., Eden on the bottom for unloading compost; lid ground hold the bin in place. $49.95’. Prairie, MN 55344-3585 Easier than other models to for loading. $98.. ’ COMMENTS: DESCRLPI1ON: Holds 16 cubic feet. 32” in COMMENTS: The top the unit low disassemble for removing compost. But the of is diameter and 37“ high. Made from heavy- enough loading. However, the construction is not as strong as other for easy duty plastic with vented panels, hinged lid bottom door is small and sometimes hard models and it lost its cylindrical shape over and small front door. Polystyrene-insulated - to Needed frequent watering. Lime, causing the lid to pop off. The lid is open. walls. $159.98’. ~~ imponant for hoIding moisture, excluding COMMENTS:The height and small opening until they leveled off at 100° to llOOF rainfall and maintaining a neat appearance. at the top make it more difficult to load for a month and a half,” he says. “We than some of the others. Some loading can - stopped the trial after two months tion holes,” says Brinen. When we be done through the hinged front panel, when the compost looked finished and checked with Nick Winter, North but the bin can’t be filled to capacity this the temperatures reached ambient air America representative for Lescha, way. The bot” door for finished compost manufacturer of the Ro-Si, he sug- ~ temperature. the units except one All is small and sometimes hard to open. The made usable compost.” gested that the unit is better suited in the sides may have some value Since almost all the units provided insularion for the exacting composter. “The car- in cold climates, but stationary, closed bins a good environment for composting bodnitrogen ratio of the mix and not ideal for hot composting, anyway. ~ (see the accomoanvinn. .- details), the are moisture levels have to be just right for the unit to produce a finished significant differences among the product,” says Winter. “It took me units lie in how much they hold, at- awhile to get my system going, but tractiveness, ease of use and price. now I have four of them cookmg in On these points, Brinen had some my backyard in Ontario.” useful observations. “Nine to ten Stationary, closed bins keep out the cubic feet seemed to be a minimum weather, holding in heat and mois- size. It’s questionable whether the ture. They’re good for someone who smaller units are worth the time and wanrs an attractive unit and not much money invested,” he notes. fuss. “They’re easy to assemble, most The easy-to-turn tumbler barrels hold moisture well and they produce are the fastest composters. However, finished compost,” says Brinen. “On they’re also the most expensive. Fre- the down side, they’re not really de- - HOnremarte Dtum Tumbler quent aeration breaks down materi- signed for turning the compost. We DESClUFl’ION: Holds 8.5 cubic feet. Recy- als quickly. Because most have only struggled with them, reachng down cled 55-gdon mineral oil drum with a a few small aeration holes, they through the top with a pitchfork. steel pipe running through the barrel. Each don’t need to be moistened as often “Such units are best used by adding pedestal was three cement blocks high with as the stationary bins. layers of material gradually through pieces of notched wood placed on the The exception to the rule was the the top and letting it compost slowly,” blocks to hold the pipe. 18” x 18” side Ro-Si tumbler. “It was the only unit Brinen notes. “You scoop small amounts of finished compost out the - door. $50. that didn’t perform well and never COMMENTS: Assembly took half a day. heated up. Its capacity is small and it bottom after it’s been in the bin for 3nce going, it tums easily. Door too small couldn’t hold adequate moisture be- six months to a year.” cause of the large numbers of aera- Continued on page 69 - for easy loading and unloading.

September/Ocrober ’91 National Gardening 39 - Selected Articles - 122 COMPOSTERS COMPARED Although the different designs of Continuedfrom page 39 the bins had some influence on the composting process, the essentials of The open-bin units required con- good composting are still the most im- stant watering and replenishment to portant factor. "The design of the bin keep them rotting actively. They're cannot replace the proper carbonhi- the least expensive, and the type you trogen ratio, watering and aerating of choose is mostly a matter of personal the materials," says Brinen. 'A good preference. "They all function basi- bin can provide attractiveness and cally the same and the ease of com- ease, but if you do it properly, you posting is similar," explains Brinen. can compost in almost anythmg." "The most attractive are the wire bins As for the quality of the compost it- and homemade and commercial self, there was no clear winner. In fact, wooden bins. The pit method re- with the one exception noted earlier, quires a lot of digging and may not Bh,en says, 'You really couldn't tell work well in wet locations." All the the difference between finished com- open bins would work best with a mst from the different units." ~ ~~~ waterproof tarp cover to protect the Charlie Nardoni is staff horticulturist at pile from rain and from drying out. National Gardening. - OPEN BIN UWITS

Pit or Pile Composting DESCRIPTION: 32- to 48-cubic-foot capaci- ty. 4' long x 4' wide. Pit - 2' deep. Pile - 3' high. COMMENTS:Digging a 2'- pit is hard work, and there's the excavated soil to relocate. Compost down in a pit is hard (0 turn. In sandy Florida soil, the pit held moisture well, but it could become a prob- lem in areas with a high water table. The traditional ground-level compost pile works better, with the addition of a cover to hold Wire Compost Bin moisture in and exclude leaching rains. MA"FACRJREWDI0R Garden- er's Supply Company DESCRIPTION: 19 cubic feet. 34" or 36" square and 30" high. This unit is made from 9- and 12-gauge steel wire with WC coating held together with steel comer rods. $39.95'. COMMENTS: Easy to disassemble the unit to tum the pile and remove finished com- post. Matedin the wire bin dries rapidly, but that's easily corrected by fastening Zbree-Bin Cinnposter plastic sheeting on the sides and top. DESCRIPIION: 64 cubic feet per bin. Each bin is 4' x 4' x 4'. The side-by-side bins are made from cement blocks with wooden front doors. $100.. COMMENTS:It takes considerable time and skill to build a cement block-and-wood unit. Altematives are dry-laid block or all- wooden bins. The rationale for the design is that compost in the making is tumed from one bin to another until it is decom- posed, while the third bin accumulates new yard waste. Or you could skip "@ and have three piles in Werent stages of deca! .

Selected Articles - 123 September/October '91 National Gardenmg 69 BACKYARD coMPosTERs

f you're pressed for space or want to keep your compost in an attractive enclosed container, these bins and tumblers may be just what you need. Readily available in a number of sizes, styles and price ranges, they make composting Ismall amounts as easy as taking out the trash. Just open the lid, dump in the right ingrdents, and your portable fertilizer factory will soon be cooking. Virtually animal-proof, these composters protect their contents from the weather and keep unsightly piles out of view. To find out how these new-age garbage pails per- formed, we tested five of the most popular models- two bins and threh chum tumblers. T Bins-constructed of either plastic umbiers or galvanized metisl--sit directly on the ground and have hinged or re- and bins pro- movable lids. They're like garbage duce from 4 cans, but are a bit more refined. In- to 17 bushels gredients go in the top, and are sideways and mounted on a variety of stands. These turned with a shovel or, more easi- handy composters are loaded through doors on the of compost in ly, with a special composting tool side or a screw-cap at one end. To tum the pile, you a season, similar to a plunger. The finished rotate the drum. A push is all it takes. enough for a product is removed through a slid- Convenience in loading and unloading, ease in ing panel near the bottom of the turning and overall durability are all obvious fea- 100-square- bin. tures to look for in a composter, but size is important foot garden. Drums are essentially metal or too. molded-plastic barrels turned A garden's annual compost needs are 15 to 27 bushels per 100 square feet. The five models we test- ed-designed for continuous composting through- ' BY JAY BURNETT out the season-ranged in capacity from 4 to 17 bushels. I? ORGANIC GARDENING Sekcted Articles - 124 THE TEST Composters were tended according to manufac- I turers' recommendations for five weeks last October I Each composter was fully loaded with a combination I and November. They were kept inside a covered but - I of shredded material that produced an, ideal balance unheated building to prevent exposure to near-hez- between carbon and nitrogen. This mix consisted of: ing nighttime temperatures. MATERIAL PARTS BY WEIGHT As a control, we constructed a homemade com- Grass Clippings 10 post bin from perforated sheet-metal and wooden Green Clover Hay 10 braces, putting it through the same paces as the Straw 4 manufactured units. Kitchen Scraps 1 The quality of the finished compost was rated as Dry Leaves 1 good and varied little from one composter to an- Aged Chicken Litter 4 other. We did notice that ingredients in the large-ca- _- Fresh Sawdust % pacity units tended to heat up faster and retain heat APRIL IW I) Selected Articles - 125 longer smauer in15 KJL IU auu a uababacc- inan in me moaeis. coinaaes ..-.--- -__.. ___ I-- with the traditional scientific recommendation that kitchen scraps, for example. the minunum volume of a pile that will work IS a Though all the composten performed well, the cubic yard, 3 by 3 feet and no more than 4 feet high. Soilsaver outshined the others in the areal of conve- This is the minimum volume at which a pile be- nience and appearance. This attractive bin compost- comes sufficiently self-insulating to retain its own er can be located in the yard near the back door or heat. the garage and blend attractively into the landscape. Manufacturers suggest that small amounts of fresh The following descriptions summarize other prod- organic materials can be added almost daily. They uct details learned in our test: also recommend the frequent removal of finished E-Z SPIN: This molded-plastic drum rests on a tubular- compost in small amounts. We were not able to test. steel stand. Both the drum and stand are high qual- these suggestions due to the long period of time nec- ity and show thoughtful, thorough design details. essary to conduct the observations. However, it is The sliding doors are positioned higher than a important to keep in mind that if you mix fresh ma- wheelbarrow or garden cart, which makes loading terials thoroughly into the pile, then you'll have to and unloading easy. Compost is rotated by pulling wait at least three weeks before you will have fully down on horizontal grooves in the drum. This is finished compost. If you add materials continuously slightly awkward and can require some effort when to the top it's better not to turn it at all, and it's also the drum is full. I I HOW MAKE COMPOST I TO I I 1 ,

Put simply, compost is the heating up. end product of controlled de- Getting the right balance comes with experience, cay. A modest collection of but for beginners a good guide is what's referred to leaves, grass chppings, htch- as the carbon-to-nitrogen (C-to-N)ratio. Each item in en scraps and garden left- a compost recipe is tagged with a different set of overs yields dark, nutrient- numbers (see chart on page 86), the ideal being be- rich humus-the best soil- tween 2540-1 and 30-to-l. The lower the first num- builder and conditioner and ber, the higher the nitrogen level. The higher the the key to successful gar- number, the more carbon there is. Sweet clover, for dens. example, has a near ideal C-to-N ratio of 23-to-I, so The methods are many, but the basics behind it will break down rapidly. Sawdust, on the other making it are the same. Heap ingredients into layers, hand, is rated at 500-to-1 and is slow to decompose. making sure the resulting pile gets the proper With a little practice, however, you'll be able to tell amount of air, moisture and materials needed to by sight if your compost is well balanced. If materi- maintain the right temperature, and mix it up hum als axk moist but not wet and don't heat up to be- time to time to help keep things going and to speed tween 110" and 12CP F withn 48 hours, the recipe the process along. probably needs more nitrogen. If, however, the in- Under ideal conditions, finished compost can be @en& heat up but smell strongly of ammonia, had in as little as two to three weeks using the right too much nitrogen has been added. Corrective ac- materials. The simplest blend is made from leaves tion isn't necessary, just remember to add a bit less and grass clippings mixed at a rate of about 340-1. when you whip up you next batch. When it comes to choosing ingredients, though, Rememk that the quicker thing heat up, the you're limited only by your own imagination-as quicker they rot. And the quicker they rot, the long as you follow a few basic guidelines. quicker you have finished compoat. Quick compost requires plenty of oxygen-along Once the ingmhents are combined, tum them ev- with the right mix of ingredients-to keep decay- ery few days and keep them moist, but not soggy. A causing organisms going strong. These microorgan- handful of compost feels about the same as a isms need carbon (for energy) and nitrogen (for re- squeezed-out sponge. production). But too much of one or the other can Ideally, the compost should cook along at 140" to cause problems. 1W F for the fmt few days, high enough to destroy Though the key to fast composting is nitrogen, an weed seeds and disease organisms. Special ther- oversupply of quick-heating, nitrogen-rich ingredi- mometers are available to keep track of compost ents-fresh grass clippings, bamyard manure or temperature. kitchen scraps-wiil produce ammonia as they rot. Chop materials or put them through a shredder It only takes one whiff to know when you've over- before composting. This creates more surface area done it. Carbon is needed to balance the hot stuff. for hungry microorganisms to feed on. And after all, But an excess of materials high in carbon-straw, the more organisms that can be supported, the faster sawdust, paper or leaves-will keep a recipe from I a finished batch of compost will be produced.

u ORGANIC GARDENING 1 I

Gmwmrter-IO

Cmn Magic Comport Tumbler

RODUCT MANUFAclvRw CAPACITY . DESCUIIION PRICE DISTRIBVIY)R (BUrbelr) (Shlpping extra.) d .- $319.00 E-2 Spin (drum) foFt$~Avr. 9.6 Tough exbuded pbbc (Ikw Ranl) with mdded ply end titer. 12" Long. H* tub& Itecl rtud. hd heights fmy, NY 12180 * - (8GO) 833-6990 Cudenerk Su 5.0 Dunbk plastic baml with Kmr-1op lid. 22" diuncter, 32" Long. $ 99.95 I' dieter tub& aluminum hrmc. (ked height 44". (dn" Dept. loo :i%)%3"izosc0l 1 Keco 18.0 CJVrnized steel with molded plastic end ups. 36" diameter, $329.00 long. 1" tub& bed 69". CompartKemp Dnun ~~~ler titib,16omf$er Rd 36" carted rled frame. height 175(3 (dm) ,- (800) 441-5367 I Gr"aker-10 The l(hlaan Co. 16.9 Galvanized steel sheet Modified ovd. 31" wide by 42" long by $119.95 I (bin) River Rd 33" high. Point F"t, PA 18950 (215) 297-5613 7 nekihr WyHorticultun 9.6 Sturdy %-inch-thick*@ne bin Squrn, 26" wide by 26" s 99.95 (bin) Mfg. Ltd. long. W high. i 230 Canamtic Drivc I Downrvim, Ontuio , CaMda M3J2P4 - (416) 73b1476 Order fm: i Gardener's Supply Co. -I hrulL tu 15 I I Selected Articles - 127 CARBONNITROGEN RATIOS OF COMPOST TURNER VARIOUS ORGANIC MATEM To aid tuming in a small enclosed bin try the "com- C-to-N ratios a~ used as a general guide to deter- postool," also known as the "compost aerator." lhs mine the proper balance of ingredients when mak- is a pointed rod-like device with small paddles on ing compost. The lower the first number, the higher one end that fold up to insert it into the pile. Once it the nitrogen content and the quicker a material will is within the pik, the paddles can be opened like a be broken down by miawrganisms. The higher the set of fins to blend and stir the contents. These tum- number, the more carbon the material contains and ers are available from Kinaman Co., Rivet Road, the longer decomposition will take. Point Pleasant, PA 18950 urd Cudcnu'n Supply An ideal C-to-N ratio for quick composting is be- Co., 128 Intmdt bad, BurUagton, IT 05401, for tween 25-tu1 and 30-to-l. $16.50, portpaid.

HIGH CARBON HIGH NITR0GF.N

Comstalks 6Q.1 Alfalfa 13:l

Leaves 403 to 8o:l Alfalfa Hay 12:l

Oat Straw 8O:l Kitchenhps 151

Paper 170:l Fruit Wastes 351

Sawdust 500:1 GrassClippings 191

sbaw 8o:l Green Sweet Clover 16:l

Sugar Cane Residues 50.1 Humus 10.1

Wood 700:l kgumcGrasshy 25:l

~atwsw*t aver mi Rotted Fiw 201

GREEN MACK COMPOSt TUMBLW1: Another molded-plastic CROwMAKER.10: A well-designed, simply constructed drum, this product is manufactured in England and bin, it was the largest of this type we tested. Two is actually a recycled shipping barrel. The durable hinged lids on top provide easy access for loading plastic barrel is mounted on an aluminum frame and and tuming, and end panels slide up to allow re- is fairly easy to spin. It loads through the top like a moval of finished compost at the bottom. Easy to as- garbage can and tips over to unload into a bucket or semble by sliding the galvanized steel panels togeth- basket. It isn't mounted high enough to get a wheel- er at overlapping seams (watch out for sharp edges). barrow under it when unloading. Easy to assemble. SOIISAVER: An attractive, medium-size bin composter KEMP DRUM TUMBLER: The largest drum-type model test- made of extremely tough one-fourth-inch-thck poly- ed, this galvanized steel composter sits in a solid ethylene panels. A removable top lid makes loading stand high off the ground, making it easy to unload. convenient, and two sliding doors at the bottom of Unfortunately, this same feature requires lifting ma- the unit are raised td remove finished compost. terial to shoulder height when loading. The drum is Quick and easy to assemble.& moved by a gear crank to make turning a breeze. & ORGANIC GARDENING ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612

\ Selecting A Compost System for Your Yard J. David Williams James 0.Donald Tony Glover BIll Coff Extension Horticulturist Extension Agricultural Engineer Extension Agent Extension Horfidturisf

& long as plants have been around, composting 2. Rate ofcompostingdesircd has been going on. The process of composting is Several composting systems have a range simply the breakdown of organic materials by mi- of care that will allow flexibility in how fast you croorganisms. The microorganisms which decom- want the waste to become compost. Closer pose plant waste have managed without our help supervision generally results in a quicker com- for a long time. The forest floor is a natural compost post. If your yard or garden is large and gener- system in whch a leaf mulch decomposes, recycling ates a lot of waste, you need to consider a nutrients and conditioning the soil. Like-wise, yard system that will promote rapid composting to waste such as leaves, grass clippings or shredded accommodate the large volume of the waste. branches can be used as mulch in the landscape 3. Materials and allowed to compost in place. Leaves raked into The kind of materials that you put into the a pile and left alone in the back yard will eventually compost system makes a big difference in the break down, but it may take two or three years. rate of breakdown. Green, leafy materials de- Even then, it is likely to decompose uniformly and compose much faster than wood chips, and completely only in the parts of the pile where condi- smaller particles decompose more quickly than tions are right for microbial growth and develop- large chunks. Keep in mind that faster break- ment. down means more frequent mixing, and the With a little management, the decomposition of composting set-up you choose determines how yard and garden waste can be greatly accelerated. well you should manage the process. Depending on the materials used, the attention given 4. The site or landscape set- to compost management and the land of composting If your compost system is going to be highly -4 .twn you select, the process may be completed visible to you or your neighbors it should be within a matter of weeks rather than years. When somewhat attractive. Some folks don't mind you compost, instead of adding yard and garden seeing a pile of leaves in the back yard, but a waste to the waste stream, you recycle a valuable well-built three-bin composting unit or a soil conditioner for your yard and garden. manufactured plastic composting bin may be An active composting effort with a systematic desirable where aesthetics is an important approach can yield finished compost in just a matter consideration. of weeks or months. The kind of system you select 5. Cost to manage your compost depends on a number of The cost of the compost system may be the factors. most important factor for some people. A com- 1. Labor post drum or tumbler may cost several hun- How much time and effort are you willing to dred dollars. while a pile of leaves doesn't cost commit to maintaining optimum composting anythmg. However, a homemade or manufac- conditions? With composting, like gardening, tured compost system, with some manage- the more attention and effort you put into the ment, can produce a useful hshed compost task, the more effective your results. far more quickly than the undisturbed pile of leaves.

CIRCULAR ANR-695 Selected Arlicles - 129 I I I I I ~ I I t

h)

T The Moveable 1 Holdlng Bin or Pe 3' I I 1 I 5 The Pile

Considerations of Some General Composting Systems

1. Yard Waste as Mulch None required No cost No effort requtred to com- It may not be attractive if a post. variety of materials are Decomposition is relatively used or if a leaf shredder is slow which is an advantage not used to give more unl- for a mulched bed. form partlcle size. ______-______~ - - 2. TheMle None required No cost Effortless unless tumed to Even with turning. the pro- hasten the compost pro- cess is slower than other cess. processes because contli- tions vary greatly within 2 the ptle. [ - - __ __ ------~ - - __- ______~__~_ - - -~ ._-- 3. The Moveable Holdtng Bin Wood,wire, plastic or vart- Variable ($5 to Mtntmal effort Waste is stmply held In a $ orpen ous combinations $100 depending on the bin. Since it is not a per- type of constructfon mate- manent structure, it can be F rial and whether manufac- I removed and the pile k tured or homemade) tumed back over Lnto the b2 0 bin. This promotes faster composting than simply leaving It alone. ______-_ --- ______- ~ ____ - - Drums or Cylinders The Stationary

Three-bin Tumtng Unit

4. The Stationary Holding Bin ?).pically wood, wood and Variable expense ($20 to Minimal care Waste can be left alone in wire, plastic or concrete $150 depending on bin to slowly break down whether manufactured or or mixed occasionally to in- homemade. crease speed and unifor- F mity of decomposition. 2 ______& 5. Three-bin Turtling Unit Wood, wood and wire, con- Variable expense (Con- Low to high maintenance Provides system for easy % Crete. metal or various structed from quality wood depending on desired level tuming from one bin to an- R combinations and wire, units may cost In of enbrt and speed of other for rapid composting. F the range of $100 to $250, composting. Individual compartments I wooden pallets can be used can be used as holding ru to build 3-bin units as in- bins for slower, less uni- 2 expensively as $10). form breakdown.

~ .._ - - 6. Drums or Cylinders Qpically plastic, aluminum Expensive (manufactured Quality systems are low The most sophisticated or steel systems cost from $100 to maintenance because fre- units are large enough and $400.units can be con- quent tuming is made easy are insulated to allow tem- structed using metal by a crank, hand-rotation peratures to reach proper v drums or plastic storage or other tuming mecha- levels. BalTles in the drum Alabama containers but are inem- nism. allow better mixing when E:" ooperative dent systems). unit is tumed. Most of the Extension Service cheaper and homemade AUBURN UNIVERSITY units do not have these features: therefore, the Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home compcsting process is economics. Acts 01 May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. De- partment of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn slowed greaUy. University. Ann E. Thompson, Director, offers educational programs and ma- terials to people without regard lo race, color, national origin, sex. age, or handicap and is an equal opportunity employer. Ll UPS, 2:92,ANR-695

I 1'1 I I I I I 4 I I I I I I *I iI ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612 Tools for Recycling and Composting Yardwastes Bill CON James 0. Donald Tony Glover J. David Wllliams Enenswn Hortdtunsl Enenswn Agricultural Engineer Enension Agent Enension Horticul~urisr

Whether you have a small yard with minimal space cord.) Shredders reduce brush piles by as much as or several acres that you tend. composting yard three-fourths. Chippers are needed for larger mate- waste can be beneficial and rewarding. Not only will rials such as tree lunbs and shrub branches. How- you help decrease the amount of waste going to a ever, heavy duty shredders will mulch small landfill, you will generate a useful product that will branches and even Chnstmas trees. AU shredders enhance your yard. can be jammed. regardless of their strength. Go Composting can take as much or as little in- slowly and feed brush and limbs in llttle by little to vestment of time and effort as you decide. The scale avoid problems. It is also better to mulch while of your composting situation will determine which brush is a bit green. Because it is weed-free and tools you need. rots slowly. this mulch can be placed directly around shrubs and flowers. Of course, shredded materials People with lots of land space can simply pile up small brush piles of clippings and general clean- can also be added to any compost pile. Consumer note: Because shreddmg jobs occur sporadically. up and wait for nature to take her course, which renting a shredder or -group ownership" might be might be as long as a year. If your space is Mted better than purchasing one. or you want a quicker turnaround, there are ways and tools to help you accomplish this. From the If you don't want to use your ,yard wastes as simplest recycling lawnmower to a tumbling drum mulch around shrubs, you can compost it in a that needs dnily attention. you have a wide range of variety of ways includmg piles, bins, or tumblers. choices. Your choice of system will detennine the other tools you need. Lawnmowers: Many companies are now producing "recycle lawnmowers" which mulch as they cut. Compost Piles: Placmg yard waste in fiese machines cut grass her than conventional a pile requires a few hand tools. A machmes, and you simply leave the clippings on good yard rake and pitchfork work your lawn. If you choose this method, you should well. LA shovel will work, but a mow weekly. If your grass gets too high or is wet pitchfork is easier.) Some people when you mow, it will clump up. With a grass like the convenience of a cart or catcher, you can use these mowers on leaves and wheelbarrow for moving debris then add them to a compost pile to decompose. or leaves. Once yard waste is Using a recycle lawnmower saves not only landfill piled, aerating it with a pitch- space but also time. Not bagging clippings de- fork periodically adds necessary creases mowing time by approximately 40%. Cau- oxygen so the bacteria and tion to consumers: some mowers have been "modi- fungi can do their opti- A fied" for mulching and are not as effective as a true mum work. mulching mower. Shredders and clippers: If you do a lot of trimrmn'g or have many trees and shrubs on your property, then you might want to consider a shredder. Elec- tric and gas-powered models are avdable. (Electric ones are quieter. but you must contend with the

CIRCULAR ANR-699 Sekcled Articles - I32 If the pile gets too much moisture, turning it with a pitchfork will help dry out the pile so anaerobic conditions (lack of oxygen. leading to odors) do not occur. The same is true if' the pile becomes too compacted, forcing out necessary air. Some gardeners stand a pile upright in compost piles and wiggle it each time new materials are added. (Chinese gardeners do the same with thick bamboo rods.) Mgs or sticks would accomplish the same effect by creating air pockets in the pile. Some garden supply dealers now sell a com- post-aeration tool or composting wand. This tool has a pair of small "arms" on the end that close as the end is inserted into the compost pile. When you pull the wand out. the arms open, aerating as it comes up. If you want to keep a watchful eye on your compost pile, you can purchase an insertable ther- mometer that tells you the temperature of the pile's center. Different bacteria thrive in various tempera- tures and the temperature partially controls the life If you want to control the speed at which cycle of the compost world. By watching the tem- composting occurs. there are compostmg inocu- I perature, you can help control the composting pro- lants (microorganisn implants) that you can add to cess by tuming the pile at strategic times. recharge, speed up, or alter the biological activity of t the pile. These inoculants are dehydrated versions of the same microorganisms that you would find in - native soil. Once moistened then they become ac- tive. The addition of a shovelful of soil will offer the same results. Composting Bins: Many people prefer a holding I bin of some sort to keep composting piles neater or confined to a smaller space. Bins can be purchased - or built and come in a variety of sizes, prices, and complexities. Bins can be round or square and made of anything includmg bricks, blocks, lumber or wire. Bin compostq requires the same tools as - compost piles. Be sure to keep the bin four feet or lower for easy access for turnmg. Compost tum- biers or barrels are designed to take some of the - work out of compostrng and require no tools.

Alabama - Egooperative. txtenston Service AUBURN UNlVERSllY

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Eaension work in agriculture and home economics. Acts of May 8 and June 30.1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension Servce. Auburn Universny, Ann E Thompson, Diredor. offers educational - programs and matenals to people without regard to race, color, national ongin. sex. age, or handicap and is an equal opportunity employer. UPS, 2192, ANR-699 I -

Selected Articles - 133 - I”

ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612 - Composting Kitchen Waste Bill Goff James 0.Donald Tony Glover J. David Williams - Ewtenswn Horticulturist Extension Agricultural Ehgineer Ertenswn Agent Extenswn Horhculrunsr

About one out of every twelve pieces of trash that Composting Methods: you put out for collection is refuse fiom the kitchen. Worm bin While at first glance that doesn’t seem like much. it A worm bin is a wooden or plastic box with a lid does add up in the landfills of Alabama. Landfills and air holes. Use only red worms. which are avail- are qujckly reaching capacity, and solid waste dis- able at bait shops and are used for fish bait. Start posal is reaching a critical point. The waste stream with ripped up and moistened newspnnt. Bury ~:iii.-,t be reduced, or greatly increased collection wastes in this beddmg and rotate burial spots on a and disposal costs can be expected. One contribu- regular basis. The resulting humus is suitable for tion you can make toward reducing waste going use on house plants, vegetable seedlings and flow- into landfills is to compost some of your kitchen ers. For more information see Worms Eat Her waste. Garbage ...and They Can Eat Yours Too.” You can put any fruit or vegetable parts in your Pit Composting compost, as well as eggshells and coffee grounds. Dig a hole in the ground at least one foot deep, You can add just about anythmg organic, except for place your kitchen scraps into it and cover them the following items: 1) fatty foods. such as meat with at least eight inches of loose soil. Pit scraps, oil, grease. bones (unless ground). butter, compostmg is an anaerobic process. meaning that cheese. fish scraps, mayonnaise, milk. peanut but- It takes place in the absence of oxygen. You need to ter, salad dressing, sour cream, vegetable oil. or allow at least two to three years for the scraps to yogurt: and 2) dishwater, since it usually contains completely decompose before you plant an-ythmg detergents and remnants of the items above. Break there. Root crops (potatoes, carrots, beets, etc.) can leftover bread into small pieces and feed the birds deliver parasites directly into your intest.mil tract with it rather than adding it to your compost pfle! and cause stomach problems in humans if grown

CIRCULAR AN R-704 SeLecled Articks - 134 in raw garbage. If you put the pit elsewhere in your yard. YOU can use the resulting compost in your garden or plant something right over the pit after decomposition is completed. Tumbler above the ground You can buy tumblers that sit above the ground. These are handy if you have a problem with ani- mals digging in your compost pile. Some of these tumblers have a crank. so they can be rotated on a regular basis and produce finished compost in a shorter period of time than most of the other meth- ods. This is a somewhat expensive method of composting, however. Compost pile You may decide to put your kitchen scraps directly into an already existing compost pile. This will work fine if you put the kitchen waste deep under the other materials. Otherwise, pests such as raccoons. dogs or rats may come searching and digging. Fire ants may be attracted to any fats or protein-rich materials (meat. for example) that may have been inadvertently added to the pile. Burylng your kitchen scraps deep in the center of the com- post pile helps reduce noticeable odors and also helps the scraps to break down more rapidly. Food scraps will decompose much more quickly if they are chopped into smaller pieces. If rapid composting is desired, prepare food scraps by chop- ping them or putting them through a blender. Add the food scraps to the compost pile along with sawdust or any chopped woody yard waste to cut down on odor problems. Not only will composting some of your kitchen waste help reduce the volume of total waste in Alabama. it is a way to convert waste into a useful product for your yard or garden. Compost can be iisntd as topsoil on your garden, as soil for your seedhgs or houseplants. or as mulch around your trees. Composting your kitchen waste can provide healthier plants, more productive gardens, and a positive way to dispose of some of your kitchen scraps! TL - - Extension Service AUBURN UNIVERSITY - issued in lurtherance of Cooperative Eaension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Eaension SeMce, Aubum Untventty. Ann E Thompson, Director, offers educattonal - programs and malenals lo people wlthout regard lo race, color, national ongin. sex. age, or handicap and is an equal opportunry employer.

UPS, 2:92, ANR-704 -

Selected Articles - 135 - ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612 Compost As A Fertilizer C. C.Mitchell R. P. Rynn Ertenswn Agronomist-SoU Fertlllly Graduate Research Assistant

Some gardeners think of compost as a wonderful. Factors AtrectLng Fertilizer Value organic fertilizer when, in fact, it is a relatively poor All composts are not the same. The fertiher source of immediately available plant nutrients. value of the final product depends upon the nutri- However, it can be a good source of slowly available ents in the materials added to the compost, the nutrients. composting conditlons. the age of the final product, A well cured, or finished compost consists of the and the storage conditions before soil application. unidentifiable, organic remains of the microorgan- - Table 1 shows the total nutrient value of isms (bacteria and fimgi) that fed on the leaves, composted products from several Werent sources. clippings. manures, straw, sludge, or other organic They are quite variable, but universally low in the materials in the compost pile. There may be some primq plant nutrients. nitrogen W), phosphorus coarse, undecomposed fragments of the 0rigu-d expressed as phosphates (p,O,), and potassium ex- material along with soil and other non-organic resi- pressed as potash (&O).Unless inorganic fertilizers dues [ash). Compost contains essentially the same and/or manures are added, most of the nutrients

~ complex, organic compounds as soil humus. It in composts are in the organic form and are not should be stable and resistant to further rapid de- rea* available. Composts are from 40 to 50 per- cay. As such, the nutrients in compost are also cent water and 20 to 60 percent ash (non-organic __ fairly stable and very slowly mineralized into inor- residues such as soil). ganic forms available for plant uptake. Table 1 Total nutrient composition of some composted materials on a Wet" basis or 'as sampled" basis.

Municipal Municipal Vegetable Turkey Broiler Solid Sewage Garden Component Litter Cier Waste Sludge Leaves Waste

Moisture 40 39 58 55 44 Ash -- 56.3 44 -- 22 PH 7.1 -- 7.8 8.2 8.6 Carbon (C), YO -- -- 31 20 20 Nitrogen (N), YO 0.75 0.82 1.50 0.62 1.07 Phosphorus (P205),'YO 2.22 2.1 9 0.77 0.09 0.38 Potassium (YO), TO 0.49 1.21 1.04 1.34 1.02 Calcium, % 0.35 1.53 6.88 1.84 -- Magnesium,TO 0.1 2 0.29 2.36 0.59 -- Sulfur, % -- 0.08 -- 0.23 -- Copper1 PPm 1.2 207 20 19 59 Zink, ppm 9.8 226 80 82 303 Manganese, ppm 72 296 190 374 -- Boron, ppm -- 79 -- 15 --

CIRCULAR ANR-701 Selected Arjicles - 136 Nutrient Avauabilitp and Recommendations for Use Shnrbs There are no absolute guidelines for applying Incorporate 30 to 50 pounds per 100 square compost as a fertilizer because nutnent contents feet before estabhshmg a bed. In established beds, are so variable and their availability is usually low use composts primarily as a light mulch under compared to commerclal fertilrzers. However, since coarser mulches. N Is usually the most limiting plant nutrient in most Cropland horticultural and field crop situations. the use of Composts can be used as a source of plant composts as a fertilizer depends on the mineraliza- nutrients in field crops, but high rates may be tion rate of the organic nitrogen. Estimates on vari- needed to provide enough N for crops such as corn, ous composts range from as little as 2% of the total cotton, and forages. Tests with field com at the N mineralized in a 15 week period up to 30%. Sand Mountain Substation in 1990 indicated no Mineralization rates would be higher in manure- differences between fertilizer, broiler litter, and based composts which may contain more ammo- composted broiler litter when applied at comparable nium N. Rates would also be higher in Alabama N rates. However. in general. composts are most than in cooler regions of the country. A well aerated, beneficial as a soil conditioner to reclaim eroded moist soil would also mineralize organic N faster sites and mine spoil. Don’t depend solely on com- than a poorly drained or dry soil. Mineralization posts to meet all the plant growth needs unless an occurs at a much slower rate during the winter abundant supply is available and It is incorporated months or when not incorporated into the soil. into the soil. Soil test regularly to avoid over-appli- A smaller percentage of the total N would be cation and nutrient imbalances. Remember, nuui- mineralized during the second season. Some of the ents mineraked from composts when plants can- compost becomes a permanent part of the soil not use them are subject to leaching and erosion organic matter. losses just as nutrients in commercial fertilizer. Because of the slow mineralization of composts, large, initial applications are needed in soils low in fedity. and smaller annual applications are needed to provide additional nutrients to crops.

Suggested Fertilizer Uses of Composts Gardens and bedding plants Incorporate 200 to 500 pounds per 1 .OOO square feet each year in the early spring and supplement with fertilizer or manures according to soil tests. Lawns For turf establishment, incorporate 300 to 500 pounds per 1.000 square feet before spriggng. sod- ding, or seeding. For established sod maintenance, broadcast 50 to 75 pounds per 1,000 square feet during the growing season. Rake compost into the sod so it doesn’t shade and damage turf. Begin application in the fall for fescue and bluegrass lawns and in the early spring for bermuda, zoysia. and St. Augustine lawns. Use sparingly on centipede ps Alabama because high soil phosphorus levels and high pH ooDerotive could induce iron chlorosis. Regular applications Extension Sercice on most turfgrasses should be adequate to maintain AUBURN UNIVERSITY reasonable growth and color. Additional fertilizer N may be needed if more growth or greener color is Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agnculture and desired or if lawns are irrigated and frequently home economics. Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative mowed and clippings removed. Extension Service, Aubum University, Ann E Thompson, Director. of- fers educational programs and materials lo people without regard to race, color, national ongin, sex, age, or handicap and is an equal op- ponunny employer. UPS, 2192, ANR-701

Selected Articles - 137 - ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612 Compost As A Soil Amendment C. C.Mltchell .- Ewtenslon Agronomist-Soil Fertility

The most imponant and beneficial use of composts has better tilth and doesn't pack as readily as a soil is to improve the physical characteristics of a soil with poor structure. (soil tilth). Alabama soils, in general. are acid, whch Soil Organic Matter means they are low in organic matter, low in water Most Alabama soils that are cultivated wdl con- holding capacity (except clayey and low in soils), between 0.5 and percent organic matter. nutrient holding capacity. They may be excessively tain 2.5 Soil organic matter is fairly stable and does not well drained and droughty (sandy soils) or very change rapidly unless soil amendments or soil poorly drained (clayey soils and with natural soils management is changed. Although a slight increase - fragipans). Compost can improve all these condi- in soil organic matter can have dramatic effects on tions to create a soil more favorable for vegetable soil tilth, regular additions of compost necessary crops, turf, ornamentals. and field crops. are to maintain soil organic matter above two percent - SoilAcidity in Alabama. Although the composting process is an acid- How much compost would be needed to raise forming reaction, some composts can be quite alka- the soil organic matter one percent in the upper six - line if certain materials are added. Lime may be inches? Assuming an acre of dry soil six inches added to improve the composting process. Some deep weghs approximatelytwo million pounds. then animal manures used in the compostmg, particu- 1,OOO square feet will weigh approximately 46.000 - larly broiler litter, have a high ammonia content pounds. One percent of this is 460 pounds. How- and can temporarily raise the soil pH if not properly ever, compost can contain up to 50 percent water cured. However, upon weathering. most composts and 50 percent ash (soil and other inorganic con- will acid@ the soil. For ths reason, soil should be 1.850 - taminants). Therefore. as much as pounds tested annually where compost is regularly applied per 1.000 square feet would be needed to produce a as a soil amendment. one percent increase in soil organic matter. Tius. of Auburn University research has found that the course, is impracticably hgh. - organic acids present in soil organic matter (and Rates as low as 100 to 200 pounds per 1.000 added in compost) actually reduce the toxic (alumi- square feet per year can result in notweable un- num) effect of acid soils. This may enable some provements in soil tilth. Once it is added to the soil plants to grow in a more acid soil that otherwise and incorporated. soil microbes will begin to slowly they could not tolerate. break down the more resistant organic compounds. soil structure Regular additions are necessary to maintain a rela- - Compost increases soil organic matter (humus), tively high soil organic matter under Alabama con- and soil humus acts as a glue to improve soil ditions. structure. Soil structure is the arrangement of sand, Water-Holding Capacity __ silt, and clay particles into aggregates. These large Just as peat can absorb several times its dry aggregates improve soil drainage and water infiltra- weight in water, compost can absorb two to three tion, prevent crusting. aerate the soil, reduce the times its weight in water. The addition of compost potential for runoff and erosion, and open up chan- to a sandy soil will increase its water- holding - ca- nels for root growth. Soil humus acts as a giue to pacity, and thereby improve plant growth during bind the soil particles together and improve the dry periods. structure. Tius is why a soil rich in organic matter -

CIRCULAR ANR-702

- Selected Articles - I38 Nutrient-Holding Capacity Soil humus and organic amendments such as mature compost have a large cation exchange ca- pacity or ability to hold and exchange positively charged nutrients in the soil. This includes nitrogen as ammonium (NH4'). potassium (PI, calcium (Ca2*).magnesium (Mg9 and several micronutri- ents. Mature compost will have a cation exchange capacity over 100 meq/100g. whereas a sandy, Alabama soil may have a cation exchange capacity near 5 meq/100g. Therefore, a little compost can significantly increase the ability of a soil to retain nutrients available for plant growth. Recommendations There are no limits on the mount of compost that can be used as an amendment to improve soil tilth. Generally the rate at which it is added will depend on the availability of the compost. Rates as low as 100 pounds per 1,000 square feet (two tons per acre) per year will result in noticeable improve- ments in soil structure, water-holding capacity, soil drainage. and plant growth. However, keep in mind that compost also adds nutrients to a soil. As the soil organic matter minerahes. nutrients will be- come available for plant uptake. Some of these nutrients, particularly nitrogen. can also be leached into groundwater or enter streams through erosion. Therefore, to avoid excessive application of nu- trients, soil testing should be done annually where composts are used as a soil amendment.

Alabama - - ooperative Extension bervice AUBURN UNiVERSllY - Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics. Acts of May 8 and June 30,1914. in cooperationwith the U.S. Department of Agriculture The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Aubum University. Ann E Thompson, Director. ofterseducational - programs and materials to people without regard lo race, color, national ongin. sex, age, or handicap and is an equal opponunity employer. UPS, 2:92, ANR-702

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Selected Articles - 139 - ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-561 2 Compost As A Potting Soil C. H. Gflliam James 0. Donald - C. C. Mitchell Extension A,gronomist-Soil Fertility Professor of Horticulture Extenslon Agricultural Engineer

.~ well cured compost not only makes an excellent and used on plants such as marigold. kale, basil, soil amendment, but it can also be used as an and woody omamentals. alternative potting soil or as a component in a plant Four potential problems with using composts growing medium. Compost combines the water- as a potting soil are: holding characteristics of peat with the added ben- efit of slowly available plant nutrients. Traditionally, (1)high pH (2)ucess salts is ~ imported peat mixed with other ingredients such as sand, vermiculite. perlite, pine bark, or others to (3)poor drainage (4) depletion make a potting soil. This soil retains moisture and oxygen High pH nutrients to support young seedhngs or houseplants (1) Excess particularly ammonia salts in ani- - while providing adequate drainage and aeration for salts, mal manures, could result in a high potting soil pH. roots. These same characteristics are needed when Lime can be added to manures, sludges, and even using compost as a substitute for peat. One com- the compost pile to aid bacterial decomposition. ~ pany, in fact, has been marketing a very successful Problems have been observed in growing acid-lov- and widely used composted product a potting as ing plants such as azaleas, camehas, blueberries, soil for several decades (Bacto). - Research at Auburn Univer- sity in cooperation with several private nurseries in Alabama and (01 3onnie Hybrid Tomato - the Birmingham Botanical Gar- 14.5 dens has demonstrated that com- 1 i4.0 post can be used as a substitute 16 for. potting soil. Figure 1 shows - the result of using compost made from different combinations of 12 broiler litter (bl) and pine bark (pb) - compared to a commercial potting 8 media. With both seedling toma- toes and salvia, growth and color 4 - was slightly superior to the com- mercial mix. All plants received supplemental fertihation. but the 0 better growth of the plants grown 1:l 2:l Fafard 1:l 2:l Fafard - in composts could be due to slowly bl/pb bl/pb Mjx3-B bl/pb bl/pb Mix 3-B available nitrogen (N) from the Potting media broiler litter component of the - compost. Slmilar results were ob- COLOR SCALE: 1= Severe Chlorosis 2t Moderate Chlorosis 3= Light Chlorosis Light Green Dark Green served when composts were made 4= 5= Ellecu of broller Utter and pine bark combinations on height. dry weight. and color from cotton gin waste, broiler lit- ofsaJvla and tomato vaneties ter, and pine bark combinations Repnntedjvm Hqhlqhts ofAgncuLtural Enenswn Research VoL 36 No I Spnng ‘89 - PubIuhed by Alabarno AgncuLtural &kpenment Smnon Aubum Unruersuy. Alabama 36&49

CIRCULAR ANR-703 - Sekted Articles - I40 and gardenias. If composts are used as a potting (3)Poor -e soil for these plants, the compost should be well Compost can absorb twice its weight in water. cured and allowed to age for at least several months. This is beneficial as a soil amendment. but could Dolomitic limestone is often added to potting media result in poor drainage if kept too wet. Adding pine as part of preplant nutrient amendments. When bark, perlite, or sand to the potting mix will improve compost is used, generally no additional lime is drainage. needed. (4) Oxygen depletion (2)Excesssalts Compost that is not fully cured may contain Excess salts from animal manures and fertilizers active bacteria. When used as a potting soil, the added to the compost pile could severely damage bacteria which are still breaking down organic ma- salt-sensitive plants and seedlings. The compost terials can rob the soil of oxygen and result in the could be diluted by adding other materials such as same problems as poor drainage - seedling disease. pine bark. peat, perlite, etc. and leaching before root rot, damping off. etc. potting. With newly transplanted seedlings, a good Compost, when sufficiently cured, makes an soalang with water at transplanting or planting excellent addition to a potting mix for seedhgs or would be beneficial. After the seedlings have be- houseplants. Potential problems can be reduced come established for a few days, normal watering with proper composting methods. Broiler litter. pine should be sufficient. bark and mixtures of these components outperform some commercially available altematives.

Pros and cons of using compost as a potting soil

High water holding capacity Poor drainage: decreased soil aeration Slow release nutrients Nutrient deficiencies among rap- idly growing plants High nutrient from manure Hqgh salts could damage sensitive based composts plants and seedlings High pH in some composts May not be suitable for acid-loving plants Oxygen depletion if compost not well cured

oo perative Extension Service AUBURN UNIVERSITY

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home BCO~MICS. Acts of May8 and June 30, 1914. in cooperation with the U.S Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Aubum Univewlty. Ann E. Thompson. Director, offers educational programs and matenals to people witnout regard to race, color, national ongin. sex, age, or handicap and is an equal opportunity employer UPS, 2192, ANR-703

Selected Articles - I41 I-

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ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612

- Causes of Compost Odors and Their Elimination J. David Wflhams James 0. Donald Tony Clover Bill Goff - Extenswn Homculturist Extenswn Agnrullural Engineer Extenswn Agent Extenswn Hortlrultunsi

Most compost piles work properly most of the time, excessive moisture, squeeze a handful of the com- producing a high-quality product out of seemingly post material. It should feel damp to the touch and no-. Occasionally. however. minor problems can expel just a drop or two of liquid. If the pile is too occur. Probably the most worrisome for homeowners wet, tum it until the materials dry to the consis- is the unpleasant odor that sometimes develops. tency of a squeezed-out sponge. If it is still too Understanding how and why these odors de- damp, add some absorbent or coarse material such velop enables you to take quick and simple mea- as sawdust or straw and continue tuming it. sures to eliminate them. Contents too packed There are four primary causes of odors for the The tendency to 'stomp down" materials as they home composter: are added to compost piles has much the same 1)too little oxygen result as too much moisture. Porosity is reduced, which decreases circulation and enables anaero- 2)too much moisture air bic processes to flourish. Managers of landfils have 3)contents too packed noticed that when grass clippings are packed into 4) carbon-nitrogen ratio imbalance plastic bags and allowed to sit for several days before being dumped, they develop an ammoma Too Little Oxygen odor. Grass, a ready source of nitrogen, increases Because composting is an aerobic process the demand for oxygen in the decomposing process. (occurring in the presence of oxygen), when the When adding material to the compost pile, avoid oxygen content decreases. anaerobic conditions de- packing. Scatter the new materials around the sur- velop. When anaerobic decomposition occm, it is face of the pile rather that just on top. Never stomp sometimes called fermentation. Products of this on the pile. It is better to start a smaller pile beside ~~-rmentationcan produce hydrogen sulfide. which the existing pile. lias a rancid odor similar to rotten eggs. Two other products of anaerobic decomposition are cadaver- Carbon-nitrogen ratio imbalance ine and putrescine, both of whch can also be mal- Microorganisms need carbon sources for enera. odorous. These anaerobic processes can also pro- and nitrogen sources for population growth. The duce acids and alcohols harmful to plants. The ideal ratio of carbon to nitrogen is 30: 1, and with simplest way to add oxygen to compost is to turn this steady diet, microorganisms will decompose the pile with a pitchfork or shovel. Composting organic matter quickly. If there is too little nitrogen. tools designed with aerating fittings are available at the process slows. If there is too much nitrogen, many garden supply stores. A second way to aerate ammonia gas will develop, leading to odor problems. is to add coarse materials such as straw. leaves, or Findmg the workable blend of materials for vour small limbs. Some coarse materials may be slow to compost pile may take a little trial and error because decompose, however. of the variables involved. For example, green grass clipping have more nitrogen than brown clippmgs moisture Too much from a lawn. If lawns have been fertilrzed. their When a compost pile gets too much moisture dry nitrogen content will be hgher than ones not fertil- (in excess of the materials become saturated, 60%). ized. Using a carbon-nitrogen guide such as the is squeezed out, and the contents become air chart below will enable you to develop workabie packed. With no space for oxygen, the pile again for your composting situation. becomes anaerobic, producing odors. To test for mixtures

CIRCULAR ANR-707 Selected Articles - 142 Reference Chart for CPrbon to Nitrogen Ratios of Selected Materials (Averages) Material Carbon :Nitrogen Bark 120: 1 coffee grounds 20: 1 cow manure 20: 1 Corn stalks 60:1 Grass clippings 20: 1 Horse manure 25: 1 hVCS 60:1 Leguminous plants 15: 1 Paper 170: 1 Pine needles 70: 1 Poultry manure 10: 1 Sawdust 500: 1 straw 40-100 : 1 Vegetable wastes 12-20: 1 Wood chips 100-500 : 1

Although compost piles will survive most ne- glect, learning to balance the needs of the compost pile will produce a high quality product in the desired time frame, without any unpleasant side effects.

Alabama Extension bervice AUBURN UNIVERSITY

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30.1914, in cooperationwith the US. Department of Agriculture The Alabama Cooperative Extension Servce, Aubum Universty,Ann Thompson, Director, oflen educational E. - programs and matenals to people without regard to race, color. national ongin, sex, age, or handicap and ISan equal opportunity employer UPS, 2:92. ANR-707 1

Selected Articles - 143 - I-

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ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE / AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612

- Composting and Plant Diseases Bill Goff James 0.Donald Tony Glover J. Davld Williams - mension Horticulturist Enension Agricultural Engineer Eaension Agent Enenswn Hortlculfunst

- Concern About Using Compost bm are eluninated. Some. though, may survive. This Diseased Plants potential failure to heat-kill all the pathogens is not Sanitation, which in this context means clean- cause for alarm or for avoiding use of compost for ing up and removing or destroying pest-infested two reasons. plant materials. is a commonly- recommended First, the complete absence of pathogens is an practice for reducing plant diseases. Since compost unrealistic goal. The microorganisms are going to bins or piles will usually contain diseased plant - be there - left over in residue from previous crops. materials, reapplying the compost to your garden in the soil. blown in from spores carried by wind. site may seem to be in conflict with sanitation and. introduced with new plant material. etc. A rdstic therefore, not a good idea. This is not usually the goal is not the absence of pathogens, but rather the - case, however. Consider the following statement reduction of inoculum potential. Composting from C. C. Powell, an experienced Extension Plant acheves this more realistic goal quite well, especially Pathologist with Ohio State University: compared to leaving the dlseased plant residue in "I have never run across a case where a gardener got into your garden from one season to the next. whch is infectious disease trouble because of the use of compost. commonly done. The use of compost is generally a well proven practice, and The second reason that the failure of compost as such leads to the health of plants rather than to the - heat to totally kill all pathogens in a compost pile is disease of them. " not so alarming is that compost has suppressive Using Compost May Reduce Disease Incidence effects on pathogens which occur during the Evidence is building that many types of com- composting process. Many plant pathologists have posts. processed and used correctly, actually aid in demonstrated that beneficial microbes found in coiltrolling plant diseases rather than making the compost have suppressive effects on harmful plant disease agents. Extracts from compost have been - diseases worse. Consider another statement by a distinguished plant pathologist, R. James Cook of used to inhibit plant disease. Thus, even those Washmgton State University: pathogens that might survive heating in the com- "Few soil-bome dseases cannot be controlled by organic post pile face a second formidable onslaught from - amendments of one kind or another. " the antagonistic,microbes and the toxic agents these microbes produce. Are Pathogens Killed by Composting? In summary, it seems likely that the beneficial It would be very difficult and likely not economi- effects from the use of compost far outweigh the cally feasible to ensure that all the microorganisms potential hazards, and that the use of compost that cause plant disease were killed during should be encouraged in home gardens and around composting. The heating that occurs during landscape plants. compost will kill most pathogens if the diseased matenal is in the center of the compost pile where Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension wcrk in agriculture and is home economics. Acls of May 8 and June 30,1914. in cooperation with tne the heat greatest. By turning the compost US. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension frequently, more of the plant material eventually Service. Auburn University. Ann E. Thompson, Director. oflers educational makes it to the center of the pile and more microbes programs and materials to people without regard to race. color, national ongin, sex, age, or handicap and is an equal opportunity employer. UPS,2:92, ANR-708

CIRCULAR AN R-708 - Selected Articles - 144 THE BIOCYCLE GUIDE To THE ART @

, SCIENCE- OF COMPOSTING EDITED BY THE STAFF OF BIOCYCLE JOUR" OF WASTE RECYCLING

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The JG Press, Inc. Emmaus, Pennsylvania

Sekted Articles - 145 I-

- 30 WHERE WILL ALL THE COMPOST GO?

R.M. Kashmanian, H.C. Gregory, SADressing

NCREASING NUMBERS of communities customera and any applicable government regu- and businesses are turning to composting to lations. It is also important to note that compost divert materials from landfills, reduce pollu- marketing is not only affected by various compost Ition, and lower waste management costs. process and product considerations, but also by Composters are converting a wide variety of oth- the image projected. For example, ifcomposting is erwise wasted materials into safe, valuable, and referred to as a 'disposal" practice or as a means marketable soil amendment products. Yard trim- of "getting rid of yard wastes," finding ready and mings (defined here to include leaves, grass clip- willing customers to Ygetrid" of the compost may pings, and brush), food scraps, nonrecyclable pa- be dif€icult. Instead, compost needs to be consid- per, food and seafood processing by-products, ered and marketed as a resource from which def- livestock manures, dead chickens, municipal inite benefits can be derived. Words are impor- sewage sludge, and other clean, source separated, tant. The terms used to describe the composting decomposable organic materials provide ingredi- process or product, and its role in waste manage- ents for the enterprising composter. Researchers ment, are important to greater acceptance of com- are documenting the feasibility of composting an post into the marketplace. Composting should be ever increasing array of materials. presented as a production process, not waste dis- Composting yard trimmings, food scraps, and posal. ,lonrecyclable paper alone can deal with 30 to 60 percent of the municipal solid waste stream. This would represent a tremendous boost to attain mu- ENVIRONMENTAL BE"S nicipal solid waste reduction goals. However, Waste stream managers view composting pri- there is a growing concern about markets as the marily as a means to divert materials from dis- supply of compost mounts. Where will all the com- posal facilities. The environmental benefits, how- post go? Who are the avid users who will eagerly ever, only begin here. Others are derived from use seek more? of the product. These benefits have been widely Between December 31st of 1988 and 1989, the reported in the literature-increased aeration, number of facilities composting yard trimmings improved moisture and nutrient retention, de- rose from 651 to 986, a jump of over 50 percent. creased soil erosion, reduced soil surface crusting, Between September 1990 and January 1,1993, at plant disease suppression, improved tilth, etc. In- least nine more states (Connecticut, Florida, deed, the ability of compost to reduce pollutant Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, North carrying runoff and leachate (primarily due to its Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin) organic matter content) can provide surface and will join Illinois and New Jersey in officially ban- ground water quality benefits (e.g., Maynard, ning some or all types of their yard trimmings 1989; and Brinton, 1985). The single most impor- from landfill disposal. tant measure of a soil's fertility is its organic con- The astute compost producer will produce tent. Compost applied to disturbed or damaged compost to meet the needs and specifications of lands can help restore both organic content and soil.

148 Selected Articles - 146 WHERE WILL ALLTHE COMPOST Go?

NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION organic materials, and the application of com- Research has shown that composted animal post.) manure can help reduce erosion, as well as runoff Several examples already exist where various and leaching of nitrates, as compared to fertilizer states and other jurisdictions have provided for and uncomposted animal manure. Use of com- the above. These include: posted animal manure has also produced general- The USDAlAgncultural Stabilization and ly higher yields than we of fertilizer (Maynard, Conservation Service (ASCS) in Georgia cost- 1989), though this may be more likely during a shares the purchase of poultry litter (i.e., chicken drought. Other research indicates that under cer- manure and bedding) when substituted for fertil- tain conditions, compost can suppress plant dis- izer. eases and reduce the need for pesticidedfungi- Under certain conditions, USDNASCS al- cides. These types of research results have led to lows its county offices in Tennessee to cost-share increased recognition that proper compost use can the use of sewage sludge compost based on the nu- reduce nonpoint source water pollution problems. trient content. Nonpoint source pollution is generally con- ASCS allows at least one county in Min- sidered to consist of the pollutant discharges typ- nesota to cost-share the use of compost to supply ically carried by runoff or leachate to surface or nutrients in seeding. ground waters. The pollutants include sediment, Nebraska is considering a program to ex- nutrients, pesticides, metals, and pathogens. The pand compost markets through its Natural Re- US. Environmental Protection Agency has esti- sources Districts. If implemented, this program mated that nonpoint source pollution contributes would allow a farmer to receive a higher cost- 45 percent, 76 percent, and 65 percent of the pol- share if compost were applied in addition to using lutants to impaired estuaries, lakes, and rivers, a more traditional conservation practice. respectively. Delaware, assisted by EPA nonpoint Agricultural runoff sources are the most per- source control funds (discussed below), is cost- vasive cause of nonpoint source-related water sharing at 90 percent the composting of dead quality problems, estimated to be responsible for chickens, with chicken manure and straw. The about 57 and 64 percent of the nonpoint source im- State of Alabama also cost-shares the composting pacts to lakes and rivers, respectively. These of dead poultry (with chicken manure and straw, sources include cropland, pasture land, range- or other carbon material source) to mitigate dis- land, and livestock operations. Encouraging farm- posal and surface and ground water quality prob- ers to use compost made on, or off, the farm can lems. reduce erosion and improve water quality. Insti- New Jersey approved a permit for a farmer tutional mechanisms for encouraging farmer use to compost horse manure from his and neighbor- of compost include: 1)Its explicit recognition as a ing horse farms to address a serious nonpoint nonpoint source control practice (also referred to source pollution problem. USDAlSoil Conserva- by U.S. Department of Agriculture WSDAI as a tion Service (SCS) agreed to cost-share over 40 conservation practice); 2) Its incorporation into percent of the project. Though the latter two ex- state nonpoint source management programs; amples do not explicitly include the use of com- 3) Its inclusion into federal (EPA and USDA) and post, they do demonstrate the connection between state and local cost-share programs; 4) Allocation composting and water quality protection. of monies from state and local grants, disposal In its latest versions of the 1990 Farm Bill, surcharge fees, and other funding sources to sub- the US. Congress sees a greater role for USDA in sidize farmers and encourage thio type of recy- composting. USDMSCS is currently developing cling market development activity; and 5) Pay- a technical guide for on farm composting. ments to farmers as private composters which USDNASCS has developed specifications for cost- could indirectly provide incentives for them to use sharing the composting of dead poultry. In addi- their compost products. tion, EPA has included in its draft 1990 Report to Farm policy calling for sharing farmers' costs Congress on nonpoint source pollution control ac- may be needed to help purchase specialized com- tivities a section on the merits of composting and post (production and) application equipment. In the use of compost. This can help to forge com- addition, since greater volumes of compost would posting's beneficial role in the water quality poii- be needed to supply the same nutrient level of fer- cy arena. tilizer, cost-sharing may be needed to help defray the cost of purchasing or transporting the com- LAND post. (Note:Encouragement of on farm compost- DEVELOPMENT ing paves the way to also encourage on farm com- APPLICATIONS posting of yard trimmings, nonrecycled paper, There are presently 25 states with erosion and other source separated and uncontaminated and sediment control legislation. These laws con-

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MARKETING ON THE BASIS OF QUALITY

tain provisions to approve erosion and sediment prevent erosion. A second option could be more control plans and issue permits for land distur- forceful, whereby the developer essentially be- bance activities. In the state sediment and erosion comes a procurement agency, e.g. if the compost is control regulations and guidelines, soil testing L available at the Yright” price and ‘right” quality, recommended to determine planting needs. In then it ‘should” or ‘must” be used. Ideally, under lieu of a soil test, recommended application levels both of these options, compost producers and sup- of grass seed, fertilizer, topsoil, mulch, and lime pliers could contact land developers and provide are suggested as at least a guide. details of their available compost so that land de- In preparation for writing this paper, the au- velopers could plan to use it. If needed, post-pro- thors contacted environmentalhaturd resource cessing steps could be followed. Public officials and soil and water conservation districts in sev- could serve aa intermediaries by announcing the eral states (Illinois, Maryland, North Carolina, schedule of development projects and availability Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Wisconsin) and coun- of compost. ties (Montgomery and Prince George’s Counties in A third mechanism could be more indirect. Maryland) for information on their erosion and Grass sod can be used to stabilize areas immedi- sediment control programs. (In addition, their ately rather than planting grass seed. Use of com- erosion and sediment control manuals were re- post to grow sod could be encouraged through ap- viewed.) Each of the contacted representatives propriate incentives. was familiar with the merits of using compost. Listed below are examples of how several This suggests that many people in the envi- states and other jurisdictions handle land devel- ronmental protection field are aware of the na- opment activities: tion’s solid waste disposal problems and the in- Maryland allows the use of composted creased interest in composting. They may even be sewage sludge (with specified nutrient content considered an interested audience. Those inter- and pH levels and produced at a state permitted viewed stated that they would not be averse to ap- facility) as a soil amendment or conditioner to re- proving the use of compost, as long as the soil is duce applications of commercial fertilizer and stabilized after development occurs-i.e., as long lime needed for permanent seeding. as permanent ground cover vegetation is estab- Pennsylvania allows the use of composted lished. They expressed a concem about the cost sewage sludge and wood chips from an approved and availability of the compost. If these concerns facility (with specifications for organic matter, can be adequately addressed along with achieving ash content, water holding cs.pacity, particle size, the desired product quality, compost could be used pH, heavy metals, and PCBs) to be used as a during soil stabilization to provide organic matter mulch to help establish seeded areas. and perhaps to reduce the amount of topsoil and North Carolina and Virginia allow the use fertilizer. of sludge and rotted manure as soil conditioners To give an example of the amount of compost during permanent seeding. One of Virginia’s that could be used, one inch of compost spread handbooks recognized the importance of creating over an acre represents approximately 65 tons at compost markets, as well as 1,he need for safe lev- a 40 percent moisture content. (Compost typical- els of heavy metals in solid waste and sludge com- ly contains 40 to 60 percent moisture level.) For a post. five acre landscaping project, that would repre- All state agencies in California must eve sent 325 tons of compost. This may represent preference to purchasing corr post if it can be sub- more compost than what is produced by a com- stituted for, and is competitive with, fertilizer munity. With such an attractive market potential, and/or soil amendment products. The types of composting activity could be expanded to include land applications include recultivation and ero- inputs from more households and additional or- sion control, and must satisfy state standards and ganic materials. regulations. It is also important to consider converting or- The Department of Pudic Works in Suffolk ganic materials into mulch, to provide benefits County, New York requires a minimum of six per- such as reducing raindrop impact and erosion, re- cent organic matter in topsoil in their landscaping taining moisture, fostering plant growth, sup- specifications. These specifications are based on pressing weeds, etc. Wood chips, bark, and straw those used by the state’s Department of Trans- are among the mulch materials listed in state and portation. county manuals. Chipped brush and other woody In Summit County, Colorado, land devel-

~~ materials could possibly be used as mulch. opers must employ nonpoint source control prac- There are different institutional mechanisms tices during new development to reduce phospho- to encourage land developers to use compost. The rus runoff to a local reservoir. Otherwise, they will first option could be voluntary, by allowing the use not be granted permission to develop. - of compost as part of a soil stabilization plan to An appealing feature of this approach for en-

Selected Articles - 148 150 - ,J WHERE WILL Au THE COMPOST GO? couraging land developers to use compost is that and environmental protection practices with it would operate within an existing infrastruc- farmers and ranchers in fiscal year 1989 under its ture. Furthermore, the eecond option of going be- Agricultural Conservation Program. Several yond a voluntary program is a cross compliance states also have cost-sharing programs to help technique, i.e., to receive permission to develop on landowners implement nonpoint source control land, compost use must be considered during the measures. stabilization phase. This approach is similar to the State of New Jersey's recommendation that a residential source separation clause be included CONCLUSIONS in new lease and sales agreements for multi-fam- Composting provides a way in which solid ily buildings. Just as we pay our mortgage or rent waste and water quality concerns can be joined to- now for next month, using compost in the devel- gether to form a viable environmental and eco- opment of a new area is a "payment" prior to the nomic solution. Composting can also combine hu- yard trimmings from the new development being man and financial resources from solid waste, soil, discarded and adding to the local solid waste water quality, and other environmental protec- stream. tion fields. Several steps have been identified Even though use of compost is allowed (and which can help promote the use of compost and its organic matter is encouraged) in the sediment and water quality benefits: 1) Determine the institu- erosion control provisions for Maryland, North tional mechanisms, bamers, and financial re- Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, it is not of- sources available, obstructing, or needed to en- ten used to grow permanent vegetation. The rea- courage compost use; 2) Involve the appropriate sons given were: l) Landscape contractors are not public and private agencies, industries, and other accustomed to using compost; 2) Land developers groups; 3) Identify the targeted potential user may view compost use as an unnecessary expense; groups and users,. and their soil amendment needs 3) The price of compost versus other soil amend- (including compost quality and availability); and ments; 4) The lack of information on compost 4) Determine the need for incentives and design quality, availability, and suppliers; and 5) Com- them according to each user group. This will en- post was more often used in small projects. hance opportunities for greater use of compost. The authors suggest the following to over- Ultimately, the value of compost should increase. come these barriers: 1) Demonstrate to these groups the benefits of using compost to attain permanent vegetation; 2) Estimate the We-cycle REFERENCES costs" to achieve permanent vegetation with and Association of State and Interstate Water Pollu- without using compost, and determine the need tion Control Administrators (ASIWPCA), for financial incentives to encourage compost use; "America's Clean Water - The States' Non- and 3) Provide detailed information on compost point Source Assessment 1985," January (and mulch), includmg suppliers and availability, 1986. to land developers and landscape contractors. BioCyck, "Boston, Massachusetts: Leaf Compost- ing Workshops," Vol. 31, No. 8,August 1990, p. 21. FUNDING SOURCES Brinton, W.,Jr., Witrogen Response of Maize to In 1990,EPA provided $36.9 million in grants Fresh and Composted Manure," Biological to all states with approved nonpoint source man- Agriculture and Horticulture, Vol. 3, 1985, agement programs under section 3 19 of the Clean pp. 55-64. Water Act, as amended in 1987. Grants were Brinton, W.F. and M.D. Seekins, Composting Fish made to all states with approved nonpoint source By-products: A Feasibility Study, Time 8: management programs. These programs address Tide Resource Conservation and Develop- those nonpoint source problems identified by the ment (RC&D) Council, Waldoboro, Maine, states in their section 319 nonpoint source as- 1988. sessment plans. Programs include the following: Gamer, M., "Summary of Principal Provisions of Identification of nonpoint source pollution control State Laws Providing for Erosion and Sedi- measures to be used by the state; methods for ment Control as of July 1,1985,"Na!ional As- achieving implementation of these measures; a sociation of Conservation Districts, 1985. schedule for implementation; and sources of fund- Glenn, J., "Regulating Yard Waste Composting," ing. Note that this discussion refers only to fimd- BioCycle, Vol. 30, No. 12, December 1989, ing sources for controlling nonpoint source pollu- pp. 38-41. tion. Glenn, J., "The State of Garbage in America,"Bio- USDA made approximately $180 million Cycle, Vol. 31,No. 3, March 1990, pp. 48-53. available for sharing the cost of soil conservation Glenn, J. and D. Kiggle, There Does the Waste

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Go?,” BioCycle, Vol. 30, No. 4, April 1989, Sampson, R.N.,Farmland or Wasteland: A Time pp. 34-39. to Choose, Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsyl- Gregory, C., “Compost May Be the Most Misun- vania, 1981. derstood Product in America,” Compost Sci- Seekins, B., UdkWaste Products for the Farm: ence, Vol. 14, No. 6, NovembedDecember An Inventory for Maine, Maine Department of 1973, pp. 26-27. Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources, Au- Hoitink, H.A.J. and G.A. Kuter, “Role of Composts gusta, Maine, 1986. in Suppression of Soilborne Plant Pathogens U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Teach- of Ornamental Plants,” BioCycle, Vol. 25, ing Soil and Water Conservation: A Class- No. 4, MayIJune 1984, pp. 40-42. room and Field Guide, Soil Conservation Ser- Homick, S.B., “Organic Wastes for Revegetating vice, Program Aid Number 341,1988. Marginal Lands,” BioCycle, Vol. 23, No. 4, US. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), A July/August 1982, pp. 42-43. Report to the Congress: Activities and Pro- Homick, S.B. and J.F. Parr, ”Restoring the pro- gmms Impkmenttbd Under Section 319 of the ductivity of marginal soils with organic Clean Water Act - Fiscal Year 1988, Office of amendments,” American Journal of Alternu- Water, August 1989. tive Agriculture, Vol. 2, No. 2, Spring 1987, U.S. Drafi Fiscal Year 1989 Nonpoint Source Re- pp. 64-68. port to Congress, Office of Water, June 1990. Lamb, E., National Association of Conservation U.S.National WaferQuality Inventory, 1986 Re- Districts, personal communication, June port to Congress, Office of Water, November 1990. 1987. Logsdon, G., “New Sense of Quality Comes to WasteTech News, ‘State Briefs: Missouri,” Vol. 2, Compost,” BioCycle, Vol. 30, No. 12, Decem- No. 24, August 3, 1990, p. 4. ber 1989, pp. 48-51. Logsdon, G., “Plant Protection Through Com- The views and opinions expressed herein are post,” BioCycle, Vol. 31, No. 1, January 1990, those of the authors and are not to be taken as of- pp. 52-54. ficial policy of the US. Environmental Protection Maynard, A.A., ‘Agricultural composts as amend- Agency nor any other public or private entity. ments reduce nitrate leaching from soil,” Frontiers of Plant Science, Vol. 42, No. 1, Fall Richard Kashmcrnian is a senior economist with 1989, pp. 2-4. the Ofice of Policy, Planning and Evaluation at New Jersey Department of Environmental Pro- the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. Clark tection (NJDEP),“Recycle! A Recycling Guide Gregory is Vice Presrdent of Woods End Research for Landlords and Managers of Multi-Family Laboratory, Inc. in Mt. Vernon, Maine. Steven Buildings,” Division of Solid Waste Manage- Dressing is an environmental scientist in EPAk ment, Office of Recycling, undated. Ofice of Water.

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