BIODIVERSITY

Biological + Diversity = Biodiversity

Dr. Ashalata Devi Assistant Professor Dept. of Environmental Science Tezpur University 1 Unit: Biodiversity

Content • Definition • Biodiversity principles, values and threats • Protecting biodiversity: legal and non-legal bindings • Biodiversity of NE India

2 During the 1980s, prominent environmental biologists Edward Wilson became increasingly active and warned the public about the impending crisis of loss due to rapid deforestation of the species-rich tropical rain forest.

In 1986 Wilson and others convened the National Forum on Biodiversity to discuss various problems associated with ecosystem loss.

Calling attention to the scope of the crisis, that forum’s organizers coined a new word: biodiversity.

The term “biodiversity” was derived from “biological” and “diversity,” and refers to the total diversity of all life in a given locale — one as small as a backyard (or smaller) or as large as the entire planet Earth.

3 Why should we care about preserving biodiversity?

Environmental biologists have outlined two general reasons. 1. Utilitarian 2. Non-utilitarian

Related to both the utilitarian and the non-utilitarian reasons is that biodiversity is essentially irreplaceable.

4 And why were we talking so much about Biodiversity?

Simple. The world has begun, relatively recently, to lose species and habitats at an ever-increasing and alarming rate.

Why?

Because of us

This is often referred to as the 6th crisis, after the 5 known extinction waves in geological history.

5 Major Five Extinction events include:

Cretaceous-Tertiary (75% of all species including the dinosaurs) about 65 million years ago.

Triassic–Jurassic Extinction Event (60% of all species including most Achosaurs, Therapsids, and large Amphibians) about 205 million years ago.

Permian–Triassic Extinction Event (96% of Aquatic Species including most of the sessile species; and 70% of land species including most Synapsids) 251 million years ago.

Late Devonian Extinction Event (70% of all species including most Brachiopods and Trilobites) 360 million years ago.

Ordovician–Silurian Extinction Event (80% of all species, mostly brachiopods, bivalves, echinoderms, bryozoans, and corals) 450 million years ago.

6 The consequences of the impact led to the extinction of many major groups of animals, most notably the dinosaurs. This mass extinction marked the end of the Cretaceous (K) period and the beginning of the Tertiary (T), and is known as the K/T extinction. 7 Figure: A re-creation by NASA scientists of the impact made by an asteroid at Chiczulub, on the Yucatan Peninsula. This impact is thought to be the cause of the K/t mass extinction 65 million years ago. 8 Figure 1: Timeline of mass extinction events. The five named vertical bars indicate mass extinction events. Black rectangles (drawn to scale) represent global reef gaps and brick-pattern shapes show times of prolific reef growth (Veron 2008).

9 What is biodiversity or biological diversity?

- the sum of total of life forms at all levels of organization in biological system.

• Article 2 of the CBD defines “Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”. • According to IUCN in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their population, the variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the complex association with species with their interaction and their ecological process which influences perform.”

Biodiversity is defined as “the intrinsically-inbuilt plus the externally- imposed variability in and among living organisms existing in terrestrial, marine and other ecosystem at a specific period of time”.

Contd. 10  The most current estimates are that there are about 1.4 to 1.6 million described species.  Roughly 1.4 million species are known to science, but because many species are undescribed, an estimated 10-30 million species likely exists on earth.  Currently about 1.9 million species are known, but this is thought to be a significant underestimate of the total number of species. • Much of the known biodiversity is located in the tropics. In general, species diversity greatly increases as one moves toward the equator: specific hotspots of biodiversity are located in tropical rain forests. • Even though they account for only about 7 % of the land area on the planet, tropical rain forests are home to around half the

known species on earth. 11 Estimated Number of Described Species Nematoda Actinopterygii Other Vertebrata Bacteria 20,000 (1.1%) 23,712 (1.4%) 27,199 (1.6%) 9,021 (0.5%) Other Eucarya Archaea 36,702 (2.1%) 259 (0.01%) Crustacea 38,839 (2.2%) Other Plantae 49,530 (2.8%) Arachnida 74,445 (4.3%) Insecta 827,875 (47.3%) Other invertebrate Metazoa 82,047 (4.7%)

Fungi 100,800 (5.8%) Stramenopiles 105,922 (6.1%)

Mollusca 117,495 (6.7%) Angiospermae 233,885 (13.4%)

12 13 14 Levels of Biodiversity Biodiversity is usually considered at three hierarchical levels i.e. Genetic, Species and Community and Ecosystem levels.

Biodiversity, therefore, is commonly considered at three different levels: 1. Within species (intraspecific) diversity; usually measured in terms of genetic differences between individuals or populations.

2. Species (interspecific) diversity, measured as a combination of number and evenness of abundance of species.

3. Community or ecosystem diversity, measured as the number of different species assemblages.

15 1. Genetic diversity  Genetic diversity is the sum total of genetic information, contained in the genes of individuals of plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit the earth.  It is needed by any species in order to maintain reproductive vitality, resistance to disease and the ability to adapt to changing conditions.  Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability.  It enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection.  The amount of genetic variation is the basis of .  Genetic variability has made it possible to produce new breed of crops plants and domestic animals, and in the world allowed species to adapt to changing conditions. 16 An Example of Genetic Variation

Brassica oleracea var. acephala (kale) Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera (brussels sprouts)

Brassica oleracea var. capitata (cabbage)

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (broccoli) Source: ©AMNH-CBC Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower) 17 2. Species diversity: • A group of organisms genetically so similar, that they can interbreed and produce fertile offsprings is called a species. • The species diversity is usually measured in terms of the total number of species within discrete geographical boundaries.

“species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups” (Mayr 1963)

• Species are distinct units of diversity each playing a specific role in the ecosystem. • In nature, both the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals per species vary, leading to greater diversity. 18 The different sample areas showing species richness (sample area 1), Species evenness (sample area 2) and diversity due to taxonomically unrelated species (sample area 3).

19 Species diversity

20 3. Community-level diversity: • It is defined by the species that occupy a particular locality and the interactions between them.

• It represents the collective response of species to different environmental conditions.

• Biological communities such as deserts, grasslands, wetlands, and forest support the continuity of proper ecosystem functioning by providing ecological beneficial services to people.

21 Community and ecosystem diversity

• Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem exists along 3 levels. • It could be within-community diversity (alpha diversity), • between-communities diversity (beta diversity) or • diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area (gamma diversity).

Contd.

22 Alpha, Beta and Gamma Diversity Whittaker (1972) described three terms for measuring biodiversity over spatial scales: alpha, beta, and gamma diversity. • Alpha Diversity refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is usually expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem. • Beta diversity: a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually measured as the amount of species change between the ecosystems . • Gamma diversity: a measure of the overall diversity within a large region. Geographic-scale species diversity according to Hunter (2002:448)

23 Alpha, beta and gamma diversity for hypothetical species of birds (A-N) in three different ecosystems.

This example is based on the hypothetical example given by Meffe et al. (2002: Table 6.1).

24 Biodiversity Principles

1. Native - Native plants and animals have evolved over time in response to the physical and biological conditions of the areas in which they occur. As a result, they are uniquely adapted to local conditions. • Native areas are also home to many unique plant and animal species which depend on these areas for food, shelter, reproduction, rest stops during migration, and refuge from predators.

• Native areas (wetlands, aquatic areas, riparian areas, forests/woodlands, and grasslands) provide the most important contribution to biodiversity on land. 25 2. Semi-natural is valuable -Semi-natural areas (e.g., shelterbelts, hedgerows, fencerows, pastures and haylands, buffers, road margins) also contribute to the conservation of biodiversity.

26 3. Connection – Connecting individual patches of native and semi-natural land can improve habitat quality for plants and animals. • A single, large block of grassland or forest generally supports more species than a similar area of small, isolated habitat patches. • However, the value of those isolated patches can be greatly improved if they are connected by habitat corridors. • Connecting native and semi-natural areas on land and with neighbouring landscapes is important to biodiversity.

27 4. Location – Location affects the physical and biological characteristics of a habitat, which in turn determines which species it can support.

• A single animal may need different types of habitat in different locations for finding food, water, shelter, and mates.

• The location, pattern, and seasonal availability of habitat influences the type and amount of biodiversity present.

• Some habitats support more species than others because of their location.

• For instance, riparian habitats, which are located next to water, generally support more species than habitats in dry areas.

• Valley bottoms tend to support more and different types of species than alpine areas, which can provide habitat for very specialized and often rare species.

• Habitats near urban areas generally support fewer species than agricultural lands or habitats in more remote, undeveloped areas. 28 5. Achieving structural diversity- Maintaining a mix of vegetation layers, such as forbs, grasses, shrubs, and trees provides a diversity of habitats for birds, animals, and beneficial insects.

• Structural diversity is obvious where there is a mix of uncultivated areas, such as hedgerows, woodlands, and riparian areas.

• It is less obvious in native pastures, but it can be achieved by maintaining different heights of grasses, forbs, and woody vegetation, which can provide cover and breeding sites for native species.

• The variation in physical structure of both native vegetation and crops-on the land provides an important

contribution to biodiversity. 29 6. Healthy ecosystems - The health of native and semi-natural areas, all other farmland, and soil and water influences the type and amount of biodiversity present. In general, healthy ecosystems occur where there is: • a diversity of plant and animal species; • representatives of all land types and native plant communities that occur in the area; • large areas of native vegetation; • few areas of bare soil and minimal erosion; • corridors and large areas of perennial cover; • few weeds; • productive plant communities; • appropriate types and levels of disturbance, such as fire, flooding, and drought, which maintain natural landscape processes; and • functioning riparian areas adjacent to waterbodies.

30 7. Variety - The number and mix of species present, including crops and livestock, influences the type and amount of biodiversity present.

• Biodiversity not only includes the mix of species but also the genetic variety within species.

• Genetic variety has allowed for the selection of traits that are very important to agricultural production and products. It also contributes the adaptability of a species.

• Higher levels of biodiversity are associated with proper landscape functioning, which generally leads to higher productivity and year-to- year stability in production.

• Higher levels of biodiversity can also provide more ecosystem services, such as pollination, soil fertility, water quality, pest control, and disease resistance.

31 8. Aliens - Invasive alien species are generally detrimental to the conservation of biodiversity. • Invasive alien species pose one of the greatest threats to Biodiversity. • include plants, animals, insects, and micro-organisms that are not native to a region but were introduced either accidentally or intentionally. • They often out-compete native species for available resources and can reproduce prolifically. Because they usually arrive unaccompanied by their natural predators or competitors, they can be difficult to control. • Left unchecked, many invasive species can transform ecosystems. • Identify, control, and where possible and appropriate, eradicate invasive species. 32 Biological Diversity as a Resource Three main approaches are used for determining the value of biological resources. Direct use

Consumptive use Productive use Non-consumptive value value use value The biological The resources comes The resources meant for resources are through market or the future potential uses consumed directly, trading. of biodiversity (tourism, without passing to the scientific research) and Assessing the value of market. products that are ecological balance. Assessing the value of commercially nature’s products - harvested, such as such as fire wood, timber, fish, game meat fodder, game meat , sold in a market, ivory, etc. and medicinal plants.

33 BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY 1. Consumptive value: 3. Ecological services: • Food/Drink • Balance of nature • Fuel • Biological productivity • Regulation of climate • Medicine • Degradation of waste • Crop varieties • Cleaning of air and water • Industrial material • Cycling of nutrients • Control of potential pest and 2. Non-Consumptive Value: disease causing species • Recreation • Detoxification of soil and sediments • Education and • Stabilization of land against Research erosion • Traditional value • Carbon sequestration and global climate change • Maintenance of Soil fertility 34 Benefits of Biodiversity ● Economical benefits – a) Food value – providing food to the human population on this earth for thousands of years. In the process of development of human civilization, man has unfolded many plant and animal life forms which are directly or indirectly helpful for him in solving his food problem. Due to the scientific advancement many new taxa have been discovered which are high yielding. b) Commercial value –timber which is a major component of material used for providing shelter to man. Natural fibres like cotton and silk are still used for clothing by human population. c) Medicinal value –Many plant genetic resources are used from derivation of basic drugs. These plant resources vary from actinomycetes and fungi to large trees. This benefit of biodiversity is still unexplored as the scientists could assess a small fraction of biodiversity for their potential for medicine. 35 • Ecological benefits/services (Indirect use value) – Biodiversity supplies the buffering capacity and stability to life on the planet by maintaining the interactive dynamics of the ecosystems of the world.

• Aesthetic value – Man has always been fascinated by the natural beauty and nature has inspired him resulting in development of his moral and ethical values. This intrinsic value of plants and animals are independent of their economic and commercial value. Wonderful plants and animals of this planet not only reflect their aesthetic value but they can make us think of the creator. This opens doors for spiritually which envisages to live in harmony with the nature. 36 37 38 Threats to Biodiversity

Natural causes: Narrow geographical area  Growing human Low population population Low breeding rate - specific types of Natural disasters human actions threatened Anthropogenic causes: biodiversity and Habitat modification /Fragmentation ecosystems  of selected species causing to Invasion by exotic species extinction of many Pollution species. Overhunting Global warming and climate change Agriculture 39 THREATS Threats are the factors that negatively affect biodiversity. Underlying factors of threats should be identified at the level at which the conservation and protection strategies can be undertaken.

40 Deforestation  Forest are exploited since early times for humans to meet human demand.  The permanent destruction of forest is called deforestation.

41 Jamaica

Fragmented by agriculture Fragmented by suburban development

Fragmentation

In parts of Ontario's southern boreal forest, companies have experimented with logging in a variety of special configurations to avoid clearcuts. The forest, which hosts a wide variety of birds and their insect prey, is threatened by fragmentation. Photo: Per Breiehagen 42 43 THREAT CATEGORIES

Extinct Extinct (EX) (EW)

Critical (CR) Threatened Endangered (EN) Vulnerable (VU)

Non- Conservation threatened Dependent (CD)

Near-threatened (NT) Low Of less concern ALL Data Risk Deficient (DD) (LR) SPECIES Abundant Not evaluated (EV) 44 Threatened Species Categories (According to IUCN) Extinct (E) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that that the last individual has died. Critically A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an Endangered (CR) extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. Endangered (EN) A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered but facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future. Vulnerable (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered but facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future. Lower Risk (LR) A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, does not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories CR, E, or VU.

Endemic species : Species restricted to a particular region or ecosystem due to various environmental factors or due to the barriers of dispersal. Rare species: Some species are naturally rare due to presence in small numbers. 45 Threatened species of India Taxonomic group Number of threatened species Mammals 86 Birds 70 Reptiles 25 Amphibians 3 Fish 3 Molluscs 2 Other Invertebrates 21 Plants 244 Total 459 Source: IUCN (2000)

46 The Threats-based Conservation Approach

 Identify the site, scale, and conservation targets  Identify direct threats to biodiversity,  Prioritize threats  Develop conservation interventions to address high priority threats  Apply adaptive management techniques.

47 Improved Links

Effect on Threat Source of conservation Activity Threat target Conversion - Logging Loss of forest Best practice Habitat company habitat for agreements between degredation concessions elephants company and government

Species Bushmeat Loss of Increase enforcement exploitation/ for local and mammal capacity overharvesting urban species markets Develop alternative sources of protein

48 People and Conservation

• Threats develop from local, national and international needs and interests

• Whenever possible, benefits from threats-based solutions should benefit local communities

• Mitigate conservation costs incurred by local communities

49 Protecting biodiversity: legal and non-legal bindings

50 Towards conservation of biodiversity • Every species have its role in the environment.

• Therefore, it is pertinent to protect and conserve the existing biodiversity for the socio-economic development and ecological balance.

1962 - Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring".

This book brought together research on toxicology, ecology and epidemology to suggest that agricultural pesticides were building to catastrophic levels. This was linked to damage to animal species and to human health. It shattered the assumption that the environment had an infinite capacity to absorb pollutants.

51 “Silent Spring,” which has sold more than two million copies, made a powerful case for the idea that if humankind poisoned nature, nature would in turn poison humankind.

The book presents a view of nature compromised by synthetic pesticides, especially DDT. Once these pesticides entered the biosphere, they not only killed bugs but also made their way up the food chain to threaten bird and fish populations and could eventually sicken children.

“Our heedless and destructive acts enter into the vast cycles of the earth and in time return to bring hazard to ourselves,” she told the Senate subcommittee.

52 Conservation of Biodiversity • Conservation of biodiversity is essential for the human survival, notably through health, food and industry. • All forms of life-human, animal and plants, are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If species of plants and animals become endangered they signify degradation in the environment, which may threaten man’s own existence. • The maintenance of biodiversity at all levels is fundamentally the maintenance of viable population of species or identifiable populations. • Approaches of biodiversity conservation should be concise with due consideration of national problems. Contd. 53 • Priority should be given first to conserve those species which have vital resource which benefit to mankind at shorter duration and also to conserve threatened, endangered and rare species of the nation. • In situ and ex situ conservation of biodiversity should be done for those species which are threatened, rare, endangered as well as species expenditure. • Extraction of timber from the forest areas should be based on ecological planning by taking into the consideration of stability of ecosystem. • The scientific knowledge of biodiversity conservation should not be restricted on paper that should be spread among the people through the mass communication, training, awareness programmes at the grassroots level. • An approaches of sustainable harvest or exploitation of the species will be helpful for the conservation of biodiversity, offering all the basic necessities for the subsistence of man's life. • Therefore, Sustainable use of resources and sustainable development are highly needed in order to save the loss of biodiversity.

54 Terrestrial Biodiversity Management/Land Use

• State-owned Forests – National parks – Sanctuaries – Reserved forests

• Community Conserved Forests – Community owned areas – Community reserves – Sacred groves

• Private/Corporate Forests

55 Biodiversity Conservation

In situ Ex situ

Sacred groves Home garden

Biosphere Reserves Gene bank

National Parks Seed bank Cryopreservation Wildlife Sanctuaries Botanical garden

Zoological park

Aquaria

56 Biodiversity Conservation through PA Network Planning Biogeographical Classification of India

10 Biogeographical Zones 27 Biogeographical Provinces 57 58 Protected Areas of India from 2000 to 2015 (as on 14 August, 2015)

No. of Area Under Total Area No. of Area Under No. of Wild Area Under No. of Area Under Conser- Conser- No. of under National National Life Wild Life Community Community vation vation Protected Protected Year Parks Parks Sanctuaries Sanctuaries Reserves Reserves Reserves Reserves Areas Areas 2000 89 37593.94 489 117881.68 - - - - 578 155475.63 2006 96 38183.01 506 120244.39 - - 4 42.87 606 158470.27 2007 98 38219.72 510 120543.95 4 20.69 7 94.82 619 158879.19 2008 99 39232.58 513 122138.33 4 20.69 45 1259.84 661 162651.45 2009 99 39232.58 513 122138.33 4 20.69 45 1259.84 661 162651.45 2010 102 40074.46 516 122585.56 4 20.69 47 1382.28 669 164062.99 2011 102 40074.46 517 122615.94 4 20.69 52 1801.29 675 164512.37 2012 102 40074.46 524 123548.33 4 20.69 56 1998.15 686 165641.62 2013 102 40074.46 526 124234.52 4 20.69 57 2017.94 689 166347.6 2014 103 40332.89 525 116254.36 4 20.69 60 2037.11 692 158645.05 2015 103 40500.13 531 117607.72 4 20.69 65 2344.53 703 160473.07 Source: National Wildlife Database Cell, Wildlife Institute of India

Note: All areas are in km2 - Community Reserves have been established in India from 2007 onwards and Conservation Reserves from 2005 onwards. Hence these values are zero. 59 Protected Areas of India (as on 14 August, 2015)

% of Geographical Area No Area (km2) of India (%) National Parks (NPs) 103 40500.13 1.23 Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs) 531 117607.72 3.58 Conservation Reserves (CRs) 65 2344.53 0.07 Community Reserves 4 20.69 0.00 Protected Areas (PAs) 703 160473.07 4.88

Geographical Area of India = 32,87,590 km2 Forest cover of India (FSI, 2013) = 6,97,898 km2 Percentage Area under Forest cover = 21.23 % of Geographical Area of India

60 NATIONAL PARKS

Definition: An area dedicated by statute for all time, to conserve the scenery and natural and historical objects of national significance, to conserve wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations, with such modifications a local conditions may demand”. (IBWL 1952)

61 WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

Definition: It is an area where killing and capturing of any species of birds or animals is prohibited except under orders of competent authority and whole boundaries and characteristics should be sacrosanct (free from outrage) as far as possible”. (IBWL 1952)

62 Aims of establishment of NP and WLS

The sanctuaries and national parks (Protected areas) are established with the view to:- 1. Adequate representation of bio-geographic diversity 2. Proper geographic distributions of PAs across prominent wilderness belts. 3. Setting-up new PAs rationalizing boundaries of existing ones so as to meet the imperative in the above 1 & 2. 4. Overcoming management deficiencies in PAs. 5. Promoting corridor values (conducive to movement of major mammals and long terms, long ranging gene- travel of all species of flora and fauna) through forests and multiple-use areas that lie between PAs in a given wilderness belt. 6. Establishing a monitoring mechanism to access the viability of network of PAs.

63 Differences between National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuary

• National park is declared by the state government under section 35(1) of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972; whereas sanctuary is declared under section 18(1) of the Act. • In NP, the boundary is well-defined and accurate at the time of its declaration; while the boundary is demarcated approximately at the time of its declaration in sanctuary. • The claim of right of land of the people is settled before its declaration in NP; whereas in case of sanctuary the same is settled after its declaration. • No alternation of the boundaries of the NP shall be made except on a resolution passed by Legislative Assembly of the State Government; but on contrary, in sanctuary, such alternation may be done by the order of the state Government.

64 Contd.

• In NP grazing is not permissible while in sanctuary grazing and movement of the cattle may be permitted for the benefit of wild animals.

• In sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife warden may pass his/her order after getting concurrence of the state Government to kill or catch the certain wild animal for the welfare of wild community and he/she is also empowered to dismiss the order; but in case of NP, such order is governed by the state Government itself and then the Chief Wild Life warden issues the concerned order which cannot de dismissed by him/her.

The status and degree of permanency and protection is, therefore, much higher in NP than in a sanctuary.

65 BIOSPHERE RESERVES Biosphere Reserves are areas designated under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme to serve as places to test different approaches to integrated management of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine resources and biodiversity. Biosphere Reserves are thus sites for experimenting with and learning about sustainable development. Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located.

Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity. 66 • Collectively, biosphere reserves form a World Network. Within this network, exchanges of information, experience and personnel are facilitated. • The number of biosphere reserves established in 94 countries till May 2002 was 408.

• In 2012, 610 biosphere reserves including 12 transboundary sites in 117 countries.

• In India, 18 biosphere reserves have been set up and four of those are recognized as world heritage sites. Nanda Devi, Sunder bans, Nilgiri and Gulf of Manar.

• Biosphere reserves are multipurpose protected areas to preserve the genetic diversity in different ecosystems.

67 9 of the 18 biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.

Biosphere Reserves of India 68 69 Functions of biosphere reserves

Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfill 3 basic functions, which are complementary and mutually reinforcing:

• a conservation function

• a development function

• a logistic function

70 to contribute to the conservation to foster economic and human of landscapes, ecosystems, development which is socio-culturally species and genetic variation and ecologically sustainable

to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development

71 72 Sacred grove  Sacred groves are the tract of virgin forest harbouring rich biodiversity, protected by the local people based on the ground of beliefs of culture, religion and taboos of indigenous people.  They are the repositories of rare and endemic species and can easily be thought of as remnants of primary forest left untouched by the local inhabitants and protected by them due to the consideration that deities resides in these forests.  It is one of the oldest form of conservation of nature, practiced by the indigenous communities and rural people.  The inextricable link between present society to the past in terms of biodiversity, culture, religious and ethnic heritage has been found in sacred groves.  Historical links of the sacred groves has been traced from pre- agricultural, hunting and gathering stage of societies and believed to be pre-Vedic in origin. Contd. 73  The protection and conservation of groves depends entirely on the control of the community over the forest and the people.

 They have been survived for many hundreds of years and today they serve as reservoir of much local biodiversity. Groves provides many ecological, environmental and socio-cultural functions to the society.

 In the context of the recent concern over the high rates of deforestation and natural resource use, the sacred groves offer a potential tool and model to revisit and explore the possibilities of conservation of biological diversity.

74 Figure . Diagrammatic representation of sacred grove: it’s benevolent to human and nature, and fortune due to human impacts. (Source: Khumbongmayum, et al 2004) 75 CLASSIFICATION OF SACRED GROVES Traditional Sacred Groves – It is the place where the village deity resides, who is represented by an elementary symbol

Temple Groves – Here a grove is created around a temple and conserved.

Groves around the burial or cremation grounds.

(Source: Pandey, A., and Venkata Rao, P., 2002. Impact of Globalisation on culture of Sacred Groves)

76 Sacred grove (Meghalaya) Konthoujam Lairembi sacred grove (Manipur)

Sacred grove (Kerala)

Sacred stone of Ebudhou Marjing in Heingang Marjing sacred grove (Manipur) 77 Legal status Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via federal legislation in India. Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves. Traditionally, and in some cases even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove. However, the introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could include sacred groves.

78 Biodiversity of Northeast India • Northeast India is blessed with a wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions. It represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese biogeographic regions and a meeting place of the Himalayan Mountains and Peninsular India.

• The ecologically and geographically diverse region of North East (NE) India is set within two global biodiversity hotspots, namely, the Himalayan and the Indo-Burma.

• The region is one of the richest in biological values. It is in this lowland-highland transition zone that the highest diversity of biomes or ecological communities can be found, and species diversities within these communities are also extremely high.

79 Biodiversity of Northeast India

80 Indo-Malayan biogeographic realms

Indo-Chinese biogeographic realms

Palaearctic biogeographic realms

81 6 of the 8 ecozones according to the WWF

Ecozone (WWF Area (million square ) Notes definition) kilometres miles Palearctic 54.1 20.9 including the bulk of Eurasia and North Africa Nearctic 22.9 8.8 including most of North America Afrotropic 22.1 8.5 including Sub-Saharan Africa Neotropic 19.0 7.3 including South America, Central America, and the Caribbean Including Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands. Australasia 7.6 2.9 The northern boundary of this zone is known as the Wallace line. Indo-Malaya 7.5 2.9 including the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and southern China Oceania 1.0 0.39 Including Polynesia (except New Zealand),Micronesia, and the Fijian Islands Antarctic 0.3 0.12 Including Antarctica 82 Flora The northeastern region has at least 7,500 species of flowering plants, including 700 orchids, 58 bamboos, 64 citrus. Besides, it has over 28 conifers, 500 mosses, 700 ferns, and 728 lichen species. Some of the important gene pools of citrus, banana, and rice are reported to have originated from this region. Out of the 315 families of Angiosperms in India, more than 200 are represented in NE India. It occupies 7.9% of India’s total geographical area supporting 50% of the flora (ca. 800 species), of which 31.58% (ca. 2526 species) are endemic. About one- third of the flora of northeast India is endemic to this region. The eastern Himalaya supports one of the world’s richest alpine flora, with high level of endemism and the temperate broadleaved forest type in the eastern Himalaya is among the most species-rich temperate forests in the world (Chettri et al. 2010).

Nearly 50 percent of the total flowering plants recorded from India are found in the Northeastern Region of India (Mao and Hynniewta. 2000). 83 Among insectivorous plants Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f., endemic to Meghalaya two species of Drosera peltata Sm. and D. burmanii Vahl. are important.

Many families represented in India by a solitary genus with one or two species are found in this region, for example Coriariaceae, Nepenthaceae, Turneraceae, Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Siphonodontaceae, and Tetracentraceae (Rao,and Murti 1990).

The region, being remote and inaccessible in most cases has not been explored completely and holds great potential for new plant discoveries. For an instance, during year 2010, two new genera and 24 new plant species have been discovered/ described by different workers from NE region of India.

Chettri N, Sharma E, Shakya B, Thapa, et al (2010): Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas: Status, trends and vulnerability to climate change; Climate change impact and vulnerability in the Eastern Himalayas – Technical report 2. Kathmandu: ICIMOD, Nepal. Pawar, S, Koo MS, Kelley C, et al. (2007) Conservation assessment and prioritization of areas in Northeast India: priorities for amphibians and reptiles. Biol. Cons 136:346-361. Mao, AA & Hynniewta, TM (2000): Floristic diversity of North East India. J. Assam Sci. Soc. 41(4): 255-266. Rao, RR and Murti, SK (1990): North-East India: A major centre for plant diversity in India. Indian J. For. 13 (3): 214-222. Botanical Survey of India (2011): Plant Discoveries 2010

84 Table: New plant discoveries during year 2010 from NE region of India (Botanical Survey of India (2011): Plant Discoveries 2010) S.N. New species/var./sub spp. Family NE State from where discovered Angiosperms New Genera 1. Larsenianthus (4 spp) Zingiberaceae NE India 2. Stapletonia (1 sp) Poaceae Arunachal Pradesh New Species/varieties/sub species 1 Bambusa dampaeana Poaceae Mizoram 2 Boehmeria listeri Urticaceae Arunachal Pradesh 3 Boehmeria manipurensis Urticaceae Manipur 4 Cephalostachyum longwanum Poaceae Nagaland 5 Coelogyne pendula Orchidaceae Mizoram 6 Dendrocalamus manipureanus Poaceae Manipur 7 Epigeneium arunachalense Orchidaceae Arunachal Pradesh 8 Heteropanax dhruvii Araliaceae Arunachal Pradesh 9 Larsenianthus arunachalense Zingiberaceae Arunachal Pradesh 10 Larsenianthus assamensis Zingiberaceae Assam 11 Dendrobium falconeri var. Orchidaceae Manipur senapatianum 12 Morus macroura var. laxiflora Moraceae Arunachal Pradesh 13 Tibetoseris depressa sub sp gauri Asteraceae Sikkim Ferns and Fern allies 14 Pteris mawsmaiensis Preridaceae Meghalaya Bryophytes 15 Leptolejenea mirikana Lejeunaeceae West Bengal Hills 16 Leptolejenea udarii Lejeunaeceae Sikkim 17 Notoscyphus darjeelingensis Jungermanniaceae Sikkim Lichens 18 Leirreuma subpatellum Graphidaceae Arunachal Pradesh 19 Pyrenula darjeelingensis Pyrenulaceae Fungi 20 Russula khanchanjungae Russulaceae Sikkim 21 Russula tsokae Russulaceae Sikkim 22 Phallus calongei Phallaceae Sikkim 23 Russula griseocarnosa Russalaceae Sikkim Algae 85 24 Stigeoclonium iyengarii Chaetophoraceae Sikkim The region is the habitat of many botanical curiosities and rarities, including Sapria himalayana Griff. (family Rafflesiaceae) - one of the largest root parasites. 86 Siroy lily (Lilium mackliniae) a ground lily that produces beautiful The carnivorous/ Pitcher plant flowers, is a narrow endemic found (Nepenthes khasiana) is endemic to in the eastern border area of Meghalaya and is listed in Appendix I Manipur in Ukhurl district. of CITES and placed in Schedule VI of the wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 87 Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis) that occurs in the tropical forests of the NE regions is highly prized and is listed in Appendix II of CITES Schedule VI of the

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 88 Taxus baccata

• The yew tree (Taxus baccata) is a highly toxic plant that has occasionally been used medicinally, mainly in the treatment of chest complaints. • Modern research has shown that the plants contain the substance 'taxol' in their shoots. Taxol has shown exciting potential as an anti-cancer drug, particularly in the treatment of ovarian cancers. • Taxus baccata found in West Kameng and Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh are cut down by the local people and exploit for commercial purpose. • Due to the large scale destruction, the survival of species are threatened and immediate conservation is needed. Therefore, in Bomdila a nursery of Taxus baccata is set up and helping from the verge of extinction.

89 Rhododendron • The genus Rhododendron of Ericaceae is another remarkable group of showy plants with nearly 98% of the total Rhododendrons reported from India (72 species, 20 subspecies, and 19 varieties) are confined to Himalayan region (Singh et al. 2003). • Of these, 98.6% (71 species) representation is in NE region wherein Arunachal Pradesh has 9 species and 1 subspecies endemic, followed by Manipur and Sikkim with 3 species and 1 subspecies, and Mizoram with 2 species(Mao et al. 2002) as endemic.

Singh KK, Kumar S, Rai LK & Krishna AP (2003). Rhododendrons conservation in the Sikkim Himalaya. Curr. Sci. 85(5): 602-606.

Mao AA, Singh KP & Hajra, PK, (2002). In: Floristic Diversity and Conservation Strategies in India (N P Singh and D K Singh,Eds.), BSI, Calcutta, pp. 2167-2202.

90 Rhododendrons in Arunachal Pradesh

Rhododendron edgeworthii Rhododendron maddenii

Rhododendron falconeri Rhododendron keysii 91 Rhododendron neriifolium Rhododendron dalhousiae

Rhododendron arboreum Rhododendron wightii 92 Rhododendron fulgens Rhododendron thomsonii

Rhododendron griffithianum Rhododendron macabeanum 93 Rattan and Bamboo Rattan, commonly known as cane, is one of the most important no timber forest products from northeast India.

Of 60 species of canes reported from India, the NE Region has over 26 species (Ramakantha et al. 2011).

Likewise, of 150 species of bamboo found in India, 63 species in 22 genera are found in target region.

About 25 species of bamboo are considered rare in NE region.

Cnemidophorus uniparens

Ramakantha V, Gupta AK & Kumar, A (2011). Biodiversity of Northeast India: An overview. http://wiienvis.nic.in/rain_forest/chapter1.htm; accessed on 21.06.2011. 94 Orchid • Orchidaceae, the most fascinating and highly evolved groups of plants with 1229 species belonging to 184 genera in India (Singh & Chauhan 1999), about 700 species have been reported from north eastern region of India. • Of these, 545 species belonging to 122 genera are reported from only Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhery 1998). • Of which 12 species are under endangered category, 16 species vulnerable and 31 species threatened.

Vanda Coerulea Arundina graminifolia Dendrobium fimbriatum Rhyncostylis retusa Dendrobium densiflorum 95 Threatened orchids of Sikkim

96 Fauna The region is equally rich in faunal diversity like flora. The remoteness and difficult terrain has, however, resulted in poor documentation of the faunal diversity in NE region. An estimated 3,624 species of insects, 50 molluscs, 236 fishes, 64 amphibians, 137 reptiles, 541 birds and 160 mammalian species have been so far described (Anonymous 1998). Primates • Three families of primates’ occur in India with 15 known species, nine of these species occur in North east India (Mohnot 1980 and Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). • The Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei) is a Schedule I animal and is also listed in the Appendix I of CITES. • The Slow Loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) is an inhabitant of tropical forests south of the Brahmaputra River in Northeast India. This highly endangered animal is listed as Schedule I animal, and in Appendix I of the CITES.

97 Carnivores • Of the six largest cats of the world recorded from India, state of Arunachal Pradesh only sustain four of them - the Tiger (Panthera tigris), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and the Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa).

• Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and listed in Appendix I of CITES and as ‘Endangered, by IUCN is also predominantly available in the region.

98 Ungulates • The foothill grasslands and broadleaf forest harbor important population of Asian elephant, one horned rhinoceros and wild water buffalo. • In Northeast India Great Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is now restricted to Kaziranga, Pabitora and Orang in Assam. • The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi eldi), locally known as Sangai is endemic to Manipur and one of rarest and the most localized subspecies of deer in the world. • The Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius) is the smallest and the rarest wild suid in the world, and only a few isolated wild populations survive in Northeast India.

99 Birds • From Arunachal Pradesh over 760 bird species have been reported (Borang 2004). • Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) is a globally threatened bird with the majority of the world’s population now found in Assam. • Spot-billed Pelican (Pelicanus philippensis), Blacknecked Stork (Ephippiorhyncus asiaticus), Lesser Adjutant (Leptotilos javanicus), and Pale-capped Pigeon (Columba punicea), are only to name a few of the globally threatened birds found in the region. • Swamp Francolin (Francolinus gularis), found in Northeast India, is endemic to the Indian subcontinent.

• The white-winged duck (Asarcornis scutulata), which has been reported from the D‟Ering Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh, is identified as highly endangered .

100 Lower Vertebrates • So far 137 species of reptiles have been recorded from Northeast India which has the greatest affinity to the Oriental, Indo – Malayan and Indo – Chinese regions. • 20 lizard species from the State of Assam, and 18 species from the tiny state of which is profoundly influenced by the Indo-Chinese connection have been recorded so far. • Of the three species of Monitor Lizards found in the region, Varanus flavescens is listed in Schedule I under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and listed in Appendix I of CITES. • The Tokay Gecko (Gekko gekko) is the largest gecko alive today and is found in northeast India. • Fifty eight species of snakes have been recorded in Assam, 34 from Manipur and 92 from Arunachal Pradesh. Python reticulatus, the largest snake in India, is found in northeast India and Python molurus bivittatus is the most commonly known in the region. • So far 64 species of amphibians have been recorded from the Northeast India.

101 Invertebrates • The northeast ecoregion has reported 3,624 species of insects and 50 molluscs. • Butterflies and moths are by far the best-studied invertebrate organisms in northeast India, and the region contributes the greatest number of species for the group in the country. • Over 689 species of butterflies have been recorded from the state of Sikkim. • The Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Northeast Ecoregion suggests that 3,624 species of insects and 50 molluscs are recorded from the region (Tripathi and Barik 2003).

102 Thank You

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