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By the Head of a Spirited Horse: A Biocultural Analysis of Horse-Depositions as Reflections of Horseman Identities in Early Britain (Iron Age to Early Medieval Period) Item Type Thesis Authors Cross, Pamela J. Rights <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by- nc-nd/3.0/88x31.png" /></a><br />The University of Bradford theses are licenced under a <a rel="license" href="http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">Creative Commons Licence</a>. Download date 07/10/2021 02:19:43 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10454/18396 By the Head of a Spirited Horse: A Biocultural Analysis of Horse-Depositions as Reflections of Horseman Identities in Early Britain (Iron Age to Early Medieval Period) Pamela Johnson CROSS Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Life Sciences School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences University of Bradford 2018 0 Pamela Johnson Cross By the Head of a Spirited Horse: A Biocultural Analysis of Horse-Depositions as Reflections of Horseman Identities in Early Britain (Iron Age to Early Medieval Period). Keywords: Iron Age, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Europe, Britain, Funerary Practices, Cavalry, Zooarchaeology, Horse-Burial, Horse-Ritual Horse-depositions were examined to explore the development of human-horse relationships in early Britain using a multidisciplinary approach (osteological, archaeological, historical and ethnographical) to interpret these relationships as part of Horseman identities in the Iron Age, Roman and medieval periods. Medieval Horseman-burials are an established phenomenon and considered an Anglo-Saxon import in Britain which expressed a general elite-warrior male status. However, Horseman-burials form an exclusive minority which suggest not a general warrior- elite but specific subgroups and/or traditions potentially rooted in earlier practices. Husbandry, transportation-use and ritual practices were also investigated. Horses and horse-use were evaluated via stature and correlations with sex. The results indicated sexual dimorphism should be considered when interpreting horse stature. It is hypothesised that generally females were pastured breeding-stock while males were transportation-stock which received supplemental nutrition and care. Males were/are generally larger than females, and size disparity was probably heightened by such gendered horse-use practices. Overall, it appears females were 1.3m or less, and horses over 1.3m were males. Horse-depositional patterns in human, particularly funerary, spaces were analysed. Horse deposition often had ritual components and practices changed over time reflecting changing Horseman identities, particularly during the Roman period. Roman-British interactions, the destruction of native-elite chariot-warfare identities and the development of native- auxiliary groups refocused Horseman identities on mounted-warfare. This change from driver to rider, a more intimate relationship, appears reflected by the development of human-horse burials and Horseman identities linked to auxiliary- native cultural groups which incorporated Roman equites ideals with native-auxiliary and imported Eurasian Horseman traditions. i Acknowledgements A great many people and organisations have supported this research, more than I can possibly mention here. Firstly, thanks to my family for all their help and support, and putting up with many odd holidays. I sincerely thank the University of Bradford, Archaeological Sciences and those who have supported the research financially. The principal funder for this project was the Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC). Financial support also came from the project partners, particularly author Bernard Cornwell, whose generous support got the project started, and also the Sutton Hoo Society, who have supported the project from the very beginning. Additional financial support for equine osteological research was supplied by SYNTHESYS, a wonderful organisation allowing research at many European institutions. A few of the many other individuals and organisations who have contributed to this research include the other project partners: the National Trust at Sutton Hoo and the Museum of London (LAARC and especially Francis Grew). The Hungarian Natural History Museum (especially Gábor Csorba. Deputy General Director), the Museum of Hungarian Agriculture, the Hortobágyi National Park, the Hungarian National Museum (special thanks to Annamária Bárány), Ernst Taayke and the Noordelijk Archeologisch Depot, Tournai Archaeological Museum, Scottish National Museums (Edinburgh), and various members of the International Council for Archaeozoology (ICAZ) (especially the Animal Palaeopathology Working Group) have all provided invaluable help. Very special thanks to University of Aberystwyth Equine Science (Sebastian McBride, Mina Davies Morel and especially, Felicity Wills); my supervisors Julie Bond and Ian Armit; and the Sedgeford Historic and Archaeological Research Project (especially Martin Hatton, Neil Faulkner, Tim Snelling and Janet Hammond). Also many thanks to Martin Carver, The Armouries (Leeds), Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Wietske Prummel, Linas Daugnora, Jessica Grimm, Pam Crabtree, Laszlo Bartosiewicz, and so many others who have provided access to materials, places to stay, and, so importantly, their generous sharing of their knowledge and wisdom. This is truly the work of many, many good people. ii “…caput acris equi; sic nam fore bello egregiam et facilem victu per saecula gentem… : where lies the head of a spirited horse; there they would be famous in war and rich in substance through the ages. After the fall of Troy, Juno prophesied the Trojan prince Aeneas and his dispossessed people would identify where to found their new city [Rome] by finding the head of a horse sacrificed to the gods Aeneas I, Virgil c.20 B.C. (Onians 2011:126) iii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ....................................................................................... iv List of Figures ............................................................................................. x List of Tables ............................................................................................ xiv PART I: PROJECT ORGANISATION & CONTEXT ................................. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction and Project Overview............................................ 1 1.1 Research Aim and Project Introduction ................................................ 1 1.2 Research Questions and Objectives .................................................... 3 1.2.1 Research Questions ........................................................................ 3 1.2.2 Research Objectives ....................................................................... 4 1.3 Past Research ..................................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Past Research: Zooarchaeology ..................................................... 5 1.4 Terminology, Glossary and Abbreviations............................................ 8 1.5 Dating Issues and Chronology ............................................................. 9 1.5.1 Archaeological and Historical Dating Conventions ........................ 11 1.6 Case-Study Selection......................................................................... 12 1.7 Organisation ....................................................................................... 14 PART II: PROJECT BACKGROUND: Historical Contexts and a Discussion of Horse Ritual and Horseman Identities in Terms of Status, Masculinity & War ................................ 15 Chapter 2: Issues of Identity and Horseman Identities ............................. 16 2.1 Human Identities ................................................................................ 17 2.2 Horseman Identities ........................................................................... 17 Chapter 3: Socio-Historical Context of the Horseman in Early Britain ...... 21 3.1 The Domestic Horse in Britain and Early Human Relationships ........ 22 iv 3.2 LIA-RIP Historical-Political Impacts .................................................... 24 3.3 Medieval Historical-Political Impacts .................................................. 26 3.4 Summary Conclusions ....................................................................... 30 Chapter 4: Horse and Horseman - Identities in Imagery .......................... 32 4.1 The Horseman – Imagery and Mythos ............................................... 32 4.2 Later MED Horseman Imagery .......................................................... 33 4.3 Horseman Imagery in the 6th-8th Centuries ...................................... 38 4.3.1 MED English Horseman: the Sutton Hoo Helmet ........................... 39 4.3.2 MED English Horseman: the Repton-Rider .................................... 45 4.3.3 MED Northern British Horseman: Pictish Imagery ......................... 47 4.3.4 Summary of Later MED Horseman Imagery .................................. 49 4.4 Early First millennium AD Horseman Imagery (LIA-RIP).................... 50 4.4.1 The Horseman and the Horse Goddess: Epona ............................ 51 4.4.2 Horse-Lords and Horse-Gods:
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