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Black Teachers in the Fight for Equal Education, 1910-1970

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Black Teachers in the Fight for Equal Education, 1910-1970 University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Theses and Dissertations 2018 “I Hope They Fire Me:” Black Teachers In The iF ght For Equal Education, 1910-1970 Candace Cunningham University of South Carolina Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Cunningham, C.(2018). “I Hope They Fire Me:” Black Teachers In The Fight For Equal Education, 1910-1970. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/4683 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you by Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. “I HOPE THEY FIRE ME:” BLACK TEACHERS IN THE FIGHT FOR EQUAL EDUCATION, 1910-1970 by Candace Cunningham Bachelor of Arts Tennessee State University, 2004 Master of Arts University of South Carolina, 2016 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina 2018 Accepted by: Bobby Donaldson, Major Professor Wanda Hendricks, Committee Member Patricia Sullivan, Committee Member Derrick P. Alridge, Committee Member Cheryl L. Addy, Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School © Copyright by Candace Cunningham, 2018 All Rights Reserved. ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to all the teachers who have played a special role in my life, especially my family members: grandparents Alice and Leroy Cunningham, great aunt Rebecca Berry, uncles Henry Cunningham and Charlie Parks, aunts Sara Parks and Betty Ragsdale, and parents Barbara Bozeman and Louis Cunningham. Thank you for so unselfishly loving our community’s children. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I envisioned the basic outline of this dissertation on a sunny Saturday afternoon while perusing the NAACP papers. So I must first thank the NAACP for its commitment to recording and preserving its history. I must also thank the institutions that made viewing the NAACP papers a pleasure: the Library of Congress, and the Thomas Cooper Library at the University of South Carolina. Thank you to the archivists at the: Avery Research Center, Charleston Archive, Claflin College, Emory University Archives, National Archives at Atlanta, South Carolina Department of Archives and History, South Carolina Historical Society, South Carolina Political Collections, South Caroliniana, and Tennessee State Library and Archives. Thank you for the funding and other resources provided by the University of South Carolina Department of History and the Grace Jordan McFadden Professors Program. A circle of colleagues aided me throughout my graduate school experience, providing invaluable feedback and reading early drafts of my work. I would especially like to thank Tiffany Florvil, Robert Greene, Jennifer Gunter, Kathryn Silva, and Jen Taylor. A special thanks goes to my dissertation director, Bobby Donaldson, for consistently sharing invaluable knowledge and feedback, and consistently insisting that this topic is important. Thanks also to Wanda Hendricks, and Pat Sullivan who served on my committee have played a special role throughout my graduate school experience. And thank you Derrick P. Alridge, for agreeing to serve on my committee. Most iv importantly, I would to thank the women and men who fought so tirelessly for a better tomorrow. May we all remember and live up to your legacy. v ABSTRACT Despite a growing body of research on African American schoolteachers and their role in the civil rights movement, as well as increased interest in South Carolina’s civil rights movement, few historians have uncovered the contributions black schoolteachers made to the South Carolina movement. Additionally, while many histories have highlighted how integral the NAACP was to the civil rights movement, few have revealed the deliberate relationship they built with black teachers associations. This dissertation uses the NAACP papers, political manuscript collections, oral histories, newspaper and magazine articles, and court documents to address this gap in the historiography. Chapter 1 discusses the Charleston black teacher hiring campaign of 1917-1920 in which the newly created NAACP chapter fought to get black teachers placed in the city’s black schools. Chapter 2 examines the 1940s teacher salary equalization campaign in which the NAACP filed lawsuits on behalf of local teachers to acquire salary equalization between white and black teachers. Chapter 3 focuses on the Clarendon County movement, which started in the 1940s as a fight to acquire bus transportation for black students, grew into a fight for equal school facilities, and became the first of five the desegregation cases that culminated into the historic Brown decision. Chapter 4 examines a 1956 case in which twenty-one teachers in Elloree, South Carolina lost their jobs for their alleged connection to the NAACP. Chapter 5 looks at the case of Orangeburg schoolteacher Gloria Rackley who was dismissed from her job because of her civil rights activism. Collectively, these chapters not only prove that black teachers played an integral role in South Carolina’s vi civil rights movement, but that they were vital in pushing the movement from one of racial uplift and equalization to a mass protest and desegregation. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vi Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: “I Had to Find a Job Teaching:” The Charleston Black Teacher Hiring Campaign, 1917-1920 ........................................................................................................12 Chapter 2: “My Salary Increase Was Amazing:” The Teacher Salary Equalization Campaign ...........................................................................................................................47 Chapter 3: “A Very Backward County:” Clarendon County and the Fight for Equal Schools ...............................................................................................................................88 Chapter 4: “Hell is Popping Here in South Carolina:” Orangeburg County Black Teachers and Their Community in the Immediate Post-Brown Era ...............................................158 Chapter 5: “We Figured You’d Cause Trouble:” Gloria Rackley and the 1960s Civil Rights Movement .............................................................................................................233 Epilogue: “Negotiate from Strength:” Teachers in a Desegregating South Carolina ......284 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................295 viii INTRODUCTION On May 9, 1908, the Colored Ministerial Union presented a petition to the Charleston City Board of Public School Commissioners in which they conveyed a “great and crying need” for more and better school facilities for black children. Without these facilities, the ministered argued, black children were “roaming the streets and growing . in ignorance, idleness and crime.”1 The African American ministers stressed that more schools for African American children would cure these social ills. Convinced that industrial training was the “greatest and most immediate needs,” they also believed that black teachers should instruct black children. The ministers asked the board to allow African American teachers to complete the teachers’ examination. After all, there were “many [black teachers] in the city—of acknowledged ability—and competence.”2 These competent black teachers should be “put in full charge” of the “colored schools.”3 During the Reconstruction era and in the decades thereafter, black Charlestonians struggled believed emphatically that a quality education was central to advancing social and political rights. With the conscious push by African Americans to hire black teachers, these educators often joined and played critical leadership roles in the burgeoning civil rights movement. This dissertation focuses on that role. 1Minutes, Records of the City Board of Public School Commissioners, Charleston County Public Library, Box 8. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 1 This research relies heavily on sources created by the organization at the center of the South Carolina civil rights movement—the NAACP. The NAACP papers contain newspaper clippings, correspondence between members of local chapters and the New York office, as well as between the NAACP and other organizations such as the Palmetto State Teachers Association (PSTA) and the American Friends Service Committee. Correspondence between the NAACP and the PSTA is especially important because it provides evidence that the PSTA often worked in conjunction with the NAACP. A very critical part of my research examines the massive white resistance to the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. In order to probe the resistance of white residents and the adverse impacts this resistance had on African American educators, I explored the papers of the South Carolina White Citizens
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