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Downloaded from the Perry-Castañeda Library of the University of Texas at Austin Abstract ABSTRACT Landscape features owe their origin to a combination of tectonic and climatic forces. Tectonic forces displace the land, changing the elevation locally as well as on a regional scale, affecting the altitude dependent surface processes, which in turn shape the landscape. Tectonic and geomorphic processes are therefore intimately interrelated. Quantitative assessment of landscape features has traditionally been based on calculation of geomorphic indices using elevation data derived from topographic maps, aerial photographs and field work. In recent years ASTER derived digital elevation data and advances in GIS technologies have been extensively used to determine the morphometric properties of tectonically active regions. The results of several indicesof active tectonics such as Hypsometric integral by Strahler (1952), Asymmetry Factor by Cox (1994), Stream length-gradient index developed by Hack (1973), Mountain front sinuosity developed by Bull and Mc Fadden (1977),Ratio of valley floor width to valley height can be combined to highlight tectonic activity and to provide an assessment of the relative degree of tectonic activity in an area. The objective of this research is to develop a remotely sensed approach in investigation of active tectonics in Ramganga basin, Eastern Kumaon Himalayas and to access the current degree of tectonic activity in the basin at sub basin level based on various geomorphic indices and generate tectonic activity maps based on these indices, depicting relative uplift and tilt in the study area For the present study, Ramganga River constituting a right bank tributary of the Kali River transecting the Himalayan orogen in a NE-SW direction was considered an ideal location to test the relationship of landforms and active tectonics, and to predict relative tectonic activity on a basis of area rather than a single valley or mountain front. The study area has variable rates of active tectonics resulting from the uplift of the Kali River anticline oriented transverse to the primary structural grain of the Himalayan range, superimposed on the nearly 1.0 m/ky uplift of the orogen in response to the collision of India with Asia that produced linear WNW-ESE anticlinal forms. We test the hypothesis that areas of relatively high rates of active tectonics in the Himalaya are associated with courses of trans-Himalayan rivers predating the Himalayan orogeny. 1 Abstract Digital elevation model datasets of the Advance Spaceborne Thermal Emission Radiometer (ASTER) were used for channel network and watershed delineation. The stereo images of L1b data have been used for the production ASTER DEM and data provided from ASTER represents a significant improvement in quality as 30 meter spatial resolution. Channel network extraction and watershed delineation were carried out using TauDEM (Terrain Analysis Using Digital Elevation Models), a plugin for ArcGIS 9.3. A total of 26 sub-basins were delineated in the Ramganga river basin. The main channel of the watershed is a fifth order Stream.Lower order streams mostly dominate the basin. The drainage patterns of the sub-basins are dendritic and parallel. It appears that the development of stream segments in the basin was largely influenced by local geology and structures. We present an assessment of active tectonics based on: Mountain front sinuosity (Smf), Asymmetry factor (AF), Transverse topographic symmetry (T), Hypsometric Integral (HI), Channel sinuosity (S), Valley floor width to height ratio (Vf), Stream length-gradient index (SL),and Basin elongation ratio (Re). Mountain front sinuosity (Smf) is defined by dividing the length of mountain front and straight line length along the mountain front. It is derived by the following formula: Smf = Lmf/Ls Where, Smf is the Mountain front sinuosity index, Lmf is the total length of the mountain front and Ls is the straight line length of the mountain front. Channel Sinuosity (Cs) is derived by dividing the length of stream segment and length of valley along the stream length. S = SL / VL Where SL is the stream length and VL is the valley length. Basin elongation (Re) is defined by the ratio of the diameter of a circle of the same area as the basin to the maximum basin length. It is derived by following formula: Re = (2√A: √π)/L Where A is the area of the basin and L is the length of the basin. 2 Abstract Values of Re close to 1.0 are typical of regions of low relief and basins close to this range are oval to circular in shape. Another index is the valley floor width to height ratio. This index reflects the differences between the V-shaped valleys down cutting in response to active uplift, where the stream is governed by the influence of a base level fall at some point downstream that indicates a relatively high tectonic activity, and the U-shaped broad- floored valleys with principally lateral erosion into the adjacent hill slopes in response to relative base level stability or tectonic quiescence that signifies a relatively low tectonic activity. The Vf index is calculated by the following equation: Vf= 2Vfw/ {(Eld-Esc) + (Erd-Esc)} Where Vfw is width of the valley floor and Esc is elevation of valley floor. Erd and Eld are the elevations of right and left valley divides respectively. Theoretically U-shaped valleys are indicative of the less tectonic activity and V- shaped valleys, as a response to uplift, are associated with high tectonic activity. The Vf indices of all sub-basins in the Ramganga basin are less than 1.0, indicating a generally high level of tectonic activity. The channel sinuosity index (Cs), which is a measure of the deviation of a river from a straight line course, is usually derived by dividing the length of a reach as measured along a channel by the length as measured along the valley. Whereas the high sinuosity of a river in plane areas may be attributed to very low angles of the ground slope, in hilly terrains the sinuosity of channels may be strongly influenced by tectono-structural features. Results of the channel sinuosity in 26 sub basins ranges between 1.1 and 1.7. Sinuosity of the trunk stream of the Ramganga River showing moderate sinuosity (1.27) while for some reaches this index increases upto 1.91. In general high sinuosity found in the old stage of the river while in the Ramganga river basin, values more than 1.4 are indicating strong sinuosity that corresponds to the prevailing tectonic activity in the form of tectonic structures viz: Vaikrita Thrust, Munisiari Thrust (MCT), Bhujpatri Gad Fault, Darun Fault, ramganga Fault and Askot Thrust and number minor thrust and faults. 3 Abstract Drainage basin asymmetry (AF), an indicator of possible ground tilting due to inequilibrium between incision and uplift, indicates neotectonic activity. Basin asymmetry is estimates by: AF= 100 (Ar/At) Where Ar is area of the right of the basin (looking downstream) and At is the total area of the basin. In a stable tectonic environment or when the uplift is uniform throughout the region under consideration, the AF is 50, suggesting no tilt. Values more/less than 50 are suggestive of a tilt perpendicular to the main channel. The degree of asymmetry and the elongation directions of sub-basins of the Ramganga were translated into vectors which give the variation in the direction and amount of tilt over the study area. On the basis of AF, the Ramganga basin, particularly the thrust-bound central sector is tilting in a South-west direction. The hypsometric curve, created by plotting the proportion of total basin height (h/H = relative height) against the proportion of total basin area (a/A = relative area) describes the distribution of elevations across an area. A simple way to characterize the shape of the hypsometric curve is to calculate its hypsometric integral (HI). The integral is defined as the area under the hypsometric curve. One way to calculate the integral for a given curve is as follows: Hi = (Mean elevation – min elevation) / (Max elevation – Min elevation) Results of the Hypsometric Integral (HI) suggest that the Ramganga river basin in particular is a youthful basin while within the basin it shows great variation. Sub basins present in the Northern and North-Eastern part of the Ramganga basin except the basin no.5 (Tejam) are showing the values between 0.3 and 0.45, which is eroded and showing the late mature to mature stage of the basin. Basin no.5 (Tejam) has the value 0.3 which indicates the old stage of the basin. But in the real sense these basins are in this stage are not because of the maturity of the basin but because of the presence of the tectonic forces and fluvial influences on these basins. On the basis of this study it may be suggested that the Ramganga river basin in particular and the eastern Kumaon Himalaya in general, are one of the highly tectonically active sector of the Himalayan orogen. The Kali River, of which the Ramganga is an important tributary, appears to be a site of rapid erosion and uplift, promoting the formation of an anticlinal structure with its 4 Abstract axis transverse to the main trend of the Himalaya. Results of the present study viz., high tectonic activity and the westward tilting of the eastern Kumaon sector lend credence to the hypothesis that areas of relatively high rates of active tectonics in the Himalaya are associated with courses of trans-Himalayan rivers predating the Himalayan orogeny. 5 DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH-202002, INDIA ANNEXURE-1 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION I, Indu Sharma, Department of Geology certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D. thesis is my own bonafied work carried out by me under the supervision of Dr.
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