Plant Resources ofSouth-Eas t Asia

A selection

E. Westphal and P.C.M. Jansen (Editors)

Pudoc Wageningen 1989

14 Dr E. Westphal is a tropical agronomist and botanist, who graduated from Wageningen Agricultural University in 1966.H e has worked for several organi­ zations in Uganda, Ethiopia and Cameroon in agronomy and economic botany. He has written several books and articles on pulses, farm(ing) systems, cropping systems, plants used for food, spices and tropical food crops, some in collabo­ ration with others. Since 1983, he has been senior staff member in the Depart­ ment of Tropical Crop Science ofWageninge n Agricultural University and has carried out several consultancies in Africa and Asia. Dr P.C.M. Jansen is a plant taxonomist, who graduated as a tropical agronomist from Wageningen Agricultural University in 1974. He has worked for several organizations in Benin, Ethiopia and Mozambique, and at the Department of Plant Taxonomy of Wageningen Agricultural University. He has written some books on spices, condiments and medicinal plants. Since 1985, he has been employed by the University, working at the Department of Plant Taxonomy.

Cip-Data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag

Plant

Plant resources ofSouth-Eas t Asia: a selection/E.Westpha l and P. C.M . Jansen (eds.). Wageningen: Pudoc. - 111. With index. ISBN 90-220-0985-8 bound SISO 632,3UD C 633(59) NUGI835 Subject heading: agricultural crops; South-East Asia.

ISBN 90-220-0985-8 NUGI 835

Design: Frits Stoepman GVN.

© Pudoc/Prosea, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1989.

No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations embodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print, photocopy, microfilm, electric or electromagnetic record without permission from the publisher Pudoc, P.O. Box 4, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Printed in the Netherlands. To

H.C.D.deWitand A.J.G.H. Kostermans Contents

Species arranged according to commodity groups 10

Editors and contributors 13

Prosea Project personnel 17

Foreword 19

1 Introduction 21

1.1 General 21 1.2 Commodity grouping 21 1.3 Treatment ofplan t resources 22

2 Alphabetical treatment of species/genera 23

Abelmoschus esculentus :okr a 25 Abrus precatorius :India n liquorice 27 Acacia leucophloea :pilan g 28 Agathis labillardieri : New Guinea kauri 30 Alpinia galanga : galanga 32 Amaranthus : genus including amaranth 34 Anacardium occidentale : cashew 37 Anthocephalus chinensis :kada m 41 Arachis hypogaea :groundnu t 44 Arcangelisia flava :yellow-fruite d moonseed 49 Arenga pinnata :suga r palm 50 Auricularia : genus including Jew's ear 55 Averrhoa : genus including bilimbi, carambola 57

Boehmeria nivea ramie 59 Brassica genus including oil seeds 61 Brassica râpa Chinese cabbage 64

Calamus caesius rotan sega 67 Calliandra calothyrsus calliandra 69 Camellia sinensis tea 72 Carica pubescens mountain papaya 79 Ceiba pentandra kapok 79 Cinchona genus including quinine 83 Clausena genus including horsewood 88 Cocos nucifera coconut palm 90 Coffea genus including coffee 95 Colocasia esculenta taro 102 Cryptocarya massoy massoi 106 Cryptocoryne genus including aquarium plants 107 Cyperus rotundus purple nut grass 108

Dendrocalamus asper :gian t bamboo 109 Derris elliptica :derri s 112 Diplazium :genu s including edible ferns 114

Eichhornia crassipes :wate r hyacinth 116 Elaeis guineensis :oi l palm 118 Eucalyptus deglupta :leda 123

Fagraea fragrans :tembus u 126 Flemingia macrophylla : apa apa 128

Galiellajavanica :sup a susu munding 129 Garcinia mangostana :mangostee n 130 Gelidiella acerosa :intip-inti p 134 Gliricidia sepium : mother of cocoa 136 Glycine max :soy a bean 139 Gnetum gnemon :Spanis h joint fir 143 Gossypium hirsutum :cotto n 145

Heritiera simplicifolia : mengkulang 150 Hevea brasiliensis :natura l rubber 152

Indigofera :genu s including indigo 161 Ipomoea aquatica :kangkong 164 Ipomoea batatas :swee t potato 166

Kibatalia arborea :kibenteli 171

Leucaena leucocephala : leucaena 172

Manihot esculenta :cassav a 175 Metroxylon sagu :sag o palm 180 Morinda citrifolia :India n mulberry 185 Muntingia calabura :capuli n 187 Musa textilis :abacâ 188 Myristica fragrans :nutme g 192

Nephelium lappaceum : rambutan 196

Octomeles sumatrana : binuang 201 Oncosperma tigillarium nibong 203 Orthosiphon aristatus :Jav a tea 205 Oryza sativa :rice 206

Pachyrhizus erosus : yam bean 213 Paphiopedilum : genus including lady's slipper orchids 216 Pennisetum americanum : pearl millet 217 Pennisetum purpureum : elephant grass 220 Peronema canescens :sungkai 222 Phytolacca dodecandra :endod 224 Piper nigrum :blac k and white pepper 225 Pometia pinnata :taun 230 Psophocarpus tetra- gonolobus : winged bean 232

Quercus lineata :oak 236

Ricinus communis : castor 237 Rosa : genus including roses 240 Rubus :genu s including blackberries 242

Saccharum officinarum :suga r cane 243 Salacca zalacca :sala k palm 248 Shoreajohorensis :ligh t red meranti 251 Stevia rebaudiana :stevi a 253 Stylosanthes guianensis :styl o 255 Syzygium aromaticum : clove 257

Terminalia brassii :brow n terminalia 263 Theobroma cacao :coco a 265

Vanillaplanifolia : vanilla 270

Voacanga grandifolia : a medicinal plant 274

Zea mays : maize 275

Glossary 280

Acknowledgments 297

Sources of illustrations 298

Index of scientific plant names 302

Index ofvernacula r plant names 310

The Prosea Project 321

Map of South-East Asia for Prosea Species arranged according to commodity groups

Cereals Oryzasativa 206 Pennisetum americanum 217 Zea mays 275

Plants mainly producing carbohydrates Arengapinnata 50 Colocasia esculenta 102 Ipomoea batatas 166 Manihot esculenta 175 Metroxylonsagu 180 Pachyrhizuserosus 213 Saccharum officinarum 243

Pulses Arachis hypogaea 44 Glycine max 139

Vegetable oils and fats Brassica oil seeds 61 Cocos nucifera 90 Elaeis guineensis 118 Ricinus communis 237

Edible fruits and nuts Anacardium occidentale 37 Auerrhoa 57 Caricapubescens 79 Garcinia mangostana 130 Gnetumgnemon 143 Muntingia calabura 187 Nephelium lappaceum 196 Äw6ws 242 Salacca zalacca 248

Vegetables Abelmoschus esculentus 25 Amaranthus 34 Brassica rapa 64 Ipomoea aquatica 164 Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 232

Spices and condiments Alpiniagalanga 32 Cryptocarya massoy 106 Myristica fragrans 192 Piper nigrum 225 Syzygium aromaticum 257 Vanillaplanifolia 270

Essential-oil plants Clausena 88

Stimulant plants Camellia sinensis 72 Coffea 95 Theobroma cacao 265

Medicinal and poisonous plants Abrusprecatorius 27 Arcangelisiaflava 49 Cinchona 83 Cyperus rotundus 108 Derris elliptica 112 Kibatalia arborea 171 Orthosiphon aristatus 205 Voacanga grandifolia 274

Timber trees Anthocephalus chinensis 41 Eucalyptus deglupta 123 Fagraea fragrans 126 Heritiera simplicifolia 150 Octomeles sumatrana 201 Oncosperma tigillarium 203 Peronema canescens 222 Pometia pinnata 230 Quercus lineata 236 Shorea johorensis 251 Terminalia brassii 263

Fibre plants Boehmeria nivea 59 Ceiba pentandra 79 Gossypium hirsutum 145 Musa textilis 188

Forages Pennisetum purpureum 220 Stylosanthes guianensis 255

Dye and tannin- producing plants Acacia leucophloea 28 Indigofera 161 Morinda citrifolia 185

Rattans Calamus caesius 67

Bamboos Dendrocalamus asper 109 Plants producing exudates Agathis labillardieri 30 Hevea brasiliensis 152

Auxiliary plants in agriculture and forestry Calliandra calothyrsus 69 Flemingia macrophylla 128 Gliricidia sepium 136 Leucaena leucocephala 172

Ornamental plants Cryptocoryne 107 Paphiopedilum 216 Rosa 240

Lower plants Auricularia 55 Diplazium 114 Galiella javanica 129 Gelidiella acerosa 134

Miscellaneous plants Eichhornia crassipes 116 Phytolacca dodecandra 224 Stevia rebaudiana 253 Editors and contributors

Editorial staff of this volume

- Editors: E.Westpha l and P.C.M. Jansen - Associate editors: F.J. Breteler, M. Flach, H. ten Have, J.W. Hildebrand, A. Koopmans, R.H.M.J. Lemmens, R.W. den Outer, J.S. Siemonsma and E.W.M. Verheij - Illustrators: P. Verheij-Hayes (drawings) and R. Boekelman (map) - Publishing consultant and in-house-editor: R.J.P. Aalpol

Contributors

- H.O. Adiwinata, Jakarta, Indonesia - M.M.J, van Balgooy, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Nether­ lands - L. M. Berenschot, Department of Forestry Management, Wageningen Agri­ cultural University, the Netherlands F.J. Breteler, Department ofPlan t Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural Uni­ versity, the Netherlands - J.L. Brewbaker, Department ofHorticulture , University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States - G.H. de Bruijn, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands - J. de Bruijn, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural Uni­ versity, the Netherlands - A. Budelman, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultu­ ral University, the Netherlands - J.C. Bulman, Institute of Grassland and Animal Production, Shinfield Research Station, United Kingdom - O.B. Capuno, Department ofPlan t Breeding &Botany , Visayas State College of Agriculture, the Philippines S.K .D eDatta ,Internationa l RiceResearc hInstitute ,Lo sBanos ,th e Philippines Soedjoko Dirdjosoemarto, Gadjah Madah University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia - J. Dransfield, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom - Soejatmi Dransfield, Kew, United Kingdom - C.L.M. van Eijnatten, Department ofTropica l Crop Science,Wageninge n Ag­ ricultural University, the Netherlands M. Flach, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands - J.M. Fundter, Department of Forest Technique and Forest Products, Wage­ ningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands 14 A SELECTION

- R.Geesink , National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands - Mohd Noor A.Ghani , Rubber Research Institute ofMalaysia , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - L.R. Gonzal, National Abaca Research Center, Visayas State College of Agri­ culture, the Philippines - N.R. deGraaf , Department of Silviculture, Wageningen Agricultural Univer­ sity, the Netherlands - J.J. Groenendijk, Wageningen, the Netherlands - G.J.H. Grubben, Lembang Horticultural Research Institute, Indonesia - P.J.F.M . Hamers, Department ofTropica l Crop Science, Wageneningen Agri­ cultural University, the Netherlands - J.J. Hardon, Centre for Genetic Resources, Wageningen, the Netherlands - A.M. Hatta, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Ambon, Indonesia - H.te n Have, Department ofTropica l Crop Science,Wageninge n Agricultural University, the Netherlands - J.W. Hildebrand, Department of Forestry Management, Wageningen Agri­ cultural University, the Netherlands - W.C.H. van Hoof, National Agricultural College, Deventer, the Netherlands - P.H. Hovenkamp, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands - E. Huffnagel, Multiplant B.V., Maarssen, the Netherlands - P.C.M. Jansen, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands - R.J. Johns, Forestry Department, Papua New Guinea University of Technolo­ gy, Lae, Papua New Guinea - W. Jülich, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands - C. Kalkman, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands - G.J. Kerkhoven, Renkum, the Netherlands - T.N. Khan, Western Australian Department of Agriculture, South Perth, Australia A. Koopmans, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultu­ ral University, the Netherlands A.J.G.H. Kostermans, Herbarium Bogoriense, Indonesia T. Kuntohartono, Indonesian Sugar Research Institute, Pasuruan, Indonesia - C.G. Kuo, Asian Vegetable Research & Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan, Republic of China - D. Lamb, Botany Department, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia A.J.M. Leeuwenberg, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands - C. Lelivelt, Foundation for Agricultural Plant Breeding, Wageningen, the Netherlands R.H.M.J. Lemmens, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands - Ch.B.Lugt , The Hague, the Netherlands - E.H. Mandia, College of Medical Technology, Mendiola, Manila, the Philip­ pines L. 't Mannetje, Department of Field Crops and Grassland Science, Wage­ ningen, Agricultural University, the Netherlands - M. Martosupono, Bandung, Indonesia - J.P. Mogea, Centre for Research &Developmen t in Biology, Bogor, Indonesia CONTRIBUTORS 15

J. Mohede, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands J.G. Ohler, Huizen (NH),th e Netherlands Ong Seng Huat, Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia L.P.A. Oyen, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural Univerisity, the Netherlands A. Patanothai, Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand A.H. Pieterse, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands W.F. Prud'homme van Reine, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands C.E. Ridsdale, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands M.A. Rifai, Centre for Research &Developmen t in Biology, Bogor, Indonesia Rudjiman, Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Madah University, Yogyakarta, Indo­ nesia S. Sakamoto, Kyushu National Agricultural Experiment Station, Kuma- moto, Japan J.A . Samson, Wageningen, the Netherlands J.J.C. Scheffer, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands A.F. Schoorel, Wageningen, the Netherlands D.L. Schuiling, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands C.J.P. Seegeler, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands S. Shanmugasundaram, Asian Vegetable Research & Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan, Republic of China R. Shorter, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, Austra­ lia P. Siaguru, Forestry Department, Papua New Guinea University of Technolo­ gy, Lae, Papua New Guinea J.S. Siemonsma, Centre for Research &Developmen t in Biology, Bogor, Indo­ nesia W.T.M. Smits, Tropenbos Project, Balikpapan, Kalimantan, Indonesia C.H.A. Snijders, Wageningen, the Netherlands Soenaryo, Institute for Estate Crops Jember, East Java, Indonesia R.T.M. van Son, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands M. Sorensen, Botanisk Laboratorium, Copenhagen, Denmark Ch.T. Sorensson, Department of Horticulture, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States G. Staritsky, Department ofTropica l Crop Science,Wageninge n Agricultural University, the Netherlands J. Straver, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands Sumarno, Bogor Research Institute for Food Crops, Indonesia H. Takagi, Asian Vegetable Research &Developmen t Center, Taiwan, Repu­ blic of China 16 A SELECTION

J.P. Thijsse, Heemstede, the Netherlands - H.J.C. Thijssen, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands - M. Tjeenk Willink, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agri­ cultural University, the Netherlands - H. Toxopeus, Foundation for Agricultural Plant Breeding, Wageningen, the Netherlands - H.J. Veltkamp, National Agricultural College, Deventer, the Netherlands B.S. Vergara, International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, the Philip­ pines - E.W.M. Verheij, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricul­ tural University, the Netherlands - E.F. de Vogel, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands H.A.M. van der Vossen, Venhuizen, the Netherlands - P.W.F, de Waard, Huizen (NH), the Netherlands - P.C. van Weizen, National Herbarium, Leyden University, the Netherlands - M. Wessel, Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands - P.C. Wessel-Riemens, Ede, the Netherlands - E.Westphal , Department ofTropica l Crop Science,Wageninge n Agricultural University, the Netherlands - E. Widjaja, Centre for Research &Developmen t in Biology, Bogor, Indonesia - K.F. Wiersum, Dorschkamp Research Institute for Forestry & Landscape Planning, Wageningen, the Netherlands J.E. Wilson, Department of Agronomy & Soil Science, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States H.C.D. de Wit, Heelsum, the Netherlands - D.O. Wijnands, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands - G.J.A.W. van der Zandt, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agri­ cultural University, the Netherlands - A.C.Zeven , Department ofPlan t Breeding, Wageningen Agricultural Univer­ sity, the Netherlands Prosea Project personnel

(January 1989)

Indonesia M.H. Aarts-van den Bergh, Botany Officer Ch. Aipassa, Secretary Jajang, Office Assistant A.J.G.H. Kostermans, Scientific Adviser Sampurno Kadarsan, Project leader Indonesia J.S. Siemonsma, Tropical Agronomist, Regional Coordinator South-East Asia N.W. Soetjipto, Botanist, Country Officer Indonesia Hadi Sutarno, Plant Physiologist, Country Officer Indonesia

Malaysia Salleh Mohd Nor, Project leader Malaysia Idris Mohd Said, Botanist, Country Officer Malaysia (ad interim)

The Netherlands F.J. Breteler, Plant Taxonomist J.M. Fundter, Forestry Officer N.R. de Graaf, Silviculturist J.W. Hildebrand, Forestry Officer P.C.M. Jansen, Plant Taxonomist R.H.M.J. Lemmens, Plant Taxonomist L.P.A. Oyen, Documentalist J.M.G. Rynja, Secretary E.W.M. Verheij, Horticulturist E. Westphal, Tropical Agronomist, Project leader the Netherlands H.C.D. de Wit, Scientific Adviser W.P.M. Wolters, Project Secretary

Papua New Guinea R. Banka Adam, Country Officer Papua New Guinea R.J. Johns, Project leader Papua New Guinea

Philippines N. Altoveros, Plant Breeder, Country Officer the Philippines B. del Rosario, Project leader the Philippines 18 A SELECTION

Thailand Prapandh Boonklinkajorn, Project leader Thailand Soonthorn Duriyaprapan, Agronomist, Country Officer Thailand Foreword

Nature has favoured South-East Asia. Among its natural endowments, the vege­ tation is the most essential resource for mankind, almost endlessly diversified and close at hand. It exists in plenty and varies widely and will remain so if the plant cover is carefully managed and exploited. The population of South-East Asia may profit in many ways from its natural heritage, now and in the future. A strict condition for the survival of the many millions of inhabitants is the maintenance of a thriving plant cover. Extensive information on the plants growing in the region is needed to allow the plant resources of each country to be used optimally. A thorough knowledge of plant resources is essential for human life and plays a key role in ecologically bal­ anced land-use systems.Th e information needed includes botany, ecology, agro­ nomy or silviculture and plant breeding, and aspects oftechnolog y and econom­ ics. Vast amounts of printed and manuscript data on South-East Asian plants are in existence. However, they are scattered over countless books, articles and reports, written in many different languages over a period of almost two centu­ ries, and are often not accessible. In daily practice, thousands of workers in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, research, education, extension, trade and industry have access to only a small part of this immense reservoir of knowl­ edge. The Prosea Project, short for 'Plant Resources of South-East Asia', will make the existing wealth of information on some five thousand plant resources of South-East Asia available for education, extension work, research and industry, in the form of an illustrated, multivolume handbook written in Eng­ lish. Moreover, it will set up a computerized data bank on the plant resources ofthat region. The survey and compilation of existing knowledge on thousands ofplant s in South-East Asia is an extensive, complicated and unique enterprise, which can succeed only with international support and scientific, organizatio­ nal and financial cooperation. A 'Proposal for a handbook' was published in 1986,t o facilitate the implementation ofthi s undertaking. This resulted, in1988 , in an international project in which South-East Asian Institutions and Wage­ ningen Agricultural University are participating to publish the handbook. The first volume ofth e multivolume handbook, dealing with pulses,wil l be available in 1989. Since it will take several years to publish the separate volumes dealing with the various commodity groups, descriptions of 86 plants have been compiled in the present volume for direct use in education, research and extension in South-East Asia. This book deals with major and potentially important plants, representing the different commodity groups ofProsea . Hopefully this selection will help satisfy the urgent need for up-to-date information on the region's plant 20 A SELECTION resources and will highlight a precious resource ofhuma n well-being: the green treasury of South-East Asia.

Wageningen, February 1989

C.C. Oosterlee, Chairman, Netherlands Prosea Board 1 Introduction

1.1 General

An overwhelmingly large number of plant species (between 5000 and 10000 ) in South-East Asia are useful for mankind. In 'Prosea - Proposal for a handbook' (1986) it was suggested that approximately 5000 plant species be described in a multivolume handbook, arranged according to commodity groups. In that 'Proposal' specimen descriptions of 17specie s were presented, to show how the information could be given in a surveyable manner for the different target groups, by being arranged in a certain sequence of topics. This book, 'A selection', follows the same approach. It covers 86species , includ­ ing major crops and promising species, such as rice, maize, sweet potato, cas­ sava, taro, groundnut, soya bean, oilpalm , coconut palm, sugar cane, sago palm, cacao, coffee, tea, mangosteen, rambutan, cotton, abaca, rubber, nutmeg, pep­ per and vanilla. It can also serve as a textbook in South-East Asia and can later be extended with more species when descriptions of all commodity groups have been published in the multivolume handbook.

1.2 Commodity grouping

The proposal to arrange the plant resources according to their main use into commodity groups, put forward in the 'Proposal for a handbook', has been widely accepted. The following commodity groups are currently distinguished: - cereals - plants mainly producing carbohydrates (including root and tuber plants, sago and related starch-producing plants, plants producing sugar, alcohol or acid) - pulses - vegetable oils and fats edible fruits and nuts - vegetables - spices and condiments - essential-oil plants (including camphor-producing plants, aromatic woods) - stimulant plants (including plants used for beverages, as masticatories or for smoking) - medicinal and poisonous plants (including narcotic plants, medicinal plants, plants producing poison, including insecticides and herbicides) - timber trees - fibre plants (including plants used for packing and thatching, plants used for making baskets, mats and wickerwork) - forages (including fodder and pasture plants, feed plants) - dye and tannin-producing plants 22 A SELECTION

- rattans - bamboos - plants producing exudates (including latex-producing plants, resin-produc­ ing plants, balsam-producing plants, gum-producing plants, wax-producing plants, plants producing aromatic resin) - auxiliary plants in agriculture and forestry (including cover and shade plants, mulches, green manures, plants for charcoal or firewood) - ornamental plants (including hedge and wayside plants, ornamental ferns, cycads, conifers, palms, bulbs, flowers, orchids, herbs, shrubs, trees, fruits and seeds, aquatic plants) - lower plants (including algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns) - miscellaneous plants (including other useful plants).

Since most species are multi-purpose plants, classification into commodity groups based on their main use still remains to some extent artificial. However, as long as all species are treated comprehensively in the multivolume handbook and are well indexed, this multi-purpose aspect can be overcome satisfactorily. In 'A selection', all commodity groups are represented by at least one species. For convenience sake, the plant species are dealt with in alphabetic order of their scientific name. They are also listed under their respective commodity group, following the list of contents.

1.3 Treatment of plant resources

All taxa, being a species or a genus, are treated in a similar manner: general information, botany, ecology, agronomy or silviculture, genetic resources and breeding, prospects and literature. Depending on the species' relative economic importance, the length ofth e description varies from 1 to 5printe d pages, includ­ ing the illustration, except in the case of very important plant species (e.g. rice, rubber) which are dealt with at length. The limitation in text space for every species/genus made it necessary to select from the available information. The information presented covers the main points. Under Literature, reference is made to main other sources, which in turn may refer the reader further. The vernacular names pose a major problem. They are useful for the identifica­ tion of species. Usually, numerous names are available, but it is beyond the scope ofth e handbook to enumerate them all. The selection presented was made with the advice of South-East Asian experts. The illustrations have been kept simple and are intended to aid quick identifica­ tion. Closely related species with similar uses and growth or production patterns are treated under the same genus heading. It can be concluded that the framework for a species or genus treatment is suit­ able for all commodity groups. All species and genera described in this book will finally appear in the volume of the handbook dealing with their respective commodity group. Additional relevant information will be stored in a computer­ ized data base. 2 Alphabetical treatment of species/genera ABELMOSCHUS 25

Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench

Methodus 617(1794) . MALVACEAE 2n = 130(66-144) Synonyms Hibiscus esculentus L. (1753). Vernacular names Okra, lady's finger (En). Gombo (Fr). Indonesia: kopi arab. Malaysia: kacang bendi, sayur bendi, kacang lender. Philip­ pines: okra. Burma: you-padi. Laos: khüa ngwàng. Thailand: krachiap mon. Vietnam: dâu bap. Origin and geographic distribution The genus Abelmoschus Medik. originated in South- East Asia. A. esculentus, however, is a cultigen of uncertain origin. It isno w widely cultivated in tro­ pical and subtropical regions, but is particularly popular in India, West Africa and Brazil. Informa­ tion from South-East Asia is scarce. Another edible okra species occurs in the humid parts of West and Central Africa. Described origi­ nally as a botanical variety (Hibiscus manihot L. var. caillei A. Chev.), it has recently been recog­ nized as a distinct species (A. caillei (A. Chev.) Ste- vels). Occasional reference will be made to this 'West African' okra below. Uses Okra is mainly grown for its young imma­ ture fruits, which are consumed as a vegetable, raw, cooked or fried. It is a common ingredient of soups and sauces. The fruits can be conserved by Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench - 1, branch drying. The leaves are sometimes used as spinach; with young fruits, leaves, flower; 2, flower bud; 3, fibres from the stem for cord; plant mucilages for young fruit. medical and industrial purposes;th e seeds asa sub­ 'West African' okra, Abelmoschus caillei (A.Chev.) stitute for coffee. Okra seeds contain a consider­ Stevels - 4,branch with flower and leaves; 5, flower able amount of good quality oil and protein. There bud; 6,young fruit; 7, mature fruit. are no apparent differences in use between the or­ dinary (A. esculentus) and West African okra (A. linear segments, 5-25 mm x 0.5-3 mm. Fruit a caillei), hence the confusion. cylindrical to pyramidal capsule, 5-35 cm long, Production and international trade World 1-5 cm in diameter, completely, partially or not okra production (both species) is estimated to be loculicidal, green, greenish-purple or completely around 5-6 million t/year, which is about 1.5 % of purple when young, brownish when mature. Seeds total world production of vegetables. numerous, globose, 3-6 mm in diameter, blackish. Properties Per 100 g edible portion, the fruits Germination is epigeal. contain water 90g , protein 2g , fibre 1g and carbo­ The West African okra differs in several respects, hydrate 7 g. The energy value is about 145 kj per but its epicalyx offers the best discriminating char­ 100g . Okra is a good source ofvitamin s and miner­ acteristics with 5-10 free, ovate segments, 10-35 als. Compared to other fleshy fruits (tomato, egg­ mm x 4-13 mm. The plant is more robust than A. plant), it is particularly rich in Ca (70-90 mg per esculentus. 100g) . Growth and development A. esculentus Description A.esculentus isa stout, erect, annu­ usually flowers within 40-90 days after sowing; its al herb, up to 4 m tall. Leaves spirally arranged, cropping period rarely exceeds 6 months. Self-pol­ blades up to 50 cm in diameter, more or less deeply lination and flower opening take place in the early 3-, 5- or 7-lobed. Flowers solitary in the leaf axils morning. For vegetable use, the fruits are picked or in pseudoracemes by reduction of the upper about one week after anthesis. It takes about one leaves, yellow, self-fertile; epicalyx of 7-15 free, month from anthesis to mature fruit. In the seed 26 A SELECTION

crop, vegetative growth stops soon after anthesis, are Cercospora blight (C. abelmoschi and C. all assimilates being partitioned to the reproduc­ malayensis) and powdery mildew (e.g. Erysiphe tive plant parts. In the vegetable crop, the removal dehoracearum). of young fruits permits sustained vegetative Important pests are fruit and stem-borers (Earias growth, resulting in longer crop duration. In the spp., Heliothis spp.) and jassids (Empoasca spp.). West African okra, crop duration may exceed 12 Yellow-Vein Mosaic Virus (YVMV) is a major months. cause of crop failure in Asia, white fly (Bemisia Other botanical information A. esculentus (2n tabaci) being the vector. The high harvest fre­ = 130) is probably an amphidiploid (allotetra- quency makes chemical control hazardous. ploid), derived from A. tuberculatus Pal & Singh The West African okra is much more tolerant to (2n = 58), a wild species from India, and a still pests and diseases than the ordinary okra. unknown species with 2n = 72 chromosomes. The Harvesting The young fruits should be har­ West African okra has an even higher number of vested when 7-8 days old. Earlier picking chromosomes (2n = approximately 192 (184-200)). depresses yields because of suboptimal fruit It might be an allohexaploid, A. esculentus being weight. Delayed picking depresses (marketable) one of the parents. yields because over-aged fruits become fibrous. So Ecology A. esculentus needs temperatures okra isharveste d at intervals of 2-3 days. For seed above 20° C for normal growth and development. production, the whole crop can be harvested at Germination percentage and speed of emergence once. Intensive contact with the slightly hairy are optimal at 30-35°C . Flower initiation and fruits and plants often leads to skin irritation. flowering are delayed at higher temperatures (pos­ Yield Usually low (2-4 t/ha) owing to extensive itive correlation between temperature and number cultivation methods. A yield of 10t/h a can be con­ of vegetative nodes). A. esculentus is a 'short-day' sidered a good harvest, while yields over 30 t/ha plant, but its wide geographic distribution (up to can be realized under optimal conditions. latitudes of 35-40°) suggests that cultivars differ Handling after harvest Fresh okra canb e quite markedly in sensitivity. Flower initiation and easily transported in bulk and kept for several flowering are hardly affected by daylength in pop­ days without much loss of quality. Dried okra is ular subtropical cultivars such as 'Clemson Spine­ an important product in West Africa. Some devel­ less' (United States) and 'Pusa Sawani' (India). oped countries have a small canning and deep­ Most tropical cultivars show quantitative short- freeze industry. day responses, but qualitative responses also Genetic resources Germplasm base collections occur. Shortest critical daylength reported is 12 are maintained by USDA (Fort Collins, United hours 30 minutes. States), Nihort (Ibadan, Nigeria), Orstom (Abid­ The West African okra is considerably more sensi­ jan, Ivory Coast), NBPGR (New Delhi, India) and tive to photoperiod, explaining in part its limited IPB (Los Banos, Philippines). The West African geographical distribution (up to latitudes of okra has already been introduced in several Amer­ 10-15°) and longer crop duration. Shortest criti­ ican and Asian countries. cal daylength reported is 12hour s 15minutes . Breeding Work has been oriented towards Propagation and planting Propagation is by intensive cultivation with high production in a seed. To soften the hard seed-coat, sowing seed is short period (early maturity, high density plant­ often soaked in water or other chemicals. Sowing ing) and wide adaptation (photoperiod insensiti- is usually done by dibbling, in individual hills, di­ vity, resistance to pests and diseases). Several rectly in the field. Optimum plant densities for A. attractive American and Indian cultivars have esculentus are in the range of 50000-150000 found their way to commercial growers throug­ plants/ha. The robust West African okra should be hout the tropics and subtropics. Resistance to planted at 20000-5 000 0 plants/ha. many diseases and pests has been identified in Husbandry Commercial growers usually culti­ available okra germplasm, but not yet to YVMV, vate okra as a single crop. For home consumption, a major problem in Asia. a few plants are grown in home gardens or in fields Little attention has been given to the needs of the of other food crops. Indicative figures for total traditional sector (cultivation for home consump­ nutrient uptake (crop with fruit yield of 10 t/ha) tion), where hardy, robust, long-duration types are 100 kg N, 10 kg P, 60 kg K, 80 kg Ca and 40 such as the West African okra are required. The kgMg. characteristics of both okra species open up new Diseases and pests Most serious foliar diseases recombination opportunities. They cross readily ABRUS 27

in both directions and give vigorous hybrids; Properties The leaves contain 5-10% (dry these, however, show strongly reduced fertility. weight) of the sweetener glycyrrhizine, the same Prospects Okra will remain a welcome, produc­ amount as is found in the roots of true liquorice tive (sub)tropical fresh vegetable. Thediscover y of (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.). The roots ofIndia n liquor­ a second edible species in West Africa calls for a ice contain only 1.5 % of this sweetener. The seeds detailed study of its potential. Okra improvement contain the toxalbumin abrine, which is composed will also benefit greatly from a better understand­ of different fractions, and flavonoids and glyco­ ing of the phylogeny and species relations within sides. the genus Abelmoschus. Botany A slender-branched, winding, woody Literature |lj Charrier, A., 1984. Genetic climber. Leaves paripinnate, 8-17 jugate; leaflets resources of Abelmoschus (okra). IBPGR, Rome. ovate to obovate, 6-25 mm x 3-9 mm. Flowers 61pp . |2|Martin , F.W. &Ruberté , R., 1978. Vegeta­ pale purple, crowded, in axillary, sickle-shaped, bles for the hot humid tropics. Part 2. Okra, Abel- stalked inflorescences; stamens only 9, united. moschus esculentus. Mayaguez Institute of Tropi­ Pods up to 5c m long, bulgy, with 3-7 seeds. Seeds cal Agriculture, Puerto Rico. 22pp . |3| Siemonsma, ovoid, glossy, scarlet, black around hilum. J.S., 1982.Wes t African Okra - Morphological and Experiments have been carried out on germina­ cytogenetical indications for the existence of a tion (especially to break dormancy), vegetative natural amphidiploid of Abelmoschus esculentus propagation and growth. There are no data on In­ (L.) Moench and A. manihot (L.) Medikus. Euphy- dian liquorice as a field crop. tica 31:241-252. |4| Siemonsma, J.S., 1982. La cul­ Verdcourt divided the species into two subspecies, ture du gombo (Abelmoschus spp.), Légume-fruit separating the African material as subspecies afri- tropical (avec référence spéciale à la Côte canus. He based his division on some minor differ­ d'Ivoire). Thesis Wageningen Agricultural Uni­ ences in the pod characteristics, which, however, versity. 297pp . are not restricted to either Africa or Asia. The (J.S.Siemonsma)

Abrus precatorius L.

Syst. 2:47 2(1767) . LEGUMINOSAE In = 22 Vernacular names Indian liquorice, jequirity bean, rosary pea, crab's eye (En). Jéquirity, liane reglisse(Fr) .Indonesia : saga. Malaysia: akar saga. Philippines: saga. Burma: ywe-nge. Cambodia: ângkreem. Laos:makam . Thailand: ma klam tanu. Vietnam: cuöm thao. Origin and geographic distribution Probable origin Africa, where most species of Abrus Adans. occur, now found throughout the tropics. Uses The leaves are used as liquorice, the black- scarlet seeds in ornaments, in soldering jewellery, but also as a poison. The main use, however, is me­ dicinal, and both the leaves and seeds, sometimes also the roots, are used. The leaves have several pharmaceutical properties and are used, for instance, to treat inflammations and tumours, and as an antibiotic and antitoxic. An extract from the seeds has long been used to treat eye diseases. Production and international trade Al­ though Indian liquorice is sometimes cultivated for the sweetening properties of the leaves or for Abrus precatorius L. - 1, young branch; 2, inflores­ its medicinal uses, production data are not known. cence; 3,bunch offruits; 4, seeds. 28 A SELECTION seeds are not always red with a black eye. Entirely plantations in Indonesia before the 1940s. The white seeds and black seeds with a white eye have bark is also used to prepare fine beverages (arak); also been reported from India. its strongfibre s arelocall y utilized forfishin g nets. Ecology Indian liquorice occurs mainly in mon­ The consumption of cooked, germinated seeds as soon regions, in tree savannah, shrub savannah, vegetable (hale) is reported from Java. Stem and gallery forest, and as a weed in plantations and cul­ roots produce a gum which is used for medicinal tivated lands. purposes. The pods and foliage are a protein-rich Prospects Especially in the seventies, extensive fodder source. In Tamil Nadu (India) farmers culti­ research has been carried out on Abrusprecatorius vateA. leucophloea for soilimprovement . The trees to elucidate its chemical composition and the are also planted around timber plantations as fire structure and properties of the seed constituents protection. and to a lesser extent those ofth e leaves and roots. Production and international trade In former Their toxic properties (e.g. to produce insecti­ times A. leucophloea was grown commercially for cides), their anti-cancer and anti-leukemia effects, tannin production. Nowadays, the species is no and their effects on male and female fertility of ani­ longer considered commercially interesting and mals, have been studied. Notably the anti-cancer production figures are difficult to give. Internatio­ effects have been reported as rather high. nal trade is absent. Literature |1| Breteler, F.J., 1960. Revision of Properties The bark contains 11-20% tannin, Abrus Adanson (Pap.) with special reference to with an average of 15% ; the content is highest in Africa. Blumea 10:607-624. |2|Karnick , CR., 1978. older trees. The tannin is difficult to extract, so Responses of lunar phases on the growth of Abrus the tanning process is slow. Because ofit s low con­ precatorius Linn. (Leguminosae) and its effects as tent of sugar-like components, the tannin has crude drug on diseases. Acta Horticulturae hardly any acid-forming properties. The tannin 73:239-247. Spices and medicinal plants. |3| Verd- colours leather red; the red colour darkens easily court, B., 1970.Studie s in the Leguminosae - Papi- in light. In tanneries pilang bark was often used lionoideae for the 'Flora of Tropical East Africa': mixed with trengguli bark (Cassia fistula L.). After II. Kew Bulletin 24(2):235-253. the Second World War, in Indonesia pilang bark (F.J. Breteler) was replaced by the better tanning bark of Acacia mearnsii de Wild, (black wattle). Fodder contains 1.9 % digestible fats, 7.1% digest­ Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. ible proteins and 12.4% digestible carbohydrates. Hydrocyanic acid content of the fodder varies Sp.PI .4:108 3(1806) . throughout the year. In India, values ranging from LEGUMINOSAE zero (December) to 240 mg/kg hydrocyanic acid In = unknown (May/June) have been measured for the leaves, Synonyms Mimosa leucophloea Roxb. (1800). and values over 400 mg/kg for the pods from Vernacular names Indonesia: pilang (Java, October - April (with a maximum of almost 1000 Sunda), opilan (Madura), pelang (Madura, Bali). mg/kg in November). Whenever hydrocyanic acid Burma: ta-noung. Cambodia: sambue. Thailand: content exceeds 200 mg/kg, the fodder should not cha laep daeng (central), phayaa mai (Kanchana- be used as the sole source of animal feed. buri). Vietnam: a bu, a kawa (Thuan Hai). The roots bear nodules with nitrogen-fixing micro­ Origin and geographic distribution A. leu­ organisms. Seed weight is about 3700 0 seeds/kg. cophloea is native to large parts of South and Description Deciduous tree or erect shrub, South-East Asia, where it is found in Burma, Thai­ 10-35 m high, with deep tap-root, few secondary land, Vietnam, Indonesia (Java, Timor, Sumbawa), roots, pale bark and broadly umbelliform crown. India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Young trees are often densely beset with thorny Uses The wood of A. leucophloea is used for suckers; lower branches armed with paired indoor construction and, although a little hard to straight or faintly curved stipular thorns, usually work, for furniture. It is also highly appreciated dark brown or black, less often white, up to 2.5 cm asfirewoo d and iswel l suited for charcoal burning. long. Leaves bipinnate, pinnae 4-13 pairs, rachis The tannin-containing bark was used in the 3.5-8.5 cmlong ;leaflet s linear, 3-11m m x 0.5-1.7 leather industry in Indonesia, and less so in India, mm, 6-30 pairs. until the middle of this century. Mainly for this Inflorescences yellowish white subglobose heads, purpose, the tree was cultivated in commercial ca. 1 cm in diam., in large terminal densely hairy ACACIA 29

Ecology The ecological amplitude of A. leuco­ phloea is wide: it occurs in areas with a pro­ nounced East Monsoon, under semi-arid (600 mm rainfall/year) to humid (2000 mm) conditions, at altitudes ranging from sea-level to 550m ,o n sandy- marl to heavy clay-marl soils. The plants need much light and space to develop into mature trees. In the wild, the tree occurs individually and some­ times groupwise in heterogeneous, deciduous for­ ests on soils with a moderate to low fertility. It is never found in evergreen, closed forests on fertile soil.A. leucophloea withstands soils that are perio­ dically very dry, and soils with compaction fea­ tures, because of the adaptibility of its root system to poor oxygen availability. It does not survive on poorly drained sites. Propagation and planting Plantations of A. leucophloea are established by direct sowing of seeds, using 10-12 seeds per hole, at 2 m x 1 m. If enough space and light are available, abundant natural regeneration has been observed in Tamil Nadu (India) with 1000 seedlings/ha. Management In monoculture plantations, A. leucophloea needs intensive and expensive mainte­ nance to suppress the heavy undergrowth that de­ velops owing to the little shading provided by the trees. Planting in combination with a creeper that gives effective soil cover, or intercropping with Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. - 1, flowering other species that provide more shade in the youth branch; 2, fruit. phase, is advised. In mixed plantations, however, accompanying species should be carefully selected panicles up to 30 cm long; peduncles 0.4-1.3 cm since A. leucophloea iseasil y oppressed on account long. Flowers sessile, calyx 0.8-1.2 mm, corolla of its slow growth when young. In combination 1.2-2 mm long; stamens 20-25. Fruits linear, with other species, planting in small groups is rec­ faintly curved or straight, 6-15 (-20) cm x 7-11 ommended. mm x 3mm ,woody , glabrescent, dark brown, 5-12 Diseases and pests Seed-borne rust infections (-20)-seeded, indéhiscent. Seeds very variable, by Hapalophragmiopsis ponderosum cause amor­ orbicular, ellipsoid or trapezoid, 5.5-6.5m m x 4-5 phous, tumorous galls. The seed of A. leucophloea mm, compressed, greyish-brown. may be seriously infected by a small weevil of the Wood characteristics The heartwood is beauti­ genus Caryoborus and by a bruchid beetle. Cater­ fully red, the sapwood is grey white. The wood is pillar plagues have also been observed. The species strong (class II in Indonesia) and durable (class III is fire resistant and the bark recovers easily. in Indonesia) when used indoors. In contact with Harvesting For tannin production, the bark is moist soil, it decays quickly. Volumetric mass is stripped at the beginning of the growing season 710-890 kg/m3. because high water content facilitates the process. Growth and development Only a small propor­ The bark is cut into pieces of 50 cm x 10 cm, and tion ofth e seeds germinates. Pretreatment of seeds dried in the sun for 2-3 days. The bark loses one- with hot water improves germination. Up to 75 third ofit s original weight. days have been reported in Indonesia for pre- Yield Production figures from plantations in treated seeds to germinate. Flowering is at the end Indonesia with a rotation length of 12 years indi­ of the rainy season/beginning of the dry season. cate an annual wood production of ca. 15 m3/ha Leaf fall occurs for aver y short period in the begin­ (whole tree), 11m 3/ha thick wood (dbh > 7cm ) and ning of the rainy season. There is some disagree­ 9 m3/ha clear bole. Dry bark yield ranges from 8 ment in the literature as to whether the trees bear kg/tree for diameter class 10-14 cm to 81 kg/tree fruit every year. 32 A SELECTION tings should preferably betake n from young plants Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. or low branches of young trees. Plagiotropy, how­ ever, is a problem for propagation of other than Sp. PI. (ed. 4)1:1 2(1797) . seed-orchard trees. Root suckers can be produced ZlNGIBERACEAE several times from potted seedlings and are consid­ 2n = 48 ered the most successful. Synonyms Maranta galanga L. (1762), Languas Management Young trees seem to be sensitive vulgare Koenig (1783), Amomum galanga (L.) to grass-root competition. The root system needs Lour. (1790),Languas galanga (L.) Stuntz (1912). much oxygen. Vernacular names Galanga, greater galangal Diseases and pests Buds and young cones are (En). Galanga (Fr).Indonesia : laos, laja, lengkuas. damaged by caterpillars. Several fungal diseases Malaysia: lengkuas, puar. Philippines: langkauas, in other Agathis spp.ar e associated with waterlog­ palla. Burma: padagoji. Cambodia: komdeng, pras. ging. Laos:kha . Thailand: kha. Harvesting Trees smaller than 0.25 m diameter Origin and geographic distribution The exact should not be tapped. Best tapping results are origin of galanga is unknown, but oldest reports obtained by making diagonal cuts in the bark, 0.2 about its use and existence come from southern m long and 0.4 m apart, with a special tool, and China and Java. At present it is cultivated in all catching the copal in tins. It is easy to kill trees South-East Asian countries and in India, Bangla­ by destructive tapping. Resin flow goes on for sev­ desh, China and Surinam. eral months, even in the light, and can be stimulat­ Uses Galanga is principally used as a spice. It ed by applications of sulphuric acid. has a strong pungent taste like a mixture of pepper Yield Annual yield of large trees can be 10-20 and ginger. Its rhizomes are very common and said kg of resin per tree. to be indispensable in everyday cooking throug­ Genetic resources Genetic resources are hout South Asia. The flowers and young shoots are endangered by heavy logging and destructive tap­ used as a vegetable or again as a spice. The rhi­ ping. zomes have a wide range of applications in tradi­ Breeding Breeding is hampered by the long tional medicine, e.g. in case of skin diseases, indi­ reproductive cycle. gestion, colic, dysentery, enlarged spleen, Prospects Although this tree is not yet culti­ respiratory diseases, cancers of mouth and stom­ vated outside New Guinea, the prospects seem to ach, for treatment of systemic infections and chol­ be promising. era, as expectorant, and after childbirth. The rhi­ Literature |1| Bowen, M.R. & Whitmore, T.C., zomes have also been used as an aphrodisiac, for 1980. A second look at Agathis. Commonwealth other stimulating properties and as a veterinary Forestry Institute Occasional Papers No 13. medicine. The rhizomes and the essential oil iso­ Oxford. 19pp . |2|Fundter , J.M. &Wisse , J.H., 1977. lated from them are used to flavour liquors, ice­ 40belangrijk e houtsoorten uit Indonesisch Nieuw cream, pastry, etc. The fruits of galanga are used Guinea (Irian Jaya), met de anatomische en tech­ locally as a substitute for true cardamom. nische kenmerken. [Forty important timber spe­ Production and international trade Data cies from Indonesian New Guinea (Irian Jaya) about production, consumption and trade are with their anatomical and technical characteris­ scarce and unreliable because often no distinction tics.] Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wage­ is made between A. galanga and A. officinarum ningen, Nederland. 77-9:33-36. |3| Lundquist, E., Hance. Production in South-East Asia must be 1948. Onderzoekingen betreffende een nieuwe tap- considerable as it is a common spice used daily by methode voor copal. [Investigations on a new tap­ millions of people. It is mostly cultivated in home ping method of copal.] (With English summary). gardens. Tectona 38. 8 pp. |4| Meijer Drees, E., 1940. The India exported in 1978-197946 1galang a rhizomes, genus Agathis in Malaysia. Bulletin du Jardin worth 220.5 thousand Rupees. The Netherlands Botanique Buitenzorg, Serie 3, 16:455- 474. |5| imports at least 100 t fresh rhizomes and 25-30 t Whitmore, T.C., 1977.A firs t look at Agathis. Com­ dried rhizomes per annum. Main suppliers are monwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford. Tropical Thailand, Indonesia and India. Price fluctuates be­ Forestry Papers No 11.5 4 pp. |6| Whitmore, T.C., tween US$ 1an d US$ 2.5pe r kg dry weight. 1980. A monograph of Agathis. Plant Systematics Properties Composition of air-dried rhizomes and Evolution 135:41-69. (% of dry weight): moisture content 14, total ash (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand) 9,solubl e matter in 80% ethanol 49,solubl e matter ALPINIA 33 in water 19, total sugar 9, total nitrogen 3, total protein 16. Essential oil content ranges from 0.2 to 1.5 % (of dry weight); fresh rhizomes yield 0.1 % of oil. Camphor, cineole (20-30 %) and methyl cin- namate (48% ) have been described as oil compo­ nents in older literature. In studies performed in the 1980's, the presence of 1,8-cineole as main com­ ponent was confirmed, but the other two com­ pounds were not detected. Studies, mostly in vitro, on the biological activities of the rhizomes revealed among other things antibacterial, anti­ fungal, antiprotozoal, and expectorant activities. l'-Acetoxychavicol acetate, a component of fresh and freshly dried rhizomes, proved to be active against dermatophytes. Recently, the same com­ pound and another constituent of the rhizomes, l'-acetoxyeugenol acetate, were found to be anti- tumour-active in mice (against Sarcoma 180 ascites). Earlier, the same compounds had been isolated from galanga fruits; they showed an anti­ ulcer activity in Shay rats, while the chavicol de­ rivative also depressed the gastric secretion of those rats. The oil has also shown an interesting potential as insecticide against houseflies. Description A robust, tillering, perennial weed up to 3.5 m high with subterraneous, creeping, copiously branched rhizomes. Rhizomes 2-4 cm in diameter, hard, shining, light red or pale yellow. Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. 1, rhizome; 2, branch Pseudostem erect, formed by the leaf sheaths. with inflorescence. Leaves alternate, distichous, lowest and upper­ most ones smallest; blades oblong-lanceolate, ter half of the hot season (April-May) and seeds (20-) 50 (-60) cm x (4-) 9 (-15) cm, shiny green, ripen, though rarely, in November. densely white-dotted. Inflorescence terminal, Other botanical information In the literature, erect, many-flowered, racemiform, 10-30 cm x the name A. galanga (L.) Swartz is often found. 5-7 cm. Flowers fragrant, 3-4 cm long, yellowish- Swartz, however, published on this species in 1791 white; calyx tubular; corolla tube terete, about 1 with the name Maranta galanga L. and he did not cm long, lobes 3, recurved, oblong-lanceolate, 1.5 transfer the genus name to Alpinia L. Most proba­ cm x 0.6 cm, margins ciliate; staminodes 3-lobed, bly several cultivars exist, but clear descriptions central lobe (labellum) petaloid, spathulate, 1.5-2 are not available. Cultivars with yellowish-white cm x 0.5-0.75 cm, undulate crenate with a stalk­ and with pink to red rhizomes are known. The like base and a recurved apex, lateral lobes 2, subu­ white cultivar reaches about 3 m height, with late, 0.7-0.8 cm long, reddish; stamen 1,erec t with stems of 2.5 cm and rhizomes of 3-4 cm diameter. incurved anther, 2-2.5 cm long; style slightly lon­ The red cultivar reaches 1-1.5 m height, with ger than stamen, stigma obtriangular. Fruits stems up to 1c m and rhizomes up to 2c m diameter, spherical-ellipsoid, 1-1.5 cm in diameter, yellow. but white-rhizomed cultivars with such character­ Growth and development Shoots of planted istics are also reported. rhizome parts emerge about 1wee k after planting. Plants with broad leaves, tomentose beneath, are About 4 weeks after planting, 2-3 leaves have de­ sometimes distinguished as var. pyramidata (Bl.) veloped. The rhizome develops quickly and K. Schum., a variety which seems to occur both reaches its best harvest quality 3 months after wild and cultivated on Java, Borneo and the Phi­ planting. If left longer in the field, the rhizomes lippines. become too fibrous and large tufts of plants are A. officinarum Hance (lesser galangal) can be dis­ formed. Flowering occurs after exceptionally dry tinguished from A. galanga asfollows : its rhizomes weather. In India, plants start flowering in the lat- are dark brown to black, 8-12 mm in diameter with 34 A SELECTION

4-6 mm long, finely ridged internodes; besides the tion of 'Indische Groenten', 1931]. Asher & Co. rhizomes, the plant, too, is smaller, 1-1.5 m tall. B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 730-732. |4|Janssen , A.M. & Ecology Galanga demands a sunny or modera­ Scheffer, J.J.C., 1985.Acetoxychavico l acetate, an tely shady place. Soils should be fertile and humid antifungal component of Alpinia galanga. Planta but not swampy. The wild or half-wild varieties Medica 51:507-511. occur in old clearings, in thickets and in forests. (J.J.C. Scheffer, G.J.A.W. van der Zandt & The plant occurs up to 1200 m above sea-level in P.C.M. Jansen) the tropics. Propagation and planting Longtop-end s of the rhizome are used for propagation. The soil should Amaranthus L. be well tilled before planting. Often, trenches are dug to drain the field after rains, as the rhizome Sp. PL: 989 (1753);Gen . PL ed. 5:427(1754) . does not develop in marshy soils. Galanga is AMARANTHACEAE mainly a smallholders crop, usually planted along 2n = 34 (A. tricolor); In = 64 (A. dubius); 2n = the borders of gardens, in rows at distances of 32(A. cruentus). 0.5-1 m square. Major species and synonyms Husbandry Weeding and subsequently ear- - Amaranthus blitum L. cv. group Oleraceus, syn­ thing-up of the rhizomes are done 1 month and 2 onyms: A. lividus L. (1753),A. blitum L.var . oler­ months after planting. aceus (L.) Hook. f. (1885); Harvesting If produced for the market, the rhi­ - Amaranthus cruentus L., Syst. Plantarum ed.10 , zomes are harvested 3 months after planting. The 2: 1269 (1759), synonyms: A. paniculatus L. whole plants are pulled out, the shoots are cut off (1763), A. hybridus L. ssp. cruentus (L.) Thell. and the rhizomes washed and cleaned. If the rhi­ (1912); zomes become more than 4 months old, they turn - Amaranthus dubius C. Martius ex Thell., Fl. woody, fibrous and spongy and lose their value as Adv. Montpellier: 203(1912) ; spice. For local use, the plants are left in the field - Amaranthus tricolor L., Sp. PL: 989 (1753), syn­ and as the plants tiller much, small quantities of onyms: A. tristis L. (1753), A. mangostanus L. good quality rhizome can always be harvested. (1755),A. gangeticus L. (1759). Handling after harvest The rhizomes are Vernacular names Amaranth (En). Amarante offered tomarket s fresh or dried. The dried product (Fr). Indonesia and Malaysia: bayam. Philippines: is usually ground before use, but ground rhizomes kulitis. Cambodia: phti:. Thailand: phak khom are not traded in bulk as adulteration can occur, suan. Vietnam: rau dên. e.g. with A. officinarum. Origin and geographic distribution The Prospects For the local market in South-East genus is widely distributed. Typical vegetable Asia, galanga continues to be an important spice. amaranths (A. tricolor, A. dubius, A. blitum) origi­ Further agronomic and botanical research is nate from South-East Asia but have been carried urgently needed to gain better information about to other regions by emigrants. A. cruentus is origi­ its requirements, its variability and its potentiali­ nally a cereal amaranth from Latin America, cur­ ties. Existing trade evidences Western interest in rently grown as a main vegetable amaranth in good-quality galanga. Further studies on the bio­ Africa. By far the most important species in South- logical activities of the rhizomes, on their useful­ East Asia is A. tricolor, followed by A. dubius and ness in (traditional) medicine and on their poten­ A. cruentus. tial as insecticide may give rise to cultivation on Uses The main use is as a leafy vegetable. It is a larger scale. very common in the whole of South-East Asia, Literature |1| Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary more in lowland than in highland areas. Besides of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) it isth e most Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala popular leafy vegetable of Indonesia and Malay­ Lumpur. 2nd ed. pp. 1327-1332. |2|Heyne , K., 1927. sia. It is an important vegetable in many tropical De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië. [The countries, for example India, Bangladesh, Sri useful plants of the Dutch Indies]. Departement Lanka, Tanzania, Uganda, Nigeria, other West Af­ van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Neder- rican countries, and the Caribbean. Various ama­ landsch-Indië, Batavia. 2nd ed. pp. 480-481. |3| ranth species with light-coloured seeds, such as A. Ochse, J.J. &Bakhuize n van den Brink, R.C., 1980. hypochondriacus L., A. cruentus and A. caudatus Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies [English edi­ L., are traditionally grown in Central and South AMARANTHUS 35

America, mostly in mountain areas but also at low altitude, as a minor cereal crop. Thinnings of young seedlings from the cereal crop are fre­ quently used as greens. Many wild Amaranthus species are used as pot herbs. A. tricolor forms with red, yellow and green coloured leaves or leaf sec­ tions, and forms of A. caudatus and A. cruentus with large bright-red inflorescences are used as ornamentals. Amaranthus weeds are used for fod­ der (pigweed). Vegetable amaranths are recom­ mended as a good food with medicinal properties for young children, lactating mothers, and for pa­ tients with fever, haemorrhage, anaemia or kidney complaints. The wild A. spinosus L. is used as a depurative, against venereal diseases and as a dressing on boils. Production and international trade Al­ though considered a poor man's food, its economic value as a popular vegetable probably ranks among the ten highest in South-East Asia. Few exact economic data are available, since in most cases all leaf vegetables are recorded as one single group. Indonesian statistics in 1985 attributed 3950 0 ha to amaranth grown for the city markets. The short growing period (3-6 weeks) and multiple places with small areas per farmer and very scat­ Amaranthus tricolor L. branch with leaves and tered sales in small street markets hamper correct flowers. registration. Amaranth is widely grown on a small scale in home gardens and in open places in be­ mens, as many as tepals (male flowers), or ovate tween field crops. or oblong ovary with 2-3 (-4) stigmas (female Properties Amaranth leaves have a high con­ flowers). Fruit a dry capsule, dehiscent or indéhis­ tent of essential micro-nutrients. They are an cent. Seeds shining black or brown. excellent source of ß-carotene with 4-8 mg per 100 A. tricolor. Leaves elliptic to lanceolate, dark g edible portion, vitamin C 60-120 mg, iron 4-9 green, light green or red. Clusters of flowers axil­ mg, and calcium 300-450 mg.The y are rich in fibre lary, with a reduced terminal spike.Tepal s 3. Fruit and folic acid and their protein content (20-38 % dehiscent, with a circumscissile lid. based on dry matter) includes methionine and A. dubius. Leaves ovate or rhomboid-ovate, other sulphur-containing amino-acids. The gener­ shortly cuneate at base, dark green. Lower clus­ al dry matter content ishig h (12-16 %). The leaves ters of flowers axillary, upper clusters leafless and and stems have nitrate and oxalate levels similar in lax panicled spikes. Tepals (3-) 5. Fruit dehis­ to other green leaf vegetables such as spinach (Spi- cent, with a circumscissile lid. nacia oleracea L.) and spinach beet (Beta vulgaris A. cruentus. Leaves lanceolate, acute and often L.), but no adverse nutritional effects occur at a short-decurrent at base, greyish-green. Clusters of consumption of 100-200 g per day. The composi­ flowers in large axillary and terminal panicled tion varies greatly with cultivar, soil fertility, spikes. Tepals 5. Fruit dehiscent, with a circum­ water supply, and age at harvest. Average weight scissile lid. of 1000seed s varies between 300an d 450mg . A. blitum cv. group Oleraceus. Leaves (ob)ovate Description Amaranthus. Erect annuals, up to or rhomboid-(ob)ovate, shortly cuneate at base, 1.5 m high, with a strongly branched tap-root. green or more or less purple. Lower clusters of Stems branched. Leaves alternate, long-petiolate, flowers axillary, upper clusters leafless and in simple and entire. Flowers in axillary clusters, axillary and terminal panicled spikes. Tepals 3 upper clusters often leafless and in panicled (-5). Fruit indéhiscent or at last bursting irregu­ spikes, unisexual, solitary in the axil of a bract, larly. with 2 bracteoles, 3-5 tepals and either free sta- Growth and development Emergence takes 38 A SELECTION fruit salads, and a drink isprepare d from the juice. CNSL contains 90% anacardic acid and 10% car- Cashew wine (slightly fermented juice) colours life dol. Some persons are allergic to cardol; no CNSL at harvest time and can be distilled to produce should exude from the shell during processing! The strong alcoholic drinks. juice ofth e cashew apple isric h in riboflavin (vita­ By-products are seed-coats and shells. Seed-coats min B2),ascorbi c acid (vitamin C)an d calcium. are utilized as animal feed. An oil,cashe w nut shell Description Evergreen tree, up to 12 m high, liquid (CNSL),i sproduce d in large cells ofth e peri­ with a wide dome-shaped crown. Taproot up to 3 carp; it has industrial applications and is used as m deep, persistent; lateral roots spreading beyond a preservative to treat, for instance, wooden struc­ the crown projection, with sinker roots to a depth tures and fishing nets. The residue of the shell is of6 m . Stem branching, main trunk 0.5-1.5 m long. often used as fuel in the CNSL extraction plants. Foliage and inflorescences at the outside of the Cashew wood is used as fuel or as a low-quality crown. Leaves alternate, obovate to obovate- timber. The bark contains tannins. Wounded trees oblong, up to 20 cm x 15 cm, leathery, red brown exude a gum which is used as an adhesive (wood­ when young, later shining dark green , glabrous, work panels, plywood, bookbinding), partly with prominent midrib and veins; petiole 1-2 cm because it has insecticidal properties. Young long, swollen at base, flattened on upper surface. leaves and shoots are eaten, both fresh and cooked. Inflorescence a lax terminal, drooping, many-flow­ All parts of the tree are also used in traditional ered panicle, up to 25 cm long with fragrant male medicine. and hermaphrodite flowers; sepals 5,lanceolat e to Production and international trade Early in oblong-ovate, 4-15 mm x 1-2 mm, pubescent; the 19th Century cashew became a commercial petals 5, linear-lanceolate, 7-13 mm x 1-1.5 mm, commodity, mainly channelled through India, reflexed, whitish at anthesis, later turning pin­ where most East African nuts were processed. In­ kish-red; stamens 10; male flowers with 7-9 sta­ dian export of cashew kernels rose to 2000 0 t in mens of 4m m and 1-3 stamens of 6-10 mm length; 1940, equivalent to 100000 t of raw nuts, of which hermaphrodite flowers usually with 9 short and 1 around a third was imported from East Africa. From 1960 onwards, processing plants were set up in East Africa following expansion of cashew growing. World production of raw nuts rose from 125000 1i n 1955t o 365000 1i n 1986,majo r contribu­ tions being made by East Africa (25 %), Brazil (33%) and India (38%). Cashew is a well-known backyard tree in South- East Asia. Only recently has it received attention as a crop. In 1981Indonesi a had 13846 3h a cashew (increasing to 20730 0 ha in 1985), Thailand 2672 0 ha and the Philippines 3790 ha. Indonesia, by far the largest grower in the region, grows a sizeable proportion of the crop in plantations. Production figures for Indonesia (with a high proportion of young trees) work out at a mean yield of 350 kg/ha, against a surprisingly high figure of 1000kg/h a for the Philippines. In Burma, nucleus plantations covering 2800 ha are planned in the south, a large expansion in relation to the national growing area of 1040h a (producing 5001)i n 1985. Properties The raw cashew nut contains the seed with a papery seed-coat, accounting respec­ tively for 20-30% and 2-3% of the raw nut weight; this leaves 70-75 % for the nutshell. Raw nuts weigh 4-8 g; individual specimens may reach 15 g. The seed contains 21% protein and 35-45 % oil.Th e oilcontain s 60-74 % oleic acid and 20-8 % Anacardium occidentale L. 1, flowering branch; linoleic acid. 2, fruit. ANACARDIUM 39 long stamen; long stamens produce viable pollen; Propagation and planting Fully mature nuts style simple, 12 mm long, exserted from corolla to serve as plant material. Nuts with a low moisture same length as long stamens. content will remain viable for a year. Seed is taken Fruit a kidney shaped nut, about 3 cm x 1.2 cm, from the best trees. However, seed from open-polli­ with grey-brown, resinous hard pericarp; pedicel nated trees isno t true to type. Various ways of clo­ much enlarged and swollen, forming the fruit-like nal propagation are feasible, i.e. marcotting and cashew apple, pear-shaped, 10-20 cm long, 4-8 cm layering. Some success isbein g obtained with bud­ broad, shiny, red toyellow , soft andjuicy . Seed kid­ ding (about 30% take) and with top grafting. Cut­ ney-shaped with reddish-brown testa, two large tings have been rooted, but results could not be white cotyledons and a small embryo together con­ duplicated on a field scale. Recently the first suc­ stituting the kernel, the cashew or cashew nuts of cesses have been obtained with tissue culture commerce. propagation at Gembloux, Belgium. Growth and development Three weeks after Planting holes may be shallow on loose-textured sowing the seedling emerges. The radicle ruptures soil. Otherwise the hole should be 50 cm deep and the pericarp at its stalk end and extracts the hypo- some farmyard manure mixed in. Three seeds are cotyl and the cotyledons. The root grows fast, planted 5 cm deep; the best seedling is retained. maintaining a depth of 1.5 times the height of the Clonal plant material should beplante d with much shoot. The seedling stem branches soon and prun­ care, as establishment is slow. Cashew trees are ing may be needed to attain a trunk height of commonly spaced 12-15 m apart (44-69 trees/ha). 0.5-1.5 m. Spacing experiments have shown that at ten years The lower limbs reach a length of 6m or more and of age, productivity in plots with 44, 69, 111, 135 may be torn off during storms. The shoots grow in and 278 trees per ha was about 450 kg/ha. Larger flushes. A major flush follows the onset of the tree size compensated for smaller numbers of trees. rainy season and the growing tip of many shoots It is the canopy surface area of the orchard that forms an inflorescence within 3-4 months. Anthe- is ofoverridin g importance in determining produc­ sis of the first flower occurs about 5 weeks later. tivity, for that is where flowers and fruits are Further flowers (up to 1100!) open over the next formed. Hedgerows of trees planted at 2-3 m 5-6 weeks. The percentage of hermaphrodite within the row and 12-15 m between the rows flowers may reach 12-16%. The fruit takes 2 almost doubled the canopy surface area per ha, months to develop. Later in the wet season flush­ resulting in a corresponding increase in yield over ing becomes less regular, usually from lateral buds the first ten years. The optimum width ofth e inter- of the earlier flush. When two distinct dry seasons rows depends on climatic conditions and on plant­ occur the trees may gothroug h two flowering peri­ ing material. ods. Out-of-season flowering is fairly common. Husbandry Careful weeding - cleaning the area Other botanical information Individual trees within 1 mo fth e trunk and slashing the remainder may consistently produce upt o four times the aver­ - is essential until the trees shade out most of the age yield per tree. Such outstanding trees have weeds. Fertilizers promote the growth of the seed­ been selected for vegetative propagation, but as lings and advance the onset of flowering in young yet there is little information on the clones. Dis­ trees. With a production ofsom e 420k g ofra w nuts tinct cultivars have not so far emerged. In Kenya, per ha, 13 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of P205 and 3 kg of budded material from selection 'A 81' has main­ K20 are removed. These low figures suggest that tained its superior yielding ability. fertilizing is unlikely to be required. When higher Ecology Cashew requires high temperatures; yields are realized, nutrients may become limiting. frost is deleterious. Of importance is the distribu­ Little pruning is practised in cashew. From the tion of rainfall; the quantity is less important. Ca­ sixth year onwards, the lower limbs may be shew fruits well if rains are not abundant during removed to allow access for tractor drawn imple­ flowering, and nuts mature in a dry period; the lat­ ments, etc. The removal of such limbs, lifting the ter assures goodkeepin g quality. The tree can adapt canopy skirt to a height of 2m , entails yield losses to very dry conditions as long as its extensive root of 10%. system has access to soil moisture. In drier areas Economic life of cashew orchards is 25 years. Re­ (annual rainfall 800-1000 mm), a deep and well planting is costly and leads to loss of income for drained soil without impervious layers is essential. at least five years. An alternative is to raise ca­ A simple water budget with the aid of pan evapora­ shew in hedgerows. This increases the canopy sur­ tion figures will show the required soil depth. face area per ha. The resulting high productivity 40 A SELECTION can be maintained by coppicing alternate hedge­ ly. Nuts should be gathered at least weekly. For rows at 50-75 cm when adjacent hedgerows are efficient collection, the area under the tree should within 1 m distance of each other. The stumped be free from weeds and swept clean. hedges will resume production in the second year. After removal of the cashew apple, the nuts are Hedgerows may also be grubbed to be replaced sun-dried to reduce moisture from 25t o below 9 %. with superior selections. The replanted hedgerows With proper drying, the kernel retains its quality, come into production after 5 years. However, du­ in particular the flavour. The nuts should not ring that time the remaining hedgerows can absorb moisture during storage; equilibrium mois­ expand fully and reach top yields. When the gap ture content for cashew nuts is about 9% at 27° C between hedges again becomes less than 1 m the and a relative humidity of7 0% . The cashew apples overextending hedgerows begin to decline and ripen before raw nuts are mature. Picking has to should be cut back, giving ample room for expan­ be done almost daily. sion of the rejuvenated/replanted hedgerows. This Yield Yields of seedling trees are low in South- system allows continuous cropping at higher than East Asia as elsewhere. Disregarding juvenile or normal productivity and gradually improving otherwise improductive trees, average yields in yield levels. An alternative isunde r test in Austra­ Indonesia from 1981 to 1985 ranged between 328 lia by maintaining hedgerows with tractor- and 420 kg of raw nuts/ha. At 70 trees/ha, this mounted pruning equipment. works out at 5.3 kg/tree. Farmers in southern Diseases and pests Under hot and humid condi­ Burma reported similar productivity, at 6.1 kg/ tions anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) tree. attacks young shoots and flowers, which dry up Although trees come into bloom soon after plant­ and are shed.Infection s ofth e fruits cause necrosis ing (92% of the trees flowering in their third year and shedding. This disease is often associated with at Tavoy, Burma), they are still so small that pro­ insects and/or other fungi. Control is by removal duction is negligible. Average yields per tree and burning of infected parts since fungicides are increase from 3k g at ages 3-5, to 4k g at ages 6-10, too costly. Selection of resistant material is proba­ 4.7 kg at ages 11-15 and 5.3 kg from the 16th-20th bly a better measure. Powdery mildew is prevalent year. From then on, yields decline particularly in cashew growing areas, also in Burma. Affected through breakage of limbs. plant parts become covered with white fungal World market prices have long been in the order growth. Leaves may shrivel, dry up and be shed. of US$ 7-8 per kg of processed nuts. Internal mar­ Similarly, loss of flowers may occur. The fungus kets (e.g. Burma at US$ 18) tend to be more lucra­ needs a humid environment and densely planted tive. The current expansion of the crop is likely trees may suffer more seriously than widely spaced to cover local needs soon. This may bring the price trees. Sulphur controls the disease, but even this down considerably, as has happened elsewhere. cheap fungicide is too costly. Handling after harvest Originally, processing Of particular importance in the African and Indi­ was done by hand. After roasting in oil (200°C) , an cashew production areas is the damage caused the nut was cracked with a wooden mallet. Crac­ by Helopeltis bugs. These insects suck the leaves, king is sometimes done with non-roasted nuts, but do most damage on inflorescences and young often contaminating the extracted kernels with fruits, leading to drying up of the inflorescences CNSL. In the sixties, factory-processing methods and shedding of fruits. Control by treatment with were introduced. The small-scale production in contact insecticides is possible, but prohibitively South-East Asia is suited to manual processing, expensive. often followed by sorting and packaging proce­ Many other fungi (damping-off, wilts) have been dures in central plants. Occasionally, mechanical recorded. Similarly, other pests may be locally de­ processing methods are applied, as in Surabaya, structive, e.g. wood-borers, stem girdlers or suck­ Indonesia. Modern automatic processing plants ing pests such as thrips. Nevertheless, such dis­ roast, shell, peel and grade mechanically. High in­ eases and pests are seldom of economic vestments, however, can only be recovered when importance. the plant's capacity is matched by securety of sup­ Harvesting Harvest is seasonal and lasts 2-3 ply- months, since flowering per inflorescence and per Roasting of the nut ruptures the large cells in the tree is protracted and trees do not reach full bloom shell containing CNSL. Processing without remo­ at the same time. Best quality is attained where val of CNSL automatically leads to rejection of the freshly fallen nuts are dried and stored immediate­ produce for export. After roasting, the shells are ANTHOCEPHALUS 41 cracked and the kernels freed; the seed-coat is phenology through the seasons will contribute to removed (peeled). The kernels are graded and our understanding of the crop, its adaptability, unscorched, clean kernels are carefully dried to a and possible measures to control pests and diseases. moisture content of around 5% . The export trade Literature [1| Achmad Abdullah, 1987. Studi requires packaging into 4-gallon metal containers Kasus, Tanaman Jambu Mente (Anacardium occi­ with carbon dioxide. dentale L.). Makalah Tanaman Buah-buahan Tro- Grading standards developed in India refer to pis. Kursus Singkat 5-19 November 1987. whole (undamaged) white kernels and indicate the Universitas Brawijaya, Malang. 49 pp. |2| Agno- number ofkernel s per pound ofweight . The largest loni, M. &Giuliano , F., 1977. Cashew cultivation. kernels come in grade W210 (440-460 kernels per Instituto Agronomico per l'Oltramare, Florence. kg), and the smallest of the 7 grades is W500 168 pp. |3|va n Eijnatten, C.L.M., 1983.Gros s mar­ (1000-1100 kernels per kg). Further classifications gins of cashew cultivation. Indian Cashew Journal refer to broken kernels, butts, splits, pieces, small June 1983. |4[ van Eijnatten, C.L.M. & Abubakar, pieces, and whether nuts are white or scorched. A.S., 1983. New cultivation techniques for cashew. Breeding Many selections ofhigh-yieldin g trees Netherlands Journal for Agricultural Science have been made and types of cashew described 31:13-25. |5| Lefebvre, A., 1970. Indications préli­ (based on characters of the apple). Assessments of minaires sur la fertilization de l'anacardier. Fruits seedling and clonal offspring are incomplete and 25(9):621-628. |6| Northwood, P.J., 1966. Some named cultivars are still to emerge. Data collected observations on flowering and fruit setting in the from individual - often solitary - trees can be very cashew, Anacardium occidentale L.Tropica l Agri­ misleading and tests have to be done in orchards. culture Trinidad 43(l):35-42. |7| Ohler, J.G., 1979. Resistance to major pests and diseases is an impor­ Cashew. Koninklijk Insituut voor de Tropen, tant selection criterion. During ten years of test­ Amsterdam. 260 pp. |8| Tsakiris, A. & Northwood, ing clonal and seedling progeny populations can P.J. , 1967.Cashe w nut production in southern Tan­ be reduced by culling unpromising material. Seed­ zania IV, the root system of the cashew nut tree. ling progeny from (interpollinating) remaining East African Agricultural & Forestry Journal trees constitutes basic material for a second selec­ 33:83-87. tion cycle, where possible complemented with (C.L.M. van Eijnatten) other source material. In this way a recurrent selection scheme, with a cycle of 10 years, can be established with continually improved breeding Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. populations. Nuts which are not needed for quality Rich, ex Walp. assessments can bedistribute d to growers as plant­ ing material. Repert. 2:49 1(1843) . Prospects Cashew nut is a product favoured in RUBIACEAE the developed world and demand seems to be grow­ 2n = unknown ing. The current low yield levels, however, often Synonyms Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich. make alternative crops more attractive. This rele­ (1830),Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (1856), Sarco- gates cashew to areas with poor soil types and low cephalus cadamba Kurz (1877). rainfall. Thus prospects of the crop are favourable Vernacular names Kadam, jabon, kelem- in poorer areas. In fact, cashew does well under payan, kaatoan bangkal (trade names); common those conditions, provided roots can grow unres­ bur-flower tree (En). Brunei: kaatoan bangkai. tricted and fruit matures in dry weather. However, Indonesia: jabon, laran (Kalimantan), emajang when yield levels are raised by the use of selected (Sumatra). Malaysia: kelempayan, laran, ludai material and intensive husbandry, the crop may (Sabah), selimph, entipong, sempayan (Sarawak). become competitive with other (cash) crops, even Philippines: kaatoan bangkal. Burma: mau, mauk- under more favourable growing conditions. adon, yemau. Cambodia: thkoow. Laos: koo somz, Priority in research is tree spacing in relation to sako. Thailand: kra thum. Vietnam: gao trang, ca soil moisture regime and rejuvenation pruning. torn. There is an urgent need for a reliable method of Origin and geographic distribution Kadam clonal propagation. In Kenya, the combination of occurs naturally from India eastwards to New Gui­ clonal planting material with the hedgerow sys­ nea, including Borneo and the Philippines. tem boosted yields to 3000-4000 kg/ha ofra w nuts, Because ofit s very fast growth, it has been planted 8 times the normal yield level. The study of tree on many sites in the tropics. 42 A SELECTION

Uses The wood can be used for light construc­ tion work, for matches, boxes, ceiling boards, pen­ cils, paper and pulp, hardboard and veneer, both for face and core. The dried bark is used to relieve fever and as a tonic.A n extract ofth e leaves serves as a gargle and the fresh leaves are used as a fodder for cattle. The inflorescences and the fruits are said to beedible .A yello w dye can be obtained from the bark of the roots. The tree is also suitable as an ornamental. Production and international trade Al­ though this tree is planted in many places in the tropics, production data are scarce. Most of the wood is used locally. Export data on the wood are mixed with data from other, not well defined light woods.I n 1988th e average price ofon e cubic metre ofwoo d amounted to ca. US$ 40.I t isbecomin g one of the most widely planted trees in the tropics. In South-East Asia alone, several hundred thousand ha are estimated to be planted. In the future, kadam might compete with the African obeche/ samba/wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum.) wood. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich, ex Walp. Properties There are 18-26 million air-dry -1, flowering branch; 2, infructescence. seeds per kg. Kadam charcoal is non-smelling and does not smoke or spark, but its low yields in com­ soft, white to creamy, even-grained with fine rays parison with other species make it uneconomic for and few pores. The volumetric mass (air dry wood) this purpose. The moisture content of the wood is is350-53 0 kg/m3.It s durability isclassifie d in class 7-13 %. The dry matter contains ash 1.9 %, benzol- V (non-durable) and its strength in class III-VI alcohol extract 1.5 %, cellulose 47.4 %,ash-fre e lig- (moderate strength) in Indonesia (classification nin 25.6% , pentosan 24.1% . according to Oey Djoen Seng). Description A moderate to large tree, up to 45 Growth rings not evident. Pores few, of medium m high. Bole straight and cylindric, often branch­ size, oval or oblong, open, mostly arranged in lessfo r more than 25m ,u pt o 100(-160 ) cmi n diam­ straight radial groups of 2-4. Soft tissue diffuse, eter, but often less, sometimes with small but­ occasionally forming a few short lines between the tresses, reaching up to 2m high and extending ca. rays, but not conspicuous. Rays moderately wide, 60 cm from the trunk; outer bark very light and lighter than the ground tissue. smooth when young, grey to grey-brown with shal­ Growth and development The seeds are dis­ low fissures when old, sometimes with small persed by wind or by rains, floods and rivers. For ridges, often cracked and rather coarsely flaky. germination they need full sunlight. Saplings com­ Crown typically umbrella shaped, small; branches monly form pure stands on flood-damaged river horizontally spreading, arranged in tiers; scars of banks. Young seedlings do not withstand strong fallen branches visible for several years on young competition of weeds and grasses and they will stems. Leaves opposite, simple, ovate to elliptic, only develop into trees if they are not overgrown 15-50 cm x 8-25 cm, subcordate at base, acumi­ by the surrounding vegetation. At the age of 4 nate at apex; petiole 2.5-6 cm long. Stipules inter- years trees may start flowering. In Indonesia flow­ petiolar, narrowly triangular, deciduous. Flowers ering occurs from April to August, sometimes from in terminal, globose heads with 4.5-6 cm diameter, March to November. 5-merous, with tubular calyx and corolla, 5 sta­ In natural stands, root anastomosis has often been mens, inserted in the corolla tube, and an inferior found. Cutting of some of the trees in a clump ovary. Fruitlets numerous, somewhat fleshy, ca. 5 would result in the production of some wood mm x 1.5 mm. Seeds somewhat trigonal or irregu­ stumps that kept growing without the possession lar-shaped, ca. 0.5 mm x 0.3 mm. of leaves. Kadam is a rapidly growing species. An­ Wood characteristics Kadam wood is light, nual increment in height up to 3m/year , in diame- ANTHOCEPHALUS 43 ter up to 7 cm/year is reported for the first 6-8 Seedlings 8-12 weeks old are transplanted in beds years, slowing down to ca. 2m and 3c m respective­ or plastic bags; preferably in growing medium ly until the 20th year. Thereafter growth is much enriched with organic matter. When 6-7 months slower. The annual increment is 10-20 (-26)m 3/ha. old, at a height of 30 cm, they are transplanted in At the age of 10-15 years trees can be felled. the field. Sometimes, under good care, seedlings Other botanical information A second species are planted out at 10-15 cm. in Anthocephalus A. Rich., A. macrophyllus Kadam can be planted bare rooted, without signifi­ (Roxb.) Havil. (vernacular names: samama cant loss of growth. Stumps of about 1c mi n diame­ (Ambon), katau (Sulawesi), bangkali (Muna)), ter give good results. Planting distance in the field occurs on Sulawesi and the Moluccas. Its leaves is 3-4 m x 3-4 m. are more or less sessile and the upper part of the In Indonesia good results have been obtained with ovary is 2-loculed with 4 solid small cartaliginous rows of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit be­ structures (A. chinensis has distinctly petiolate tween the lines. On Borneo kadam plantations leaves with a 4-loculed upper ovary part with 4hol ­ have been intercropped with paddy rice. low cartilaginous structures). A. macrophyllus Management If enough seed-producing trees seems to produce a timber ofsomewha t better qual­ are available, natural regeneration from seed can ity than kadam and it also grows faster. It grows be effected by clearing the soil at the time of seed preferably in the lowlands but never in flooded ripening. In East Kalimantan, a plantation has areas, possibly on poorer soils than kadam. been maintained since 1938 using this system. Ecology Kadam is very common in secondary Plantations established from nursery-grown seed­ forests and sometimes large individuals can be lings seldom show the same favourable growth found in primary rainforests. It is found from sea- rate as natural regenerations, for reasons still level up to 1000 m altitude in the tropics. It grows unknown. Application of about 15g ure a per plant on a variety of soils but is more abundant and dom­ in a band around the seedling results in much inant on fertile soils with good aeration. The most improved growth. The trees produce only light important condition for growth islight , the crowns shade and are suitable as a cover crop for Diptero- need full illumination. carp plantations. After planting, the soil around In its natural habitat, absolute maximum and the young trees needs to be kept free from compet­ minimum temperatures are 37.7° C and 3.3° C re­ ing vegetation, especially from climbers and spectively. It is sensitive to frost. The average an­ plants causing shade. Thinning is very easy owing nual rainfall ranges from 1500-5000 mm or more. to the beautifully straight stems without defects It is a pioneer species on river banks and in the and the very regular small crowns. It should take transitory zone between swampy, permanently place early and frequently. The rotation period flooded areas and the drier loams, in areas which will depend very much upon the quality ofth e soil. are flooded periodically. In the Philippines, economic rotations found in Propagation and planting Propagation is pos­ plantations were 5 years for pulp-timber and 7 sible by natural regeneration from seeds, by nur­ years for the combination of pulp-timber and saw- sery-grown seedlings and by stem cuttings. Seeds timber. germinate best if first stored cool in airtight boxes Diseases and pests No serious diseases or pests for 2.5 months. Special techniques are required to occur. Often, leaves are eaten by a variety of extract the minute seeds from the fleshy multiple insects and seedlings by game. Trees with almost fruit. In the Philippines, fresh fruits are rubbed 100% perforated leaves are very common. The and macerated in water to extract the seeds, in plants usually recover well. Indonesia the fruits are dried before the seeds are In Costa Rica, small soil-inhabiting ants eat the rubbed out. The seeds contain some oily reserves seeds from the seed-beds. and keep their viability for several years if stored The fungus Gloeosporium anthocephali can cause cool. In the nursery, the seeds are mixed with fine partial or complete defoliation and die-back. sand (1:10)an d sown in beds. Harvesting For pulp-timber, harvesting can Water is applied by irrigation of the seed-beds or start 5year s after sowing. For wood, felling of trees overhead as a very fine mist. In the open, seed-beds can start from the age of 10year s when, depending should be protected against heavy rains. Germina­ on soil conditions, trees have a diameter of 50 cm. tion starts 12-21 days after sowing. A mild fungi­ Yield In a30-yea r rotation in Indonesia, the final cidal spray may be used to prevent damping-off. stand attained an average height of 38 m and an average diameter of 65 cm, producing 350m 3/ha in 48 A SELECTION

The virus is transmitted by aphids (Aphis cracci- can be protected from mechanical damage by stor­ vora) and seed (up to 30% seed transmission). No age and transport in the shell. In many areas, pods control measures are currently available. Peanut are sold directly to consumers at local level to pro­ mottle virus (PMV) iswidesprea d but is considered vide cash flow for farmers. Hand-shelling at local less serious because of the lower incidence of seed level is also common. In Thailand, mechanized sys­ transmission and less severe effects on yield. Pea­ tems are used for shelling, oil extraction, and nut yellow spot virus (PYSV) is widespread in grinding. Processing factories produce dried or Thailand. boiled groundnuts or groundnut products. Nematodes, particularly species in the genera Genetic resources The International Crops Meloidogyne and Pratylenchus, are widespread but Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics the seriousness of their effect on yield are (ICRISAT) at Hyderabad in India maintains the unknown. Control measures include nematicides largest world germplasm collection of over 1200 0 and crop rotations. accessions. ICRISAT has been designated as a There is a wide range of insects which can attack principal repository for Arachis germplasm by the groundnuts and in some cases yield losses from International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. insect damage can be severe. Leaf miners The United States Department ofAgricultur e also (Aproaerema modicella) have caused substantial maintains an extensive germplasm collection. The foliage damage in Indonesia, Thailand and the Phi­ Bogor Research Institute for Food Crops (BORIF) lippines. Other insects often present in high in Indonesia maintains a collection of local Indo­ numbers include leafhoppers (Empoasca spp.), nesian germplasm as well as some introductions. leaf-eating caterpillars (Heliothis spp.) and thrips Breeding Development of higher-yielding culti­ (Frankliniella schultzei, Scirtothrips dorsalis). vars adapted to environments and production sys­ Control by insecticides is possible. Aphids (Aphis tems in the region is the major objective of natio­ craccivora) as virus vectors, particularly in the dry nal and international (ICRISAT) breeding season, are a serious insect pest. programmes. Earliness (less than 80 days) and Harvesting Harvesting occurs 85-100 days drought tolerance are objectives in rice-based after sowing for Spanish cultivars and 110-130 farming systems in Indonesia and Thailand. Other days after sowing for Virginia cultivars, in the objectives include resistance to rust, leaf-spots, warm tropics. Heavy foliage disease pressure bacterial wilt (Indonesia) and A. flavus (Thailand); sometimes results in harvesting before seeds are seed dormancy (Indonesia and Thailand) and acid fully mature. Much of the harvesting is by hand soil tolerance (Philippines and Indonesia). Cur­ in South-East Asia. Plants are pulled from the rently the world germplasm collection is being ground and pods removed from the bushes. Pods screened in Indonesia to find sources of resistance are then sun-dried to about 10% moisture. Where to peanut stripe virus. machines are available, the tap-roots are cut and A. hypogaea is an allotetraploid. Several diploid plants lifted mechanically from the soil.Afte r 2-10 wild species, including A. cardenasii and A. cha- days of sun-drying, pods are mechanically coense, are being used as sources of disease resis­ threshed from the bushes. tance at ICRISAT and in the United States. Yield Average yield of pods in South-East Asia Prospects The prospects for the groundnut is around 1 t/ha, although there is considerable appear bright. As a short season annual tropical variation in reported yields among countries: legume, it is capable of contributing to the nitro­ 0.7-0.9 t/ha for Vietnam, Laos,th e Philippines and gen economy of the associated farming systems as Papua New Guinea; 1.0-1.2 t/ha for Thailand, well as providing a valuable protein source in Burma and Cambodia; 1.6 t/ha for Indonesia; 3.6 human diets. Because the groundnut isa relatively t/ha for Malaysia. World average yield is0.9 5 t/ha, valuable commodity, it can also contribute to the although in the United States average yield is cashflow of smallholders. around 2.9 t/ha. Although groundnuts, as well as other food Handling after harvest To minimize the devel­ legumes, are generally perceived by farmers as a opment of A. flavus and subsequent toxin produc­ low-yielding, low-return proposition and hence tion, groundnuts should be dried to less than 14 % normally given relatively low inputs and marginal moisture. Interruption and retardation of sun-dry­ cultural conditions compared to the cereals, the ing by showers or overcast humid weather, or importance of the crop in farming systems and as moisture uptake during storage, can result in A. a source of additional income is well recognized. flavus growth and aflatoxin contamination. Seeds The crop is well established in ecological niches ARCANGELISIA 49 of various cropping systems, and there are good northern Moluccas to New Guinea. prospects of expanding the role of groundnuts in Uses Yellow-fruited moonseed is mainly used these systems as well as inclusion of groundnuts medicinally. In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction in new cropping systems. Considerable efforts are ofth e stem istake n internally for jaundice, worms, being made to increase groundnut production in indigestion and other intestinal complaints. The most South-East Asian countries. smoke of the wood is inhaled for troubles of the Literature |1| Gregory, W.C., Krapovickas, A.& mucous membrane of the nose and mouth. In the Gregory, M.P., 1980. Structures, variation, evolu­ Philippines a decoction ofth e wood isuse d to clean tion and classification in Arachis. In: Summer- wounds, ulcers and other skin irritations. In Indo­ field, R.J. & Bunting, A.H. (Editors): Advances in nesia, the stems are sold as 'kayu seriawan', mean­ legume science. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. pp. ing 'wood against sprue'. In the Philippines, the 469-481. |2| ICRISAT, 1980. Proceedings of the Moluccas and New Guinea a yellow dye is International Workshop on Groundnuts, 13-17 extracted from the woody stem. The use of the October 1980. Patancheru, A.P., India. 325 pp. |3| fruits as a fishpoison is questionable. ICRISAT, 1987. Groundnut rust disease. Proceed­ Properties Alkaloids found in this species are ings of a Discussion Group Meeting, 24-28 Sep­ berberine, columbamine, jatrorhizine, palmatine, tember 1984. Patancheru, A.P., India. |4| Pattee, shobakunine, limacine, homoaromaline, dehydro- H.E. &Young , C.T. (Editors), 1982.Peanu t science corydalmine, 8-hydroxyberberine, pycnarrhine and technology: speciation and cytogenetics in and thalifendine. The healing effect and the yellow Arachis; genetics of Arachis hypogaea L.; breed­ dye are largely attributable to berberine, which is ing of the cultivated peanut; cultural practices; present up to 5% in the stem (of dry weight). management of preharvest insects; peanut plant Botany A large, woody, glabrous liana, up to 20 diseases; harvesting, curing and energy utilisa­ m long. Stem up to 5 cm in diameter, wood yellow, tion; aflatoxins and other mycotoxins in peanuts; insect control in postharvest peanuts; composi­ tion, nutrition and flavor of peanuts. American Peanut Research and Education Society, Texas. 825 pp. |5! Porter, D.M., Smith, D.H. & Rodriguez- Kabana, R. (Editors), 1984.Compendiu m of peanut diseases. The American Phytopathological Soci­ ety. 73 pp. |6| Purseglove, J.W., 1968. Tropical Crops. Dicotyledons 1. Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London, pp. 225-236. |7|Smartt , J., 1985.Evo ­ lution of grain legumes. V. The oilseeds. Experi­ mental Agriculture 21:305-320. (R. Shorter &A . Patanothai)

Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr.

Int. Rumph. Herb. Amb.:22 2(1917) . MENISPERMACEAE 2n = 24(?) , 26(? ) Synonyms Arcangelisia lemniscata (Miers) Becc. (1877). Vernacular names Yellow-fruited moonseed (En).Indonesia : daun bulan (Moluccas). Malaysia: mengkunyit. Philippines: suma (Tagalog, Pam- pango). Thailand: khamin khruea. Origin and geographic distribution Yellow- fruited moonseed is widely distributed from Hai­ Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. - 1, flowering and nan (China), Indo-China, southern Peninsular fruiting twig; 2, staminate flower; 3, unopened sta- Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, through­ minate flower; 4, woody part ofvine; 5, detailofcross out Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi, the and longitudinal section of a woody vine. 50 A SELECTION exuding yellow sap when cut. Leaves usually The main products are derived from tapping the ovate, coriaceous; petioles (4-) 7-15 (-20) cm inflorescence stalks: juice, both fresh ('nira') and long, swollen at both ends; blade (10-) 12-25 cm fermented ('toddy'), vinegar resulting from conti­ x (5.5-) 8-19 cm, palmately 5-nerved at the base. nued fermentation, and yeast made from the resi­ Inflorescences axillary or cauliflorous, panicu­ due deposited during fermentation; above all the late, slender, 10-50 cm long, lateral branches dark-red palm sugar, obtained from the juice, and (sub)spicate. Male flowers (sub)sessile with 3-4 widely used in all kinds of dishes, sweets, drinks minute outer sepals and 3 + 3 larger inner speals; and preserves. The juice is flavoured by adding female flowers with 6 narrowly oblong inner leaves of Garcinia L. and bark oiXylocarpus Koen. sepals, carpels 3. Drupes slightly laterally com­ and several Ulmaceae; alcohol can be distilled pressed, transversely subovoid, 2-3 cm in diame­ from the palm wine. ter, yellow; endocarp woody, covered with a dense Other food products are starch, extracted from the mat of radially arranged fibres. In literature some core of the trunk, which may be used to prepare confusion exists between Arcangelisia flava and speciality foods such as 'Bakso' (Indonesia) and Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight &Am . A. flava has the grubs of the palm beetle (Rynchophorus ferru- yellow wood and is used predominantly as a medi­ gineus) which are reared on fallen stems and eaten cine, A. cocculus has white wood and the fruits are raw, fried or cooked. Young leaves, still white, are used as a fishpoison and an insecticide, while its eaten in the same way as palm cabbage. Bees col­ bark is used as rope. lect excellent honey from the flowers, and a sweet­ Ecology A. flava occurs in forests at altitudes meat ('kolang kaling', Indonesia) is made by boil­ up to 1000 m, sometimes near riverbanks. In Sula­ ing immature fruits with sugar. The production of wesi it is reported on limestone. these secondary foodstuffs is limited where tap­ Literature |1| Forman, L.L., 1986. Flora Male- ping takes precedence. siana, Series I,Vol . 10(2) .pp .210-211 . |2|Quisumb - Products from fibrous material take second place ing, E., 1951.Medicina l plants of the Philippines. after those derived from tapping. Fibres are recov­ Department of Agriculture and Natural Re­ ered from the roots, the pith of the trunk and leaf­ sources. Technical Bulletin 16. Bureau of Print­ stalks, but most important are the long black-grey ing, Manila. Reprint 1978,pp . 293-294. fibres ('ijuk', Indonesia) of the trunk. These latter, (E.H.Mandi a &CE . Ridsdale) although coarse, are extremely durable even in seawater and have frequently been used for cord­ age on ships, and as a cover to protect wooden Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. poles in soil and seawater against worms and insects. 'Ijuk' mattrasses are laid on roadbeds Int. Rumph. Herb. Amb.: 119(1917) . along the coast to stop burrowing prawns from sur­ PALMAE facing with their mud piles. The fibre is also used 2« = 32 to make sieves,t o construct roofs, to reinforce con­ Synonyms Arenga saccharifera Labill. (1801). crete; the world over, heavy-duty brushes and Vernacular names Sugar palm, areng palm brooms bristle with 'ijuk' fibres. 'Ijuk' paint (En). Palm de sucre, palmier areng (Fr). Indonesia: brushes clean and paint ship hulls in a single oper­ aren, enau, kawung. Malaysia: enau, kabong, ber- ation. kat. Philippines: kâong (Tagalog), bagóbat, hidiók The finer fibres were formerly used for tinder and (Bisâya). Burma: taung-ong. Cambodia: tnaôt préi. to caulk boats. Short ropes can be used as a por­ Laos:taa w taat. Thailand: chok,tao .Vietnam : doât. table fire lighter; the rope stays aglow in all Origin and geographic distribution The palm weathers. Stout bristles between the thin fibres isthough t tob eindigenou s where it is encountered near the leaf bases have been used as pens and at present, except for the Pacific Islands and a few arrows. A bundle of these bristles makes a veri­ places in Africa where it has been introduced. This table torch, burning brighter when swung and pro­ implies that the origin of the palm lies in an area ducing a beam of light as the core burns deeper covering South-East Asia to Irian Jaya in the east, and glows more intensively. Fibres from the leaf­ extending north-eastwards to the Liu-kiu Islands stalks and roots are used for fishing-lines, snares and north-west to Annam and the eastern Hima­ and fine matting. layas. The impressive leaves are also put to many uses. Uses All parts of the palm are used, and for a They serve to construct temporary shelters and as multitude of products. large decorations for festivities. The leaflets are ARENGA 51 used in basketry, their stalks for brooms. Whereas before unfolding leaves may be eaten, in a some­ what later stage the leaflets substitute for ciga­ rette paper and serve as fastening ribbon. The large leafstalks are used as firewood and to make walking sticks, musical instruments, etc. Walking sticks can also be made out of the inflorescence stalks. The green peel of the fruit is poisonous and causes serious skin infections on contact. The pulped fruit in water brings fish to the surface. The seeds are favoured by pigs and used to bait wild pigs; many toys in the villages used to be cut from the seeds. The trunk consists of a soft starchy core and a woody cylinder. The attractive black and yellow wood of the trunk is used for flooring, furniture, tool handles, etc., and as a fuel wood ofhig h calori­ fic value. The trunk base is easily hollowed to obtain a durable barrel or a water conduct. Medicinal uses have been described for the young roots, the fermented juice (the alcohol obtained through distillation and mixed with several herbs and roots of other plants is considered a general- purpose medicine) and the sugar. The trees are sometimes planted to mark boundaries or to pre­ vent landslides. In certain regions, the dowry is paid in the form of a few sugar palm trees. Production and international trade Almost Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. 1,flowering tree; all products are locally consumed and used. 2, fruit. Export data are scattered and probably incom­ plete. In 1986, 200 t palm sugar/month were strong, extending far (sometimes more than 10 m) exported from Indonesia to Australia; in 1988 the from the stem and going as deep as 3 m. Trunk export price was about US$ 2.5pe r kg.Durin g 1985 10-20 m long and 30-65 cm in diameter, covered one of five exporters of palm fibres shipped 400 t, by bases of broken-off leaves and long black-grey representing a value of about US$ 550000. Most fibres. Crown dense, with 12-20 (-28) erect to of the exported fibre passes through Singapore. spreading leaves. Leaves 6-10 (-12) m long, pin­ Starch is exported on a small scale. Canned nate; petiole 1-1.5 m long, with sheath at base; 'kolang kaling' production and export is steadily leaflets numerous (80-130), strap-like, 140-180 cm increasing. Sugar palm isstil l a smallholders crop, x 8-11 cm, crowded along the rachis and held in but in Indonesia commercial plantations are being several planes, with auricles at base, rounded or established. obtuse and toothed at apex, glabrous above, sca­ Properties The palm juice contains 5-21 % brous beneath. sugar. The sugar crystallizes beautifully into good Inflorescences usually unisexual, pendulous, pale-yellow storable sugar. The palm sugar con­ often more than 2 m long, arising from leaf axils, tains 75% sucrose (saccharose) and maximum 6 % peduncle breaking up into a number of flower- reducing sugars, which is low and considered a bearing spikes; female inflorescences 3-7, formed positive quality. Good starch is white and dry, at the top, male ones 7-15 , appearing later and obtained through repeated washing and settling. lower on the stem. Flowers with 3 coriaceous The fibres are graded infiv e length classes,th e lon­ sepals and an at base tubular, 3-lobed corolla; male gest and thickest ones (up to ca. 2 m long) being flowers up to 11500 per inflorescence, with many most expensive. stamens, greenish to bronzy when still closed, yel­ Description A moderate to tall unbranched lowish when open; female flowers up to 1500 0 per palm without root suckers. Roots black, very inflorescence, with a globose, trilocular ovary. 52 A SELECTION

Fruit globular to oblong, 5-8 cm long, fleshy, first to tap so little that the fruit is not starved, but to green, later turning yellow and black after falling, tap so much that maturation of the fruit is delayed containing 2-3 black seeds. indefinitely. Overtapping results in breaking-off of Growth and development Germination of the the lower green leaves,followe d by massive prema­ seed is very unpredictable, taking from one month ture fruit fall and death. The sagging of these to more than a year. From the germpore near the leaves is the first sign that the palm is bleeding apex of the seed a tube emerges which enters the excessively. The optimum tapping intensity leaves soil. The radicle and plumule appear from the side an adequate sap stream to the fruit, to ensure a of this tube, followed by 3-4 roots which grow minimal rate of fruit growth. straight up. Soon the radicle and these early roots A smallholder in North Sulawesi pointed out a tree are overtaken by the normal adventitious roots. which he had been tapping for 15 years! This The rosette stage takes 3-5 years and the trunk- implies a leaf age of more than 15 years. The growth phase'5-10 years, depending mainly on extended life of the leaves under judicious tapping temperature. The rate of leaf production during must contribute substantially to total sugar yield trunk formation depends very much on growing over such long periods. conditions, but is of the order of only 3-6 leaves Ultimately, tapped trees produce fruit too; if tap­ per year. Fifty leaves may be the maximum over ping isstoppe d in time the unripe fruits canb e used a palm's life.Th e last two leaves emerge simultane­ for 'kolang kaling' production. The remaining ously, signalling the onset of flowering. These starch level in the trunk is too low to make extrac­ leaves expand fully, but the few remaining initials tion worthwhile. and the growing point itself 'petrify': they become Ecology The sugar palm grows best in warm woody without further growth. The first inflores­ conditions with a maximum amount of light and cences emerge from the axils of the uppermost abundant water supply on soils of high fertility. leaves and bear female flowers. Flowering gra­ It can, however, grow under a wide variety of con­ dually proceeds downwards: 3-7 female inflores­ ditions, both in everwet and seasonal climates, cences are followed by 7-15 male inflorescences, from sea-level up to 1400 m altitude, on all soil although among the latter there may be a few types from heavy loam to loamy sand and lateritic which carry female flowers as well or which are soils that are not regularly inundated. The growth completely female. Buds lower on the trunk tend rate drops substantially where growing conditions to be underdeveloped and in the natural state the are less favourable. It is mostly found near vil­ palm diesbefor e it isthei r turn to bloom. The trunk lages. Wild it grows in primary or secondary for­ serves as a store for large amounts of starch which ests, especially on sites poor in nutrients and mesic are stocked after the rosette stage in the parenchy­ sites such as denuded hillsides. ma of the pith. When bloom starts this starch is Propagation and planting Normally seeds are converted into sugar and dissolved in the stem dropped where people would like the palm to grow. fluid. As with Metroxylon sagu, extra sugar is Sometimes wild seedlings are collected and trans­ added by photosynthesis in the still living leaves. planted. In a nursery, the following procedure has The flowers are presumably cross-pollinated since proved successful. Ripe, black fruits are collected there is little overlap in flowering of female and under superior palm trees. Seeds left behind after male inflorescences of the same palm. Bees polli­ the fruit decayed can also be picked up. The seeds nate flowers, but small flies also swarm in large are cleaned in water and those that float are numbers around male inflorescences. Each female removed. Seeds with fungal or bacterial growth inflorescence carries thousands of fruits which near the pore are discarded too. Then the seeds are take 12 months from bloom to maturity when the scratched on a rough stone to scarify the thin palm isno t tapped. One palm may produce as many black outer layer down to the underlying brown as 25000 0 seeds. layer, close to the pore. Filing down to the white In the natural state, the palm dies after the fruit endosperm may result in more seeds rotting. The of the inflorescences near the top has matured, seeds are sown in coarse sand that is kept moist, that is about 2year s after flowering starts. Skilful with the germpore directed downwards. Air hu­ tapping can extend the tree's lifespan by 10 years midity is kept high during germination. After 3 or more. Since a load of growing fruit is essential weeks, some 75% of the seeds have germinated. to keep the palm alive, only a few or no female The seeds are transferred to plastic containers inflorescences are tapped. Moreover, their tapping when the germination tube is 2-3 cm long and is technically more difficult. The art of tapping is before the upward-growing roots have formed, AEENGA 53 since these break off easily. A heavy-gauge poly­ Tapping, or rather the pre-treatments leading to thene is used since flimsy material is easily perfor­ tapping, starts when the first male inflorescence ated by the roots. The seeds should be planted so appears. Both female and male inflorescence deep that the germination tube does not dry out. stalks can be tapped, but the former are much The seedlings stay alive in heavy shade but hardly tougher and pre-treatment less often results in a grow under these conditions. Direct sunlight stim­ satisfactory flow of juice. When the inflorescence ulates early appearance of the first leaf. When the is almost fully expanded, the scales covering the second leaf has unfolded the seedlings can be common peduncle are removed. Then beating and planted. The young seedlings should be hardened swinging of the peduncle starts. This is done to off in the nursery before planting. cause some internal ruptures so that the juice will To obtain a closed stand, under fair growing condi­ continue to flow after cutting. Beating with a tions the palms may be spaced 6 m x 7 m (about wooden mallet is also practised on other palm spe­ 250 trees/ha). Intercropping with fast-growing cies which are tapped. The frequency and duration woody legumes that can be coppiced may be advis­ of the pre-treatment differ widely in different able to provide shade for the young palms and fire­ regions. Some reports mention beatings over only wood to boil the juice. Wind-breaks may be a 3-7 day period, but these sources consistently needed in exposed sites to prevent breakage of mention productive periods ofonl y 2-3 months per leaves. flowering stalk. Husbandry Husbandry is limited to occasional In North Sulawesi, at an altitude of 900 m and weeding. Moreover, the palms do not suffer much slightly shorter near sea-level, the peduncle is from pests and diseases. Consequently manures, treated five times during five weeks. In this region fertilizers and crop protection chemicals are not a stalk istappe d for 6-12 months. The first beating normally used. However, appreciable amounts of is light, otherwise the peduncle may wilt. Subse­ nutrients are removed by tapping, notably K and quent beatings are steadily stepped up. The stalk N. Based on data obtained in 1933, this amounts is beaten from the base upwards, stripwise until per 1juic e to (%) : N 0.041,P 0.001, K0.12,M g 0.0096 the entire circumference has been treated. The and Ca 0.016. beating is moderated during the rainy season and Diseases and pests No serious diseases and for light-coloured peduncles. The peduncle is also pests occur. On Java a locust species (Valanga swung about to rupture vessel connection close to nigricornis) was noted to attack some leaves. the trunk where the mallet cannot reach. Locally, caterpillars of Artona catoxantha, Elym- The pre-treatment and the cutting of the stalk are nias hypermnesta-nesaea and Hidar irava have timed in accordance with the condition ofth e male been observed eating young leaves. Top death of flowers. The inner perianth with the stamens of a young plants has been observed and is possibly flower bud is removed, and the interior colour and caused by flies of Atherigona arenga. Sometimes striping ofth e outer perianth indicate the develop­ small caterpillars ofBatrachedra spp.ar e noted on ment stage. When a watery sap oozes from the the male inflorescences. In a young plantation, wound the stalk is almost ready to be cut. Grad­ damage was caused by mice eating the sweetish ually the sap becomes more viscous until it turns growing tip of the seedlings. Fruit rats may eat the into hyaline yellow sap. This is also the time that ripening fruit. bees are attracted by a dry yellow exudate on the Harvesting The 'ijuk' is cut with a machete for spadix. This is the moment to cut the peduncle. the first time at an age of 4-6 years; but scissors Shortly after this stage the flowers open. The vil­ have also proved practical. lagers first cut a single spike to see whether it The starch is harvested in the same way as that bleeds for more than a day. If so, the peduncle is ofth e sago palm. The tough fibres in the pith make cut with a single stroke aimed to make a clean cut it harder to win the sago. Normally the villagers close to the point where the stalk bifurcates into choose trees that have failed to respond to tapping the spray of flowering spikes. The length of the treatments. Those palms yield the highest quanti­ remaining stalk determines the maximum dura­ ties ofsag o (100-125 kg/tree).Th e thick, very hard tion of the tapping period. wooden zone surrounding the pith makes it very For unknown reasons, it iscustomar y in Indonesia laborious to open the stem. not to collect the juice during the first day; in The 'kolang kaling' is produced from immature Peninsular Malaysia people used to wait for sever­ fruits, which are burned or cooked and then al days. To produce 'toddy', a piece of bamboo pipe peeled; finally fruits are boiled with sugar. is fixed under the dripping stalk end. It is inocu- 54 A SELECTION lated with some old toddy to introduce the yeast out in several sugar palm stands. It appears that (Saccharomyces spp.) that converts the sugar into selection may raise the percentage of palms that ethanol. Sometimes additives are used to obtain a bleed well from 50t o 85. In Java, large heavy-bear­ specific taste or strength. When sugar is to be pro­ ing trees are often used to produce 'kolang kaling'. duced from the sap, the bamboo vessels need to be Since these trees do not contribute offspring to the cleaned each time they are replaced. This is done next generation, the practice may amount to a neg­ by drying them in the smoke of a fire or by rinsing ative selection. with boiling juice. Prospects The prospects for the sugar palm are For sugar production, a very thin slice is cut from bright, even though the maritime world no longer the stalk twice a day as this results in less but depends on 'ijuk' fibres (which spelled the end of sweeter sap. For 'toddy' the slices are thicker, also commercial estates in former Malacca). Limited, depending on the desired alcohol content. If rather largely local demand has so far hampered large- thick slices are cut, a large palm may yield some scale production ofpal m sugar and its by-products. 601o ffairl y sweetjuic e per day for several months, Calculations based on the sap flow of a 15 m high but this is often associated with signs of over-tap­ tree of 40 cm girth which is tapped during the last ping: sagging leaves which eventually fall down, 10 years of its 20-year lifespan show the scope for and massive drop of unripe fruit. After each cut, further enhancing yields. During those 10 years, the stalk end is covered with some material - the average daily yield was about 30 1 juice or usually a large leaf - to protect it from the sun; about 5 kg sugar. These quantities have to be dis­ this increases the sap flow. counted for intervals of several months which The juice is evaporated in open pans. To prevent sometimes occur between the tapping of 2 succes­ the liquid from boiling over, some fatty or oily ma­ sive inflorescences and occasional mishaps, such terial (castor beans, coconut endosperm, tung as failure of the pre-treatment of an inflorescence. seeds) is added. As soon as the liquid turns dark Therefore, the palm may be in production for only red and begins to set, the sugar is poured into half the time. ' moulds. Because ofimpurities , palm sugar does not Based on these figures, impressive yields per ha per store well. Keeping quality may be improved by year have been calculated. For instance, a stand adding sodium bisulphate during evaporation. of 200 palms/ha with 85% of the tappable palms Yield Village stands ofpalm s ofal l ages in North bleeding well, with an average of about 34 palms Sulawesi currently produce about 70 kg sugar per per year may produce well over 25 t sugar per ha/ ha per day.Thi s adds up to a high yield of25 1suga r year. However, by tapping considerable amounts per ha/year. Sugar yield in such stands of unse- of K, N, Ca and Mg are substracted from the sys­ lected material is limited because about half the tem. Therefore, adequate cropping techniques, palms do not bleed. If the first three treated inflor­ including fertilizing, should be designed and escences fail to bleed satisfactorily, people give up tested to create optimal conditions for sugar palm and the palm is left for its fruit and sometimes for cultivation. sago extraction. In the meantime, large sugar palm plantations are One tree may yield enough sweetmeat to fill 2000 being established in Indonesia; a 4000 0 ha estate one-litre cans; a 15 m high palm with a diameter was due to be started in 1988. High rates of return at breast height of4 0c m contains 100-150 kg sago. are anticipated provided large (export) markets Moreover, the fruit oftappe d trees can still be used can be supplied. The estates will generate a great to make 'kolang kaling'; in a mechanized large- deal of employment and in certain areas the palms scale operation even extraction of the remaining will protect unstable sites. starch might be worthwhile. About 15 kg of 'ijuk' Literature |1|Corner , E.J.H., 1966. The natural fibre can be gathered from one tree, 3 kg of which history of palms. Weidenfeld &Nicolson , London. are valuable long fibres. The annual yield of these 393 pp. |2| Miller, P.H., 1964. The versatile sugar superior fibres isabou t 150kg/ha . All these compo­ palm. Principes 8(4):115-146. |3| Milsum, J.N. & nents add up to an appreciable yield level, and it Dennett, J.H., 1927. A preliminary note on the is not surprising that a family is considered well- sugar palm. Malaysian Agricultural Journal off as long as it is tapping 3o r 4suga r palm trees. 17:449-453. |4] Smits, W.T.M., 1988. Aren, pohon Genetic resources No collections of germplasm serba guna utama Indonesia. (In press). |5| have been made up to 1988. Tammes, P.M.L., 1933.Observation s on the bleed­ Breeding In North Sulawesi, selection of superi­ ing of palm trees. Recueil des Travaux Botaniques or trees to obtain seed for propagation is carried Néerlandais 30:514-536. |6| Von Maydell, H.J. & AURICULARIA 55

Erichsen, H., 1968. Vorkommen und Nutzung Production and international trade Species wirtschaftlich wichtiger Palmen. Mitteilungen of Auricularia represent the seventh most impor­ der Bundesforschungsanwalt für Forst- und Holz­ tant cultivated edible fungi (after Agaricus bispo- wirtschaft Reinbek. |7|Whitten , A.J., Mustafa, M. rus (Lange) Imbach, Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Sing, & Henderson, G.S., 1987.Th e ecology of Sulawesi. Volvariella volvacea (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing, Flammu- Gadjah Mada University Press,Yogyakarta . 777pp . lina velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing, Pholiota nameko (W.T.M. Smits) (T. Ito) S. Itoh &Ima i and Pleurotus spp.). In 1980, 6000 t of Auricularia fruitbodies were produced, representing slightly less than 1% of the world's Auricularia Bull, ex Jussieu total production of edible fungi. About 90% of Auricularia produced in Taiwan are exported to Gen. PL:4 (1789) . Hong Kong, Japan and the United States, and also AURICULARIACEAE (FuNGl) to Indonesia. x = unknown The price varies in different areas, but at the retail Major species and synonyms level it is approximately US$ 5 per kg dried (1 kg - Auricularia cornea (Ehrenb. ex Fr.) Ehrenb. ex dried fruitbodies isbase d on 8k g fresh fruitbodies). Endl., Wiener Mus. Nat. Ann. 1:146(1836) ; Properties Per 100 g edible portion dried fruit­ - Auricularia delicata (Fr.) P. Henn., Engl. Jahrb. bodies ofAuricularia contain about: crude protein 17:493(1893) ,synonym : A. moelleri Lloyd (1918); 8.6 g, fat 1.6 g,fibre s 11.5g .Th e energy value aver­ - Auricularia fuscosuccinea (Mont.) Farlow, Bibl. ages 1331k J per 100 g. Index 1:30 7(1905) ; Description Auricularia Bull, ex Jussieu. A - Auricularia poly tricha (Mont.) Sacc, Atti genus of saprophytic fungi, chiefly on rotting R. Inst. Veneto 3: 722(1885) . wood. Fruitbody resupinate, effused-reflexed or Vernacular names Jew's ear, Judas ear, wood pileate and then orbiculate or auriform, rarely pul- ear (En). Oreilles de chat (Fr). Indonesia: jamur kuping, kuping sikus (Bahasa Indonesia), supa lember (Sunda), kuping lawa (Java). Malaysia: cendawan telinga tikus, kulat telinga tikus. Phi­ lippines: taingang daga (Tagalog). Singapore: mu- erh. Cambodia: psot trachiek kandao. Thailand: hed. Laos: hed huu hnuu, hed sanunx, hed katan. Vietnam: nam meo, nam moc nhi. Origin and geographic distribution Species of Auricularia are represented in most regions of the world, from temperate to subtropical and tropical areas. Species diversity is greatest in the tropics and several species are common in Malaysia, Indo­ nesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. In South-East Asia, Auricularia species are also cul­ tivated. Uses The fruitbodies of Auricularia spp. are edi­ ble and much used in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Phi­ lippines and Papua New Guinea, in various local recipes but especially in Chinese dishes in con­ junction with solid foods or soups, either stewed, boiled, steamed or fried with meat, fish or vegeta­ bles. In southern China, they have been used in folk medicine to thin the blood and reduce clotting problems in post-partem women. Owing to their anticoagulant activity, it is supposed that they may be useful as a mechanism for reducing chances ofhear t attacks simply by ingesting foods Auricularia fuscosuccinea (Mont.) Farlow - fruit­ prepared from species of Auricularia. bodies on wood. 56 A SELECTION vinate or substipitate, small or rather large (up to strate inoculation; first harvesting is possible one 15 cm wide). Context gelatinous, soft or slightly week later. rubbery to tough when fresh, coriaceous to horny Other botanical information Recent genetic when dry. Growth solitary or caespitose. Upper compatibility and interfertility tests of morpholo­ surface glabrous or more often pilose with short gically recognizable species (which are character­ or longer hairs. Hymenium inferior, smooth, ized especially by the internal tissue structure of slightly merulioid or poroid-reticulate. Hyphal their fruitbodies) throw some doubts on the taxo­ system monomitic. Hyphae hyaline, embedded nomie status of the traditionally accepted taxa. into a gelatinous matrix, with or without clamps. Ecology Optimum temperature for mycelial Basidia with or without persisting probasidia; growth of Auricularia spp. is between 20-34° C at metabasidia hyaline, 2-4-celled, with transverse pH 4.5-7.5. Fruitbody formation is not very sensi­ septa and distinct sterigmata. Spore print whitish. tive to temperature, they appear between 12-30° C Spores hyaline, curved-cylindrical, thin-walled, with 85% relative humidity. All mentioned species smooth, inamyloid; germinating by repetition or grow on dead wood in tropical forests or open germ tube. places. Auricularia cornea (Ehrenb. ex Fr.) Ehrenb. ex Propagation For inoculum production, small Endl. Fruitbody solitary to gregarious, cupulate, pieces of hyphal tissues or spores are isolated and subsessile, thin, up to 15 cm wide, reddish-brown, cultivated on a common medium such as potato the upper surface hairy with up to 120 urn long dextrose agar incubated at 25-28 °C. The pure cul­ occasionally tufted hairs. Medulla well developed, ture obtained is then inoculated into a sterilized up to 600 urn thick. bottled spawn mixture consisting of 100 g sun- Auricularia delicata (Fr.) P. Henn. Fruitbody soli­ dried sawdust, 2-10% rice bran, 7 g calcium car­ tary to gregarious, orbicular, tough-gelatinous bonate and 5g potassium nitrate. when fresh, sessile to substipitate, relatively Inoculated spawn mixture will be ready after 3 thick, up to 10 cm wide, the upper surface pilose weeks when the whole mixture is covered by white with up to 175 urn long hairs. Hymenium pale col­ mycelia. The spawn mixture should preferably be oured, yellowish to light brownish, becoming con­ used straight away, although it can be stored for spicuously merulioid or poroid-reticulate. Medul­ several months. la lacking. Basidia hyaline, 45-50 um x 4.5-5 um. Husbandry Commercial cultivation of Auricu­ Spores hyaline, allantoid to curved-cylindrical, laria spp. is achieved either on wood logs or on 10-13.5 um x 4.5-6 am. suitable substrates contained in plastic bags. The Auricularia fuscosuccinea (Mont.) Farlow. Fruit­ taxa of Auricularia are not very host-specific, so body gregarious, usually pileate, cupulate, often many different wood species can be used. Logs are with strongly reflexed margin, tough-gelatinous, about 1 m long and 6 cm in diameter or wider thin, translucent, tosy to vinaceous, up to 12 cm (larger wood provides longer harvesting time). wide, the upper surface slightly hairy with up to Logs are used ideally 7day s after felling ofth e tree. 80 um long hairs. Hymenium smooth to venulose. Several small holes (1 cm wide, 1.5 cm deep) are Medulla with a single, up to 50 urn broad band. drilled in each log,arrange d in a threadlike helical Basidia hyaline, cylindrical, 4-celled, 50-60 um x manner. The holes are subsequently filled with 4-5 um. Spores hyaline, curved-cylindrical, spawn and covered with paraffin or beeswax to pre­ 11-13.5 urn x 4-5 urn. vent evaporation; both ends of the log are also Auricularia polytricha (Mont.) Sacc. Fruitbody smeared with the spawn. mostly gregarious, cupulate to strongly reflexed, The logs then are kept in growing yards and cover­ tough to rubbery gelatinous, sessile to substipi­ ed with straw, plastic sheets, tree branches etc. to tate, thin, up to 10 cm wide, dark reddish-brown maintain high moisture; 30-40 days later the logs to blackish, the upper surface convex, highly are moved to 'cropping yards', kept upright indivi­ pilose, the hairs up to 500 um long. Hymenium dually and maintained at 23-28 °Ca t 85% relative smooth to rugulose. Medulla a single well devel­ humidity; 7 days afterwards fruitbody primordia oped band. Hymenium ca. 90 um thick. Basidia should appear; the fully grown fruitbodies are har­ hyaline, cylindrical, 3-septate, 50-60 um x 4-5 vested 1wee k later. The logs can be harvested for um. Spores hyaline, curved-cylindrical, 12-15 urn a long period (even years) before the decay of the x 5-6 urn. wood becomes total. Growth and development In artificial culture In the plastic bag cultivation method, the sub­ the first primordia appear 4-5 weeks after sub­ strate consists basically of sawdust and rice bran AVERRHOA 57 with some suitable chemicals added. Plastic bags asem, blimbing wuluk, belimbing buluk. Philip­ are 15-18 cm long and 10-12 cm wide. The bags pines: kamiâs, iba (Tagalog). Cambodia: trâlông are filled with 5 day composted sawdust and rice töng. Thailand: taling pling. Vietnam: khê tau. bran as well as other enrichment substances, steri­ - A. carambola: carambola, star fruit (En). Caram- lized at 90-100° C for 90 minutes, and are then bolier (Fr). Indonesia, Malaysia: blimbing inoculated with the spawn mixture. After mycelia manis. Philippines: balimbing. Cambodia: spö. are fully developed, both ends of the bags are cut Laos:füang . Thailand: ma fueang. Vietnam: khê. off for cropping and the bags are arranged in grow­ Origin and geographic distribution Some au­ ing frames to form piles. Primordia appear 10-15 thors seek the origin in tropical America (Brazil), days later and the first harvest isdon e 1wee k later. from where it supposedly was taken to the Philip­ After 3 flushes of fruiting which last for about 8 pines. However, most authors support the South- weeks the cycle is completed. East Asian origin, for instance because there is a Yield The yield varies from 10t o 30% ofth e orig­ Sanskrit name for carambola. Moreover, the dis­ inal weight of the substrate used. tribution of bilimbi in tropical America can be Handling after harvest Fruitbodies of Auricu- traced to its introduction from Timor to Jamaica laria are sometimes sold fresh, but more often they in 1793. Both crops are now grown all over the are first dried before being sold on the market. Dry­ humid tropics, and carambola also in the subtrop- ing is achieved either under direct sunlight (for ics. several days) or with the use of artificial heating Uses The fruit of bilimbi is used for pickles, cur­ systems (less than 24hours) . ries, chutney and preserves in syrup. The fruit of Prospects There is an increasing production of carambola for fruit salads, punch bowls,juice , pre­ Auricularia fruitbodies for commercial purposes, serves, jam and jelly. Both fruits are also used to stimulated byth e increasing popularity of Chinese clean metal and remove stains and in various ways food. Countries such as Thailand, the Philippines, in traditional medicine (e.g. affections of the skin, Singapore and Indonesia are cultivating these fevers). fungi on a larger scale. There is an urgent need Production and international trade The only for selection and production ofhigh-yieldin g culti- South-East Asian data on areas and production vars with desired properties. are from the Philippines, where 7800 0 carambola Literature |1| Chang, S.T. & Hayes, W.A. (Edi­ trees yielded 2150 t of fruits in 1977. Both crops tors), 1978. The biology and cultivation of edible grow mainly in home gardens. Carambola is grown mushrooms.Academi c Press, New York. 2 Chang, commercially in the subtropics and is flown to Eu­ S.T. &Quimio , T.H. (Editors), 1982.Tropica l mush­ ropean markets, from Israel as well as from Malay­ rooms. Biological nature and cultivation methods. sia. Chinese University Press, Hong Kong. 493 pp. |3| Properties The sour taste of bilimbi is largely Kobayasi, Y., 1981.Th e genus Auricularia. Bulle­ determined by citric acid, while oxalic acid domi­ tin ofth e National Science Museum, Tokyo, Series nates in carambola, even in the sweet types. Both B. (Botany), 7:41-67. |4|Yong , T.A. &Leong , P.C., fruits are rich in potassium and vitamin A; the 1983. A guide to cultivation of edible mushrooms vitamin Cconten t is low in bilimbi and fair in car­ in Singapore. Primary Production Department ambola. Agriculture Handbook, Singapore, No 6. 39pp . Description Small trees, 6-9 m up to 15m high. (W.Jülic h &M.A . Rifai) Leaves imparipinnate with entire, usually ovate leaflets. Flowers in axillary or cauliflorous pani­ cles, pentamerous, heterostylous, with petals Averrhoa L. much longer than sepals, 10 stamens, of which 5 sometimes rudimentary, and a superior, 5-celled Sp. PL 1:42 8(1753) ;Gen . PL ed. 5:196(1754) . ovary with 5styles . Fruit large, (ob)ovoid to ellip­ OXALIDACEAE soid in outline. Seeds ellipsoid; endosperm present. 2« = 22,2 4 A. bilimbi: Sparsely branched tree, branches stiff, Major species thick, upright. Leaves 7-19-jugate. Flowers Averrhoa bilimbi L., Sp. PL 1:42 8(1753) ; usually in cauliflorous panicles, heterotristylous; Averrhoa carambola L., Sp. PL 1:42 8(1753) . petals free, 10-20 mm long, red-purple; short sta­ Vernacular names mens fertile. Fruit slightly lobed, up to 10 cm x A. bilimbi: bilimbi, cucumber tree (En). Corni- 5cm . Seeds lacking aril. chonier (Fr). Indonesia, Malaysia: blimbing A. carambola: Much-branched, broad, bushy tree, 58 A SELECTION

extended to frost-free subtropics. Bilimbi grows up to 500 m altitude on Java. Both species need well- drained soils, pH 5.5-6.5, and grow well on peat; drought, flooding and salinity are not tolerated. Propagation and planting Bilimbi is grown mainly from seed. Grafting, budding and marcot- ting are successful in carambola. Budwood should not be tender or brittle. Budding on one-year-old rootstock gives best results. Spacing 6 m x 6 m, that is 277 trees/ha for both species. Husbandry Cultivars must be planted mixed for cross-pollination. An NPKMg formula, e.g. 10-10-10-5, at about 100 g/tree, is applied every 3 months on young trees; later on the quantity is adapted to trunk girth. Deficiencies of Zn, Mn and Fe must be corrected regularly. Diseases and pests Leaf spot (Cercospora aver­ rhoa) and pink disease (Corticium) occur in South- East Asia. Caterpillars (Pingasa, Pseudoterpna, Diacotrichia) attack flowers and young leaves. Carambola fruit suffers most from fruit-fly mag­ gots, particularly Dacus dorsalis; bagging pre­ vents infestation. Harvesting In Malaysia, carambola fruit is bagged and excess fruit thinned for top quality; Averrhoa carambola L. - 1, flowering branch; 2, seasonal harvest greatly facilitates commerciali­ fruit; 3,branch with leaves. zation, but for home consumption year-round crop­ ping is an asset. branches usually drooping. Leaves 3-6-jugate. Yield From 50-150 kg/tree is reported. At 277 Flowers usually in axillary panicles, heterodisty- trees/ha, this would mean 14-42 t/ha per year. lous; petals coherent, up to 8 mm long, light-red Handling after harvest Carambola can be with purple heart; short stamens rudimentary, stored 4week s at 10° Ci fpicke d as soon as the fruit lacking anthers. Fruit with 5pronounce d ribs, stel­ starts to turn yellow. It is a non-climacteric fruit. late in cross-section, up to 12.5 cm x 6 cm. Seeds Prospects No further development is foreseen with fleshy aril. in the case of bilimbi; carambola exports to West­ Growth and development Clonal trees bear in ern markets may increase considerably when the 2-3 years, seedlings after 5-6 years. Both species fruit becomes better known. grow, flower and fruit continuously, but usually Literature 1| Coronel, R.E., 1986. Promising there are one or two pronounced harvest seasons, fruits of the Philippines. 2nd ed. College of Agri­ each lasting about 2 months. Both self- and cross- culture, University of the Philippines, Los Banos. incompatibility occur; flowers open 8-10 a.m.; pp. 51-66. |2|Morton , J.F., 1987.Fruit s ofwar m cli­ fruit-set good, much late fruit fall; fruit ripens mates. Creative Resource Systems, Inc. Winter- 90-110 days after anthesis. ville, N.C.,Unite d States, pp. 125-129. |3| Popenoe, Other botanical information Carambola culti- W., 1920.Manua l oftropica l and subtropical fruits. vars are 'Mata 66' and 'Ching Sing Keow' (Malay­ MacMillan, New York. pp. 429-432. |4| Sedgley, sia), 'Fu'ang Tung' (Thailand), 'Dah Pon' and M., 1984. Oxalidaceae. In: Page, P.E. (Editor): 'Tean Ma' (Taiwan), 'Arkin', 'Newcomb', 'Thayer' Tropical tree fruits for Australia. Queensland and the self-compatible 'Golden Star' (Florida), Dept. ofPrimar y Industries, Brisbane, pp. 125-128. 'Icambola' (Colombia). (J.A. Samson) Ecology Both species prefer a climate with a dry season. They grow in association with teak (Tec- tona grandis L.f.), but also do well in Af climates except in the wettest parts. Carambola can be BOEHMERIA 59

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. vitamins and minerals such as provitamin A and calcium. Voy. Uranie, Bot.: 499(1830) . Description An erect, monoecious, usually URTICACEAE unbranched, fast growing perennial herb or under- 2n = 14 shrub, 1-3 m high. Root system with normal roots Synonyms Urtica nivea L. (1753),Boehmeria uti- and tuberous storage roots. Stems initially green lis Blume (1853). and hairy, turning brownish and woody, arising Vernacular names Ramie, China grass (En). from long underground rhizomes. Leaves alter­ Ramie (Fr). Indonesia: rami, kelui, haramay. nate, long-petiolate,broadl y ovate to triangular or Malaysia: rami, ramee, kelui. Philippines: amirai, cordate, 7.5-20 cm x 5-17 cm,serrate , acuminate, arimai, labnis. Cambodia: thmey. Laos: pan, po with or without felty white hairs beneath. Inflores­ pan. Thailand: ka-moei,taa n khamoi, po-bo. cences axillary panicles, with small, unisexual, Origin and geographic distribution Ramie is 4-merous flowers, male ones in lower part, female indigenous in eastern Asia, from Japan down to ones in upper part of the plant; male flowers with the eastern part of China and Malaysia. The plant 4 incurved stamens and a rudimentary ovary; has been cultivated in China for hundreds of years female flowers with tubular, greenish or pinkish and is also grown in Japan and the Philippines. perianth, a slender hairy style and a 1-celled ovary In most tropical countries and in southern United with one ovule. Fruit an achene, about 1m m long, States it has been grown experimentally. enclosed by persistent perianth, brownish-yellow. Uses Ramie is used in a manner similar to flax Growth and development About 10day s after and hemp.Th e fibre is used to make fishing-tackle, planting, the rhizome cuttings start growing. First nets, strings, gas mantles, paper and cloth (grass growth at 4-10 months after planting is highly ir­ cloth or chinese linen).I n textiles, ramie is usually regular in height and pruned close to the ground, blended with polyester, wool, silk and cotton. The leaves, which are high in protein, have been used extensively for animal feeding. Production and international trade Annual world production does not exceed 130000 t, and only a small proportion (7000 t) enters internatio­ nal trade. The main producers are China, which is thought to produce 10000 0t , Brazil 1600 0t and the Philippines 3000 t/year. Other countries pro­ ducing small quantities of ramie include South Korea, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan, Thailand, Cambodia and Columbia. China exports fibre to Japan and Europe. Although ramie has many excellent properties and divers uses it has failed to become a major world textile fibre, mainly because ofth e high cost of production. Most ramie plantings throughout the world consist of small family plots, exceptions being plantation-type estates in Florida (United States), Brazil and the Philippines. Properties The stem yields a bast fibre which is one of the longest (40-200 mm) and strongest, most lustrous and durable ofplan t fibres; strength increases when fibres are wet (60%). The fibre lacks the elasticity of wool and silk and the flexi­ bility of cotton. Raw ramie fibre contains plant gums (25-35 %). These gums are composed princi­ pally of araband and xylans (hemicellulose) that are relatively insoluble in water but quite soluble in alkaline solutions. The leaves and tops of ramie Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. - flowering and contain 20-24 % protein (dry weight) and certain fruiting stem. 60 A SELECTION and not used for fibre extraction. Subsequently caused by the white fungus Rosellinia necatrix in 4-5 crops can be obtained per year, starting about Japan, the Philippines and Vietnam. The fungus 2 months after the first pruning. Maximum yields destroys the root system.I n infested areas the crop are reached from the third to sixth year after plant­ should be dug up, burned and the area disinfected ing, after which the plantation is usually renewed. with a chloropicrin solution. In some countries it is considered that replanting The crop has no serious pests. The black caterpil­ would have to be done every 7 years, whereas in lar Cocytodes caerulea attacks plants in Japan. If others the period is stated to be as long as 20years . no spray solution is available, the larvae are Other botanical information Two varieties removed by hand. are distinguished: var. nivea, white ramie, a native Harvesting The stems are cut when the inflores­ of China and Japan, with a thick white felt of hairs cence is appearing and the stems are beginning to at underside of leaves, said to be better suited to turn brown. The plants are harvested byhan d with temperate climates; var. tenacissima (Roxb.) Miq., a sickle, close enough to the ground to prevent green ramie, a native of Malaysia, with larger regrowth from the old stump. At harvest the tops leaves, green on both sides, said to be better suited and leaves are removed from the stems, and can to tropical climates. Only white ramie is cultivated be used either as green manure or as animal feed. on a commercial scale; the cultivars Saikeiseisin The number and timing of harvests and the yields and Formosa are considered the best. Ramie depend on climate, soil, cultivar, irrigation, appli­ flowers are wind-pollinated, and the male ones cation of fertilizers, and occurrence of diseases open first. and pests. Ecology Ramie grows from almost equatorial Yield Yields of as much as 1400 kg fibre/ha are conditions in Indonesia and the Philippines to ca. possible from well-established ramie fields. The 38° N in Japan and South Korea. In tropical areas yield of crude fibre varies between 2 and 4% of the the temperature may average 27.6° C for the entire weight of the green plant, and the yield of 12-month growing season. In temperate areas the degummed fibre isnormall y about 1% . Apparently temperature may not fall below freezing point. the yield of fibre is much higher in temperate and Ramie requires a minimum of 140 mm of rainfall subtropical regions than in tropical ones. per month to grow properly. The crop is extremely Handling after harvest Ramie isprocesse d into sensitive to waterlogging, and drought periods fibre in two steps: by decortication and degum- may reduce yield. It is an exhaustive crop and ming. Decortication is preferably done with needs a rich, well-drained, sandy-loam soil and freshly cut stems. The fibre is usually extracted by heavy manuring. manually stripping and scraping of the bark, Propagation and planting Ramie can be propa­ which means tedious manual labour. In Brazil, gated byseed , which takes 1-2 years,bu t generally parts ofth e Philippines and Japan ramie is decorti­ vegetative propagation is practised. Usually rhi­ cated with small, manual decorticators. Decorti­ zome cuttings with a length of 5-12 cm are used, cated fibre is hung over poles to dry and bleach but plants can also be propagated by division of in the wind and sun. Raw ramie fibre still contains the clumps and by stem cuttings.Rhizom e cuttings 25-35 % of gum, which must be removed before the are taken from plants of 3 years or older. Most fibre can be spun. Many chemical degumming ramie plantings are small family plots that are methods have been developed for ramie, which are planted by hand. Rows are opened with a hoe to usually kept secret by the textile mills using them. a depth of 10 cm or more and spreaded with ma­ In industrialized regions, spinning oframi e is com­ nure. Optimum planting depth for ramie is about monly done on machinery developed for silk, cot­ 5c mbelo w the soil surface, with 30-50 cm distance ton or wool, often with less satisfactory results. between plants and rows. Genetic resources A germplasm collection is Husbandry Regular weeding is necessary until available at the Institute of Plant Breeding of the the canopy is closed. Ramie is a soil depleting crop University of the Philippines at Los Banos, and at and large quantities offertilizers , expecially nitro­ the Everglades Experiment Station in Florida gen, are required (N 190kg/ha , P205 62 kg/ha, K20 (United States). 90 kg/ha) to give a good yield. Leaving crop waste Prospects Ramie fibre possesses extraordinary in the fields is beneficial to maintain proper qualities and has great potential to become an growth. Irrigation may be needed during pro­ important plantation industry and cash crop for longed dry periods. many tropical and subtropical regions. The major Diseases and pests The most serious disease is obstacle to its widespread use is the problem of BRASSICA 61 removing the gum without weakening the fibres. cole plant. This plant belongs to B. napus, combin­ For this, research is urgently needed. Moreover, ing the genomes of B. rapa and B. oleracea L., with decorticators suitable for medium- and small-scale the names oil-seed rape (En) or colza (Fr). In the operations in the field are needed. 19th Century, rape lamp oil was replaced by paraf­ Literature |1|Dempsey , J.M., 1975. Fiber crops. fin and subsequently by electricity, which deci­ University of Florida Press, Gainsville, Florida, mated oil-seed rape cultivation. pp. 90-128. |2|Greenhalgh , P., 1978. The market for In Europe,rap e oilneve r became aspopula r a vege­ Ramie. Tropical Products Institute No G 115. 63 table oil as in India, probably because the peculiar pp. |3| Kirby, R.H., 1963.Vegetabl e fibres, botany, pungency of the crude oil did not agree with the cultivation and utilization. Leonard Hill, London, European palate. Even when processed indus­ pp. 148-180. |4;Schreven , A.C. &Huijsmans , CA., trially (and deodorized) the oil still did not qualify 1950. Ramie. In: van Hall, C.J.J. &va n de Koppel, for consumption because its fatty acid composi­ C. (Editors): De landbouw in de Indische Archipel. tion, dominated by erucic acid, may cause certain Vol. 3.W . van Hoeve, The Hague, pp. 226-236. heart ailments. However, in the 1960s,plant s were (A. Koopmans) selected containing seeds with a very low content oferuci c acid. Cultivars were bred in the following decade, both in B. rapa and B. napus and both Brassica L. (oil seeds) spring and winter types, having practically no eru­ cicaci di nth e oilbu t higher levels ofolei c and lino- Sp. PI. 2:66 6 (1753);Gen . PI. ed. 5:299(1754) . leic acids. This made the oil interchangeable with CRUCIFERAE the other major vegetable oils, and gave the crop 2« = 20(B. rapa), 34(B. carinata), 36(B. juncea), a great impetus in western Europe and Canada. 38(B. napus). Uses The zero erucic acid rape seed produced in Major species and synonyms Europe and Canada is exclusively extracted for its - Brassica carinata A. Braun, Flora 24:26 7(1841) ; oil used especially in margarine and for cooking. - Brassica juncea (L.) Czern., Consp. pi. Chark.: Newly bred cultivars with a high content of erucic 8 (1859); acid are used for extraction of industrial oil. In the - Brassica napus L., Sp. PI. 2:66 6(1753) ; Indian subcontinent brassica oil seeds, often - Brassica rapa L.,Sp .PI .2:66 6(1753) ,syn . B. cam- referred to as 'mustard', are largely used for cook­ pestrisL. (1753). ing purposes (as in Ethiopia),bu t the seeds are also Vernacular names In general for brassica oil used for making curry. The cake remaining after seeds: rape seed, prefixed by 'spring' or 'winter' oil extraction has a high protein content of good (En). Colza, followed by 'de printemps' or 'd'hiver' quality, and it is used to feed cattle. However, cer­ (Fr). tain of the glucosinolates, typically of cruciferous - B. carinata: Ethiopian mustard (En). Moutarde seeds, may cause serious diseases or disorders, éthiopienne (Fr). which severely limits its use. A major effort to - B. juncea: Indian mustard (En). Moutarde breed cultivars with a very low glucosinolate con­ indienne (Fr). raj, rai (Hindi). tent (the 'double zero' cultivars) is underway. - B. napus: rape, oil-seed rape (En). Colza (Fr). Other uses of the mentioned crops include: B. cari­ - B. rapa: turnip rape (En).Toria , sarson (Hindi). nata: leafy vegetable; B. juncea: leafy vegetable, Origin and geographic distribution Brassica root & stem crops; B. napus: forage crop (swede oil-seed crops originated in China and the Indian turnip, rutabaga, fodder rape); B. rapa: leafy vege­ subcontinent (B. rapa, B. juncea), Europe (B. table (chinese cabbage, pak choi, leaf turnip), veg­ napus, B. rapa) and Ethiopia (B. carinata). In the etable turnip (petsai) ,fodde r turnip, inflorescence Indian subcontinent, brassica oil-seed crops are of &ste m vegetable. ancient cultivation (B. juncea: Raj; B. rapa: Sar­ Production and international trade During son, Toria). the period 1979-1986 the annual world production In the Netherlands, the production of seeds of tur­ and area of rape seed amounted to 16.6 million t nips (B. rapa: raapzaad (Dutch), turnip rape (En)) on 13.6 million ha, with Europe contributing 5.5 as a cash crop for lamp-oil extraction developed million t on 2.2 million ha, China 4.7 million t on into a major industry in the 16th Century, spread­ 4 million ha, Canada 3.4 million t on 2.7 million ing to the neighbouring countries. In the 17th Cen­ ha and India 2.6millio n t on 3.9 million ha. tury, a new plant type developed in that region, World export ofrap e seed and oildurin g 1984-1986 not having a turnip-like root and looking like a was as high as 1.3 million t, Canada being the larg- 64 A SELECTION juncea, B. rapa) are major sources for breeding of Brassica rapa L. oil-seed cultivars. Important breeding aims include higher oil content, improvement of the oil Sp.P L2 : 666(1753) . composition and plant architecture, and resis­ Cv. group Chinese Cabbage: Toxopeus, Yamagishi tance to diseases and pests. The genetic diversity &Oos t in Crue. Newsl. 12:5- 6 (1987). in B. napus is very limited and might be increased Cv. group Pak Choi: Oost in Styles, Trop, infraspc. by crossing directly with B. rapa. Another class, of wild and cult, plants: 309-315 (1986). approach is the artificial synthesis of B. napus by CRUCIFERAE fusion of nuclei from B. oleracea and B. rapa, giv­ 2n = 20 ing access to the wide genetic variation of these Synonyms Brassica campestris L. (1753), Bras­ species. B. oleracea is the only species with related sica pekinensis (Lour.) Rupr. (1860) for cv. group wild species, which are well described and well col­ Chinese Cabbage, Brassica chinensis L. (1759) for lected. cv. group Pak Choi. Prospects Rape seed will become more attrac­ Vernacular names For both cv. groups: Chi­ tive with the advent of the 'double zero' cultivars nese cabbage, celery cabbage (En). Chou de Chine (low erucic acid and glucosinolate contents) and (Fr). Indonesia and Malaysia: petsai, sawi putih. 'triple zero' cultivars (low erucic acid, glucosino­ Philippines: pe-tsai, pechay. Cambodia: pè tchay, late and linoleic acid contents), because its cake spey sâr. Laos: kat khao. Thailand: phakkaat far- will become available as a food concentrate. It is ang, ang chaithao. to be expected that the yield potential will increase - cv. group Chinese Cabbage: Peking cabbage following this breakthrough. For South-East Asia, (En). Malaysia: petsai. the crops have potential to be cultivated at higher - cv. group Pak Choi: mustard cabbage (En). Indo­ elevations where they may fit well into existing nesia: petjai. crop rotations. Because of the wide adaptability Origin and geographic distribution B. rapa of brassica oil crops, it may be possible to develop has its origin in the region comprising the Mediter­ new cultivars suited for specific environments. ranean, eastern Afghanistan and western Pakis­ However, major breeding efforts will then be tan. Both cv. groups Chinese Cabbage and Pak required. Choi originate from East Asia, probably China. Literature |1| Prakash, S., 1980.Cruciferou s oil­ Opinions differ whether the two groups developed seeds in India. In: Tsunoda, S., Hinata, K. & independently of one another or whether Chinese Gómez-Campo, C. (Editors): Brassica crops and Cabbage developed from Pak Choi.A t present both wild allies. Japan Scientific Society Press, Tokyo, cv. groups are grown all over the world. From pp. 151-161. |2| Roebellen, G. & Thies, W., 1980. China the crops were introduced into the Philip­ Biosynthesis of seed oil and breeding for improved pines, Korea and Japan. At present they are grown oil quality of rapeseed. In: Tsunoda, S. et al. (Edi­ in most South-East Asian countries and Taiwan. tors): Brassica crops and wild allies. Japan Scien­ Uses Fresh raw leaves are used in salads (Indo­ tific Society Press, Tokyo, pp. 253-283. 3: Schulz, nesia, the Philippines, Hong Kong, Taiwan). Fresh E. &Petersen , U., 1981.Nutritiv e value of protein leaves are also fried, boiled (as a soup or as a vege­ feedstuffs from oilseed crops.In :Bunting , E.S. (Ed­ table) and/or steamed (Indonesia, Malaysia, itor): Production and utilization of protein in oil­ Taiwan, Hong Kong). Sometimes leaves are seed crops. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The treated with a 10% salt solution, after which fer­ Hague, pp. 243-262. |4| Toxopeus, H., Oost, E.H. mentation takes place (Malaysia, Taiwan, Hong &Reuling , G., 1984. Current aspects of the taxono­ Kong, Korea). Leaves treated this way can be kept my of cultivated Brassica species. Cruciferae for several weeks or months. Dried leaves can be Newsletter 1984:55-58. |5| Toxopeus, H., Yama- kept for several weeks and are used as a vegetable gishi, H. & Oost, E.H., 1987. A cultivar classifica­ or for medicinal purposes (Malaysia, Hong Kong). tion of Brassica rapa L., update 1987. Cruciferae Canning of leaves is of increasing importance in Newsletter 1987:5-6. |6|Weiss , E.A., 1983. Oilseed Taiwan and Korea. crops. Longman, London & New York. pp. Production and international trade Figures 161-215. on production of Chinese Cabbage and Pak Choi (H.Toxopeu s &C . Lelivelt) are scarce and, if available, difficult to interpret. In 1980, some 1900 0 ha were planted with Chinese Cabbage and Pak Choi in Indonesia, with an aver­ age production of 5.6 t/ha, and a total production BRASSICA 65 of more than 105000 t. In 1978 in the Philippines, petals, ca. 1 cm x 0.5 cm, bright-yellow with 4820 ha produced 43585 t of Pak Choi and about orange-coloured veins above. Siliques valved and 300h a produced nearly 30001o f Chinese Cabbage. beaked, 3-7 cm x 0.5 cm. Seeds 10-15 per silique, In Taiwan in 1966, 64220 t of Pak Choi were pro­ dark-coloured. duced on 7244 ha. In 1976, 8400 ha were planted cv. group Chinese Cabbage: Leaves in a head, with Chinese Cabbage. In Korea in 1976, some broad and ovate, undulate, crenulate or lobed, 70000 ha were planted with Chinese Cabbage. The with rather sharp taste; petioles winged, hardly to average and total production were 14 t/ha and distinguish from the main nerves, light-coloured. 895000 t, respectively. In Japan in 1977, some Seeds smooth. 1 700000 1o fbot h cv. groups (but especially of Chi­ cv. group Pak Choi: Leaves in a radical rosette, nese Cabbage) were produced on 4000 0 ha (aver­ obovate-oblong, undulate-crenulate, shining; age production 40t/ha) .Internationa l trade in Chi­ petioles broadly canaliculate and fleshy, conspicu­ nese Cabbage or Pak Choi in South-East Asia is ous, light-coloured. Seeds grooved. practically non-existent. Growth and development Seeds germinate Properties Leaves of Chinese Cabbage and Pak 3-7 days after sowing; 2-3 weeks later seedlings Choi are known for their high concentration of Ca have formed 4-5 leaves; 2-4 weeks after sowing (102 and 147 mg per 100 g fresh edible portion, re­ plants start forming a rosette or start heading. spectively), provitamin A (1555 and 3600 IU) and Some 50-90 days after sowing the plants can be vitamin C (66 and 74 mg). However, these levels harvested asa vegetable. Both cv. groups are quan­ are no higher than for most other leaf vegetables. titative long-day plants. The cv. group Chinese The nutritional value of leaves of Chinese Cab­ Cabbage starts flowering after a period with lower bage is less than of Pak Choi, being 63 and 88 kj, temperatures. In both cv. groups, temperature and respectively. It should be noted that during cook­ photoperiod play an important role in growth and ing most of the vitamins B and C are lost in the development. Cross-pollination is effected by water. insects. 1000-kernel weight is 3g . Other botanical information In B. rapa 10 Description Biennial erect herbs, cultivated as other cv. groups are distinguished besides cv. annual crops, 20-50 cmhig h during the vegetative groups Chinese Cabbage and Pak Choi: Vegetable and 75-150 cmdurin g the generative stage. Leaves Turnip (turnip, vegetable), Fodder Turnip (rosette 20-50 cm x 10-25 cm, with 13-19 secondary of large leaves, fodder), Winter Turnip Rape (bien­ nerves. Flowers in 15-20 cm long racemes, lacking nial, oil seed), Spring Turnip Rape (annual, oil bracts, pedicelled and 4-merous with erect, ca. 0.5 seed), Yellow Sarson (annual, yellow seeds, oil cm long, yellowish-green sepals, and spathulate seed), Mizuna (many tillers, vegetable), Taatsai (flat rosette, many small dark-green leaves, vege­ table), Leaf Turnip (non-heading, vegetable), Sais- hin (early-bolting, inflorescence loose, vegetable), Brocoletto (inflorescence enlarged and compact, vegetable). Ecology In vegetable production, best results for both Chinese Cabbage and Pak Choi are obtained with a photoperiod of 10-13 hours and temperatures of 21° C during daytime and 16° C during the night. The mean monthly temperature should be 15-18°C . Too high temperatures (> 25°C ) inhibit heading of Chinese Cabbage and cause burning. Too low temperatures cause death of the plants, although night frost-tolerant culti- vars exist. Chinese Cabbage requires a period of cool weather (below 13°C ) and both cv. groups need long daylengths (during 1 month more than 16 hours) to start flowering. Seedlings need some shading, older plants grow best under high radia­ Brassica rapa L. cv.group Chinese Cabbage-plant tion. As a vegetable, Chinese Cabbage and Pak with leaves. Choi grow only at higher altitudes (700-1500 m) 66 A SELECTION in the tropics but cultivation during the cool sea­ the beds or the field. Depending on the cropping son in the lowlands is possible. The plants are conditions, more fertilizer may be added during sensitive to wind injury. the rest of the growing cycle. In the Philippines Both cv. groups can be grown on a variety of soils. compost of rice straw is used as organic fertilizer. Best soils are mulched, well-drained, fertile, with In Malaysia, growers use manure from pigs or a high content of organic matter, a good water-re­ chickens and waste from fish and plants, and in tention capacity, and a pH of 6.0-7.3. China night soil is frequently applied. Propagation and planting Seeds are sown in The two cv. groups can be grown in rotation with rows on seed-beds, in boxes, on beds or in the field. field crops or in multiple cropping systems with Seedlings raised on seed-beds or in boxes are trans­ other vegetables. planted either to beds or directly in the field after Diseases and pests The most important dis­ about 3 weeks. Seedlings sown on beds or in the eases are downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica), field are thinned later on. During preparation the bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora) and the tur­ beds, boxes and the fields are fertilized. Sometimes nip mosaic virus transmitted by aphids. For some the soil is disinfected and/or the seeds are treated diseases, resistant cultivars are found. Other con­ with fungicides or hot water. With the seed-bed trol measures are cultural practices, seed treat­ method, 1.5-2 kg/ha of seed is required to obtain ment with hot water, soil treatment with chemi­ 200000 plants/ha of Pak Choi. With the same cals and biological control. method, for Chinese Cabbage about 0.6 kg/ha is The most serious pests are the diamond-back moth necessary to plant 60000 plants/ha. For direct (Plutella xylostella), the cabbage looper (Trichop- seeding of Pak Choi, about 2 kg/ha seed are lusia ni), the flea beetle {Phyllotreta spp.) and required to obtain 200000 plants/ha. For Chinese aphids. Insecticides and biological control are Cabbage, 1-1.5 kg of seed is necessary for 60000 being used and further developed. plants/ha. Harvest Harvest can be spread over several In the field, rows or ridges with the 2 cv. groups days or weeks. Transplanted plants need more can be intercropped with other field crops or vege­ days to harvest. The first plants can be harvested tables. The cultivation of both types occurs in 50 days after direct sowing or 40 days after trans­ home gardening as well as in market gardening. planting. The final harvest is some 80 days after Land preparation is normally done by hand. Only sowing or 100day s after transplanting. The leaves fields are ploughed or harrowed (the Philippines, or heads are cut at ground level or whole plants Japan). Plant densities vary from 30000 to 300000 are harvested and roots cut off. Sometimes the plants/ha under sole cropping. For Chinese Cab­ outer 2-3 leaves are removed at harvest. bage 60000 and for Pak Choi up to 200000 plants/ Yield Per crop the average production is about ha are frequently mentioned. 15 t/ha (5-30) for Pak Choi and 20 t/ha (8-50) for Husbandry Irrigation of beds and fields is of Chinese Cabbage. For China more than 100 t/ha great importance, the intensity depending on the of Chinese Cabbage are recorded per crop. cropping conditions. Seedlings are watered just Handling after harvest Most countries in before removal from the seed-bed or immediately South-East Asia experience difficulties with trans­ after thinning in the bed or field. Water (sometimes port and storage of the produce. Bamboo baskets, with dissolved fertilizer) is added by furrows or by the most frequently used packing material, are spraying. Mulching (normally with rice straw) is often overloaded. This causes injuries leading to a common practice, except in Indonesia. Weeding infections bymicro-organisms . At ambient temper­ is done by hand. The removed plants are dried, atures Chinese Cabbage and Pak Choi can only be turned into the soil or removed. In Indonesia and stored for a few days. Lack of storage facilities, ad­ the Philippines, earthing-up is carried out several equate packing material and sufficient transport times in combination with weeding. To stimulate hampers the marketing of the crop and reduces its the formation of a firm white heart, Chinese Cab­ export scope. bage is tied up at the beginning of heading. Genetic resources The centres ofgreates t gene­ Organic fertilizers are normally used. Chemical tic diversity are found in China and Japan. Much fertilizers are sometimes applied inmarke t garden­ germplasm, however, is being lost as landraces are ing. In case of direct sowing, a part ofth e fertilizer replaced bynewl y developed cultivars. The largest is given at sowing and the rest after thinning. In germplasm collection is housed at the Asian Vege­ case of transplanting, part of the fertilizer is table Research & Development Center (AVRDC) worked into the seed-bed, the rest being given to in Taiwan. CALAMUS 67

Breeding Objectives for breeding are tolerance natural distribution some of its occurrences may for high temperatures, resistance to diseases and be the result of planting. pests, better (storage) qualities and early maturi­ Uses Locally, rotan sega is the preferred species ty. This may lead to cultivars of Chinese Cabbage for fine weaving; when abundant it is also used for and Pak Choi adapted to the hot season in the low­ cordage, house construction, and sewing of 'atap' land tropics. Resistance to some diseases may be (thatch). In international trade, it ison e ofth e best obtained through crosses with other species of sources of cane for splitting and coring to make Brassica L. (e.g. B. oleracea L.). 'chair-cane' and core for furniture construction. Prospects Further increase in the area planted Production and international trade Because with Chinese Cabbage or Pak Choi is to be ofit s high value, rotan sega is collected for trading expected when new cultivars are developed suit­ wherever it occurs. Greatest production occurs in able for year-round production in the lowland trop­ Borneo and to a lesser extent in Sumatra. Indone­ ics. Intensification of the cultivation of the crops sia produces between 70% and 90% of the world's in present-day production areas depends on local rattan supply, but it is difficult to indicate what facilities for storage, transport and marketing. percentage of this is actually C. caesius as the The use of hybrid seed is of growing importance trade uses a classification based on size and quali­ and its share in the international seed trade is ty rather than on species, and several species pro­ increasing. Countries which depend entirely on duce cane of appearance and quality similar to this trade are looking for ways to induce artificial that of rotan sega. Traditionally, rattan harvested flowering in order to produce their own seed. Cli­ from the wild was shipped to middlemen, who matic constraints form a considerable obstacle to might carry out a certain amount of processing, reaching this goal. after which it was sold to exporting warehouses. Literature |1| Anonymous (Editor), 1977. Pro­ Rattan then went to traders in Singapore, Hong ceedings of a workshop on pre- &post-harves t veg­ Kong and Cebu to manufacturers or for re-export etable technology in Asia. AVRDC, Shanhua, in the raw state to Europe, Japan and North Amer­ Taiwan. 156 pp. |2|Herklots , G.A.C., 1972. Vegeta­ ica. These traditional trade routes have been dras­ bles in South-East Asia. George Allen & Unwin, tically altered recently by the introduction of London, pp. 195-205. |3| Talekar, N.S. & Griggs, increased export levies and bans aimed at increas­ T.D. (Editors), 1981. Chinese cabbage. Proceedings ing processing and manufacture in the producing of the First International Symposium of Chinese countries, thereby adding value to the exports. Cabbage. AVRDC, Shanhua, Taiwan. 489 pp. |4| Properties Calamus caesius has a resilient and Toxopeus, H., Yamagishi, H. & Oost, E.H., 1987. durable cane. It is particularly suited by its uni­ A cultivar group classification of Brassica rapa L., form texture to splitting into fine strips (chair- update 1987.Crucifera e Newsletter 12:5-6. cane). The outer surface of the cane has a high (P.J.F.M. Hamers) gloss owing to the silicified epidermis; this layer is sometimes removed (a process referred to as 'runti' or 'lunti'). Quality of the cane is adversely Calamus caesius Blume affected by poor processing; it also depends on fac­ tors such as age, moisture content and the light Rumphia 3: 57(1849) . conditions during growth (which affect the inter- PALMAE nodal length). 2n = unknown Description Clustering, moderate-sized, high- Vernacular names Rotan sega (general, climbing, dioecious rattan, with stems ultimately throughout region and in trade). Indonesia: rotan to 100 m or more in length, the clump tending to sego (Sumatra),rota n taman (southern and central be rather close and dense; stem without leaf- Kalimantan). Philippines: sika. Thailand: wai ta sheaths 7-12 mm in diameter, with sheaths to kha thong. about 20 mm in diameter; internodes to 50 cm or Origin and geographic distribution Rotan more long. Leaf to 2 m long including the sheath; sega is widespread in the wetter parts of South- sheaths dull-green armed with sparse, pale, trian­ East Asia, occurring in southern Thailand (possi­ gular spines to 10m m x 5mm , between the spines bly introduced), Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, with grey hairs and sometimes with minute spi­ Borneo and Palawan (the Philippines). It has also cules and/or brown scales;petiol e up to 50c m long been introduced elsewhere for cultivation trials in juveniles, very short in adult climbing stems; (e.g. West Java), and in the area of its apparent rachis ca. 75 cm long, bearing scattered reflexed 68 A SELECTION

cotesta); endosperm ruminate, embryo basal. Seed­ ling leaf forked, with the two acute lobes only a quarter the length of the whole leaf, and held par­ allel to each other, upper surface dark green, the lower surface covered in pale hairs. Growth and development Seed germinates after 10-20 days; after 12-14 months the primary stem may exceed 1m , the first climbing whips and 2-3 sucker shoots may have developed. These suckers become short horizontal rhizomes or sto­ lons, not exceeding ca. 8 cm length, each with the potential to develop into an aerial stem, and pro­ duce 2mor e rhizomes. There is thus a potential to produce an exponential increase in the number of aerial stems, but because of competition between aerial stems the branches may remain dormant as bulbil-like shoots. Two to three years after estab­ lishment, aerial stems may grow at rates exceeding 4-5 m/year. Flowering may begin in the fourth or fifth year after sowing, and is annual thereafter. At 6year s old, a clump may already consist of over 40 aerial stems. Other botanical information The closely related Calamus trachycoleus Becc. differs from C. caesius in its horizontal shoots, which, unlike those of rotan sega, become long stolons up to 1 m or more in length. There is thus little competi­ tion between aerial stems, and C. trachycoleus is Calamus caesius Blume - 1,part of a young stem an even more suitable rattan for cultivation. Its with leaf sheath and proximal part of the blade; 2, prime habitat is alluvial flats subjected to pro­ distal part of the leaf with cirrus; 3,proximal por­ longed and intense seasonal flooding. Rather little tion of the infructescence; 4, fruit. isknow n ofth e basic biology of any of these rattan palms. spines on the lower surface, distally the rachis pro­ Ecology Rotan sega is usually found in the low­ longed into a whip (cirrus) ca. 75c m long, bearing lands on alluvial flats, river banks, freshwater grapnel-like groups of reflexed spines; leaflets ca. swamp forest or the margins of peat swamp forest. 15o n each side of the rachis, arranged irregularly, In Borneo, where the greatest morphological vari­ usually in alternate pairs, lanceolate, up to ca. 30 ation occurs, it is also found on drier sites up to cm x 5cm ,th e upper surface dark-green, the lower 800 m above sea-level, although in such places surface usually covered with a conspicuous layer growth is not vigorous. Although so abundant on of bluish-white hairs. Inflorescence borne on the river banks and alluvial flats, young seedlings may leaf-sheath of the leaf above the subtending axil, not be able to withstand severe flooding. to 2m long, the male and female superficially simi­ Propagation and planting Although it is pos­ lar, the male branching to 3 orders, the female to sible to propagate C. caesius by removal of sucker 2;bract s tightly tubular, sparsely spiny and hairy; shoots, propagation is best effected from seed. The first-order branches 5-8, rather distant; flower- fruit wall and the fleshy seed-coat must be removed bearing branches rather slender, to 10 cm long in before sowing and the cleaned seed kept moist, as the female, shorter in the male. Male flower green­ any drying out will cause death of the embryo. ish-yellow, ca. 5m m x 3mm . Female flower, larger Seeds are usually sown in beds in the shade and than the male, each borne in a pair together with potted on when the first leaf has emerged. Once a sterile male flower. Mature fruit 1-seeded, ovoid, potted on, seedlings should be kept in the shade ca. 15m m x 10mm , covered in neat reflexed green­ and provided with plenty of moisture without ish-white scales, drying yellowish. Seed ca. 12 mm waterlogging. Seedlings are usually ready for x 7 mm, with an outer fleshy seed-coat (sar- planting 9-12 months after sowing and require the CALLIANDRA 69 support ofa pre-existing tree crop or forest canopy. before a breeding programme is initiated. They are scorched by full sun but require some Prospects The future of this and other rattan light. Smallholders may plant rotan sega in scat­ species in the wild is uncertain owing to severe tered clumps under fruit trees or rubber; on a com­ overexploitation. The prospects for Calamus cae- mercial scale it has been planted in lines in second­ sius and closely related C. trachycoleus as culti­ ary forest. Seedlings should be planted on a grid vated crops are good. Cultivation of these two of 15 m x 5 m or thereabouts. The light reaching small-diameter canes in central Kalimantan for the seedlings has to be so balanced that sufficient over one hundred years has shown that, at least reaches the seedlings to encourage the develop­ on a smallholding scale, cultivation is economi­ ment of aerial stems but sufficient shading is main­ cally viable. It is curious that, until recently, this tained to prevent scorching. highly successful system has not been tried else­ Husbandry Once established, the rattans where. The prospects for cultivation in large com­ require rather little attention apart from clearing mercial plantations have yet to beprove n but seem the lines to allow light to reach the sucker-shoots. good. On a smaller scale, the cultivation of these Diseases and pests Few diseases and pests have two species has a great potential as a source of been reported. Fungal diseases can occur in over­ income for rural dwellers; especially attractive are crowded nursery conditions but are the result of the possibilities of intercropping rattan with pre­ poor nursery management; adult plants in planta­ existing low-yielding rubber or with other tree tion appear to be remarkably free of diseases. crops such as fruit trees. In one part of central In Sabah, elephants have proved to be a nuisance, Kalimantan, Calamus caesius has also been culti­ as they are wont to walk along the planting lines vated with success during the fallow period of the and pull up newly established rattan seedlings. shifting cultivation cycle. Other pests have been reported for different spe­ Literature lj Dransfield, J., 1979. Calamus cae­ cies, e.g. rats, squirrels and leaf-roller caterpillars. sius and Calamus trachycoleus compared. Gar­ Harvesting This is carried out by pulling the dens' Bulletin, Singapore 30:75-78. j2| Dransfield, rattan down out of the canopy; twisting the cane J., 1979. A manual of the rattans of the Malay around a tree trunk allows the leaf-sheaths to be Peninsula. Malaysian Forest Records No 29. For­ snapped off easily. The cane, divested of its est Department, Kuala Lumpur. 270 pp. 3; Kong- sheaths, is then cut into lengths of about 9 m and Ong, H.K. &Manokaran , N., 1986.Rattan : a bibli­ bent, tied inbundle s and transported toth e village. ography. The Rattan Information Centre, Forest An efficient method of harvesting in commercial Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong. 109 pp. |4' plantations has yet to be developed. Weinstock, J.A., 1983. Rattan: ecological balance Yield Reliable figures for yield have yet to be in a Borneo rainforest swidden. Economic Botany produced but estimated yields of about 2.5t/h a per 37:58-68. year are quoted for related Calamus trachycoleus. (J. Dransfield &J.P . Mogea) Handling after harvest Post-harvest treat­ ments are aimed at limiting the attack of staining fungi and powder-post beetle. Canes are cleaned Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. of the remains of leaf-sheaths, 'runtied' if neces­ sary and sun-dried. They may also be fumigated Linnaea21:251(1848). over burning sulphur, which not only prevents LEGUMINOSAE attack by pests and diseases but also tends to 2n = 22 improve the colour ofth e rattan skin. Splitting and Synonyms Calliandra confusa Sprague & Riley coring may be carried out in the producing vil­ (1923). lages, but is more usually performed by a rattan Vernacular names Indonesia: calliandra. merchant. There is considerable scope for im­ Origin and geographic distribution Although provement in the processing of canes. originally described from Surinam C. calothyrsus Genetic resources Almost no attempt has been is native in (sub)humid Central America from made to establish a collection to represent the con­ southern Mexico to north-western Panama, ap­ siderable variation found in this species in the proximately between 8-16°N . From Guatemala it wild, especially in Borneo. However, the species was introduced in Java, Indonesia, in 1936. During is present in several botanic gardens and arboreta. the 1970s it became well-established in Indonesia, Breeding No breeding has been carried out. Pri­ with over 3000 0 ha of plantations. In view of its mary selection and provenance trials are needed excellent performance in the Indonesian planta- 70 A SELECTION tions and its multiple uses, it is now being tested in many tropical countries. Uses In its native area, C. calothyrsus was not known for any special utilization but in Indonesia the tree became favourably known for its many uses. There it ispopula r as a small-size fuel produc­ er for households and small industries. The wood can also beuse d for pulp and paper production, but its small dimensions make handling and chipping difficult. Indonesian experience has also indicated the utility of its leaves as a supplementary fodder. The species is widely planted to control erosion on sloping lands and ravines. It is used to improve soils by nitrogen fixation and good litter produc­ tion by cultivating it in rotation with agricultural crops. It is also incorporated in alley-cropping sys­ tems as a source of green manure, or used as a nurse tree for partially shade-tolerant timber spe­ cies. C. calothyrsus is also planted in firebreaks. Its red and beautiful flower clusters make it a pop­ ular ornamental, and the flowers are a good nectar source for bees. It is a suitable host for shellac insects (Kerria lacca). Properties Leaves of C. calothyrsus contain ap­ proximately (dry matter based): crude protein 22% , fibre 30-75 %, ash 4-5 % and fat 2-3 %. No Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. - 1, flowering toxic substances have been found, but high con­ branch; 2, brauchtet with fruits. tents of condensed tannins (1-3 % and higher) are responsible for the rather low in-vitro digestibility 0.66-0.84 mm, extractive material 3% dry matter. of around 35% . Seed weight is 14000-1 900 0seeds / Growth and development Mature seeds germi­ kg. nate readily. Seedlings grow quickly up to 2.5-3.5 Description Shrub or small tree, (1.5-) 4-6 m in 6 months and up to 3-5 m in the first year. (-12) m high, with trunk diameter up to 30 cm, Trees mature rapidly; flowering may start in the blackish-brown bark and a dense canopy. Leaves first year, but good fruit setting normally starts bipinnate, alternate, rachis 10-17 cm long, with­ the second year. Normally large quantities of out glands,pinna e 4-7 cm long in 15-20pair s with seeds are produced each year. In its native region, 25-60 pairs of dark-green leaflets each; leaflets flowering is concentrated at the end of the rainy linear, 5-8 mm x 1mm . season and the beginning of the dry season, and Inflorescences composed of few to many flowered fruits are set in the dry season. On Java, C. calo­ heads, in terminal raceme-like clusters of 10-30 thyrsus flowers and fruits throughout the year, but cm length. Flowers showy, purplish-red, 4-6 cm most seeds are produced in the dry season. Flowers long; calyx 2 mm long; corolla 5-6 mm long, pale are insect-pollinated and seeds mature 2 months green; stamens numerous, 4-6 cm long, purplish- after pollination. Fruits are mature when they red. Fruits broadly linear, flattened, 8-11 cm x turn brown. The stem turns brittle around the age 1 cm, slightly tapering from top to base, margins of1 2years ,bu t the rootstock remains vigorous and thickened and raised, finely pubescent or gla­ new sprouts are easily formed. After cutting, trees brous, brownish, dehiscent, 3-15-seeded. Seeds coppice vigorously. Annual coppicing of stems of ellipsoid, flattened, 5-7 mm long, dark brown. 3-5 cm diameter may be carried out during 10 Wood characteristics The wood of C. calothyr­ years or longer. Roots develop quickly and may sus is moderately heavy, volumetric mass 510-780 reach 1.5-2 mi n plants of4- 5 months old. Superfi­ kg/m3, strong and easy to saw. It provides good cial-growing and deep-growing roots are both fuelwood (caloric value 18900-19950 kj/kg) formed. and is suitable for charcoal production. Cellulose Other botanical information Calliandra content varies from 44-56 %, fibre length from Benth. is a genus of about 100 species of shrubs CALLIANDRA 71 and small trees in tropical and warm temperate plants are transplanted when they are 20-50 cm regions, some of which are widely cultivated as tall with a root-collar of 0.5-1 cm. Stumps should ornamentals. Together with the introduction of C. be taken from plants approximately 1 mtal l by cut­ calothyrsus in Java, the white-flowered C. tetra- ting the stem back to 30 cm and the roots to 20 cm. gona Benth. was also introduced from Guatemala. Spacing within plantations varies according to Because of its slower growth, this species became purpose. For firewood, planting-distances are 1 m less popular for plantations. x 1 m to 1 x 2 m; in alley-cropping, spacings of Ecology In its native habitat C. calothyrsus 25-50 cm in the contour lines are used. Areas to grows at altitudes 400-1800 m in areas with an be planted are cleared completely. average annual precipitation from 700t o 3000 mm Management Because seedlings grow quickly and with 1-7 dry months per year. Best develop­ no special plantation maintenance is needed, ment occurs at mid-elevations below 1300 m. In except for weeding in the first year. humid climates the tree is evergreen, in areas with Diseases and pests No serious pests or diseases a long dry season it is semi-deciduous. In severely are known. Ifplant s are coppiced too low or during dry conditions, trees die back but recover at the too wet a season, stumps may become susceptible beginning of the rainy season. The species occurs to fungal attack. in secondary vegetations, often in thickets. It is Harvesting Harvesting can start after the first an aggressive colonizer on disturbed sites such as year, and can be followed by annual coppice cuts recent landslides and roadsides. It grows on a large at the end of each dry season. To foster rapid variety of soil types ranging from deep, volcanic, growth, cutting should be done at 20-50 cm above sandy loams to alluvial soils and shallow or eroded ground. The remaining stumps sprout readily, metamorphic sandy clays. The species can adapt reaching 3m withi n 6 months. to this wide range of soils on account of its quickly Yield On reasonable soils on Java, first harvests established symbiosis with rhizobial micro-organ­ produced 5-20 m3/ha per year of fuelwood. On isms and mycorrhizal fungi. favourable sites, annual coppice harvests conti­ The plants require a mean annual temperature of nued for 10-20 years with yields of 35-65 m3/ha (20-) 22-28°C , with mean maximum temperature per year. Fodder yield ranges from 7-10 t dry mat­ of the hottest month between 24-30 °C and mean ter/ha per year. Grown as fences, fodder yields of minimum temperature of the coldest month be­ 3000-4000 kg/km in 10month s have been obtained. tween 18-24°C. On Java the species is planted up All harvested produce is normally used locally. to 1500 m altitude, but it grows best between Genetic resources A C.calothyrsus germplasm 250-800 m in areas with 2000-4000 mm annual collection exists at CATIE (Turrialba, Costa Rica). rainfall and a 3-6 months dry period. It prefers The Oxford Forestry Institute (United Kingdom) light soil textures and slightly acid conditions. is due to start a programme of germplasm collec­ Best growth is obtained on acid soils of volcanic tion and evaluation in 1989. origin. Growth decreases on compacted soils and Breeding C.calothyrsus was introduced in Java trees die after 2 weeks of oxygen depletion due to as part of a trial of green manure crops for timber waterlogging. plantations. Its introduction was based on two Propagation and planting C. calothyrsus is seed samples from Guatemala only. All existing propagated by seeds, directly in the field or in the plantations in Indonesia are derived from this first nursery. Seeds germinate without pre-treatment, introduction. In Central America the species did but best germination is obtained if seeds are not receive any attention until its success as a fire­ treated with almost boiling water and soaked for wood crop in Indonesia became known in the early 24hours . Normally no inoculation with rhizobium 1980s. The species in Central America has a wide is needed. Seeds retain their viability for at least geographic distribution and is quite variable. It 2-3 years if stored in a refrigerator. At room tem­ seems that the seeds introduced from Guatemala perature viability decreases within one year. to Indonesia were derived from a fast-growing, les­ Sowing directly in the field is normally done by ser branched and taller ecotype. Further prove­ hand with about 5 seeds per plant-hole. On Java, nance trials to assess species variability and adap- good results were also obtained in trials where tibility to different environmental conditions are seeds were broadcast on degraded grasslands. On needed. previously ploughed or burned lands, plant surviv­ Prospects C. calothyrsus has become popular al was 10% after 7years . Potplants and stumps can because its high-quality, small-sized fuelwood can be raised with standard nursery techniques. Pot- be readily produced in annual coppice rotations. 72 A SELECTION

Moreover, its possible use as an alternative to Leu- areas of var. sinensis occur in China, Japan and caena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit in alley-cropping Taiwan. Var. assamica predominates in the other and its suitability for reclamation of bare and growing regions: South and South-East Asia, the degraded sites, including Imperata grasslands, Caucasian region of the Soviet Union and Turkey show good prospects for further development. Its and along the Iranian shores of the Caspian Sea, forage value can possibly be improved by selec­ the southern tropical parts of Africa and South tion. The species produces not only much biomass, America. In South-East Asia, the largest plantings even on rather poor soils, but also abundant seed, are to be found in Indonesia, Vietnam, Papua New which makes it an aggressive colonizer. Care must Guinea and Malaysia, with small areas in Burma be taken that this hardy species does not become and Thailand. a weed. Uses Except for the small amount of 'leppet' tea Literature |1|Baggio , A. &Heuveldop , J., 1984. consumed as pickle in Burma, tea is used world­ Initial performance of Calliandra calothyrsus wide as a beverage after infusion of the leaves in Meissn. in live fences for the production of bio­ hot water. Most of the China tea is processed into mass. Agroforestry Systems 2:19-29. |2| Breteler, green tea (no or hardly any fermentation); some F.J., 1989. The origin and identity of Calliandra of it is scented or made into other teas (such as calothyrsus Meissn. with its synonym C. confusa Oolong, a semi-fermented product). Most of the Sprague &Rile y (Mimos.).Act a Botanica Neerlan­ Assam tea is manufactured into black tea (by fer­ dica 38(1): 79-80. |3| Chang, B. & Martinez, H., mentation of the crushed leaves). In the United 1985.Germplas m resources of Calliandra calothyr­ Kingdom, the Commonwealth countries and most sus Meissn. in Central America and Panama. For­ European countries, black tea isusuall y drunk hot est Genetic Resources Information 13:54-58. |4| with milk or lemon with or without sugar; in the National Academy of Sciences, 1983. Calliandra, a United States, instant tea and tea mixes (with versatile small tree from the humid tropics. Natio­ other flavours added to the tea powder) are mostly nal Academy Press,Washingto n DC,Unite d States. consumed as iced tea. Canned or bottled tea is also 52 pp. [5| Verhoef, L., 1941.Voorlopig e resultaten sold cooled. Indonesians drink tea all day, with met enige uit tropisch Amerika ingevoerde Legu- and between meals, hot, cold or iced. minosae. Tectona 25(10):711 - 719. Production and international trade Before (K.F. Wiersum) the Second World War tea-growing was concen­ trated in a few countries and production of and areas under assam tea were controlled by an inter­ Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze national body set up by the countries concerned to maintain reasonable prices (tea restriction). Um die Erde ('chinensis'): 500 (1881) et in Acta The restriction in quantity led to an improvement hort. petrog. 10:195(1887) . ofquality . During the Second World War, large tea THEACEAE areas were neglected (China) or uprooted (Indone­ 2n = 30 sia) to make the land available for growing other Synonyms Thea sinensis L. (1753), Camellia crops. The gap left in the world market by uproot­ thea Link (1822), Camellia theifera Griff. (1854). ing was more than filled by a number of new pro­ Vernacular names Tea (En). Thé (Fr). Indone­ ducing countries in Africa and South America. In sia and Malaysia: teh. Philippines: tsa (Tagalog). the period 1981-1985, the 1.1 million or so ha in Burma: leppet. Cambodia: taè. Laos: saa, hmiêngz. China were more than matched by the 1.35 million Thailand: miang. Vietnam: trà, che. ha of tea grown in the rest of the world, of which Origin and geographic distribution The most 676000 in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangla­ recent theory places the geographic origin of tea desh), 17200 0i n West Asia (Soviet Union, Turkey, near the source of the Irawaddy river, from where Iran), 161000 in South-East Asia, 8900 0i n the rest it has spread fan-wise eastwards into south-east­ of Asia (Japan, Taiwan), 197000 in Africa and ern China and westwards into Upper Burma and 5200 0i n South America. The South-East Asian tea Assam. Two varieties are recognized: C. sinensis area consists of 110000 ha in Indonesia (almost var. sinensis ('China tea') and C.sinensis var. assa- 40% smallholdings), 4500 0 in Vietnam, 2700 in mica (Mast.) Pierre ('Assam tea'). These varieties Papua New Guinea and 2600i n Malaysia. hybridize freely among each other. The more than World annual production during 1982-1986 aver­ 2 million ha of tea in the world are about equally aged 21240001 , ofwhic h 421000i n China, 141000 0 divided between the China and Assam types. Large elsewhere in Asia (South-East Asia: 152000 t), CAMELLIA 73

241000 in Africa and 52000 in South America. In stantially lower thequalit y of the produce. South-East Asia, Indonesia contributed 117300 t Description Atre e upt o 15m hig h with a broad (about 20% from smallholders), Vietnam 22300 , bowl-shaped crown (under natural conditions) or Papua New Guinea 9100an dMalaysi a 37001. a small shrub (under cultivation), with a strong Green tea production (annually, over 1982-1986) tap-root andman y lateral roots,formin g a network amounted to 44200 0t ; with 168200 0 t ofblac k tea near the surface of the ground. Apices of branch- production being nearly four times ashigh . Practi­ lets finely pubescent. Leaves alternate, elliptic- cally the entire production in Vietnam and almost oblong, 4-30 cm x 1.5-10 cm, (thinly) leathery, all of the smallholder production in Indonesia is serrate, acuminate, young ones finely pubescent; processed into green tea. All leaves produced in leaves of var. sinensis rather leathery and stiff, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea and by the dark green, 4-7 cm long, with a mat surface and estates in Indonesia aremad e into black tea. Over indistinct marginal veins; leaves of var. assamica 80% of green tea is consumed in the countries of softer, supple, lighter green, 15-20c m long, often production; for black teath e corresponding figure more pendant, with a glossy surface. is 50%. Hence green tea is only a small item in Flowers solitary or a few together in the axil of world trade. More than 90% o finternationa l trade a leaf, 2.5-4 cmi n diameter, very fragrant; sepals is black tea. 5-7, persistent, petals 5-7,obovate , white, slightly Based on the annual average price of all London coherent at base; stamens numerous, outer fila­ auctions, thete a entering international trade rep­ ments united at thebas e andcoheren t with petals, resents an average value ofsom e US$200 0 million, inner ones free; ovary 3-5-celled, with 4-6 ovules or about US$ 1800o n FOB (free on board) basis. per carpel; styles 3-5,usuall y fused at base. Fruit In South-East Asia only Vietnam exports a sub­ thick-walled, usually 3-lobed,loculicidal , with per­ stantial quality of green tea, the other countries sistent columella and usually 1 seed in each cell. virtually only black tea. Indonesia exported 7800 0 t (about 65% of the production) valued at US$ 137.4 million FOB, that isUS $1.7 6pe rkg . Malay­ sia and Papua New Guinea exported about three- quarters of what they produced. All figures given above are estimates based on information provided byth e countries concerned. Properties Tea has hardly any nutritional val­ ue. A cupo f 150m l supplies about 17 kJ. The most important constituents giving tea its distinctive character as a beverage are polyphenols, caffeine and essential oils. Fresh plucked tea contains 75-80 % water; thesolubl e andinsolubl e constitu­ ents on an approximate dry weight (% ) include: polyphenols 25,protei n 20, caffeine 2.5-4.5, crude fibre 27, carbohydrates 4, pectin 6. The polyphe­ nols are oxidized by enzymes during maceration and fermentation. Good-quality tea is the product of good leaf with a high polyphenol content and high enzymatic ac­ tivity during processing. The quality of dry tea is determined by: flavour, briskness, strength and colour ofit s liquor, and its appearance. The high­ est-valued teas are those made from the finest leaves, which emphasizes the need for fine pluck­ ing. Genetic properties, climatic conditions (e.g. altitude), ageo fth e bush andperio d since pruning, all affect thequality . Ultimately it isth e plucking, handling and manufacturing which determine to what extent this potential is realized. Bad hand­ Camellia sinensis (L.)Kuntze -1, flowering branch; ling and a bad manufacturing process can sub­ 2,fruiting branch; 3,pluckable shoot. 74 A SELECTION

Seeds globose or flattened on one surface, 1-1.5 slower than those harvested during the wet sea­ cm in diameter, lacking endosperm. son. Seeds retain their viability for only a short Growth and development Seed-grown tea has time. a dominant tap-root, but root distribution varies Other botanical information China tea with clone or jat. In general, tea roots rather shal- remains rather small even when not pruned and lowly with less than 15% of the total roots below plucked and will seldom surpass 3m height . Assam 60 cm, giving rise to a surface mat of feeding roots tea can become much higher, but great variations which lack root hairs when mature. Root develop­ occur. A height up to 8 m is frequently observed. ment, whether the initial tap-root of seed-grown The identity of a plant often cannot be determined. tea or the adventitious roots of cuttings, is impor­ As aresul t offre e intercrossing between var. sinen­ tant in tea cultivation. Generally, when roots sis and var. assamica and ofbot h with other Camel­ reach a diameter of 1-2 mm starch reserves al­ lia species, individual plants in a field may display ready begin to be laid down. This stored carbohy­ a spectrum of vegetative features. The term 'jat' drate plays an important role in the regrowth of is often used to indicate seedlings from a certain shoots following pruning. district, but also to distinguish a group of plants Shoot and leaf production of tea shows a periodi­ that appear to belong to a distinct type on the basis city (flushing) which is partly endogenous and of leaf characteristics. Individual clones vary partly related to climatic fluctuations. By the peri­ widely in morphology, yield potential and quality od of dormancy, the terminal leaf of the shoot has of the made tea. Generally speaking, clones attained full size and discloses a young 'banjhi' selected for outstanding quality are often poor bud which is very small and dormant. The bud yielders. Nevertheless, a few local clones in Java, comes out of dormancy by producing 2 scale originally selected for resistance to blister blight leaves, the first of which usually drops off, fol­ (Exobasidium vexans), combine good quality with lowed by a small, non-serrated fish leaf. Then nor­ high yielding. The replacement of old seedling mal leaves are produced which grow to normal plantings with clonal material has sometimes led flush leaves and internodes elongate. The shoot to a loss in quality ofth e dry tea. Some clones origi­ then becomes dormant again and a new bud is de­ nating from India, widely used for planting in new veloped. The periodicity ofte a flushing is indepen­ tea-growing areas, are highly productive but lack dent of plucking and a normal sequence of events good quality. for the bud is to produce 2 scale leaves, 1-2 fish Ecology Tea is grown over a wide range of lati­ leaves, and a number of flush-leaves. tudes: from 42° N in the Georgian Soviet Union to When young plants are established in the field, the 27° S in South America. At high latitudes the naturally small trees are shaped and pruned into bushes go through a dormant period and most of low, wide, spreading bushes, to maintain a conve­ the crop is harvested during spring and summer. nient height for plucking, to induce vigorous vege­ Although tea can be grown at low elevations, most tative growth and to ensure a continuous supply of the existing plantings in Indonesia, Malaysia of flushes. During the perennial growth of tea and Papua New Guinea are located between 600 there is a continual removal of the vegetative and 2000m altitude. In the tropics, the production organs of the plant, at short intervals by the pro­ is distributed over the whole year but the quanti­ cess of plucking, and at long intervals by pruning. ties depend on climate and weather. Plucking and pruning are intimately correlated. Climatic conditions have a great influence on the By careful plucking, the period between prunings quality of the tea, especially on the flavour. Fast can be extended. After pruning, the bushes are shoot growth - for instance at low altitudes, dur­ often not plucked for approximately 2months . ing the best part of the growing season or shortly In the tropics, flowering occurs all year long. De­ after the bushes have been pruned back - is detri­ velopment from flowering to seed-fall may take up mental to the quality of the tea, particularly the to 1 year. The flowers are pollinated by insects. flavour. On the other hand, fast growth of course The percentage of fruits with viable seeds pro­ leads to high production. Hence, both in respect duced after natural cross-pollination is low (about of plucking method and growing conditions (e.g. 8%). In Java, bees and wasps may carry pollen heavy manuring) the grower has to choose be­ over a distance of 1km , thus giving an indication tween high yield and good quality. Still, in tropical of the distance at which a seed garden should pre­ countries on fertile soils high production and ferably be located from other tea plants. Seeds col­ excellent quality tea can be obtained, especially lected in the dry season in Java often germinate at elevations of 1200-1800 m above sea-level. At CAMELLIA 75

still higher elevations, the tea will have a well-de­ emerging radicle are transferred to nursery beds. veloped flavour but it will lack strength and the After 1.5-2.5 years, the stems are cut back to a production will be lower. Likewise, the retarded height of 15cm ,th e plants dug up and transplanted shoot growth during a dry period and the prolifera­ to the field. tion ofgrowin g points with an attendant reduction Once the techniques of vegetative propagation in shoot vigour shortly before the next pruning had been mastered commercially (during the six­ round result in better flavour but low yields. ties inIndia , Sri Lanka and Kenya, in the seventies Tea requires equable temperatures, moderate to in Indonesia), rooted leaf cuttings were used high rainfall and high humidity throughout the almost everywhere. Multiplication plots of greater part of the year. Mean minimum tempera­ selected clones have been established; the shoots tures should not fall below 13° C nor should mean are left to grow up to 15 nodes before being cut. maximum temperatures rise above 29°C . Tea is At the nursery, up to 8 single-node leaf cuttings adversely affected but not killed by night frost, are made with a sharp knife from the middle part which occurs in many of the important tea-grow­ of each shoot. Each cutting is then put in a small ing areas. China teas are more tolerant of colder (10-15 cm wide, 23-30 cm long) polythene bag, conditions. with the stem firmly pressed into the soil and the In general, there does not seem to be a critical leaf resting on the surface. The bags are then upper limit to the amount of rainfall for tea culti­ watered and placed in small airtight polythene vation. In Sri Lanka and Indonesia, good tea plan­ tunnels under shade. The tunnels are periodically tations exist receiving over 5000 mm/year. On the opened for watering, while the shade is gradually other hand, annual rainfall below 1500-2000 mm removed to harden the plants off before planting is marginal. Rainfall should not fall below 50 mm/ out at an age of 6-9 months. month for any prolonged period. Hail can cause On slopes, tea is planted on contour rows. Al­ much damage. though trials in various regions have shown that Under special conditions, the use of shade trees there is no particular optimum spacing, the need might be advantageous. Shade, when required, for soil conservation has led to closer planting (60 should be light. Shade trees susceptible to soil cm) in the rows, with sufficient space (120 cm) be­ fungi may enhance the spread of root diseases in tween the rows to allow pluckers to walk and tea plantings. work. To further check erosion and provide some For successful growing of tea, the geological ori­ shade for the young plants, Tephrosia Candida gin of the soils is of less importance than the pH, DC, Crotalaria anagyroides Kunth or C. usara- which should be between 4.5-6.5. moensis Bak.f. are often sown between the rows of High yields are usually associated with ample tea. The cuttings of these leguminous plants or moisture, sufficient sunshine and high applica­ those ofGuatemal a grass (Tripsacum laxum Nash) tions ofnitroge n and other nutrients. On the other placed alongside the tea plants also serve to pro­ hand, aside from genetic properties, quality goes vide mulch for moisture conservation and to con­ with slow shoot growth as is caused by dry condi­ trol erosion and weed growth. The use of shade tions and low temperatures. The present econom­ trees (most important are Albizia falcata (L.) ics of tea cultivation are such that no single plan­ Backer, Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit and tation (nor a whole growing district, like the Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr.) is restrict­ Darjeelings in India) can flourish on the merits of ed to low elevations. the tea quality alone; an area of reasonably high- Husbandry In new plantings, weeding has to be yielding fields is essential. However, quality is done by hand. Once the canopy closes, the few sur­ beginning tob e increasingly important for the pro­ viving weeds can be controlled by spot application fitability of the tea crop. of herbicides. Propagation and planting Both seedlings and The length of time from planting to first plucking rooted leaf cuttings are used as planting material. depends on the type of planting material used, and Seeds with a diameter 12.5m m or more are consid­ on the environment. For stumps and rooted cut­ ered to have sufficient food reserves. They are tings it is about 2 years, but less at lower eleva­ immersed in water for up to half an hour to select tions. The length of time between flushes and for the sinkers which show better germination and the plucked shoot to produce a new shoot ready subsequent vigour. To germinate, seeds are for plucking varies with plucking system and envi­ usually put between wet gunny or hessian cloth ronmental conditions, and can be up to 90 days. and inspected twice weekly. Those that have an Pruning is important in tea cultivation. In frame 80 A SELECTION

fibres from the fruits of the kapok tree. Kapok can content ofabou t 64% and a lignin content of about be used for stuffing, for example in mattresses, pil­ 13% . The seeds contain 20-25 % oil,whic h greatly lows, upholstery, life-belts, protective clothing, resembles cotton-seed oil, and poisonous cyclopro- and for thermal and acoustic insulation. Kapok penoid fatty acids. The press cake contains about can be spun and made into yarn and textiles. 26% protein. Very young unripe fruits are eaten in Java. The Description A deciduous tree, 18-70 m high, in seeds contain an edible oil which is used for culi­ cultivation usually 18-30 m. Roots quite horizon­ nary purposes, for soap manufacture and as a tally spreading, 10m or longer, in the upper 40-80 lubricant. The remaining press cake is used as ani­ cm of the soil. Trunk with or without buttresses, mal feed. In Thailand research is being done to forked or unforked, spiny or spineless. Branches make economic use of the seed. The shells of the whorled, dimorphic: plagiotropic or orthotropic, fruits are rich in potash and the ash can be used whorls usually of 3 branches, horizontally or as­ as fertilizer. The wood isutilize d for canoes, stools, cending. Leaves alternate, digitately compound carvings, doors, tables, etc. In various places with 7-25 cm long petioles; leaflets 5-11, oblong- kapok is planted for reforestry, for fuelwood, for lanceolate, 5-16 cm x 2-4 cm, glabrous. fence posts, and as a multipurpose tree. Flowers 2-15 together in axillary fascicles, hang­ In traditional medicine in Malaysia, Indonesia, ing, actinomorphic; pedicels 2.5-5 cm; calyx cam- the Philippines and Papua New Guinea, prepara­ panulate, 1-1.5 cm long, 5-lobed, glabrous outside; tions ofth e leaves are used for high fevers, coughs, petals oblong-obovate, 2.5-4 cm long, united at hoarseness and venereal diseases.Th e bark is diur­ base, usually dirty white with foetid milky smell, etic and also used against fever, asthma and diar­ glabrous within and densely silky outside; stamens rhoea. In India decoctions of the root are used for united at base in a staminal column, dividing into chronic dysentery and ascites. 5 branches of 3-5 cm length; style 2.5-3.5 cm, con­ Production and international trade Before stricted at base, obscurely 5-lobed at top. the Second World War, the kapok tree was an Fruits ellipsoidal leathery pendulous capsules, important commercial crop, grown for its fibre. Indonesia was the most important producer. In recent years, the fibres have been replaced by syn­ thetic substitutes but the tree is still cultivated on a small scale for local use. Thailand is now the main producer with a yearly production of 5400 0 t, followed by Cambodia (6000 t), India (3000 t), Indonesia (18001),th e Philippines (12001)an d Tan­ zania (1200 t). Thailand is also the main exporter of kapok and the United States is the biggest importer. There is little international trade in the seed, but Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia are known to be exporters, virtually all their trade being with Japan. Properties Kapok is the floss derived from the inner fruit wall, in which the seeds lie loose when ripe. Total dry matter of ripe fruits is composed by weight of 17-21 % fibre (floss) and 30-32 % seed, the rest being husk and placenta. The kapok fibre is long-lasting and is not attacked by fungi and pests. It is resilient, elastic, light (8 times as light as cotton), water-repellent and buoyant (5 times that of cork). It has a low thermal conductivity and is one of the best sound absorbers per unit of weight. The fibre is 1- 2 cmlon g and has a diameter of 0.01-0.03 mm. The air-filled lumen is broad and the wall rather thin so that the fibre breaks easily Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. - 1,fruiting branch; and is difficult to spin. The fibre has a cellulose 2,flowering branchlet. CEIBA 81

7.5-30 cm x 3-7.5 cm, turning brown when ripe, flowers rose or cream-coloured, leaves narrow, dehiscing with 5 valves or indéhiscent. Seeds fruits rather short and broad, dehiscent; the many, obovoid, 4-6 mm in diameter, dark brown, kapok is grey to white; 2n = 80,88 . embedded in copious white, pale yellow or grey - var. guineensis (Schum. & Thonn.) H.G. Baker. floss. Seedlings with epigeal germination. Occurs wild in savannah woodlands of West Growth and development Seeds germinate Africa; up to 18m high; trunk spineless without within 3day s after sowing. In 6 months the young buttresses, often forked; branches strongly as­ plants reach a height of 1m . Two forms are recog­ cending; flowering annually, leaves broad, nized among the cultivated types: the 'pagoda' fruits elongated and narrow at both ends, dehis­ form with along the main stem whorls of 3 horizon­ cent; the kapok is grey; 2n = 72. tal branches at regular distances, while the - var. pentandra (syn. var. indica (DC.) Bakh.). 'lanang' form produces branches in an irregular The cultivated kapok of West Africa and Asia; way. Flower initiation takes place before leaf-fall up to 30 m high; trunk unbranched, usually (between November and June in South-East Asia) spineless, buttresses small or absent; branches and flowering takes place on leafless branches at horizontal or ascending; leaves intermediate in the beginning of the dry season (about mid May). breadth; flowering annually, starting in the 4th Flower buds open 15-20 minutes after sunset. The year after sowing, after leaf-shedding; fruits next morning and during the following day, the short or long, narrowed at both ends or banana- petals show the first signs of wilting. The same shaped, usually indéhiscent; kapok usually holds for the filaments and style. At the end of the white; 2n = 72-84. About 7-10 years after sow­ day wilting is complete and the flower, with sta­ ing the trees come into full bearing. mens and style, drops off. The Java kapok tree is Ecology Kapok thrives best at elevations below slightly protandrous, while in Africa the pollen is 450 m. Night temperatures below 17° C retard ger­ shed within the closed flower. mination of the pollen grains. This limits the area Bat pollination takes place where nectar-lapping in which good crops can be grown to latitudes bats are present. But in dense plantations, bats within about 15° N and 15°S . Kapok requires abun­ find it difficult to enter the crowns. During the dant rainfall during the vegetative period and a night, owing to the wind moving flowers, pollen drier period for flowering and fruiting. Rainfall isshe d on stigmata ofth e own flower or neighbour­ should be about 1500 mm per year with a 4-month ing flowers. In the morning insect pollination period of 150-300 mm distributed over 10-25 days. occurs. The flowers do not all appear at once, but For best results it should be planted on good deep are produced at intervals of 4-6 weeks, so the permeable soils (in Indonesia volcanic loams) fruits mature at different times and the harvest is without waterlogging. The tree is easily damaged spread over the months September-November. by strong winds. In Indonesia, roadside and river­ Natural pollination results in about 8% ripe sideflat s are selected for planting the tree, as these fruits; the undeveloped fruits are shed after flower­ locations have sufficient sun and air and proper ing, during the first and during the late fruit fall. drainage. The fruits reach their full size 30day s after flower­ Propagation and planting Kapok is usually ing.Th e kapok isforme d between the 30th and 70th propagated by seeds when grown on a plantation day and on about the 80th day the fruit is ripe. For scale. Seeds are sown in nursery rows 25-30 cm cultivation the types with easy-shedding, early- apart. If the soil is poor, stable manure should be ripening, dehiscent, big cylindrical fruits, with a applied 10 days before sowing. When the young soft pericarp, a high number of fertile ovules and plants are 12-15 cm high, they should no longer a high kapok/fruit ratio are desired. The fibre be shaded but exposed to full sunlight. If they do should be white, with large lumen and springiness. not receive plenty ofsunshine , the plant grows tall Trees may continue bearing for 60year s or more. and thin. Young plants are transplanted in the Other botanical information Three varieties field when 8-10 months old, the crown being of kapok are recognized: removed, leaving about 1 m of stem. Another - var. caribaea (DC.) Bakh. Occurs wild in the for­ method is sowing 3seed s per hole, directly on land ests of the American tropics and in West Africa; which has been properly cleared for planting. it is a gigantic tree,reachin g 70m i n height, with About 2-3 months later, the most promising seed­ unforked, buttressed and spiny trunk, and hori­ ling from each hole is kept. If the plant material zontal branches; flowering starts in the 11th does not breed true or if it is necessary to reduce year and is irregular; leaf-shedding irregular; the time of the vegetative phase, bud grafting 82 A SELECTION

(patch and patch-shield budding) can be done. exposed to the sun. They eventually turn brown Kapok is also easily propagated by means of cut­ and wrinkled in the manner of those left on the tings, 5-8 cm in diameter and 1.2-1.8 m long, of tree. As soon as possible after picking, the fruits 2-3 year-old wood. Cuttings and buds should be are hulled. Drying is carried out in airy cage-like taken from orthotropic branches. The trees are structures open to the sun and covered with wire cultivated around villages, on farmers' plots or netting to keep the kapok from blowing away in sometimes on commercial plantings. Seedlings the wind. Sometimes the kapok is spread on the and cuttings are usually planted at a spacing of ground in layers of 15-20 cm, and is constantly about 6m apart in the field. prodded about with long bamboo forks to open up Husbandry Occasional cleaning and loosening the clumps of fibre still further and let the sun and of soil is sufficient for weeding. The trees subse­ air get to the fibre (Japara method). In Indonesia, quently require little attention, but the soil must artificial drying is not employed, as slow natural be kept weed-free. The fertilizer requirement is drying has been found to be best. If de-seeding is 300-600 kg/ha of a mixture containing 6% nitro­ done by hand, the floss is beaten with a stick and gen, 12% phosphoric acid and 12% potash. Irriga­ then screened, the operation being repeated sever­ tion is likewise important, especially during the al times. There are various types of de-seeding early life of kapok. During the early stage of machines, the main differences between them growth other plants can be cultivated between the being the output. In baling the kapok for export, young plants, e.g. pepper. Kapok is also cultivated it should be borne in mind that excessive pressure in combination with cocoa or coffee. will destroy the elasticity and quality of the fibre. Diseases and pests Kapok is quite free of dis­ Breeding Breeding work isreceivin g little or no eases and pests. Stem-boring beetle (Plocordenes attention. Ifi t is carried out, the aims are high pro­ obesus) is a principal pest of the plant. The kapok duction of high quality. Since the kapok has to pod-borer (Mudaria variabilis) can cause severe compete with artificial substitutes, it could be losses. Natural enemies are found to reduce the argued that a type should be produced which is damage: Anastasia sp. and Dorylus laevigatus. In either cheaper or better than its artificial counter­ Indonesia nursery beds are dressed with ash to parts. The substitutes are produced locally, thus repel white ants. Kapok can be severely damaged making the consuming countries independent of by parasites from the Loranthaceae. The only cure kapok. It seems better to gear breeding pro­ is cleaning and keeping the tree clean. grammes to the home demands of a kapok-growing Harvesting In Indonesia harvesting can be car­ region or country. Higher-yielding types and types ried out in the dry season (October-November), producing a better kapok should be bred by line which is best from the point of view of the quality selection or hybridization. To this end, indigenous of the kapok, and also because at this time very and foreign material should be screened to obtain little labour is required for other crops. The fruits the desired characteristics. Kapok pollen can be are harvested when fully ripe and, in the dehiscent stored at room temperature for several days only. types, before they open. Ripeness is indicated by Artificial pollination can be done by hand. Emas­ the change of colour of the fruits from green to culation should be done in the afternoon and polli­ brown, while the surface takes on a wrinkled ap­ nation at night or early in the morning. Usually pearance. The fruits are usually harvested by 15% successful crosses are obtained. climbing the tree. They are picked using a knife Prospects The kapok tree will remain to be used or a bamboo pole with small hooks attached at the on a small scale for its fibre and seed. It will also upper end. It is not economic to harvest the whole be grown as a reforestry tree,fo r fuel and for shade. crop at once, as this will result in a mixture of ripe, Ifbreedin g should be resumed it should be directed unripe and nearly ripe pods. towards local requirements. Yield A fully grown plantation tree under opti­ Literature |1|Allen , J.L., 1966. The market for mum conditions may yield 330-400 fruits per year, kapok fibre and seed. Tropical Products Institute which gives some 15-18 kg floss and some 30 kg No g. 27. 51 pp. |2|Andam , C.J., 1985. Kapok - its seed. A satisfactory average yield of kapok is botany and production. NSTA Technology Jour­ about 450 kg/ha per year, and a yield of 670 kg/ha nal (Philippines) 10(2):9-14. |3| Kirby, R.H., 1963. per year is considered excellent. Vegetable fibres, botany, cultivation and utiliza­ Handling after harvest Harvesting of some tion. Leonard Hill, London, pp. 381-390. |4| Toxo- immature fruits cannot beprevented , but these are peus, H.J., 1950. Kapok. In: van Hall, C.J.J. & van segregated and spread out on a drying floor and de Koppel, C. (Editors): De landbouw in de CINCHONA 83

Indische Archipel. Vol. 3. W. van Hoeve, The the second part of the 19th Century. Around 1880, Hague, pp. 53-102. |5| Zeven, A.C., 1969. Kapok Sri Lanka had become a major producer of cin­ tree, Ceiba pentandra Gaertn. In: Ferwerda, F.P. chona bark, albeit of low quality. By 1895 it had & Wit, F. (Editors): Outlines of perennial crop been superseded by the Dutch East Indies (Indone­ breeding in the tropics. Miscellaneous Papers 4. sia) as the main producer, mainly because of the Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen, the Nether­ better quality of the bark (C. officinalis). In the lands, pp. 269-287. |6| Zeven, A.C., 1978. Kapok, 1930s the crop was introduced in West and East Ceiba pentandra (Bombacaceae). In: Simmonds, Africa (Guinea, Cameroon, Kenya, Tanzania) and N.W. (Editor): Evolution of crop plants. Longman, in Central Africa (Zaire, Rwanda). For various rea­ London, pp. 13- 14. sons production has diminished substantially in (A.C. Zeven &A . Koopmans) most of these countries, with the exception of Zaire. After the rapid decline of bark production in South America around 1880, interest revived in Cinchona L. Latin America around 1940, especially in Guate­ mala. After 1945i t rapidly declined, however. Sp. PI. 1:172(1753) ;Gen . PL ed. 5:7 9(1754) . In Asia, Cinchona cultivation still has importance RUBIACEAE in Indonesia and India, although in various other 2n = 34 countries plantations have existed in the past Major species and synonyms (Burma, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Vietnam). - Cinchona officinalis L., Sp. PI. 1:172 (1753), syn­ Even in Australia (Queensland) and Papua New onyms: C calisaya Wedd. (1848), C. ledgeriana Guinea Cinchona has been introduced. Moens ex Trimen (1881); Uses Probably the oldest use of cinchona bark - Cinchonapubescens Vahl, Skrivt. Naturh. Selsk. was by Indian miners in the Andes to suppress shi­ 1:19(1790) ,synonyms : C.cordifolia Mutis (1793), vering from the cold conditions in the mines. Later C.succirubra Pav. ex Klotzsch (1858). on, Jesuits found that shivering was caused by Vernacular names Cinchona, quinine (En). fever. This led to the discovery of cinchona bark Quinquina (Fr). Indonesia: kina. Cambodia: as a remedy against malaria. For more than 300 kini:n. Thailand: quinin. Vietnam: ki ninh. years this remained its most important use, al­ Origin and geographic distribution The though quinine has been an ingredient for other centre ofdiversit y ofth e genus Cinchona lies along medicaments. the Andes mountains of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, In the colonial era, especially in British India, Colombia and Venezuela. There the species and anti-malarial drinks were developed containing natural hybrids flourish on the misty and humid small quantities of quinine. Today these drinks eastern slopes at 800-3000 m. (e.g.toni c water) are still very popular. The collection of Cinchona germplasm for disper­ After 1945, quinidine (a stereo-isomer of quinine) sal outside its centre of origin started in 1848. became more important as an anti-arrhythmic. Hasskarl's expeditions to South America This coincided with a decreasing use of quinine as (1852-1854) provided the Dutch in Java (Indone­ an antimalarial. Recently, renewed interest in qui­ sia) with plant material. A British expedition nine and related alkaloids has arisen because of under Markham obtained the same for India and the growing resistance of malaria-causing agents Sri Lanka (1859). In both cases adaptation of the {Plasmodium spp.) against industrial antimalarial plant material to the local conditions turned out drugs currently in use. Special attention is given to be no problem. However, the bark of the vigor­ to mixtures of cinchona alkaloids to prevent the ously growing trees appeared to contain such low build-up of resistance. Additionally, quinine has quantities of quinine that it was not profitable to been used in innumerable other products, such as start cultivation. Seeds obtained from Ledger hair oils and shampoos, sun-tan oil, insecticides, (1864), collected in Bolivia, produced in Java as a vulcanizing agent in the rubber industry, and weakly growing seedlings, but among them trees in the preparation of certain metals. were found with an unusually high percentage of Production and international trade Indone­ quinine in the bark. Meanwhile seed samples from sia maintained an almost total monopoly on the South American origin and from importations production of cinchona bark for nearly 50 years, from surrounding countries were received in up to the Second World War. In terms of ready nearly every country of South-East Asia. product, this amounted to roughly 800 t/year of Cinchona started to be distributed world-wide in quinine sulphate. Since the Second World War, the 84 A SELECTION dominant role of Indonesia has gradually been taken over by Zaire, although substantial quanti­ ties are still being produced in Indonesia, Guate­ mala, Tanzania and other countries. International trade figures are often difficult to interpret because of the varying ways the quinine content of cinchona bark is indicated. In the past SQ2an d SQ7hav e been used most frequently, indi­ cating 2an d 7wate r molecules respectively. Nowa­ days, percentages are generally indicated as QAA, the anhydrous form of quinine salts. The ratios be­ tween these indications are: 1% QAA = 1.206% SQ2 = 1.345 % SQ7. At present, world production of cinchona alka­ loids is estimated at about 600t/yea r of QAA, with Zaire producing about 55% , Indonesia 30% , India 8% and the other countries 7%. Production in East- and Central-African countries has been threatened because ofstrip e cancer (Phytophthora cinnamomi). Although factories in bark-producing countries (Indonesia, India, Guinea, Zaire and Rwanda) are involved in the extraction of alkaloids, the majori­ ty of end-products are still manufactured in Eu­ Cinchona officinalis L. -flowering branch. rope (West Germany, the Netherlands, France). Properties Although more than 36 different al­ kaloids have been reported as constituents of var­ brous outside, with lanceolate to triangular, 1-2.5 ious Cinchona barks, the most important are qui­ mm long lobes. Disc glabrous. nine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. The C.pubescens: Tree, up to 30 m high. Leaves 12-50 composition and the content of alkaloids is cm x 9-40 cm, pubescent beneath. Calyx pubes­ affected by species, genotype, environment and cent outside, with deltoid, 0.5-1 mm long lobes. age of the bark. Selected clones of C. officinalis Disc pubescent. have been reported to produce as much as 14-16 % Growth and development Freshly harvested quinine from dry bark. Quinine can be converted Cinchona seeds contain varying numbers of imma­ into quinidine by a rather complicated chemical ture and deteriorated ones.Afte r selection the ger­ process. mination percentage is in general more than 90 % 1000-kernel weight varies between 0.3-0.4 g. after 2-3 weeks of incubation. Under dry, cool and Description Evergreen woody shrubs or small dark storage conditions the viability of the seeds trees, 8-16 m,occasionall y up to 30m high . Leaves is preserved for more than one year. Light pro­ opposite, oblong-elliptic, up to 50 cm long, simple motes the germination of seeds. and entire; stipules interpetiolar, deciduous and Development of the tiny seedlings is slow, but leaving a characteristic scar. Inflorescence a ter­ increases gradually; after about 2 months 2-3 minal panicle, with numerous, 1-2 cm long, fra­ pairs of leaves are formed. Flowering starts after grant, pentamerous, heterodistylous, pink or yel­ 4-7 years or even earlier under stress conditions. lowish flowers. Calyx small, united, with pointed There is a periodicity in flowering which has not lobes, corolla tubular with spreading lobes with a been fully investigated. Cross-pollination is by fringe of hairs along the margins; stamens alter­ insects, mainly bees, butterflies and flies. Fruits nating with the corolla lobes and inserted in the mature about 7-8 months after flowering. corolla tube; ovary inferior, bilocular, style at the Other botanical information Most Cinchona base with a circular disc, ending in a bifid stigma. plants cultivated in South-East Asia are known Fruit a 1-3 cm long capsule containing 40-50 flat, under the name C. ledgeriana, and most probably winged seeds, 4-5 mm x 1mm . are high-yielding selections ofC. officinalis. Plants C. officinalis: Small tree, up to 16 m high. Leaves known under the name C.succirubra belong to C. 8-12 cm x 3.5-6 cm, glabrous beneath. Calyx gla- pubescens. CINCHONA 85

The majority of the species and hybrids from the Cinchona is almost exclusively grown as an estate centre of diversity do not produce valuable chemi­ crop, except in Zaire where smallholders occasio­ cal compounds, but might be otherwise of interest nally grow it. It is mostly grown as a sole crop, al­ from the breeding viewpoint. though intercropping with beans is occasionally Ecology In the natural habitat of the genus Cin­ practised in Zaire. chona, high, evenly distributed annual rainfall (up Cinchona is planted in the field in holes of 50 cm to 4000 mm) and high relative humidity prevail. x 50 cm x 50 cm, 80-150 cm apart, in rows or in Cinchona plants grow optimally with a rainfall of a triangular arrangement depending mainly on 2500-3800 mm well distributed throughout the the topography of the field. Leguminous cover year. Nevertheless, Cinchona is known to grow crops may beplante d in between the rows (e.g. Des- under drier conditions as well (1500 mm, with dis­ modium in Zaire, Crotalaria zanzibarica Benth. or tinct dry season). Low irradiation (misty slopes, Shuteria vestita W. & A. in Indonesia) or on the forest canopy) is frequently encountered in contour to prevent erosion (e.g. Leucaena leucoce- regions where Cinchona occurs naturally. phala (Lam.) de Wit). In Asia, Cinchona grows well in areas with an aver­ Husbandry Different systems of cultivation are age minimum temperature of 14° C and an average applied: maximum temperature of 21°C . Growth is ham­ - A short-term, intensive, high-producing system pered severely below 7°C and above 27°C . Altitu- with a relatively short production cycle of about dinal range islargel y determined by the prevailing 10 years from planting to harvesting. It is prac­ climatic conditions, but generally lies between tised mainly in Zaire. Planting is done at densi­ 800-2000 m. Cinchona cannot stand waterlogging. ties of 10000-12 000 plants/ha. Weeding is car­ Favourable soil types are slightly acid, well ried out mostly by hand, although the use of drained, with a good water-retaining capacity. herbicides is increasing. Around the third year Cinchona grows well on soils of volcanic origin. after planting, weeds are shaded out because of The most important species, C. officinalis, is very the development of the canopies. At the same vulnerable to weed competition; C. pubescens is time pruning and thinning starts, producing the more competitive. first harvest of low-quality bark. Thinning con­ Propagation and planting Cinchona is propa­ tinues until, around 10 years after planting, a gated by seed as well as by vegetative means. stand of 3000 well-shaped trees is left. These are Seedbeds are carefully prepared and provided with then harvested completely, producing a a layer of fine-textured top soil. The small seeds minimum of 3.5 kg/tree of high-quality bark. are broadcast on the soil surface (3000-12 000/m2) - A long-term, extensive, intermediate-produc­ and protected against wind, rain and direct sun­ tion system with a longer occupation period. It light. Germination starts within 2-3 weeks; after is practised in Indonesia and Guatemala. Plant­ 4-6 months plantlets are 5-10 cm high and are ing is done at a density of 5000 plants/ha. Weed­ moved to nursery beds where they stay 6-7 ing will be necessary over a longer period, while months. 1-1.5 years after seeding young plants can pruning is only carried out to shape the trees. be transplanted to the field. After 7-8 years, when competition for light The rather delicate C. officinalis is often grafted becomes a limiting factor, all trees are cut down, on the more robust and vigorously growing C. leaving a coppice of 15-20 cm to produce new pubescens. The C. pubescens-rootstock seedlings shoots.I n maintaining a maximum of2- 3 shoots reach the proper size for grafting after about 1 per coppice, a new cycle is started which is year. Usually the scion is inserted by side-tongue treated in the same way as the first one.I f proper grafting, but green-budding is also applied. care istake n and mortality after coppicing is not Rooting of cuttings is difficult, but using newly too high, this system of production can be main­ formed shoots after detopping gives better results. tained for several decades. It is also suitable for A promising new method is isolation and multipli­ Cinchona cultivation under the shade of rain­ cation ofhigh-yieldin g or disease-tolerant trees by forest trees,whic h are left to prevent serious ero­ in-vitro culture techniques. With this method of sion. vegetative multiplication becoming available, A combination of both systems is practised in planting of high-yielding and disease-resistant West-Bengal (India), where C.officinalis seedlings clones can be envisaged for the near future. Micro- are first coppiced and after completion of the sec­ grafting in vitro of C. officinalis on C.pubescens has ond cycle harvested completely. Depending on proved tob esuccessfu l and iscomparativel y simple. local conditions, modifications of these 2 systems 86 A SELECTION have been developed. One of these is grafting of early years and the final harvest. clonal C. officinalis or hybrids on a rootstock of The removal of the bark is carried out in various C. pubescens, giving uniform planting material, ways. In Indonesia and Zaire, bark is removed by better growth and tolerance or resistance to Phy- clubbing, while in Tanzania and Guatemala it is tophthora cinnamomi. This method is practised in carried out with knives. Bark peeling machines e.g. Indonesia and Guatemala. are used occasionally. Composite fertilizers such as NPK (20-10-10 or Yield Pruning and thinning result in relatively 15-15-15) are widely applied, although other com­ low yields of bark and alkaloids. At the final har­ pounds such as phosphates and oligo-elements are vest, yields of at least 10 t/ha of dry bark are used as well, depending on the local conditions. In obtained with production system (1). By using general, a final dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer selected planting material the bark may contain (100-600 kg/ha of the above-mentioned NPK) at least 7% QAA on average, resulting in more about 6 months prior to harvest has a beneficial than 700 kg/ha of QAA. Both bark yield and alka­ effect upon the alkaloid content of the bark. In loid content vary considerably as they are affected cases where soils are low in organic matter, Cin­ by various factors. chona responds well to the application of mulch. With production system (2) yields are generally Mechanization is not widespread in Cinchona cul­ lower in terms of production per ha per year. tivation, partly because of the often undulating However, in terms of return on investment, this nature ofth e fields. For the time being, it is mainly system can be more advantageous. limited to the application ofherbicide s and insecti­ As a guideline, industrial Cinchona plantations cides and, to a lesser extent, to the harvest and should produce an average of 50-100 kg/ha per stripping of the trees. However, where labour is year of QAA to give a safe return on investment. scarce mechanization is increasingly important. A plantation should measure at least 300h a to sus­ Diseases and pests Seedlings are susceptible tain the initial and overhead costs involved. for Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani (causing Handling after harvest After peeling off, the damping off), Fusarium solani (causing wilt), and stripped bark is suh-dried, although artificial dry­ Phytophthora cinnamomi. Attacks can easily be ing is practised. Drying in the open air has to be overcome by chemical sterilization ofth e seed-bed. well supervised, because heating of wet bark may In later stages, Cinchona isvulnerabl e to Phytoph­ result in substantial losses of alkaloids. The bark thora cinnamomi, Ph. parasitica (causing top should be spread thinly and turned over regularly. blight and girdle cancer), Corticium salmonicolor When humidity is about 10% , the bark isread y for (die-back of branches), and Armillaria sp. (root further treatment. To facilitate shipment over rot). Other fungi {Sclerotium, Alternaria and Cer- long distances, it can be milled before packing. Ex­ cospora) are of little economic importance. In traction and processing of the alkaloids to either areas with Phytophthora cinnamomi and Ph. pa­ totaquina, quinine bisulphate, quinine sulphate, rasitica, a combination of cropping techniques quinine HCl or quinidine is mainly carried out in (e.g.cove r crops) should bepractise d to avoid their western Europe. outbreak. Once these diseases have broken out, Genetic resources The dispersal of Cinchona application of fungicides is almost impossible and seeds in the mid-19th Century is well documented. too expensive. Another possibility of combating However, the limited survival rate ofseed s and the Phytophthora cinnamomi is the planting of grafts destruction of earlier, low-yielding introductions on a C.pubescens rootstock. The outbreak of Corti­ resulted in a very limited genetic variation in the cium salmonicolor can be avoided by timely prun­ germplasm available outside the centre of diver­ ing of trees, and of Armillaria sp. by consistent sity. Care should be taken to preserve the germ- removal of old stumps. plasm present in the centre of diversity for future The main pest in Cinchona is caused by Helopeltis use. spp., which can cause considerable damage by Breeding Most work on breeding in the past has sucking young shoots and leaves. Helopeltis out­ been carried out in Indonesia. At an early stage breaks can be avoided by timely application of in­ the conclusion was reached that besides ahig h qui­ secticides. Occasional outbreaks of other pests nine content, other parameters such as bark pro­ such as caterpillars (Delephila nerii) and borers duction, tree shape and vegetative growth were occur, but are only of local importance. also important in determining yield. This resulted Harvesting In general, harvest can be distin­ in the 'ring method': the amount of quinine (in g) guished in two phases: pruning and thinning in the in a ring 1d m high, situated around the tree at a CINCHONA 87 height of 1 m,i scalculate d by multiplying the girth vars may improve productivity significantly. (indm ) at that height by the amount (in g)o f water- Improved cultivation techniques will play an free bark/dm2 and the average quinine content of important role in the economics of the crop (e.g. the bark. However, since the girth of a tree is a mechanization). function of the plant density, this method proved On the other hand, research has been focused on less reliable for judging the amount of bark than the production of alkaloids by means of cell cul­ had previously been assumed. ture. Although success has been obtained in estab­ In 1931, some C.officinalis seeds of Indonesian ori­ lishing stable cultures and small quantities of gin had reached Zaire to start a selection pro­ QAA have been produced, this method is still far gramme at the experimental station of Mulungu, removed from industrial application. near Bukavu. Elite trees were selected in the origi­ Cinchona alkaloids have played a useful role in nal population, vegetatively propagated, and human life for more than 350 years. There are en­ planted in isolation. Seeds from these plots were couraging prospects of obtaining higher produc­ harvested and distributed to local farmers and tion levels at lower costs. This may be an impor­ plantation enterprises. This policy resulted in tant contribution in future malaria treatment, rapid progress in bark production in Zaire and since the need for a cheap, effective therapy is neighbouring countries. Quinine percentages up growing increasingly important with the increas­ to 15% QAA have been found in about 10-year old ing occurrence of this disease. trees. Since around 1965,littl efurthe r progress has Literature |1| Chatterjee, S.K., 1977. Cultiva­ been made. tion of quinine-yielding cinchona and emetine- In India, breeding work was mainly focused on yielding ipecac in India. Proceedings 4th Sympo­ selection of elite types, vegetative propagation of sium Pharmacognosy and Chemistry of Natural these types for industrial plantings, and controlled Products, Leyden. pp. 89-97. |2|Dürbeck , K., 1983. crosses between selected parents. Various meth­ Anbau von Cinchona sp. zur Chinarindengewin­ ods ofvegetativ e propagation have been tried: cut­ nung. Thesis, Technische Universität, München. tings, air-layering, budding, grafting, inarching. 101 pp. |3|Gramiccia , G., 1987. Notes on the early Budding and the production of cuttings by top- history of cinchona plantations. Acta Leidensia working have been the most successful. This breed­ 55:5-13. |4|va n Harten, A.M., 1969.Cinchon a (Cin­ ing programme has not been very successful as the chona spp.).In : Ferwerda, F.R. &Wit , F. (Editors): quality of the bark has not improved over the Outlines of perennial crop breeding in the tropics. years. Miscellaneous Papers 4, Landbouwhogeschool, In the 1940'san d '1950'sa breeding programme was Wageningen, pp. 111-128. |5| Hunter, CS., 1986. In undertaken in Guatemala: hybrids of C. pubescens vitro propagation and germplasm storage of Cin­ and C. officinalis were grafted on a C. pubescens chona L. In: Withers, L.A. & Alderson, P.G. (Edi­ rootstock or planted as cuttings. However, breed­ tors): Plant tissue culture and its agricultural ing programmes were not continued. applications. Butterworth, London, pp. 291-301. Most breeding programmes have been abandoned |6| Kerbosch, M., 1948. De kinacultuur. In: van (Zaire, Guatemala) or give very little results Hall, C.J.J. &va n de Koppel, C. (Editors): De land­ (India, Indonesia). However, progress can be bouw in de Indische Archipel. Vol. IIa. W. van achieved by, for instance, the production and dis­ Hoeve, the Hague, pp. 747-865. |7| McHale, D., tribution of selected plant material, the selection 1986. The cinchona tree. Biologist 33:45-53. |8| of suitable C.pubescens rootstocks to be used for Purseglove, J.W., 1968. Tropical crops. Dicotyle­ grafting, and breeding for appropriate rooting dons 2. Longmans, London, pp. 452-458. !9| architecture and disease resistance in C. officina­ Sharma, A.,Tewari , R., Ganniyal, A.K. &Virmani , lis. Although not much progress is to be expected O.P., 1987. Cinchona: A review. Current Research in obtaining higher quinine content in selected in­ on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CROMAP) dividuals, QAA production per ha per year can be 9:34-56. |10|Zandvoort , E.A. &Staritsky , G.,1983 . increased by at least 50 %. In vitro propagation of Cinchona ledgeriana. Prospects In recent decades, interest in Cin­ Tropical Crops Communications. Agricultural chona is increasing. Vegetative propagation by University Wageningen 6.12 pp. means of tissue culture has provided a tool for (G. Staritsky &E . Huffnagel) more effective breeding programmes. It will play an increasingly important role in future plantings. The introduction of high-yielding, multi-line culti- A SELECTION

Clausena Burm. f. gastrointestinal disorders, mouth infections, headaches, ulcerated noses, rheumatism and Fl. Indica: 87,24 3e t sub t. 29(1768) . sleeplessness. RUTACEAE C.anisata ison e ofth e most widely used ofal l trees x = unknown in African medicine, and its strong smell is Major species and synonyms believed to have great virtues. Leaves of C. ani­ - Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook f. ex Benth. in sum-olens are used locally to prepare 'Anisado', Hook., Fl. Nigrit.: 256 (1849), synonyms: Clau­ which is a favorite alcoholic beverage ofth e Filipi­ sena inaequalis (DC.) Benth. (1849), Clausena nos. They are also used in the Philippines to fla­ abyssinica (Engl.) Engl. (1915); vour cigarettes. Fruits of C. lansium are edible. - Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr., Bur. They have a pleasant taste and can be used for Gov. Lab. (Publ.) 17:2 1(1904) ,synonyms : Cookia making preserves. In China dried immature fruits anisum-olens Blanco (1837), Clausena warburgii are used against bronchitis and the leaves are used Perk. (1905), Clausena loheri Merr. (1925); in hairwashes to remove scurf. - Clausena excavata Burm. f., Fl. Indica: 87(1768) ; C. anisata yields a hard, heavy, strong and elastic - Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels, US Depart­ timber. Its twigs are favourite toothbrushes in ment of Agric. Bur. PI. Industry Bull. 168: 31 Africa. On Java the wood of C. excavata is used (1909), synonyms: Quinaria lansium Lour. for handles of axes. It is white, and of fine struc­ (1790), Cookia wampi Blanco (1837), Clausena ture. wampi (Blanco) Oliv. (1861), Clausena punctata Properties Leaves of C. anisata and C. anisum- (Sonn.) Rehd. et Wils. (1914). olens contain 0.6-2 % (fresh weight) of a colour­ Vernacular names less volatile oil, which exhibits an aromatic odour - C.anisata: horsewood (En). characteristic of anise oil. The oil consists for ca. - C. anisum-olens: Philippines: kayumanis (Taga- 96% of phenylpropanoids, of which methyl chavi- log), danglais (Bagobo), kandulong (Subanun). col (estragole) is the most abundant constituent - C. excavata: Indonesia: tikusan, bagal tikus (ca. 92%). Some confusion still exists about the (Java), bajetah (Sunda), sicherek (Sumatra). presence of estragole. Older literature states that Malaysia: pokok kemantu, kemantu hitam, the chief constituent in the volatile oil of C. ani­ pokok cherek. Philippines: buringit (Tagb.). sata is anethole (up to ca. 90%) . It might be pos­ Cambodia: kantrook, kantrop damrey. Laos: sible that anethole is an intermediate in the forma­ houat mon, sa mat, koua touang. Thailand: khee tion of estragol. Other phenylpropanoids in the oil phueng, phiafaan, ma lui (Peninsular), mo noi arep-methoxycinnamaldehyde (2.4 %),p-anisalde- (central). hyde (2% ) and p-methoxycinnamylalcohol - C. lansium: wampee (En). Vampi (Fr). Philip­ (0.58 %). pines: uampi, galumpi, huampit (Tagalog). Cam­ From the bark ofth e root of C.anisata several cou- bodia: kantrop. Laos: som ma fai. Thailand: marins have been isolated, some of which have ueng-tuai, mafai cheen (Nan), som mafai anticonvulsant and molluscicidal properties. In (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: hong bi. South Africa tissue compatibility between Citrus Origin and geographic distribution C. anisata L. and C. anisata in reciprocal grafting and bud­ occurs wild in Africa and iswidesprea d in that con­ ding has been observed. tinent. It can be cultivated in South-East Asia Botany Clausena Burm. f. Unarmed shrubs or (Indonesia, Malaysia). C. anisum-olens occurs wild trees. Leaves odd-pinnate, alternate, densely dot­ only in the Philippines. C.excavata is known from ted with pellucid glands, deciduous. Inflores­ the Himalayas and China and throughout South- cences terminal or axillary panicles or lax East Asia. C. lansium is commonly cultivated in racemes. Flowers 4-5-merous, bisexual; sepals China, from where it also originates. Now it is cul­ united at the base, very small; petals free, imbri­ tivated in many (sub)tropical countries, including cate in buds; stamens (7-) 8-10, inserted at the South-East Asia. base of the disk; filaments unequal, subulate at Uses The essential oil from the leaves of C. ani­ apex, flattened towards the base; anthers elliptic, sata and C. anisum-olens has potential use as a sub­ dorsifixed, introrse. Ovary stalked, (2-3-) 4-5 stitute for anise oil in pharmaceutical prepara­ locular, with 2 ovules in each locule; style short, tions. Leaves of Clausena are well-known in caducous or persistent, stigma 2-5 lobed, broad traditional medicine as curatives for several ail­ obtuse. Fruit a berry, ellipsoid or globose, 2-5 ments such as worm infections, fever, dysentry, locular. Seeds oblong. CLAUSENA 89

ellipsoid, 20m m x 7mm , glabrous or thinly hairy, red. Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels. Small tree, up to ca. 7 m high. Leaves up to ca. 20 cm long; leaflets 5-10, ovate-oblong, lanceolate or ovate, 5-12.5 cm x 3-6.5 cm. Panicles up to 25 cm long, axillary or terminal. Flowers 5-merous, petals oblong, 3-4 mm long, white; stamens 10. Fruit globular, ca. 2 cm in diam., yellowish-white, spotted with darker coloured dots, short hairy. Ecology Clausena grows in forests, forest edges, gallery forests, wooded grasslands and in second­ ary regrowth near villages.I t occurs from sea-level in humid tropical climates up into montane forest areas at 2450 m altitude. In Indonesia, cultivation of C. anisata was only satisfactory up to 500m alti­ tude. Agronomy In 1932 in Bogor, Indonesia, experi­ ments were started to cultivate Clausena, in order to extract anise oil from its leaves. Normally anise oil was extracted from the fruits oîlllicium verum Hook f. /. verum plants, however, only start pro­ ducing at the age of 16-17 years. Clausena plants already give full production at 3year s age. Unfortunately, the identity of the species used in Bogor is uncertain; most probably it is C. anisum- olens from the Philippines, but the plants were named C. anisata, after the African species. The Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. - 1, plants were propagated vegetatively by grafting flowering branch; 2,fruiting branchlet. and oculating on C. excavata rootstocks. This method gave better results than propagation and Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Benth. Shrub cultivation starting from seedlings of the species or small tree, 4-10 m high. Leaves 7-38 cm long, proper. aromatic; leaflets 11-37, ovate, ovate-oblong to Seedlings of C. excavata can be oculated or grafted narrowly elliptic, 1-7 (-11) cm x 0.7-3 (-4.3) cm, with C.anisata 8-9 months after sowing. In planta­ glabrous above, slightly pubescent beneath. Pani­ tions oculated or grafted plants are planted at dis­ cles 4-35 cm long, elongate, puberulous. Flowers tances of 1.50 m x 2.50 m. Tephrosia noctiflora 4-merous; petals elliptic, 2.5-7 mm long, cream or Bojer ex Baker and Cassia tora L. are sown as soil whitish-yellow; stamens 8.Fruit s ovoid or globose, cover in the first two years. Later on Calopogo- 3.5-7 mm in diam., shiny blue-black, 2-seeded. nium mucunoides Desv. and Pueraria phaseoloides Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr. Small tree, (Roxb.) Benth. (syn. P. javanica Benth.) are used. 3-6 m high. Leaves 20-30 cm long, aromatic; leaf­ Shade is not necessary. lets 7-11,ovate-lanceolat e to lanceolate, 5-11 cm Harvesting is done by plucking adult leaves from long. Panicles 15-20 cm long, terminal and in plants 3year s old or older, two times a year. Once upper axils. Flowers 5-merous, petals 3.5-5 mm a year the plants are pruned to a height of 1-1.5 long, greenish-white; stamens 10. Fruit spherical m.Mulchin g isimportant , e.g.wit h the leaves after or ovoid, 1c m in diam., whitish. oil extraction. No important diseases or pests are Clausena excavata Burm. f. Shrub or small tree, known. 1.5-4 m high. Leaves 15-30 cm long, aromatic; Plucked leaves are packed tightly in bags and leaflets 15-30, distichous, oblong or falcate, 2-9 stored for 1-2 days before distillation. The heating cm x 1.5-4 cm, glabrous above, thinly hairy be­ resulting from tight packing of the leaves influ­ neath. Panicles with horizontally patent ences the purity of the oil positively. The leaves branches. Flowers usually 4-merous; petals oval, are steam-distilled at maximum 3day s after pluck­ 3.5-5 mm long, whitish; stamens (7-) 8o r 10. Fruit ing. Yield of oil is 1.6-1.7% of the fresh leaf 90 A SELECTION

weight. One tree yields about 2k g leaves per year, of origin lies somewhere in this area. one ha yields about 100k g oil per year. Coconut palms can be found in almost all tropical C. lansium is commonly cultivated in China for its countries and, beyond the tropics, in areas where edible fruits, but no details are known about its the local climate is influenced by a warm sea cur­ cultivation. rent such as in Florida (25°N) . Natural dispersal Genetic resources and breeding About 30spe ­ occurs by nuts floating on the sea currents. Poly­ cies of Clausena are known, most of them occur­ nesian, Malayan and Arab navigators have played ring in Asia. Somehav e edible fruits, most are used an important role inth e further distribution. Early in traditional medicine. All species have aromatic European navigators carried the palm from Asia leaves. More research is needed to discover the and East Africa to West Africa, the Atlantic coast qualities of each individual species. of America and the Caribbean. Prospects The experiments in Bogor with pro­ Uses Few plants produce so many useful prod­ mising results concerning estragole or anethole ucts as the coconut palm. The main product is the production from Clausena leaves did not lead to oil from the endosperm. Fresh endosperm is also commercial production. Renewed interest in natu­ grated and mixed with food. When still very young ral products (essential oils, medicines, insecti­ and jelly-like it is considered a delicacy. cides)make s it worthwhile continuing the original For oil extraction in the household, grated endos­ experiments. perm ismixe d with water, producing what is called It would be interesting to investigate the possibili­ coconut milk. This liquid is boiled and the oil ties of cultivating C. lansium on a larger scale for comes floating to the top.Afte r oil extraction, skim a small-scale canning industry for its fruits. milk can be made of coconut milk. It is a white Literature |1|Brown , W.H., 1941 (reprint 1954). powder with 25% hydrolized starch that may be Useful plants of the Philippines. Deptartment of mixed with water to make a beverage. By ultrafil­ Agriculture &Natura l Resources, Manila. Techni­ tration, coconut protein can be separated from the cal Bulletin 10, Vol. 2:227-231. |2| Ekundayo, O., skim milk. This white, spray-dried powder is very Oguntimein, B.O. & Hammerschmidt, F.J., 1986. suitable for infant nutrition. Constituents of the essential oil of Clausena ani- Copra, the sun- or kiln-dried endosperm, is sold to sata leaves. Planta Medica 52(6):505-506. |3| Toxo- the oil mills. The oil is a lauric oil and used mainly peus, H.J., 1950. Enige nieuwe cultuurgewassen. for human consumption. The best quality is used In: van Hall, C.J.J. &va n de Koppel, C. (Editors): for e.g. the manufacturing of margarine and con­ De landbouw in de Indische Archipel 3. W. van fectionery oil; lower grades are used for industrial Hoeve, The Hague, pp. 719-722. products such as soap.Th e press cake isa good ani­ (J. de Bruijn) mal feed. The nut cavity isfille d with water that tastes sweet when the nut is young. 'Waternuts' are sold in towns and beach resorts. Cocos nucifera L. The shell of the nut can be used for making house­ hold utensils or decorated pots.I t isals o converted Sp.PI .2:118 8(1753) . into charcoal, used as a fuel or for the manufactur­ PALMAE ing of activated charcoal. Shell flour, obtained by în = 32 grinding the shells to a fine powder, is used as a Synonyms Cocos nana Griff. (1851), Calappa compound filler for synthetic resin glues and phe­ nucifera Kuntze (1891). nolic moulding powders. From the husks, the fibre Vernacular names Coconut palm (En). Coco­ or coir is extracted. Coir is used for the manufac­ tier (Fr).Indonesia : kelapa. Malaysia: kelapa. Phi­ turing ofrope s and carpets and fibre for mattresses lippines: niyóg (Tagalog), iniûg (Ibanag), lubi and bristles. (Bisaya). Burma: ong. Cambodia: dôong. Laos: The inflorescence, when still within the spadix, phaawz. Thailand: ma phrao. Vietnam: dùa. can be tapped after special treatment ofth e spadix. Origin and geographic distribution The ori­ The sweet sap or toddy contains about 15% sugar. gin of the coconut is unknown. Fossil Cocos has It can be fermented to produce an alcoholic bever­ been found as far apart as India and New Zealand. age. It can also be used to produce palm sugar. The Ethnological and entomological evidence place tapping period of one spadix is about a month. the centre of diversity in the area of South-East The leaves are widely used to thatch roofs. The Asia and Melanesia. It is believed that the centre leaflets may be used for braiding mats, baskets, Cocos 91 bags and hats. Brooms made of the midribs of the leaflets are widely used in the tropics. The palm heart, the white, tender tissue of the shoot tip of the youngest, not yet unfolded leaves, is considered a delicacy. The wood is very hard. It can be sawn with special tungsten carbide-tipped saw blades. It should be sawn when fresh. Preservative treatment of the sawn lumber is indispensable if it is to be used for building construction or any outdoor use. Production and international trade Owing to the considerable home consumption by small­ holders, production figures can be no more than estimates. In 1983, total world production was about 35 million t of nuts. Africa, Oceania and Latin America produced about 4, 6 and 6% of the world production respectively, and Asia about 84% . Indonesia produced about 31.5% , the Philip­ pines 26.5% , India 11% , Sri Lanka 6.5 %, Malay­ sia 3.5%, Thailand 2.5%, Papua New Guinea 2.2% and Vietnam 1% of total world production. Estimated area planted to coconut in various countries were: Indonesia 2.9millio n ha (1980), the Philippines 2.3 million ha (1975), Malaysia 337000 ha (1980), and Thailand 331000 ha (1979).Th e Phi­ lippines export more than 90% of their coconut products whereas in densely populated Indonesia almost all coconut products are for the home mar­ ket. Papua New Guinea has become the second largest exporter of coconut products, having almost no home market. Cocos nucifera L. habit of flowering and fruiting Before the First World War, coconut oil was the tree. most important vegetable oil. Nowadays, it occu­ pies the 6th position, after soya-bean oil, palm oil, length depends on soil conditions but may reach sunflower-seed oil, groundnut oil and cotton-seed 30 m. Stem erect or slightly curved, rising up from oil. Being a lauric oil, it still has a special position a swollen base (the bole), with light grey, smooth because there are only two other lauric oils on the surface, showing leaf scars. Leaves spirally market, palm-kernel oil and babassu oil. arranged, pinnate, normally to about 60-70 per Properties The proximate composition of fresh plant, of which about one half still unfolded in the endosperm per 100 g edible portion is:wate r 44-52 central spear; up to 7m long, petiole length about g, oil 35-38 g, protein 3-4 g, carbohydrates 9-11 one quarter of the total length; number of leaflets g, fibre 2-3.4 g, ash 1 g. Good copra has 63-68% per leaf 200-250. oil, no more than 6% water and a free fatty acid Inflorescence a spadix in the axil of a leaf, when content of less than 1% . The fatty acid composi­ immature enclosed within a spathe, about 1-2 m tion is about 48% lauric, 17% myristic, 8% palmi­ long,wit h 20-60branche s or spikes;spike s usually tic, 7% capric, 5% oleic, 4% stearic, 2.5% linolic with one female flower at the base and many male and 0.5% caproic. Skim milk with 25% starch con­ flowers; male flowers with 3 short sepals, 3 petals, tains about 24% of protein, 6% of oil and 5% of 6 stamens and a rudimentary pistil; female flower moisture. Spray-dried coconut protein powder much larger than male flower, diameter about 3 contains 59% of protein. Press cake contains cm, enveloped by small scaly bracteoles and with about 6% of oil, 6-7 % of protein and 15-18 % of 3imbricat e sepals and petals, and a spherical pistil carbohydrates. with tricarpous ovary, each carpel having a single Description Coconut palm can grow up to a ovule, and sessile stigmata. height of about 30 m, dwarf forms up to 10m . Root Fruit a globose to ovoid drupe with 3side s separat- 92 A SELECTION edb y 3ridges , maturing in about 12months , reach­ mation starts. Widely spaced palms growing under ing an average weight of about 1.5 kg; exocarp favourable conditions are therefore larger than about 0.1 mm thick, the fibrous mesocarp 1-5 cm, closely spaced palms or palms on poor sites. At to 10 cm at the base of the fruit, the endocarp or close spacing, height growth is accelerated at the shell 3-6 mm thick, stony. Seed with 1-2.5 cm expense of flowering and fruiting. thick endosperm, with a large cavity in the centre Precocity and yield are positively correlated with partially filled with coconut water, which is com­ annual leaf formation; hence dwarf palms yield pletely absorbed about 6month s after harvesting. earlier (first flowering about 2year s after germina­ Growth and development Tall palms produce tion against a minimum of 4 years for tall palms) about 10leave s during the first year, dwarf palms and more than tall palms. Stem elongation begins about 14. In subsequent years, more and ever- before first flowering, but it isno t clear what deter­ larger leaves are formed, until full leaf size is mines the end ofth e juvenile period. attained and annual production levels off at 12-16 Other botanical information Coconut palm leaves for tall and 20-22 leaves for dwarf palms. contains tall cultivars, sometimes referred to as Since a leaf of a tall palm remains on the tree about var. typica, as well as dwarf cultivars, sometimes 2.5 year after unfolding, the leaf number in the referred to as var. nana (Griff.) Nar. Opinions crown levels off at 30-35 after 6 or 7 years. The about the origin of the dwarf differ. emerging 'spear' leaf replaces the eldest leaf which According to flowering behaviour, four categories is about to fall; in this way the canopy reaches a can be distinguished ranging from strict allogamy steady state in respect of leaf area and leaf age. (palms with short female phase without overlap­ The spear leaf represents the midway-stage be­ ping the male phase ofth e same or following inflor­ tween initiation and fall, because the number of escences) to semi-direct autogamy (a long female leaf initials still enfolded by the spear leaf is about phase overlapping the male phase of the same equal to the number ofunfolde d leaves. inflorescence as well as that of the following one). The numbers of adventitious roots are high: nor­ Although autogamy is possible in tall cultivars, mally 2000-4000 per palm. Like the leaves, the these are usually cross-pollinating and heteroge­ roots are replaced in regular fashion: new roots neous. Dwarfs are ususally self-pollinating and ho­ emerging from the bole above the others take over mogeneous. Pollination is by wind as well as by from decaying roots. There is no data on the rate insects. ofroo t replacement. Coconuts can also be divided according to the The steady state of both the canopy and the root shape of the nut: the Niu kafa type, that evolved system suggests that the coconut is built for a naturally, with triangular nuts with a thick husk steady pace of growth in a constant environment. and a thick shell and slow germination; and the The large organs spend a long period in the pipe­ Niu vai type that developed under cultivation, line - e.g. about 2.5year s from initiation to unfold­ with round nuts, thinner husk and shell and early ing for a leaf - and these long lead times give the germination. palm a certain inflexibility. Under adverse condi­ There are 3 different types of dwarf-cultivar coco­ tions only flowering and fruiting pass through a nuts: the 'Niu Leka' from Fiji, differing only from series of phases during which the commitments the tall by its very short internodes and short rigid can be adjusted downwards: reduced nut size and leaves; the medium sized coconuts, such as the filling, premature nut fall, reduced fruit set, fewer 'Malaysian Dwarf from Indonesia, the 'Gangabon- pistillate flowers, smaller inflorescences and dam' from India and the 'King' coconut from Sri aborted inflorescences. Lanka; and the small dwarf cultivars that occur Thus stress affects yield much more than it affects in various countries. growth. Growth can be slowed down, but the size The 'Makapuno' from the Philippines and the of new leaves and roots has been fixed a long time 'Kelapa kopjor' from Indonesia are palms with in advance and cannot be adjusted to short-term nuts in which the endosperm almost fills the entire stress periods. In as much as leaf emergence slows nut cavity. The endosperm is soft and has a pecu­ down, this further reduces yield potential, since liar taste and is considered a delicacy. The nuts the emergence of the inflorescence follows the do not germinate but the embryos can be culti­ emergence of the subtending leaf. vated in vitro. This character may appear in any At the rosette stage the growing point continues tall cultivar. to enlarge till the size of the leaf initials reflects Ecology Coconut is essentially a crop of the the prevailing growing conditions; then trunk for­ humid tropics. It is fairly adaptable with regard Cocos 93 to temperature and water supply and so highly into bearing. These include rice, maize, finger mil­ valued that it is still common near the limits of its let, sweet potato, cassava and other food crops. ecological zone. The annual sunlight requirement These crops should not be planted closer than 2 is estimated at above 2000 hours, with maybe a m to the palms. Intercropping with banana and lower limit of 120 hours per month. The optimum pineapple is practised in some areas. Coconut is mean annual temperature is estimated at about occasionally grown with tree crops (e.g. cocoa, 27°C , with an average diurnal variation between rubber, mango, cashew), but this is usually consid­ 5-7 °C. For good nut yields, a minimum monthly ered to result in lower yields of copra. In humid mean of2 0° Ci s required. Temperatures below 7° C climates, cocoa is one of the best intercrops. In may seriously damage young coconut palms, but Malaysia, under favourable conditions yields of varietal difference exists in low temperature toler­ more than 1000kg/h a ofdr y cocoa beans have been ance. obtained from cocoa grown under coconuts on Evenly distributed rainfall above 2000 mm and a good soils. Pastures are sometimes established high relative humidity are preferred, but the under the palms for use in mixed husbandry. Green leaves are designed to minimize water loss and can manures are occasionally planted. Pastures and stand drought periods of several months. Hence cover crops can only be grown when there is suffi­ ground water (e.g. on coastal planes) and irriga­ cient rain. tion can replace rains, but water shortage reduces Coconut is planted mostly at spacings of 8 m x yields. 8m t o 9m x 9m , triangular or square. Dwarf culti- The coconut palm thrives on a wide range of soils, vars are planted at a spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m. from coarse sand to clay provided the soils have Hedge planting may beuse d to facilitate intercrop­ adequate drainage and aeration. ping, but the radial symmetry of the leaf arrange­ Propagation and planting Coconut has always ment does not tolerate extreme forms of row crop­ been propagated by 'seed'. In 1982 the first clonal ping. plant was produced by tissue culture. The method Husbandry Weeding is essential, especially for is still being improved. In-vitro culture of coconut young palms. Green manuring is often practised embryos is possible, which is important for seed to advantage. Fertilizing is often required, espe­ transport and solves quarantine problems. cially on soils that have been cultivated for many Seed-nuts usually are given a resting period of 1 years. Smallholders seldom apply fertilizers. The month after harvesting. Then they are kept in a effect of manuring and other cultural practices on germination bed from where uniform batches can yield are not apparent until after 2.5-3 years, the be transplanted to polythene bags or to nursery period required for development from the primor- beds.Th e polybag method, including regular fertil­ dia to the ripe nuts, although a general improve­ ization, has largely replaced the bare-root seed­ ment in the condition of the trees may be visible lings raised in beds. Seedlings are transplanted at within one year. K is the predominant nutrient the age of 3-8 months. In the nursery bed seedlings requirement of the palm followed by N and P. can bekep t longer, but suffer a greater shock when Foliar leaf analysis is a guide to fertilizer require­ transplanted. ments. The amount of nutrients removed by a good Where inter-tree competition is manifest growth crop of 7500 nuts/ha if the husks are not returned ismaintaine d at the expense offlowerin g and fruit­ isN 6 7kg ,P 2052 2k g and K209 0kg .A typica l fertil­ ing. Growers therefore prefer to err on the wide izer mixture recommended per palm is N 0.2-0.3 sidei n spacing their palms.Th e open crowns trans­ kg, P205 0.2-0.3 kg, K20 0.5- 0.7 kg, given in split mit a fair portion of incident light; in combination applications at the beginning and end of the rains with generous spacing this means that coconut is in a band encircling the palm up to 1.5-2 m from well suited to intercropping. Intercropping with the trunk. crops which exploit different soil levels may be Irrigation is sometimes practised in dry areas expected to result in more efficient fertilizer use. where water is available. Occasional inundations Intercropping, especially perennials, may stabilize with sea-water do not harm the palm, provided the soil temperature, protect the soil surface from rain soil salt content does not rise too high. The cumu­ impact, produce more organic matter and increase lative income from well fertilized coconut and soil ecologie life in the root zone. It also creates intercrop often is much higher than that of the co­ an atmosphere favourable for a more varied insect conut alone. Mechanization is practised only on population, thus creating a better natural balance. large estates. Catch crops are often planted until the palms come Diseases and pests Many diseases affect coco- 96 A SELECTION

t per year, mostly from Brazil, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Arabica coffee would certainly have conti­ nued to be the exclusive producer of coffee, on account of its superior cup quality, if it had not been sovulnerabl e todiseases , particularly to cof­ fee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) when grown at lower altitudes in equatorial zones. Coffee leaf rust had virtually wiped out coffee cultivation in Asia by 1890. While in Sri Lanka coffee was rep­ laced bytea , Indonesia continued tob ea majo r cof­ fee producer by changing toanothe r coffee species, C.canephora, which proved to be resistant to leaf rust epidemics. Robusta coffee wasfirs t introduced onJav a in190 0 from Zaire. Selection programmes in East Java resulted in high yielding plant material, which formed thebasi s for robusta coffee production not only in Asia - major producers being Indonesia, India and the Philippines - but even in tropical Africa. In South-East Asia, the cultivation of arabica cof­ fee isno w restricted tohigh-altitud e areas particu­ larly in Papua NewGuinea , but also in Indonesia, the Philippines, north Thailand and Burma. Uses Thestimulatin g effect ofth e coffee bever­ age is largely derived from the alkaloid caffeine, but cured beans have to be roasted and finely Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehn. branch with ground to bring out the characteristic coffee aro­ leaves, flowers and fruits. ma. The habit of drinking coffee as a hot watery extract from roast and ground beans isstil l preva­ Arabica coffee ofEthiopia n origin was already cul­ lent in many countries. Vacuum-sealed packets tivated in the 15thCentur y in Yemen. From there with whole roast beans or ground coffee of top it was taken to India and Sri Lanka in the 16th quality arabicas, orvaryin g blends of arabica with and 17th Century by Arabic travellers. The first robusta coffee, areavailabl e especially toth e Eur­ commercial coffee production outside Arabia opean consumer. In some producer countries, started on Java shortly after 1699, when coffee roasting of locally available coffee in the home is plants from Yemen origin andraise d onth e Mala­ very common andth ebre w isprepare d by pouring bar coast of India were introduced by the Dutch hot water over freshly roast and ground coffee, East India Company. Inth ecours e ofth e 18thCen ­ such as the 'kopi tubruk' in Indonesia. Over the tury coffee was spread into the Caribbean and past 40years , instant coffee assolubl e powder, pre­ South America through themediatio n ofth e bota­ pared by dehydration of extracts of roast and nic garden of Amsterdam from material obtained ground coffee, has become a very important com­ from Java in 1710. modity. At least 80% of all coffee sold in the Uni­ All coffee distributed to Asia and Latin America ted States andth e United Kingdom are consumed so far was C. arabica var. arabica, usually called as instant coffee. Although arabica coffee will give typica (syn.: C. arabica var. typica Cramer). The a better quality, robustas arei ngrea t demand with coffee introduced byth e French from Yemen, first the instant coffee industry because of the higher to theislan d of La Réunion (formerly Bourbon) in yields of soluble solids. About 10% ofth e world's 1715, then to Latin America and eventually in the exportable coffee is decaffeinated, mostly mar­ 19th Century to Africa, was different, namely C. keted asinstan t coffee. arabica var. bourbon (B.Rodr. ) Choussy. It has a Production and international trade Total more compact and upright habit, is higher-yield­ world production was about 5.3millio n t/year (10 ing andproduce s better-quality coffee than typica. million ha)ove r theperio d 1982-1987. About 75% By 1860worl d trade incoffe e involved some 25000 0 of it is arabica coffee, mostly from Latin America COFFEA 97

(but also eastern Africa and India), 24% robusta most ofth e water is evaporated, the sugars are car­ from Africa and Asia and 1% liberica (C. liberica amelized, the polysaccharides are carbonized and Bull ex Hiern) and other coffees. For at least 20 many compounds are converted into volatiles, of of the 60 producing countries, coffee contributes which about 700hav e been identified so far. more than 25% to the total value of exports. Some Coffee quality is determined by experienced tas­ 75% ofal l coffee isexported , mainly to Europe and ters: visual assessment of the raw bean is followed the United States. by trial roasting, brewing and organoleptic evalu­ The price elasticity of supply is low and prices ation of the beverage. The liquor of high-quality have fluctuated from US$ 2-6 per kg coffee, top washed arabicas (bluish-green colour of the raw quality arabicas usually fetching 15-25 % more bean) will be richly aromatic (flavour) with a fine than robusta coffees. acidity; dry-processed arabicas will be less acid but Coffee production in Indonesia increased from with more body. Raw beans of washed or dry-pro­ 175000 1i n 1971 to 340000 1i n 1987,al l robusta cof­ cessed robustas are of a brownish colour and the fee except for some 1500 0 t arabica mainly from liquor will have a neutral flavour at best, little North Sumatra, East Java, South Sulawesi, east­ acidity, considerable body but with somehars h bit­ ern Timor and Bali. Indonesia has become the ter and astringent taste. third largest coffee producer after Brazil (1.5 mil­ Description Coffea arabica. Evergreen, gla­ lion t) and Colombia (72500 0 t), both arabica pro­ brous shrub or small tree, often multi-stemmed, ducers, and before the second largest robusta cof­ 4-5 m high, in cultivation pruned to 1.8-2.5 m. fee producer Ivory Coast (250000 t). Papua New Taproot often less than 1m , but some lateral roots Guinea with 50000 t is the largest arabica coffee may grow downwards to 3-4 mfo r firm anchorage; producer in South-East Asia. The Philippines pro­ 90% of feeding roots in the top 30 cm of the soil. duce some 60000 t (30% arabica), Thailand 25000 Leaves decussately arranged, ovate, 15-25 cm x t (95% robusta), Malaysia 110001al l for local con­ 5-10 cm, acute at base with up to 2c m long petiole, sumption (50% robusta and 50% liberica coffee) acuminate, glossy and somewhat undulate, dark and Vietnam 3000 t of robusta. Altogether South- green above and lighter green beneath, with doma- East Asia produces about 9% of the world coffee, tia (small cavities) beneath at insertion of lateral or 30% of all robustas. veins giving slight protuberance above. In most countries coffee is a smallholders' crop. Flowers in axillary clusters, 10-30 per node, her­ For instance, in Indonesia only 4500 0 ha are gov­ maphrodite, fragrant, creamy-white, with short ernment and private estates (size 30-1500 ha), pedicel; calyx small and 5-denticulate; corolla tube while the remaining 83000 0h a of coffee are small­ 10 mm long with 5 oval, 8 mm long lobes, white; holder farms of 0.3-5.0 ha. Smallholdings also stamens 5, inserted on corolla tube between lobes, dominate in the Philippines (60%), Papua New anthers bilocular, opening lengthwise; pistil with Guinea (70%), Thailand (90%) and Malaysia inferior, bilocular ovary with 1 anatropous ovule (90 %). per cell; style 12-15 mm long, with bifid stigma. In the international coffee trade, four main classes Fruit a drupe, often referred to as a 'berry', with of coffee are distinguished, in descending order of normally 2 stones, 12-18 mm x 8-15 mm, at first quality: green and turning red at maturity, mesocarp - Colombian milds, indicating washed arabicas fleshy, endocarp (parchment) fibrous, surrounding from Colombia, Kenya and Tanzania; seeds. Seed ellipsoid, plane-convex with a longitu­ - other milds which are also washed arabicas; dinal furrow on the plane surface; testa thin (silver - dry-processed or hard arabicas (e.g. Brazil, Eth­ skin), endosperm abundant, embryo at base of the iopia) and seed, small. Coffee seeds are commonly called - (un) washed robustas. 'beans'. Seedling with epigeal germination. Coffea canephora differs from C. arabica in the fol­ Properties The coffee bean consists largely of lowing characteristics: larger tree to 8-12 m high, endosperm with the following approximate compo­ with long flexible branches, shorter tap-root and sition on dry matter base: water 10-13 %, proteins shallower rooted; leaves 25c m x 10c mwit h corru­ and free amino-acids 11-16 %, sucrose and reduc­ gated surface and petiole 1-2 cm long; flowers ing sugars 5-9 %, cellulose and other polysacchar­ white, up to 80 flowers per node, with 5-7 lobed ides 32-48%, lipids 12-14%, chlorogenic and corolla, stamens and style well exserted; fruits other acids 8-10%, ash and minerals 4%. The smaller, 8-16 mm long. Generally C. canephora is range of caffeine content in arabicas is 0.6-1.7 % a more vigorous grower than C.arabica and shows and for robusta coffee 1.5-3.3% . During roasting 98 A SELECTION

a much higher polymorphism. (12-18 hours photoperiods) has little influence on Growth and development There isn o seed dor­ floral initiation in coffee. Flower buds go dormant mancy; at ambient temperatures seed viability is before they are fully developed and as the season lost within 3-6 months, but it can be maintained progresses more flower buds enter dormancy. at 90% for 15 (robusta) to 30 (arabica) months Flower bud dormancy is progressively decreased when stored moist at 15°C . Germination is com­ by continued water stress and rapid rehydration plete within 6-8 weeks after sowing in wet sand. - usually accomplished by the first shower at the Removal of the parchment halves the germination onset of the rainy season - induces blossoming time. The cotyledons unfold and the first pair of 6-12 days later. Young buds which are still dor­ leaves appears 10-12 weeks from sowing. Subse­ mant are triggered by subsequent showers. The quent leaf pairs, always at right angles to the pair more or less simultaneous release from dormancy below, are formed at 3-4 week intervals. The first synchronises flowering and fruit growth. pair ofsid e shoots emerges at the node ofth e 5-9th C. arabica is self-fertile - less than 10% of the leaf pair. Seedlings (30-40 cm high) are ready for flowers are naturally cross-pollinated - and fruit field planting 7-9 months after sowing for robusta set is high. The fruitlets hardly grow during the and 11-15 months for arabica. first 6-8 weeks ('pinhead' stage); since flowering Coffee has two types of shoots. The seedling stem follows the early rains this means that fruit growth is orthotropic. A series of buds is found in the axil is delayed till the rainy season has settled in and ofeac h leaf. The highest bud ('head of series') pro­ shoot growth has resumed. In bimodal rainfall duces a plagiotropic side shoot ('primary'), while areas flowering occurs at the beginning of both the lower buds remain dormant; when forced orth­ rainy seasons and the associated fruit growth peri­ otropic suckers grow out. The series of buds at the ods overlap. The fruits are mature in 8-9 months. nodes of plagiotropic shoots give rise to inflores­ Coffee fruits are strong assimilate-accepting sinks cences or plagiotropic side shoots ('secondaries'); and the tree is unable to regulate the crop load buds on plagiotropic shoots cannot develop into effectively by shedding fruitlets. Prevention of orthotropic shoots. excessive cropping, which leads to biennial bear­ Under ideal conditions a 3-year old unpruned ara­ ing or even shoot die-back, is therefore the key bica tree (2 years in the field, producing its first issue in coffee growing. The use of shade trees has crop) is cone-shaped with 25-30 pairs of primary a tempering effect on shoot growth, improves leaf branches on a main stem 150-180 cmhigh . Annual retention, but also reduces flower initiation. With­ shoot growth on primaries may be 22-35 cm with out shade, fruiting is much higher, with up to 20 fruits per node. At least 20 cm2 leaf area (one leaf 10-12 new nodes. The fruit of such a tree is borne 2 on the nodes close to the main stem of the lower = 30-40 cm ) is needed to support each fruit with­ 15-20 primaries. Nodes flower only once; within out affecting vegetative growth. Crop hushandry a few years the crop on the younger primaries high is therefore geared towards maintaining enough on the main stem gets out of reach, while the crop foliage to sustain the crop as well as new shoot lower inth e tree dwindles as shoot vigour declines. growth throughout the season:pruning , mulching, To restrict tree height and maintain vigour in the irrigation, fertilizing, control ofdisease s and pests basal parts, strict juvenation pruning is needed. and 'tonic' sprays of fungicides. The latter treat­ Cutting back the main stem stimulates the emer­ ment improves leaf retention by 2-3 months, par­ gence of orthotropic suckers from serial buds, ticularly in climates with distinct periods of water especially below the cut and at the base ofth e stem. stress, resulting in progressive yield increases of One or several of these basal suckers can replace 50-100%. the main stem for a new cycle of productive years. The growth of robusta is comparable to arabica, Coffee shoots are inclined to grow continuously, except that primaries become longer and produce but the rate of growth is readily slowed down to few secondary branches. Flower initiation follows a virtual standstill by adverse external (e.g. shoot growth more closely and flowering periodi­ drought) or internal (e.g.a good fruit crop) factors. city becomes less distinct, especially when rainfall Growth is rapid at the beginning of the rainy sea- is well-distributed over the year. Nodes on robusta son(s). branches may flower twice: first in the season in During rapid extension growth no flowers are which the shoot is formed and again two years initiated, but as shoot growth subsides floral devel­ later- in the intervening year the 'berries' at these opment starts on 5-7 months old nodes and grad­ nodes should prevent repeat flowering. C. cane- ually proceeds towards the shoot tip. Daylength phora is allogamous with a gametophytic system COPFEA 99

of self-incompatibilty. Robusta 'berries' take 9-11 ther from the equator, as in South America months to mature. (20-23°C) . Temperatures near 0°C will kill the Other botanical information According toth e leaves immediately, while long periods of hot (and most recent taxonomie classification ofth e genus dry) weather will cause wilting even at high soil Coffea there aretw osections : moisture. In humid tropical lowland, arabica cof­ - Coffea with 5subsections , such as Erythrocoffea, fee will show poor flowering (star flowers) and to which 22specie s belong, including C. arabica shoot die-back. Annual rainfall requirements are and C. canephora, 1400-2200 mm with notmor e than 3month s of less - Mascarocoffea with about 80 species, all caf­ than 70 mm. Lower rainfall can be compensated feine-free but with a pronounced bitter taste, by irrigation (e.g. East Africa). found inth e Malagasy Republic. Allspecie s are Robusta coffee is well adapted to the warm and diploid except theallotetraploi d C. arabica. humid equatorial climates with average tempera­ There area great number ofcultivar s ofth e typica tures of 22-26°C, minimum notbelo w 10°C at alti­ and bourbon varieties of arabica coffee, but all tudes of 100-800 m, and well-distributed annual originate from the genetically very narrow base rainfall of 2000m m or more. population of Yemen: Typica National, Bourbon, Coffee is able to grow ona wide range of soils pro­ Mundo Novo, Caturra, Blue Mountain, Marago- vided these are deep (at least 2 m), free draining gipe, SL28 ,N 39, Kent, Padang and Blawan Pasu- loams with a good water holding capacity, fertile mah. Some cultivars areselection s from spontane­ and slightly acid (pH 5-6). The topsoi l should con­ ous interspecific hybrids, e.g.S (288, 333, 795)an d tain at least 2% humus. Major coffee soils are de­ BA selections from India andHibrid o deTimor , or rived from lava andtuf f (e.g. Kenya), volcanic ash from germplasm collections in Ethiopia and (Indonesia, Central America), basalt and granite nearby Sudan such asGeisha , Abyssinia and Rume (Brazil, West Africa, India). An exception areth e Sudan. Catimor, from a cross between Caturra and western highlands of Papua New Guinea, where Hibrido de Timor, is a compact-growing cultivar high rainfall well distributed over theyea r permits and resistant tomos t races ofcoffe e leaf rust. successful coffee production on clay soil of just In the polymorphic C. canephora two subpopula­ 20-30 cmdee pove r compacted heavy clay of volca­ tions are distinguished: nic origin. - robusta, with erect growth habit and large Propagation and planting Most cultivars of leaves, of Central African (Congolese) origin, the self-pollinating arabica coffee are practically and pure lines, propagated byseed . In Kenya Ft hybrid - nganda or kouilou, with a more spreading seeds areproduce d byhand-pollinatio n of new dis­ growth habit andsmalle r leaves and 'berries',o f ease-resistant arabica cultivars. Seed propagation West African (Guinea) origin. Important is also common in the cross-pollinating robusta robusta cultivars (clones or seedlings) are the coffee, usually from polyclonal gardens. Vegeta­ BP and SA selections from Java, the INEAC tive propagation of high-yielding robusta clones is selections from Zaire and IRCC selections from applied on a limited scale on Java (grafting), in Ivory Coast. Zaire, Ivory Coast and Uganda (rooted cuttings). Interspecific hybrids such asCongust a (from natu­ New methods of in-vitro propagation in arabica ral hybridization between C. congensis Froehn. (hybrid cultivars) androbust a coffee are gradually and C. canephora) and Arabusta (from artificial being applied as well. crossing of C. arabica with tetraploid C. cane­ Seedlings orplant s from rooted cuttings are raised phora) have potential for lowland coffee produc­ on beds ori npolythen e bags in shaded nurseries. tion. In South-East Asia, coffee is grown either in pure A minor species is Coffea liberica Bull ex Hiern, stands with temporary andpermanen t shade trees, mainly cultivated in Africa. It can become 15-17 or in association with perennial crops (coconut, m high, andha s larger flowers and fruits (2-3c m rubber, clove, fruit trees and pepper), or in home long) than C.arabica andC. canephora. Its flowers gardens with food crops, bananas and perennial open at irregular intervals. crops. Ecology Arabica coffee requires an average Young plants of 7-15 months old are planted in daily temperature of 18-22° Cwit h amaximu m not the field in large holes (60c m x 60 cm x 60cm ) exceeding 30°C . This restricts its cultivation to refilled with top soil, organic material and rock high altitudes in equatorial (0-7°N/S) areas phosphate. Various spacings, such as square and (1000-2100 m) or lower altitudes (300-600 m) fur­ hedgerows are used indensitie s of1300-280 0 trees/ 100 A SELECTION

ha for arabica and 1100-1400 trees/ha for robusta high K application may induce Mg deficiency. coffee. High density planting of 3300-5000 trees/ Phosphate is often applied as compound fertilizers ha, as applied in Latin America and East Africa (2:1:2), but its effect is greatest in foliar applica­ with compact arabica cultivars such as Caturra tions. Calcium in the form oflim e isuse d to correct and Catimor, is not common in South-East Asia, soil acidity. Magnesium deficiency is best cor­ except in Papua New Guinea. On slopes of more rected by foliar applications, as are minor ele­ than 30° planting along contour lines or on ter­ ments such as boron and manganese. Organic ma­ races is necessary to prevent erosion. nures - stable manure, cover crops, mulch and Common shade trees are Leucaena leucocephala decaying coffee pulp - are not only alternatives to (Lam.) de Wit, Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) chemical fertilizers, and often the only ones avail­ Merr., Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. able to smallholders, but also essential to maintain andAlbizia falcata (L.)Backer . With intensive cul­ the humus content of the soil. tivation and optimum inputs, higher yields are Diseases and pests Coffea leaf rust (Hemileia obtained with unshaded coffee but shade will pre­ vastatrix) isth e major disease in arabica coffee and vent overbearing and shoot die-back at lower stan­ occurs in all countries of South-East Asia, includ­ dards of crop management or suboptimal ecologi­ ing Papua New Guinea (since 1986). Control by cal conditions. fungicidal sprays is more effective with copper- Husbandry Pruning is essential in coffee pro­ based than systemic fungicides. A new develop­ duction: (a) to determine the shape of the tree, (b) ment is the application of granular systemic fungi­ to maximize the amount of new wood for the next cides to the soil. The very destructive coffee berry season's crop, (c)t o maintain a correct balance be­ disease (caused by Colletotrichum coffeanum) of tween leaf area and crop and (d) to prevent over­ arabica coffee is still restricted to Africa, although bearing and thus reduce biennial production. The climatic conditions in certain high altitude areas main pruning systems are: of Latin America and Asia are considered favour­ - single-stem capped at 1.5-1.8 m (Indonesia, able to epidemic outbreaks. Robusta coffee isresis ­ Malaysia) eventually leading to an umbrella- tant to both diseases. Diseases of both coffee spe­ shaped tree; cies include brown eye spot (Cercospora coffeicola) - multiple-stem on 3-5 orthotropic capped or on leaves of young coffee, tip die-back caused by uncapped stems (Papua New Guinea, Thailand); Rhizoctonia spp., wilt disease caused by Fusarium - agobiado, which is a multiple-stem system on a solani, root diseases caused by Armellaria mellea, main stem bent at an early age (the Philippines, Forties noxius, Rosellinia spp. particularly on South Sumatra); recently cleared land or where shade trees have - rejuvenation when trees are old and yields are been removed, and damping-off in coffee nurseries low, by stumping to 30c m above the ground and caused by Rhizoctonia solani. bringing up new orthotropic shoots. Important nematodes attacking both arabica and Suppressing of noxious weeds, particularly Digi- robusta coffee are: Meloidogyne spp., causing root taria scalarum (Schweinf.) Chiov. (En: couch), by knots and galls, Pratylenchus coffea, Radopholus careful tillage (not damaging the superficial feeder similis and Rotylenchus spp. roots of the coffee), herbicides, mulching and/or Over 900insec t species are known to infest coffee. leguminous cover crops, is very important. Major pests on coffee in South-East Asia are, in Fertilizer requirements depend on crop level and order of importance: coffee berry-borer (Hypothe- nutrient status of the soil. Nutrients removed by nemus hampeii) particularly in robusta coffee, var­ harvesting 6 t of fruits of robusta coffee, equiva­ ious stem-borers (Xyleborus spp., Xylotrechus lent to 11 of green beans, are: 35 kg N, 6 kg P205, quadripes, Zeuzera coffeae), green scale (Coccus 50 kg K20, 4 kg CaO, 4 kg MgO, 0.3 kg Fe203 and viridis), mealy bug (Planococcus citri). Integrated 0.02 kg Mn304. Fertilizer applications should be pest management in coffee, based on early warning based on the nutrient status of the tree, which can systems in combination with chemical, cultural be accurately determined by foliar analysis. Gen­ and biological control, is more effective than fre­ erally, nitrogen fertilizers give clear yield res­ quent application of broad-spectrum and persis­ ponses to 50-100 kg N per ha per year. Responses tent insecticides. to potassium fertilizer vary from nil in mulched Harvesting Selective picking ofrip e 'berries' at coffee grown on volcanic soils rich in potassium 7-10 days intervals is common on Java, Sumatra, (e.g.Eas t Africa) to highly significant on soils with Sulawesi and Papua New Guinea, where harvest­ a low K status:0-40 0 kg K20 per ha per year. Very ing extends over a period of 7-9 months. Where COFPEA 101 the harvesting season isshorte r orth e cost of hired Mer, Paris and Ivory Coast) in 1967an d by the labour higher, as on South Sumatra and in most Ethiopian Institute ofAgricultura l Research since other regions in South-East Asia, whole branches 1970. This valuable material isno wpreserve d and are stripped when themajorit y of'berries' areripe . being studied at (coffee) research institutes in E- Costs of harvesting will be 2-3 times higher for thiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, selective picking than strip picking:8- 9 kg coffee/ Malagasy Republic, Costa Rica, Brazil, Colombia man-day in Aceh (North Sumatra), 20 kg/man-day and India. in Lampung (South Sumatra). The ORSTOM has made several collections of Yield This may vary from 200 kg green coffee germplasm of C.canephora and other diploid spe­ beans per ha from low input smallholder plots to ciesi nprimar y centres of genetic diversity in West 2 t/ha for arabica and 3.5 t/ha for robusta coffee and Central Africa and the Malagasy Republic at conventional spacings (unshaded). Yield of 5 t/ since 1975. This material is now available at ha hasbee n obtained inhig h density experimental research institutes in Ivory Coast, Cameroon, the plots of arabica coffee in Colombia and Kenya. Central African Republic and the Malagasy Average yields/ha per region in Indonesia are: Republic. East Java 550k g(mostl y estates), Central Java 300 Recent studies ofth eevolutio n ofth e Coffea gene- kg, Lampung 650kg , Aceh 600k g for robusta and pool indicate that the differentiation into species 500k gfo rarabica . The national average inth e Phi­ wasno taccompanie d byth edevelopmen t of strong lippines andi n Papua New Guinea isabou t 1 t/ha. crossing barriers. Introgression ofdesirabl e char­ Handling after harvest The wet process: ripe acters from wild into thetw o most important culti­ 'berries' are pulped within 12-24hour s after har­ vated species by interspecific hybridization there­ vesting, fermented to degrade the mucilage, fore offers considerable prospects. There are washed, carefully dried in the sun (7-10days ) or indications that the diploid species C. eugenioides mechanically (6-20 hours) or a combination of S.Moore , C.congensis Froehner, C.canephora and both, andstore d asdr y(11-1 2 %moistur e content) the allotetraploid C.arabica have developed from parchment coffee. This process is carried out in common ancestral forms. coffee factories owned by estates and smallholder The IBPGR (International Bureau for Plant Gene­ cooperative societies, or with small hand-pulpers tic Resources) emphasizes the great urgency for and basins byth eindividua l smallholders. intensifying germplasm collection within the still The dryprocess : 'berries' from strip picking - var­ existing wild populations ofCoffea species,i n trop­ ious stages of green, ripe and overmature fruits - ical Africa andth e Malagasy Republic, before the are dried directly for 3-4 weeks inth esu no n plat­ natural habitats disappear. forms or mechanically (2-3 days). Dry processed Breeding Arabica coffee represents arar e exam­ coffee ismor e difficult to store than parchment cof­ ple of a woody perennial to which breeding meth­ fee because of its strong hygroscopic property. ods common to self-pollinated crops have been Curing of dried parchment coffee - including hull­ applied successfully. Most of the cultivars grown ing to remove the parchment, polishing to remove in the world at present are pure lines developed remains of silver skin, and grading - takes place by selection within genetically narrow source pop­ in central coffee mills. Dry-processed coffee is ulations. treated in a similar manner, but requires a differ­ Breeding for resistance to coffee leaf rust started ent type of huiler. The clean coffee is graded in India in the 1930's but later on was also taken according to international standards of size and up in Angola, Brazil and Colombia. Much of the shape of beans, colour and percentage defects fundamental work onHemileia vastatrix - identifi­ (broken beans, stones, husks). The clean coffee is cation of physiological races of the pathogen and exported inbag s of60-7 0 kg. The final stage of cof­ the genetics of resistance in the host - was per­ fee processing - blending, roasting and packaging formed and coordinated by the Coffee Rust as whole beans or ground coffee - always takes Research Centre at Oeiras in Portugal. One result place close toth econsume r market. was the new cultivar Catimor, certain lines of Genetic resources Systematic collections of which are homozygous for dominant resistance wild and semi-cultivated plants of Coffea arabica genes SH6-SH9, making this cultivar resistant to in theprimar y centre ofgeneti c diversity in Ethio­ all known races of coffee leaf rust. Grave threats pia have been made by the FAOcoffe e mission in of coffee berry disease to arabica coffee in Africa 1964/65,b ya coffe e mission ofth e ORSTOM (Office prompted an entirely newbreedin g programme in de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre- Kenya in 1971,resultin g in Fj hybrid cultivars 102 A SELECTION

resistant to both diseases in 1986. Selection for re­ of the land currently under coffee. Land would sistance to coffee berry disease is also carried out thus become available for food crops and possibly in natural coffee populations in Ethiopia. The other agricultural production systems. demand for a combination ofresistanc e to both dis­ Literature 1 Clarke, R.J. & Macrae, R. (Edi­ eases with high yield and bean quality, as well as tors), 1987-1988.Coffee . V.l. Chemistry, V.2.Tech ­ compact growth for high density planting, led to nology, V.3. Physiology, V.4. Agronomy, V.5. fundamental studies on the inheritance of resis­ Related Beverages, V.6. Commercial and Tech- tance to coffee berry disease and ofyiel d and quali­ nico-Legal aspects. Elsevier, London, New York. ty components being carried out in Kenya. |2| Clifford, M.N. & Wilson, K.C. (Editors), 1985. Robusta coffee is a strictly cross-pollinating spe­ Coffee: Botany, biochemistry and production of cies and inbreeding isprevente d by self-incompati­ beans and beverage. Croom Helm, London. 457 pp. bility. All plants in a seedling population will be |3| Coste, R., 1968. Le Caféier. G.P. Maisonneuve highly heterozygous and desired genotypes can & Larose, Paris. 310 pp. |4| Cramer, P.J.S., 1957. only be fixed by vegetative propagation. Robusta Review of literature of coffee research in Indone­ plots of (cross-compatible) clones may outyield sia. Miscellaneous Publication No 15.Inter-Amer ­ fields established from seedlings by 40-50 %. How­ ican Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Turrialba, ever, coffee breeders in Indonesia, Zaire and Ivory Costa Rica. 262pp . |5| Eskes,A.B. ,1983 . Incomplete Coast eventually adopted breeding plans leading resistance to coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix). to polycross seed from clonal gardens, in view of Doctoral thesis Agricultural University Wage­ the major logistic problems connected with con- ningen. 140 pp. |6|d e Graaff, J., 1986. The econom­ vential methods ofvegetativ e propagation. ics of coffee. Economics of crops in developing Tissue culture could overcome these problems. countries No 1. Pudoc, Wageningen. 294 pp. |7| The possibility of developing pure inbred lines Krug, CA. & Poerck, R.A. de, 1968. World coffee through haploidy, as a basis for F!hybri d seed cul- survey. Agricultural Studies FAO, Rome. 476 pp. tivars, is at present being studied in Ivory Coast. |8| Rodriques, C.J. Jr., Bettencourt, A.J. &Rijo , L., Such a breeding plan also includes interpopula­ 1975. Races of the pathogen and resistance to cof­ tion hybrids with a high yield potential. fee rust. Annual Review of Phytopathology Arabica x robusta interspecific crosses, such as 13:39-70. |9|va n der Vossen, H.A.M., 1982. Conse­ the Arabusta hybrids developed in Ivory Coast, quences ofphytotoni c effects offungicid e to breed­ could lead to increased quality for traditional ing for disease resistance, yield and quality in Cof­ robusta production in the tropical lowlands of fea arabica. Journal of Horticultural Science Africa and Asia. 57:321-329. |10| van der Vossen, H.A.M. & Prospects The exploitation of genetic resources Walyaro, D.J., 1981. The coffee breeding pro­ in the genus Coffea started only recently. The ex­ gramme in Kenya: a review of progress made since pectations for further improvement in yield, di­ 1971 and plan of action for the coming years. sease and pest resistance and other desirable char­ Kenya Coffee 46:113-130. |11| Walyaro, D.J., 1983. acteristics by conventional and innovative Considerations in breeding for improved yield and breeding methods are therefore very good. In quality in arabica coffee. Doctoral thesis Agricul­ South-East Asia, ecological conditions are favour­ tural University Wageningen. 119pp . able for coffee and production per ha could be (H.A.M. van der Vossen & Soenaryo) increased considerably by more intensive crop management. On the other hand, the high probability of continu­ Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott ous overproduction of coffee at mondial level and the pressure for diversification of fertile land to Melet. bot.: 18(1832) . food crop production to feed the ever-increasing ARACEAE population in many developing countries would 2n = 28 make further expansion of coffee production a Synonyms Colocasia antiquorum Schott (1832), questionable policy. However, the spectacular Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott var. antiquorum yields obtained in close-spaced and intensively (Schott) Hubb. &Rehde r (1939). managed coffee become a realistic proposition Vernacular names Taro, old cocoyam, das- with new compact-growing and disease-resistant heen, eddoe (En). Taro (Fr). Indonesia: keladi cultivars. This would mean that national coffee (Batak, Ambon, Lampung, Bali), tales (Payak, quotas could in future be met from less than half Java, Madura, Sulawesi). Malaysia: keladi, keladi COLOCASIA 103

China. Papua New Guinea: anega, ba, biloun. Phi­ in Indonesia, taro and other root crops are being lippines: gabi. Cambodia: traaw. Laos: boon, promoted to reduce dependency on rice. In Papua phüak. Thailand : phueak. Vietnam: khaoi mon. New Guinea, taro is produced in both the lowlands Origin and geographic distribution Taro ori­ and highlands with a total annual production in ginated in South-East Asia or southern Central 1963 of about 318000 t on 18000 ha. In Malaysia Asia, where it was probably cultivated before rice. an estimated 500 ha was planted to taro in 1976 Today taro is grown throughout the West Indies with yields of 30-60 t/ha. Main markets for this and in West and North Africa. In Asia, it is widely production were Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh planted in south and central China and is grown and Penang. In 1974, local consumption was 9345 to a lesser extent in India. It is now a staple food t or 0.92 kg per capita. In the Philippines, 12352 3 in many islands of the Pacific including Papua t were produced on 3683 0h a in 1977. New Guinea, where it has prestigious as well as Properties If eaten raw or undercooked, all economic value, playing an important role in tra­ parts of the plant are acrid and will irritate the ditional gift-giving and ceremonies. In Indonesia, mouth and throat, but acridity is reduced or elimi­ taro is a staple food on the Mentawai Islands and nated by cooking and fermenting. The cause of for Melanesians on Irian Jaya. To a lesser extent, acridity is still uncertain, but it is thought to be it is cultivated in Bogor and Malang in Java and related to bundles of needle-shaped crystals of cal­ on Bali. In Malaysia, taro has been used for more cium oxalate and one or more chemicals asso­ than 2000 years and is now found throughout the ciated with them. Taro is easily digested, practi­ country. Taro isgrow n throughout the Philippines cally nonallergenic and has very small starch but is most important in eastern and central particles, diameter 1-6.5 urn. Per 100 g edible por­ Visayas and the Mindanao and Bicol regions. tion (fresh) corms contain approximately: water 70 Uses When cooked, taro corms, cormels, stolons, g, carbohydrate 26 g, protein 1.1 g, fibre 1.5 g, vita­ leaf blades and petioles can be eaten. Taro corm min C1 5mg . The energy value averages 475k j per puree makes an easily digested, low-allergenic 100 g. Leaves contain 4.2 g protein. Taro contains baby food. Waste leaves, corms and peel can be protein inhibitors but these are destroyed during cooked or fermented into silage for animal feed. cooking. Most taro in South-East Asia is consumed by Description An erect, herbaceous plant grow­ humans, but it also has uses in religious festivals ing to a height of 1m or more, perennial, but most and in folk medicines and is fed to livestock, pri­ marily hogs. In areas of Indonesia where rice is not grown, taro is eaten as a staple,baked , boiled or cooked in bam­ boo tubes. On Java, confections are prepared from taro flavoured with coconut and sugar; fried taro slices and taro chips are popular snacks. The leaves are used in preparing 'buntil' and petioles are cooked. In Malaysia, taro is cooked in similar ways and also plays a role in religious festivals. Leaves are boiled and eaten as salad with spicy sauce, and petioles are cooked with coconut cream, meat and prawns. Taro in the Philippines is used primarily when more popular starches and green vegetables are in short supply. Corms are boiled chipped and fried or made into confections. In Hawaii and parts of Polynesia, the corms are cooked and pounded into a paste that is allowed to ferment to produce 'poi'. A steamed pudding is made from grated taro and coconut. Production and international trade Reliable world and national production and price figures are not available for taro. In South-East Asia, it isgrow n predominantly by smallholders, and there Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott - 1, habit of plant; ispotentia l and interest in expansion. For example 2, corm. 104 A SELECTION often grown as an annual. Root system adventi­ In South-East Asia a large number of taro culti- tious, fibrous, and shallow. Storage stem (corm) vars exist which are distinguished by morphologi­ massive (up to 4 kg), cylindrical or spherical, up cal characteristics as well astim e to maturity. Col­ to 30c m x 15cm , usually brown, with lateral buds our of corm flesh, lateral buds, petioles, and leaf located above leaf scars giving rise to new cormels, blades are also used to differentiate cultivars. suckers or stolons. Leaves peltate consisting of Ecology Taro tolerates a wide range of environ­ long (sometimes over 1m )petiole s and large, heart- ments and management systems. When grown as shaped blades, 20-50 cm long. an upland/rain-fed crop, best yields are obtained Inflorescence a spadix surrounded by a spathe and when rainfall is 2000 mm/year or more and evenly supported on a peduncle that is shorter than the distributed. Taro also grows well in wetlands petioles; male and female flowers small, located including paddies with a continuous supply of separately on the spadix, female flowers at the moving water, furrow-irrigated fields, and raised base, green, and separated from the male flowers beds in poorly drained swamps. Temperatures at the top by a band of white sterile flowers; more 25-30° C and high humidity favour growth. Taro white sterile flowers scattered in the female is grown from sea-level up to 1800 m in the Philip­ region; spadix tipped by a sterile appendage; ovary pines, 1200m i n Malaysia and 2700m i n Papua New unilocular with 36-67 ovules and a sessile stigma. Guinea, although maturity is very slow at the lat­ Fruiting head a cluster of densely packed berries, ter altitude. In Papua New Guinea, it has the same each containing 1-10 (-35) seeds. Seeds less than level of frost hardiness as sweet potato. Taro is 2m m long, ovate, and conspicuously ridged longi­ shade tolerant and is often grown as an intercrop tudinally. with tree crops. Some cultivars allegedly tolerate Growth and development Growth of leaves on high salinity. Taro grows on a variety of soils but main plants is slow during establishment, but is good yields require high fertility. In Malaysia it rapid beginning 1.5-2 months after planting, with isreporte d to tolerate soil pH 4.2-7.5. most rapid leaf growth between 3-5 months after Propagation and planting Farmers propagate planting. During the fourth or fifth month, leaf taro vegetatively. Corm pieces,whol e small corms, size, leaf dry weight, leaf area, leaf area index cormels and stolons can be planted, but suckers (about 3) and plant height reach maximum. Leaf and head-sets (corm apex plus 15-30 cm attached number varies and there is a continuous turnover petiole bases) are usually preferred. Stolons are of leaves. After peaking, leaves become smaller preferred in some parts of Malaysia. Large head­ with shorter petioles and leaf number decreases. sets and suckers are generally more reliable than Main corm growth begins as early as 2week s after small ones, resulting in more vigorous growth and planting, with rapid corm growth beginning 2 giving higher yields. Planting material should be months after planting under upland/rain-fed con­ taken only from healthy plants, avoiding plants ditions and 3-5 months after planting under irri­ with root or corm rots and obvious symptoms of gated conditions. Cormsreac h maximum weight at dasheen mosaic virus. 10-11.5 months under upland/rain-fed and 12-15 When corms are marketed with head-sets months under irrigated conditions, but are usually attached, farmers depend on suckers for planting harvested before this time. material. Management practices are needed which Sucker growth generally begins 2.5 months after provide adequate suckers. Sucker number can be planting with number of suckers, depending on increased by wide spacing, shallow planting and cultivar and management. high nitrogen applied at a higher rate than recom­ Other botanical information There are 2 types mended for maximum corm yield. of taro. The dasheen type has a large central corm Planting is done in hand-dug holes or machine- with a few small cormels which generally are not made furrows or ridges; usually holes and furrows eaten. The eddoe type produces a smaller central are only partially filled at planting. In South-East corm surrounded by large, well-developed cormels Asia, taro is grown primarily by smallholders, which are the main harvestable yield. Eddoes are either as a sole cropo r intercropped with tree crops. often more drought-hardy than dasheens. Although In Malaysia, taro may be intercropped between the eddoe type is frequently classified as a separate rows of coconut, oil palm and fruit trees, and in species, C. antiquorum Schott, it is more generally the Philippines with coffee, cocoa, coconut and accepted that it is a variety, C. esculenta var. anti- fruit trees. quorum (Schott) Hubb. &Rehder , of a very variable For breeding purposes, taro can be propagated species that includes both dasheens and eddoes. from seed. COLOCASIA 105

Taro can be grown at densities ranging from other hornworms, as well as the cluster caterpil­ 4000-49000 plants/ha. In South-East Asia, densi­ lar, Spodoptera litura, can seriously defoliate ties ranging from 6000-36000 in upland/rain-fed plants, and grasshoppers (Gesonia spp., Ocya sp.) production and 27000-40000 in wetlands have and mites damage leaves, the latter especially dur­ been reported. As plant density increases, total ing the dry season. Papuana beetle and termites yield increases, but size of corm and number of (Coptotermes spp.) tunnel and feed in corms. 'Miti- suckers decrease. Spacings may be in the range miti' caused by the nematode Hirschmanniella 30-100 cm x (30-) 60-150 cm. Wider spacing is miticausa is found in Papua New Guinea; control required if soil fertility or rainfall is low, and spac­ is by cutting planting material with as little corm ing must be adjusted for mechanization. Close as possible. spacing helps to control weeds and erosion. Harvesting Crop duration usually varies from Husbandry Weeding is most important during 4-10 months for upland/rain-fed taro and 9-12 first 3-5 months after planting, but weeding dur­ months for wetland taro. Cool temperatures delay ing 2month s before harvest may reduce corm qual­ maturity. Harvesting is done by hand. ity. Monthly removal of stolons increases corm Yield Reported corm yields from research plots yield. After fallow, the first 2crop s of taro usually in South-East Asia vary from 2-17 t/ha; 30-60 t/ha do not require additional fertilizers, but on land have been reported from farms in Johore (Malay­ which has been cropped longer, taro responds well sia), and yields of 3-38 t/ha have been reported on to applied fertilizer, either inorganic or animal ma­ subsistence farms in Papua New Guinea. However, nures. Specific fertilizer recommendations must be yields are not well documented, which is also true determined for each location based on soil charac­ throughout the world where yields for upland/ teristics. However, a general fertilizer recommen­ rain-fed taro probably average about 5 t/ha, but dation for taro grown on soiltha t has been cropped 12.5-25 t/ha is common on fertile soils. Yields in several times is 50-100 kg/ha N (split into 3 appli­ wetlands are higher and up to 75 t/ha have been cations and applied at 5, 10 and 15 weeks after reported. planting); 50 kg/ha P (applied at planting); 70 kg/ Handling after harvest At ambient tempera­ ha K (applied at planting or split into 2 applica­ tures, corms begin to spoil 1-2 weeks after harvest tions and applied at planting and 10 weeks after but cool temperatures and high humidity extend planting). To avoid decreasing quality, there must storage. Leaves and stolons are more perishable be at least 3 months between the last fertilizer than corms. application and harvest. Genetic resources Germplasm collections are In areas with lower than optimum rainfall, mulch­ maintained at Bogor Botanic Garden (Indonesia), ing increases yield. Hilling during the growing Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, the Philippine season and irrigation of upland/rain-fed taro dur­ Root Crop Research &Trainin g Center and in sev­ ing prolonged drought may be practised. Rotation eral locations in Papua New Guinea. with vegetables, chillies and maize is popular in Breeding Worldwide there are only 3tar o breed­ Malaysia. ing programs: University of the South Pacific, Diseases and pests Taro diseases and pests Western Samoa; Ministry of Primary Industries, have not been adequately studied in South-East Fiji; and Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Solo­ Asia. Phytophthora leafbligh t and corm rot is more mon Islands. Breeding objectives include severe in wet seasons and is one factor responsible increased yield, reduced acridity, extended matu­ for declining taro production in Papua New Gui­ rity range, appropriate number of suckers, resis­ nea; fungicides, sanitation and increasing plant tance to Phytophthora, Pythium, Alomae and spacing can reduce damage. The lethal virus com­ Bobone and dasheen mosaic virus, improved eat­ plex, Alomae and Bobone, kills or stunts plants in ing quality and adaptation to lower soil fertility. Papua New Guinea; roguing infected plants helps Improved cultivars can be safely exchanged only control. Pythium root and corm rot and dasheen as pathogen-tested tissue cultures. mosaic virus are widespread in the Pacific. Resis­ Prospects Further development and expansion tant cultivars, selecting clean planting materials, will depend on government support for subsistence crop rotation and fungicides are recommended for farming, food crops and diversified agriculture. controlling Pythium. Increased use by urban populations is dependent Aphids and the plant hopper Tarophagus proser- ondevelopmen t oflow-cost , convenience foods and pina damage plants as well as transmit virus dis­ improved methods of storage and transport. eases. Agrius convoluli, Hippotion celerio and Literature 111 Ghani, F.D., 1980. The status of 106 A SELECTION keladi China, Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, Cul­ by Ceramlaut sailors to stuff their pillows, which tivation in Peninsula Malaysia. IFS Provisional kept them warm. Report No 5:35-54. |2[Ghani , F.D., 1981. Conserva­ Production and international trade Massoi tion and Utilization of Colocasia spp. (Cultivars) bark was already an important trade product in and edible aroids (Keladi) in Malaysia. Tropical the 17th Century. At that time it was a monopoly Root and Tuber Crops Newsletter 12, 13:38-46. |3| of Ceramlaut seafarers (Moluccas), who sailed Sastrapradja, S. & Hambali, G.G., 1980.Tar o (Col­ 1000 miles to western New Guinea to obtain the ocasia spp.) as a source of carbohydrate, vitamins bark and then sailed back as far asJava . At present and minerals in Indonesian diets. IFS Provisional it is traded in the western Malaysian Archipelago Report No 5:17-28. |4| Villanueva, M.R. & Tupas, where it is mainly used and sold in drugstores. G.L., 1980.Tar o production in the Philippines - its Export to Europe has never been of any impor­ prospects and problems. IFS Provisional Report tance. No 5:99-111. |5| Wang, J.-K. (Editor), 1983. Taro, Properties The active substances in massoi oil a review of Colocasia esculenta and its potentials. from the bark are massoi lactones [(-) 6-pentyl-5,6- University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii. 400pp . |6|Wil ­ dihydro-2H-pyran-2-one (ca. 70%) , and the identi­ son, J.E., 1984. Cocoyam. In: Goldsworthy, P.R. & cal 6-heptyl (ca. 15% ) and 6-nonyl (ca.0. 5 %) deriv­ Fisher, N.M. (Editors): The physiology of tropical atives]. These are powerful skin irritants. Real field crops. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. massoi oil contains practically no eugenol. The 589-605. bark can be kept for a considerable time before los­ (J.E. Wilson) ing its qualities. The greyish samples are consid­ ered still good when a scratch with the fingernails leaves a dark line. Good bark is rather greasy. The Cryptocarya massoy (Oken) Kosterm. leaves also contain some massoi lactone. The fruits contain essential oils different from those of New and critical Malaysian plants 3.Fores t Ser­ the bark. vice Indonesia. Bureau Forestry Planning, p. 21. Description Amediu m sized tree, 20-25 m high, (1955). with smooth grey bark; bole rarely surpasses 30c m LAURACEAE in diameter; branches minutely woolly. Leaves In = unknown elliptic-oblong, 9-12 cm x 4-5 cm, subcoriaceous, Synonyms Cinnamomum massoy Oken (1841), dark green; petiole up to 1.5 cm long. Panicles ter­ Massoia aromatica Becc. (1884), Cryptocarya novo- minal, up to 10c m long, densely flowered. Flowers guineensis Teschner (1923), Cryptocarya aromatica yellow-green with 6 subequal elliptical perianth (Becc.) Kosterm. (1949). lobes; stamens 15i n three whorls, two of 6an d one Vernacular names Massoi, massoia bark (En). of 3; 3 staminodes form a fourth whorl. Fruits glo­ New Guinea: maha (Sekar), ai kor, ai kori (Irian bose, ribbed, 1-2 cm in diameter. The wood is whi- Jaya). Malaysia: misui, misoi, mesui, mersawir. Origin and geographic distribution Massoi is restricted to New Guinea; it may also occur in tro­ pical Queensland, Australia. Owing to uncon­ trolled felling of trees to collect the bark, the tree has become rather scarce. Uses Decoctions of the aromatic bark are used in mixtures for rubbing, as it causes a warm skin, in muscle rubbing oils for sore muscles and head­ aches. Internally, they are used against fever, diar­ rhoea and by women after childbirth. Together with other substances, massoi is used as tonic. It is often adulterated with cinnamon barks (the 'lawang' barks). It is added to many local medi­ cines and sometimes it is even used in cigarettes as a replacement ofcloves .Fals e massoi bark (from Cinnamomum massoia Schewe) is used in cheap liquors and as a spice in Germany. The wood is Cryptocarya massoy (Oken) Kosterm. - fruiting unfit for technical purposes. The leaves were used branch. CRYPTOCARYA - CRYPTOCORYNE 107 tish, very light and easily perishable. Wood and - C. lingua Becc. ex Engl., Bull. Soc. Ort. Toscane twigs have a faint smell of massoi. 4: 301 (1879), synonym C. spathulata Becc. ex Other botanical information The true identity Engl. (1879); of massoi remained a mystery for long. Older liter­ - C. retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth, Enum. PI. 3: 12 ature on massoi should be interpreted prudently, (1841),synonym s Ambrosinia retrospiralis Roxb. as the identity of the plant on which the informa­ (1814), Ambrosinia unilocularis Roxb. (1832), C. tion is given is often obscure. roxburghii Schott (1860); Propagation Propagation is by seed. - C. wendtii De Wit, Med. Bot. Tuin. Belmonte Husbandry Some years ago there was some in­ Arb. II (4):97,10 0 (1958). terest in growing trees estate-wise. An experimen­ Vernacular names Indonesia: tropong ajer tal plantation was started in Lae (Papua New Gui­ (Banjermasin, Kalimantan). Malaysia: hati-hati nea). paya (Peninsular Malaysia). Thailand: uttaphit Harvesting After felling of the tree, transverse hin, phaai. Vietnam: mai dâm. incisions are made in the bark at distances of ca. Origin and geographic distribution The 1 m. After a short period of drying the bark can genus Cryptocoryne occurs in tropical South-East be taken off. It is cut into strips, ca. 1 m long and Asia, to southernmost China, Philippine Archipe­ 5 cm wide. These pieces are set upright to get rid lago, Indonesia (absent in the Lesser Sunda of excess sap, which causes skin blisters. The Islands), SriLanka , India. C.ciliata has a large dis­ pieces are finally tied together in bundles of about tribution but is not found in Indo-China and the 60 kg. Philippines. C. lingua is only known from Sa­ Yield One tree can provide about 120k g of fresh rawak, C. beckettii only from Sri Lanka, and C. bark. In the 17th Century, about 200 trees had to wendtii only from Thailand and Sri Lanka. C. be felled for one shipload of bark. This accounts retrospiralis occurs only on the continent of South for the scarcity of the trees at present. and South-East Asia. Prospects Only if the massoi tree can be culti­ Uses It is the most popular and valued group of vated can a regular supply of bark be guaranteed. (tropical) aquarium plants all over the world. Collection of bark on commercial scale from the Some species are possibly useful inbrackis h water- natural vegetation should be prohibited in order creeks for mangrove management. to prevent extermination of the species. There are Production and international trade All ex­ some indications that interest in the massoi bark porters and growers of aquatic plants for the is increasing outside South-East Asia. aquarist hobby handle asman y species as possible, Literature 1 Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1950. both in the country of origin (where plants are col­ Notes on New Guinea plants 1. Bulletin of the lected in the wild and then propagated), and in all Botanic Gardens, Buitenzorg, Serie 3, 18(4): European and North American countries. Mil­ 435-437. |2| Lawrence, B.M., 1984. Progress in lions of specimens are annually traded and trans­ essential oils.Perfum e and Flavorist 9(2):23-31.|3 | ported worldwide by air. No trade estimates are Meyer, Th.M., 1940. The essential oil of massoi available but the value of the traded plants cer­ bark. Recueil de Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas tainly exceeds several million US dollars. The des­ 59:191-201. |4| Wichmann, A., 1917. Nova Guinea truction of the biotopes and the relentless hunt for 4:58-62. fresh specimens and for rare species has already (A.J.G.H. Kostermans) caused the disappearance of a number of species. Properties The plants contain the well-known irritating rhaphides very commonly found in Ara­ Cryptocoryne Fischer ex Wydler ceae. Botany Perennial herbaceous plants. Leaf- Linnaea 5:42 8(Jul y 1830). rosettes on slender creeping, often subterraneous ARACEAE rhizomes. Leaves heart-shaped to (narrowly) x = 10,11,14 (species of Sri Lanka), 15,17,18. oblong, usually less than 30 cm long (C. ciliata Major species and synonyms (mangrove) up to 1 m). Inflorescence a solitary C. ciliata (Roxb.) Fischer ex Schott, Bonplandia tubular spathe, 3-25 cm long, sometimes longer 5: 222 (1857), synonym Ambrosinia ciliata Roxb. and tailed, enclosing in the distended base of the (1819); tube a very small spadix, 1-2 cm long, carrying at C. beckettii Thwaites ex Trimen, J. Bot. 23: 269 base one whirl of female flowers (pistils) and on (1885); top several rows of male flowers; tube ending in 108 A SELECTION

Agronomy Cryptocoryne is easily propagated. By cutting up the rhizomes in small bits, each with a few nodes, which are kept floating on water under tropical conditions, numerous detachable young sprouts will appear. Propagation in vitro demands technical facilities but allows the use of small bits of tissue which rapidly produce numer­ ous plants of rare and well-paid species. Fresh plants can be transported in plastic bags under frost-free conditions. Prospects Interest in ornamental aquatic plants will at least remain stable but will probably grow, particularly for rare species. To prevent extinction of species, it would be advantageous to authorize only licensed dealers to collect species in the wild, which they can subsequently use for propagation and distribution. Literature ill Jacobsen, N., 1979. Cryptocory- nen. Alfred Kernen Verlag, Stuttgart. 112 pp. |2| Rataj, K., 1975. Revision of the genus Cryptocor­ yne Fischer. Academia, Prague. 174 pp. |3!d e Wit, H.C.D., 1971. Aquarienpflanzen. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, pp. 113-210. 4| de Wit, H.C.D., 1982. Aquariumplanten. Hollandia, Baarn. pp. 141-261. (H.C.D. de Wit)

Cryptocoryne ciliata (Roxb.) Fischer ex Schott - 1, habit of flowering plant; 2, inflorescence. Cyperus rotundus L. an usually brightly coloured limb, which is flat or Sp. PL: 45(1753) . twisted; at close range a smell as of rotten fish can CYPERACEAE be noticed. Fruits assembled in a globular group 2« = 108 on a short stalk, each splitting lengthwise at matu­ Synonyms Cyperus curvatus (non Vahl) Llanos rity, releasing tiny oblong seedlings. Seedlings of (1851). the brackish water species topped by a bunch of Vernacular names Purple nut grass (En). Sou- tortuous green tentacles ('viviparous'). In total the chet rond (Fr). Indonesia: teki (Sunda, Java). genus has 60 species. Malaysia: teki. C.ciliata and C. lingua have entirely green leaves. Origin and geographic distribution Purple Partly purple or purple-tinged leaves in C. becket- nut grass is thought to originate in Africa. Now tii, C.retrospiralis and C. wendtii. it is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the Ecology Cryptocoryne belongs to the lowland whole world; it is very common in Malaysia, Indo­ tropical rainforest, on the edge and in the beds of nesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. streams and water-courses. Most species are Uses As a drug the tuber is scraped and pounded shade-plants in fresh water, a few species also on for use as a diuretic, emmenagogue, astringent; in sunny sites. Some species in brackish (tidal) large doses as an anthelmintic; for relief of dysen­ waters (estuaries, mangrove): C. ciliata (in the tery, ulcers and headaches; as an insect repellent whole generic area), C. uersteegii Engl. (Irian and for perfuming clothing. As a food, the tuber Jaya) and C. lingua (Sarawak, northern Kaliman­ is eaten in times of famine. The leaves furnish a tan). The fresh water species (ca. 60)i n general are rather good pasturage. found on iron-containing (lateritic) soils, some­ This plant is not to be confused with Cyperus escu- times on gravelly, sandy soils (India).Th e brackish lentus L. (tiger nut, chufa), the tuber of which is water species preferably grow on fine silts and edible and cultivated in the Mediterranean area sandy loams, within the reach of the tides (e.g. in and in parts of Africa. Nypa formations). Properties Composition per 100g edibl e portion CYPERUS - DENDROCALAMUS 109 of the tuber (fresh weight basis): water 59.3 g, pro­ with a network of rhizomes and tubers. tein 2.3 g, fat 1.6 g, fibre 16.0 g, carbohydrates 20 Two subspecies are distinguished: ssp. rotundus g, ash 0.8 g. The energy value averages 790 kj per and ssp. retzii (Nees) Kük. Ssp. retzii (syn. C. retzii 100g . The total tuber contains 0.6 % essential oil. Nees, 1834)differ s from ssp.rotundus by its stouter Botany A perennial herb, 10-30 (-75) cm high; habit (stems 50-75 cm tall),th e somewhat broader rhizome with long, slender, wiry stolons, ending spikelets (ca.2. 5m m wide when ripe),an d the paler in subglobose or ellipsoid, finally blackish tubers, elliptic-oblong glumes, 3.5-4 mm long; it appears 0.5-2 cm long. Stems slender, triquetrous, smooth, in moist localities, sometimes as a weed, but never tuberous at the base, 1-2 mm broad. Leaves linear, as a pest; it is often confused with Cyperus esculen- flat, 10-30 cm x 2-6 mm, crowded near the base tus L., which has glumes with 7-9 prominent of the stem, gradually acuminate. nerves and ovoid tubers with a grey tomentum, but Inflorescences composed of spikes, arranged as which hardly occurs in South-East Asia. C. rotun­ simple or compound umbels, up to 15 cm x 10 cm, dus can be recognized by its usually dark-brown usually much smaller; involucral bracts 2-4 (-6), rhizomes, which may produce several tubers in a up to 30 cm long; primary rays 3-9, very unequal, chain. C.esculentus has yellowish rhizomes which up to 10 cm long; spikes ovoid, loose to rather end in a single tuber. dense; spikelets spicately arranged, linear, 10-40- Ecology Purple nut grass grows in sunny or flowered, 1-3.5 cm x 2 mm; glumes ovate, 3-3.5 lightly shaded localities: in lawns, along roads, in mm x 2mm , 5-7-nerved; stamens 3;stigma s 3. waste places, on cultivated land, at low and medi­ Fruit a trigonous nut, oblong-obovoid, 1.5 mm x um altitudes, up to ca. 1000m . 0.5-0.75 mm, brownish to black, rarely maturing. Agronomy Purple nut grass has been reported The plants reproduce almost exclusively by sto­ as a host plant for Rhizoctonia disease and for the lons, creating more or less dense groups of plants root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. It is known as the most noxious weed in the world on cultivated land. It grows very fast and is diffi­ cult to combat. Digging up of all rhizome parts or planting of crops that cause several years of con­ tinuous shade can eradicate this pest. Prospects Purple nut grass is a pest for farmers. In times of scarcity or famine, however, it might be an interesting food plant, having a high fibre- starch ratio and being rich in iron. Further investi­ gation into the nutritive value and other proper­ ties of the plant for man and animal seem worth­ while. Literature |1| Bulman, J.C., Naismith, D.J. & Hillman, G., 1986.A nutritional evaluation of the tuber of the plant Cyperus rotundus. In: Grimble, R.F. (Editor): Proceedings of the Nutrition Soci­ ety. London. Vol. 45(3):120 A. |2| Kern, J.H., 1974. In: Flora Malesiana, Series 1,Vol . 7(3):604-605. (J.C. Bulman)

Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Heyne

Nutt. PI. Ned.-Ind. ed. 2,1: 301(1927) . GRAMINEAE 2n = unknown Synonyms Bambusa aspera Schultes f. (1830), Dendrocalamus flagellifer Munro (1866), Gigan- Cyperus rotundus L.- habit off lowering plant with tochloa aspera (Schultes f.) Kurz (1876). young plantlets. Vernacular names Giant bamboo (En). Indone- 110 A SELECTION sia: bambu betung, trieng betung (Aceh), lemu other hand, has just entered international mar­ guru (Nias), buluh batung (Batak), awi bitung kets. In Thailand the planted areas of D. asper are (Sunda), pring petung (Java), tiying petung (Bali), estimated to be 6000 ha. In Prachinburi Province awo petung (Bugis). Malaysia: buloh beting, buloh (Thailand) shoot production in 1984 was 3797 5 t betong. Philippines: bulio, boho. Laos: hok. Thai­ from 4465ha . The price is 2-8 Baht/kg, depending land: phai tong. Vietnam: manh tong. on the time of the year. Note. 'Giant bamboo' is also applied to Dendroca- Description Densely tufted sympodial bamboo. lamus giganteus Munro, a species native in Burma Culms erect with pendulous tips, 20-30 m tall, di­ and Thailand. ameter 8-20c mnea r the base;whe n young covered Origin and geographic distribution The ori­ with fine golden-brown appressed hairs, later gla­ gin of D. asper is not certain, but is thought to be brous; nodes swollen, lowermost nodes bearing somewhere in South-East Asia. It is planted every­ many aerial roots; internodes with white wax where in tropical Asia, and in many parts of below nodes, the lowermost up to 20 cm long, the Malaysia (i.e. Sabah and Sarawak) and Indonesia upper internodes 30-50 (or more) cm long; walls (i.e. Sumatra, East Java, South Sulawesi, Seram) relatively thick, 11-18 mm. Young shoot covered it has become naturalized. It has also been intro­ with dark brown hairs. Branches from the mid- duced and planted in other tropical countries, culm node upwards, branch complement few with such as Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and in botanical the primary branch dominant. Culm-sheaths cov­ gardens or experimental stations in the New ered with dark brown hairs, those of young shoot World. and of lower part of young culm about 20 cm long, Uses The culms of D. asper have thick walls and about 20 (or more) cm wide at the base with small are very strong and durable. They are used for building material for houses and bridges. The upper internodes of the culm which are longer than the lowermost ones are used aswate r contain­ ers or as containers for collecting juice during the tapping of palm inflorescences. In Sarawak, the internodes (also from some other bamboo species) are also used as ready-made cooking pots in the field. The internode is opened at one end (or the node) and filled with vegetables, meat or rice, and water, and is then covered and placed on a fire. The young and tender shoots ('rebung') are con­ sumed as vegetables. In Thailand it is known locally as sweet bamboo, because the shoot is not bitter. (Young shoots of many bamboo species are rather bitter and are usually treated in various ways before dishes are prepared). In the areas where culms of D. asper are highly valued for building material, the shoots are rarely collected for vegetables. On the other hand, where the culm is not much used, this bamboo is planted only for the shoots. The shoots of D. asper are the best among the shoots of other tropical Asiatic bam­ boos. Production and international trade In tropi­ cal Asia bamboos are of great economic impor­ tance in rural areas, and D. asper is one of the most important. It is planted on a small scale or har­ vested and collected from naturalized populations. Only recently has it been planted commercially in Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Heyne Thailand for its young shoots. The culm is used for -1, bases ofculms and young shoot; 2, branchhabit; local consumption only, and there are no recorded 3, culm sheath; 4, inflorescence; 5, spikelet and economic and production data. The shoot, on the details of floret. DENDROCALAMUS 111 deflexed blades, those ofth e upper part ofth e culm States (California and Florida), also grows there about 40 cm long and about 25 cm wide with pale- very well.A s in many bamboo species,D. asper will brown hairs, blades erect first then deflexed, lan­ grow in any type of soil, but it grows better on ceolate, 3c m x 25cm ; auricles prominent, bearing heavy textured soils with good drainage. In Thai­ slender bristles along the edge; ligule lacerate, 10 land, according to local farmers, D. asper will grow mm tall. Leaf-blades 8 cm x 30 cm with 4m m long well on sandy and rather acidic soils. petiole, glabrous above, hairy or glabrescent Propagation and planting In general, the below. methods of propagation which apply for large Spikelets borne in groups on long leafless woody bamboos apply for D. asper as well. These branches, 6-9 mm long, pubescent, slightly later­ are rhizome division, culm or lateral branch cut­ ally flattened, 4-5-flowered with often a reduced tings. The propagules are raised in the nursery, sterile apical floret; glumes 1-2; lemma up to 8m m and after producing roots are planted out before x 4 mm, fringed with pale hairs towards the apex or during the first half of the rainy season. They and along the margins; palea shorter than or as are planted in separate holes previously filled with long as the lemma, 2-keeled,keel s fringed with fine a mixture of manure and chemical fertilizer, in hairs; stamens 6, anthers with short apiculate tips; rows of 5-10 m x 5-10 m. ovary and style hairy. Seeds have not been Husbandry Young plants require regular observed. watering during the growing period. For mature The fibre dimensions of the culm of D. asper are clumps, fertilizer containing nitrogen is applied about 20.03 um long, 0.019 mm wide with 0.007 mm after harvesting or before the rainy season. Ma­ lumen width and 0.007 mm cell wall thickness. It nure is used alternatively to chemical fertilizer to has 199slendernes s ratio, 37 x 100flexibilit y ratio improve soil texture, 50-60 kg per clump. Weed and 1.71 runkel ratio. control is required because young shoots cannot Growth and development As in any tropical compete for nutrient, light and moisture. large bamboo, the shoots of D. asper emerge above Diseases and pests In Indonesia, D. asper is the soil during the rainy season and develop to sometimes attacked by a witches' broom (Epichloe their full height in less than a year. However, in bambusae). The powder post beetles (Dinoderus exceptionally brief rainy seasons the growth will minutus and D. brevis) attack cut or harvested be interrupted and will continue when the next culms. rain starts. The lateral branches develop when the Harvesting The shoots are usually harvested culm reaches its full height. A culm becomes during the rainy season, that is from November to mature in 5-7 years. A good healthy clump can May in Java, for example, and from May to June produce several shoots annually. At the begin­ in Prachinburi (Thailand). ning, a young plant raised from the propagule of Yield The only record comes from Thailand. The a lateral branch cutting will produce small shoots total production ofbambo o shoots is 10-11t/h a per which will develop into small-size culms. The year from a properly managed plantation. In a 5-7 shoots produced later are larger than those pro­ year-old plantation, 100 clumps/ha could produce duced from previous years. Five or six years after 1000 shoots. According to local farmers in Indone­ planting, full-size shoots appear. sia, a good clump bearing about 10culm s produces Other botanical information D. asper can be 60shoot s annually. confused with Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr. Handling after harvest The shoots of D. asper because of its large culms. G. levis is believed to are sold for local consumption fresh or boiled. be native in the Philippines; it is found planted or Dried shoots are also sold in the markets in Sula­ naturalized in many parts of Borneo (Sabah and wesi and the Moluccas. For preservation the har­ Sarawak) and in the eastern part of Indonesia. In vested culms are traditionally soaked in stagnant this species, the culm has thinner walls than that water or in mud. of D. asper, and moreover the internodes are not Genetic resources It isno t certain whether the covered by brown hairs and the nodes are not swol­ populations of D. asper in Indonesia and Malaysia len. recorded as wild are genuinely wild populations. Ecology In tropical Asia D. asper is planted or The plants which are planted or naturalized every­ naturalized from low altitudes up to 1500 m alti­ where are alike, because they are propagated by tude. It thrives best, however, at 400-500 m above cuttings. D. asper isplante d inman y botanical gar­ sea-level. D. asper, which was introduced and dens in the tropics. planted in the subtropical areas of the United Prospects Prospects for D. asper are very good. 112 A SELECTION

Shoots can be produced in large quantities from Around 1930, several plantation companies plantations. However, many aspects still require planned to cultivate derris on a large scale. The investigation, e.g. management, propagation and product is mainly used to control pests on crops fertilizer requirement. where theresidua l effects of synthetic insecticides Literature |1| Holttum, R.E., 1958.Th e bamboos may beharmfu l to the consumer. In this way, der­ of the Malay Peninsula. Gardens' Bulletin, ris became an estate crop from what was practi­ Singapore 16:100-103. |2| Kurz, S., 1876. Bamboo cally a wild plant ina fewyears . and itsuse . Indian Forester 1:219-269, 340-341(a s Production and international trade The main Bambusa aspera) PI. Ill fig.1 . |3|Ochse , J.J., 1980. producing countries are Malaysia, Indonesia and Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies. English edi­ the Philippines. The main importing country isth e tion oforigina l Dutch 'Indische Groenten' of 1931. United States, which imported over 15001 of crude Asher, Amsterdam, pp. 307-311. !4| Thammincha, derris root and500 1o f rotenone extract in1963 . Songkram, 1985. Role of bamboos in Rural Devel­ On Java and Sumatra before the Second World opment andSocio-economics :a case study in Thai­ War, the area planted with derris increased from land. Proceedings International Bamboo Work­ 240h a in 1935t o 1000 0h a in 1941.Durin g theWar , shop, Hangzhou. pp. 359-365. |5|Widjaja , E.A.& everything washarveste d andn o new plantations Risyad, Z., 1985.Anatomica l properties of some were established; so by 1947, no regular derris bamboos utilized in Indonesia. Proceedings Inter­ plantations remained. national Bamboo Workshop, Hangzhou. pp. Properties Theroot s (especially the bark) con­ 244-246. tain rotenoids, of which the most effective is rote­ (S. Dransfield &E . Widjaja) none. Other toxic constituents aretoxicarol , teph- rosin and deguelin. Derris insecticides should not contain less than 3% rotenone on a dry-weight Derris elliptica (Sweet) Bentham basis. Roots 2-10m m indiamete r have the highest rotenone content. Derris is considered non-toxic J. Proc. Linn. Soc.4 ,Suppl. : Ill (1860). to mammals andi t does notremai n active for very LEGUMINOSAE long after application because airan dligh t rapidly 2n = 22, 24, 36 inactivate thetoxi c components. Vernacular names Derris, tuba root (En). Description A perennial, woody, evergreen, Touba (Fr). Indonesia: tuba, tuba akar (Java), left-winding liana, sometimes over 16m long and kayu tuba, tuba kurung (Malayu), tuwa leteng with alternate compound leaves. Roots upt o 2c m (Sunda),oyo djelun , mombul (Madura), manéngop. in diameter and up to more than 2 m long, dark Malaysia: tuba. Philippines: tubli, tugling-pulâ reddish-brown. Leaflets 7-15 per leaf, opposite, (Tagalog), upei (Bontok). Burma: hon. Cambodia: elliptic-obovate, 6-15c m x 3-7 cm,wit h striking ca bia,k'biehs . Thailand: hang lai daeng, lainam , equidistant nerves. Inflorescences pseudo- kalempok. Vietnam: giâythuôc ca,giâ yhay . racemes, 10-20c m long; flowers 1.5 cm long, pin­ Origin and geographic distribution Derris kish, 2o r 3togethe r onto po fa common peduncle, occurs wild and is cultivated from the Indian sub­ standard with a green patch between two distinct continent to New Guinea, including all South- basal callosities. Fruits flattened, 3-7 (-10)c m x East Asian countries. It is also cultivated in tropi­ 2-3 cm, indéhiscent, with anarro w wing along the cal Africa and America. upper orbot h margins. Seeds 1-3, flat. Uses The powdered root (or extract) is widely Growth and development Ripe seedscanno t be used as an insecticide against horticultural pests stored drywithou t losing their viability. They ger­ like lice andcaterpillar s andagains t external par­ minate immediately after sowing. For commercial asites such as ticks, lice, fleas andflie s of animals production, however, stem cuttings are used. and man; it isno t effective against bedbugs, cock­ Fruits are rare in cultivars; some cultivars like roaches, scale insects and red spiders. Pounded 'Ngawi' flower very rarely; others (e.g. 'Wulung', roots, soaked in water, are considered the stron­ 'Pantu') flower freely butseldo m fruit. Wild plants gest fish-poison in South-East Asia andhav e been flower and fruit normally. Pods ripen 4 months used in fishing since ancient times. after fertilization. Incultivation , roots contain the Until 1930,derri s wascultivate d inIndonesi a only maximum concentration of rotenoids two years as single plants near houses. In fact, cultivation after planting. of this crop wasforbidde n byla wt o prevent eradi­ Other botanical information The species cation of fish by too intensive use of the roots. allied toD. elliptica form adistinc t coherent group, DERRIS 113

3-6 weeks. When cuttings have 2 normal leaves, the shade is gradually removed. When planted specially for the production of cut­ tings, derris is trained on a fence. These planta­ tions produce enough material for at least ten times the area planted each year. The area can eas­ ily be enlarged at harvest, by using cuttings from the branches of an established plantation. Rooted cuttings are planted in the field after 2-3 months at a distance of 0.70-1 m x 0.70-1 m, either in 10 cm deep furrows or in separate plant­ ing holes. Plant densities may vary between 12500-2 500 0pe r ha. If planted on dry, sunny days some temporary shading is advisable. In Indonesia, Tephrosia noc- tiflora Bojer ex Baker is sometimes used to provide shade during the first year; then it is pulled out and put on the soil as a cover. Husbandry The crop remains in the field for two years if the trailing cropping method is used. As the crop does not cover the soil completely during the first year and is harvested after 2 years, great care should be taken to prevent soil erosion. Hill­ sides are not suitable and soil covering is recom­ mended. To facilitate harvesting, soils must not be Derris elliptica (Sweet) Bentham - 1, flowering too heavy. Application offertilizer s depends on the branch; 2, leaf; 3, fruit. soil but nitrogen is never needed for this legumi­ nous crop. Derris is suitable as an intercrop in generally ranked as a section of Derris. In 1984, young plantations of trees (for instance rubber or this group was raised to generic rank: Paraderris. kapok).I t needs full sunlight, however, soth e main The new combination for Derris elliptica, however, crop should not harm derris by shading it. In small has been postponed until revision of the genus is plantings, the plants are usually trellised and complete. In D. elliptica, there are several culti- remain in the field for more than two years. vars, for example: 'Sarawak Creeping', 'Changi No Diseases and pests Some fungal diseases are 3', 'Ngawi', 'Pantu', 'Putih' and 'Kotari'. They reported to be serious: a rust caused by Ustilago differ mainly in hairiness, leaflet-shape, rotenone derrides, a Gloeosporium sp. that causes the shoot- content, yield and sensitivity to diseases. The first tips to die and an unidentified fungal disease that three are commercially superior. attacks cuttings in nursery beds. Pests are not se­ Ecology The plant grows at forest edges and on rious or are easily controlled. riversides at low altitudes in humid tropical cli­ Harvesting Plants grown from cuttings are har­ mates, with an annual rainfall of 2000-5000 mm. vested about 2year s after planting. Roots are care­ It can survive dry periods of up to 4 months. On fully cut to a depth of 40-75 cm, causing as little Java, the plant occurs up to 1500m altitude. It tol­ damage as possible to the bark. On large planta­ erates pH 4.3-8, but is sensitive to waterlogging. tions, the area is replanted after removing the It does best on rich friable loams. roots. Propagation and planting Derris is propa­ In small plantings, where plants are usually trel­ gated vegetatively by woody stem cuttings 30-45 lised, the tops are left in place and all the roots cm long, 0.5-1.5 cm in diameter and with 3o r more are removed, except for those directly under the buds. Cuttings are planted either directly in the plants. This root-pruning practice enables several field (3together ) or first in nursery beds with loos­ harvests from the same plant. Regeneration, how­ ened, compost-enriched soil. Cuttings are planted ever, is slow. at an angle, 15-20 cm deep, 4c m apart within rows Yield Yield of air-dry roots varies with cultivar and 20 cm apart between rows, with some shade and cropping method: in the trailing system, about 1m above the cuttings. Rooting starts after 500-2500 kg/ha; if plants are trellised, up to 3000 114 A SELECTION

kg/ha. The diameter of the cuttings used at plant­ spp. and Tephrosia spp., will compete with Derris ing influences yield and rotenone content. Cut­ elliptica on the world market. tings ofmor e than 15m m in diameter give a higher Literature [1| Duke, J.A., 1981. Handbook of root yield but a lower rotenone content. legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Handling after harvest The roots are cleaned Press, New York and London, pp. 73-75. |2| Gee- (washing in running water is advised) and rapidly sink, R., 1984. Scala millettiearum. Leiden Bota­ dried in the sun or artificially at temperatures nische Berichten 8:109-110. |3|Gomes , C.M.R., et below 50°C , until the moisture content has been al., 1981. Systematic significance of flavonoids in reduced to 10% . Drying can be speeded up by cut­ Derris and Lonchocarpus. Biochemical Systemat- ting the roots into pieces up to 5c m long. ics and Ecology 9:129-147. |4| Krijgsman, B.J., Rotenone content is highest in roots 2-10 mm in 1948. De insecticide werking van derris (litera­ diameter. So it is advisable to sort the roots into tuurstudie). Rapport T.A. 262. Algemene Tech­ two groups before packing, those smaller and nische Afdeling TNO, The Hague, Netherlands. those larger than 1 cm in diameter. The roots are 158pp . (mimeographed). |5| Spoon, W. &Toxopeus , pressed into blocks of 100 kg or, if cut into chips, H.J., 1950.Derriswortel . In: van Hall, C.J.J. & van packed in bags of 50 kg. de Koppel, C. (Editors): De landbouw in de The packing material should be waterproof Indische Archipel 3. W. v. Hoeve, The Hague, pp. because a high moisture content will cause rapid 578-608. |6| Toxopeus, H.J., 1952. Studies in the deterioration. Sinoxylon anale and Dinoderus breeding of Derris elliptica and Derris malaccen­ minutus beetles feed on the dried roots and can sis. Euphytica 1:34-42,175-183. cause considerable damage. Protection is possible (R. Geesink) by fumigation. If the product is to be used in dust­ ing or spraying the dried roots are ground into a fine powder. The powder remains effective for a Diplazium Swartz long time if it isprotecte d against air, sunlight and moisture. J. Bot. (Schrader) 1800(2) :4 ,6 1(1801) . Genetic resources In South-East Asia, derris is ASPLENIACEAE (FERNS) widely distributed as a wild plant, but it has also X = 41 been cultivated in gardens since ancient times. Major species and synonyms This has resulted in the present situation where, - Diplazium esculentum (Retzius) Swartz, J.Bot. on Java, for instance, wild plants vary widely but (Schrader) 1801/2: 312 (1803), synonym: Athy- have a low rotenone content (0.5%) , whereas the rium esculentum (Retzius) Copel. (1908); cultivated plants vary little but have a high rote­ - Diplaziumpolypodioides Blume, Enum. PI. Jav.: none content (12-13 %). Collections ofbot h prove­ 194 (1828), synonyms: Athyrium asperum nances are available. (Blume)Mild e (1870),Diplazium asperum Blume Breeding Wild relatives available for breeding (1828), Athyrium blumei (Bergsma.) Copel. purposes are D. malaccensis (Benth.) Prain (also (1908); with insecticidal properties but unlike D. elliptica, - Diplazium proliferum (Lam.) Thouars, Flora mainly based on other compounds than rotenone), Tristan d' Acunha: 35 (1804), synonym: Athy­ D. cuneifolia Benth. and D. montana Benth. rium accedens (Blume) Milde (1870). Hybrids between D. elliptica and D. malaccensis Vernacular names D. esculentum: Indonesia: have shown promising results. Breeding trials paku sayur, paku tanjung (Malayu), pakis wilis have been hampered by the almost complete self- (Bali), pakis ejo (Java). Malaysia: paku tanjong, incompatibility or cross-incompatibility of most paku anjing, paku benar. Philippines: pako, taga- cultivars of D. elliptica. bas. Thailand: phak kuut, pako. Prospects If derris roots really do produce an D. polypodioides: Indonesia: paku beunteur, paku effective insecticide and parasiticide, non-toxic to benter (Sunda). Thailand: kuut yoi (Chiang Mai). mammals and with harmless residues, its future D. proliferum: Indonesia: paku buwa, paku tjare- should be bright. Lack of convincing data, howev­ ham (Sunda), pakis buwa, pakis angkrik (Java). er,hav e made it a forbidden product, in the Nether­ Note. The name paku is loosely applied to all ter­ lands, for instance, since about 1980. More restrial ferns, but usually refers to D. esculentum research is needed. Cheaper and more effective as being most commonly marketed. synthetic products, and other plants containing Origin and geographic distribution All three rotenone, such as Lonchocarpus spp., Pachyrhizus species are native throughout South-East Asia. D. DlPLAZIUM 115 esculentum also occurs in Polynesia and is widely cultivated in gardens; as a garden escape it may occur outside its natural range (reported from Florida, United States). D. proliferum occurs throughout the Paleotropics. Uses The tender parts of uncurling leaves (fronds) are eaten boiled or steamed as a vegetable or raw as salad. It is an appreciated vegetable, being slimy and sweetish after cooking. Occasio­ nally it is used as an ingredient in more compli­ cated dishes. The bulbils of D. proliferum, often present in considerable numbers in the axils of leaflets, are also eaten raw or cooked. A decoction of D. esculentum is used by women after childbirth, and is said to be good for haemop­ tysis and ordinary coughs. The wiry roots are sold in the Philippines as a growing base for orchids and are worn in the hair by the Sundanese to stim­ ulate hair growth. Production and international trade D. escu­ lentum is commonly offered on local markets, where demand seems to exceed supply. All species are collected in the wild or grown in gardens for home use. No international trade exists and it is not in commercial cultivation. Properties Per 100 g edible portion (fresh sam­ ple) D. esculentum contains: water 90 g, protein 3.11 g, fat 0.28 g, carbohydrates 3.86 g, fibre 1.23 g, P205 0.26 g, CaO 0.03 g, Fe203 0.006 g. The data Diplazium esculentum (Retzius) Swartz - habit of show that it is a reasonable source of Ca, an excel­ plant. lent source of P and a good source of Pe. Description This description applies to D. escu­ ing groups are not connected. lentum as it is the most commonly eaten species. D. proliferum differs mainly in the following char­ Terrestrial fern, growing to 2.5 m high. Rootstock acteristics: leaf blade only dissected once, seg­ erect, up to 30 cm high above ground level, lower ments up to 45 cm x 7.5 cm, often with small bul­ parts often hidden by dark stringy roots, upper bils (or young plants) in the axils of midrib and part covered with brown scales. Fronds clustered segments. at apex of rootstock, spirally curled when young; Ecology D. esculentum occurs in swampy, wet leafstalks up to ca. 50 cm long; lamina up to 2 m locations, often along watercourses and rivers, x 1 m, twice pinnate; ultimate segments up to usually with some shading, up to 1700m altitude. 10-15 cm x 2-4 cm,margin s incised to 1/4 towards - D. polypodioides is found in similar environ­ the midrib; within each crenation the veins are ments, and also in drier and less shady places, pinnate, with 8-10 pairs oflatera l veins,th e lowest e.g. as a weed in plantations. 2-3 of which join with the veins of the next crena­ - D. proliferum also grows in moist forests, by tion, to form an extra vein running towards the brooks and on riversides, up to about 1200m alti­ margin, but not originating from the midrib. Spor­ tude. angia in elongated groups occupy almost the Propagation All species grow easily from whole length of the ultimate veins, with a narrow spores. Vegetative propagation is possible by run­ scarious indusium along one side of each group or ners in D. esculentum and by bulbils in D. proli­ running through the middle. ferum. D. polypodioides differs mainly in the following Husbandry The species are not cultivated com­ characteristics: leafstalks and midribs rough or mercially. If planted in gardens, the soil should be spiny; leaf blade more finely dissected, with poor and wet and provided wet and shady condi­ smaller segments, in which the veins of neighbour- tions are maintained, no more care is necessary. 116 A SELECTION

Harvesting When grown from spores, 2-3 year Delta and adjacent regions in Vietnam, Cambodia old plants canb eharvested . When grown from run­ and Laos, where it was already causing concern ners, harvesting might start after 6 months. in 1908. Water hyacinth was first reported from Prospects In Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philip­ Papua New Guinea in 1962. pines and Papua New Guinea, Diplazium ferns are Uses Water hyacinth is considered one of the considered the most important fern species for world's most troublesome weeds because of its human consumption. Further research is needed rapid growth and formation ofdense , impenetrable to domesticate these species. As perennial species, mats which hinder navigation and fishing, a continuous vegetable supply is ensured through­ obstruct irrigation and drainage offar m lands and out the year, once the plants are established. crowd out other plants. To decrease the costs of Literature |1| Copeland, E.B.,1942. Edibl e ferns. water hyacinth control, various studies have been American Fern Journal 32(4):121-126. 2, Mehra, carried out on possible means of its utilization. P.N. &Bir , S.S., 1960. Cytological observations on However, economical ways of harvesting and pro­ the Himalayan species of Athyrium and comments cessing large masses of a plant with a very high on the evolutionary status of the genus. American water content (90-96 %) is, in general, difficult to Fern Journal 50(4):276-295. |3| Ochse, J.J. & Bak­ achieve. The simplest and most practical routine huizen van den Brink, R.C., 1980.Vegetable s of the use of water hyacinth is its use as green manure, Dutch East Indies (English edition of 'Indische compost and mulch for soil improvement. Other groenten' from 1931). Asher, Amsterdam, pp. uses include as a vegetable, as animal forage, as 598-603. |4|Zamora , P.M. & Co, L., 1986. Guide to fish traps (fish is trapped in nets under small clus­ Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Resources ters of plants), in the production of paper and con­ Management Center, Ministry of Natural version into biogas by means of anaerobic fermen­ Resources and University of the Philippines. Vol. tation. In biogas production the moisture content 2.pp . 54-56. in the plants is an advantage, because moisture is (P.H. Hovenkamp) needed for the fermentation process. One hectare of water hyacinth produces about 7000 0 m3 of bio- gas (one kg ofdr y material produces about 3701). Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms In some countries in the temperate zones water hy­ acinth is cultivated as an indoor plant. A. DC, Mon. Phan. 4:52 7(1883) . Properties The different organic constituents of PONTEDERIACEAE water hyacinth are nutritionally comparable to 2n = 32 those of any other forage. The protein content var­ Synonyms Pontederia crassipes Mart. (1823), ies from 7.4-18.1 % on a dry-weight basis.Th e con­ Eichhornia speciosa Kunth (1843). centration of the basic elements is in the same Vernacular names Water hyacinth (En). range as in terrestrial forage plants, whereas the Jacinthe d'eau (Fr). Indonesia: kehpuk (Malayu), concentration of iron, sodium, potassium and cal­ eceng gondok (Sunda), lengak (Java). Malaysia: cium is relatively high, on a dry-weight basis, val­ kemeling telur, keladi bunting, bunga jamban. ues of 0.3%, 0.4%, 4.6% and 1.3% respectively Philippines: water lily. Burma: beda-bin, ye- have been published. The nitrogen and phospho­ padauk. Cambodia: kâmplaôk. Laos: tôb poongz. rous concentration as well as the concentrations Thailand: phak top chawa. Vietnam: luc-binh. of heavy metals are directly correlated with the Origin and geographic distribution Water hy­ concentrations in the water. acinth is native to tropical regions in South Amer­ Description A perennial herb, 30-60 cm high, ica. During the latter half of the 19th Century it rarely higher, floating free or rooting in the mud spread beyond its original habitat as an ornamen­ ofshallo w waters. Root system ismainl y composed tal and subsequently became naturalized in tropi­ of adventitious roots originating from the rhizome cal and sub-tropical areas around the world. It was and bearing many lateral roots. The rhizome con­ first introduced to South-East Asia in 1894 at sists of several nodes and internodes, each node Bogor Botanical Gardens on Java, from where it with a leaf, and emitting stolons. Leaves consist spread over the Indonesian Archipel. It was intro­ of a petiole, a thin part between petiole and blade, duced to Singapore from Hong Kong in 1903b y the called isthmus, and a blade; petioles elongated Chinese. The plant arrived in the Philippines in (when the plants are rooted in the soil or growing 1912.Fro m Bangkok, where it was introduced from in dense stands) or forming a bulbous float; blade Java, water hyacinth spread over the Mekong broadly ovate or rhomboid with an almost cordate base. ElCHHORNIA 117

lination may occur due to the wind. In South-East Asia fruits are seldom if ever produced if pollina­ tion is not carried out artificially. The maturation of the capsule is usually below the water surface and a period of 20day s is usually necessary for the production of ripe seeds. When the capsule bursts upon maturity, the seeds will sink to the bottom. The seed-coat acts as a physical barrier to germina­ tion. However, if the seed-coat is cracked, for example by alternate drying and wetting, germina­ tion may occur within a short period after shed­ ding. On the other hand, there are reports of seeds which remained dormant for a period of about twenty years. The seedlings produce 2-3 ligulate leaves in 10 days and 7-8 ligulate plus 1-3 spatu- late leaves in 30 days. Ecology Water hyacinth thrives in a variety of fresh water habitats, from shallow ponds, marshes, and small streams to large lakes and rivers. How­ ever, strong wave movements bring about an unfa­ vourable effect on its growth. The plant is helio­ philous and grows best under high light intensity. Chemical composition of the water may vary to a large extent but salt tolerance is relatively low. The present geographic distribution ranges from the Equator to nearly 38° N and °S which demon­ Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms - habit of flow­ strates that it can stand various temperature ering plant. regimes. The air temperature may be as low as 1° C and as high as 40°C . The leaves are killed by freez­ Inflorescence a long-peduncled, axillary spike sub­ ing temperatures but entire plants are not killed tended by two bracts, with 5-35 spirally arranged until the rhizomes are frozen. Water hyacinths flowers, usually simultaneously expanding and occur in water with a wide range of pH values but withering. Flowers zygomorphic, with a perianth dense vegetations are mainly found in water with of 6 pale-purple segments, of which the posterior, a pH close to 7. largest one is provided with a bright yellow, blue- Diseases and pests In general, the water hya­ bordered median blotch and is about 3c m long; sta­ cinth is very little affected by diseases and pests mens6, 3wit h long filaments and 3wit h short ones; outside its natural habitat. However, fungi and ovary superior, conical, trilocular with numerous arthropods have been studied mainly in connec­ ovules, style terminated by an almost capitate tion with their potential to bring about a decrease stigma at medium height between the anthers of in growth, i.e. as a biological means of control. Of the long and short filaments. Fruit a dehiscent cap­ the few host-specific virulent pathogens, only the sule containing a variable number of seeds. Seeds fungus Cercospora rodmanii, a native of Florida, ovoid, 1m m x 0.5 mm, ribbed. has been found suitable for large-scale field appli­ Growth and development Multiplication is cation. Various arthropods have been collected in mainly by vegetative means, i.e. by the formation the original habitat of water hyacinth in South of new plants via stolons. Under favourable condi­ America and the most promising agents for biolog­ tions growth is very rapid. The area under plant ical control are the curculionid weevils Neoche- cover may double within a period of 6-15 days. In tina eichhorniae and N. bruchi, and the stem boring general, water hyacinths flower profusely, both pyralid moth Sameodes albiguttalis. Apart from under long-day and under short-day conditions. In the above mentioned biological means of control, the natural habitat pollination is carried out by which bodes well but have not yet been applied on pollen-collecting and nectar-collecting bees. In a large scale on aworldwid e basis,wate r hyacinths areas where water hyacinth has been introduced can be physically removed (manually or mechani­ pollinators are generally absent, but some self-pol­ cally) or killed with herbicides. Risks to the envi- 118 A SELECTION ronment should be considered when implementing coastal regions of Brazil around Bélem. The oil chemical control. The herbicide which is most palm was introduced into South-East Asia in 1848 commonly used against water hyacinth is 2,4-D through the Botanical Garden of Bogor, Indone­ (2-5 kg/ha). sia. Second-generation and third-generation de­ Prospects Water hyacinth is the subject of scendants from the material introduced originally extensive research and isi n operational use for the were used as planting material for the first oil- treatment of sewage effluent. It can remove var­ palm estates in Sumatra (since 1911)an d Malaysia ious organic and inorganic compounds, including (since 1917) and have given rise to the Deli Dura heavy metals and certain radioactive elements. breeding population. Attempts are also being made to use the water Uses The oil-palm fruit yields two types of oil: treatment potential of water hyacinth in conjunc­ palm oilfro m the fleshy mesocarp, and palm-kernel tion with biogas production. oil from the kernel, in the volume ratio 10:1. The Literature |1[ Gopal, B., 1987. Water hyacinth. two oils differ in composition and properties and, Aquatic plant studies 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 471 consequently, find rather different applications. pp. |2| Gopal, B. & Sharma, K.P., 1981.Wate r hya­ Ninety percent of all palm oil is used in foods. In cinth (Eichhornia crassipes): the most trouble­ South-East Asia, the preferred oil for domestic some weed of the world. Hindasia, Delhi. 219 pp. consumption is a clear liquid oil. For domestic use, |3| Penfound, W.T. &Earle , T.T., 1948.Th e biology the liquid fraction palm olein is satisfactory, pro­ of the water hyacinth. Ecological Monographs vided the ambient temperature is above 20°C . 18:447-472. |4|Pieterse , A.H., 1978.Th e water hya­ Main uses of exported palm oil are margarine, fat cinth (Eichhornia crassipes) - a review. Abstracts used in pastry production and in industrial frying on Tropical Agriculture 4(2):9-42. of potato chips, instant noodles and snack foods. (A.H. Pieterse) Fractions of palm oil are useful in confectionery. Palm stearin, the solid fraction of palm oil, is in­ creasingly used in soap manufacture. Palm-der­ Elaeis guineensis Jacq. ived fatty acids, mainly commercial grades of stearic and palmitic acids, form an alternative to Select. Am.:28 0(1763) . the traditional products based on tallow. PALMAE Palm-kernel oil is a lauric-type oil similar in com­ 2« = 32 position and properties to coconut oil. In Malay­ Vernacular names Oil palm (En). Palmier à sia, increasing proportions of the palm-kernel oil huile (Fr). Indonesia: kelapa sawit (Java), salak are fractionated or hydrogenated for use in confec­ minyak (Sunda). Malaysia: kelapa bali. Burma: si- tionery, where the higher melting products are ohn, si-htan. Cambodia: dôong preeng. Thailand: particularly useful. In Indonesia, palm-kernel oil pam namman. Vietnam: co dâù, dùa dâù. is used for local consumption, often in blends with Origin and geographic distribution Oil palm palm olein. Palm kernel oil is also used for indus­ isnativ e toAfric a and it isassume d that speciation trial purposes, either as an alternative to coconut took place in that continent. However, since all oil in the manufacture of high-quality soaps, or as related species classified in the subfamily Cocoi- a source of short-chain and medium-chain fatty deae have a South American origin (except per­ acids. These acids are chemical intermediates in haps the coconut, Cocos nucifera L.), the archety­ the manufacture of fatty alcohols, esters, amines, pal ancestor may have been indigenous to the amides and more sophisticated chemicals, which Americas. find a multitude of end-uses, for instance in sur­ face-active agents, plastics, lubricants and cosmet­ Oil palm occurs in palm groves throughout the ics. tropical rain-forest belt of West Africa between 10° N and °So fth e equator. However, most of these The utilization ofoil-pal m by-products is currently groves show signs ofhuma n interference and prob­ the subject of research. Various waste streams ably owe their origin to man. Oil palm has played from the palm-oil mill have proved to be of value a major role in the village economy throughout as fertilizers, feedstuffs or fuel. West Africa for many centuries. The African practice of producing palm wine from Oil palm was introduced to South America with the exudate of male inflorescence stalks has not the slave trade. In fact, the original description of been adopted in Asia. Palm fronds are less suitable Jacquin in 1763 was based on a specimen growing for thatching since leaflets on the two sides of the in Martinique. Semi-wild groves are reported in rachis are inserted at two angles. Palm trunks, ELAEIS 119 available at replanting, provide excellent material for paper and board production. However, this has not so far been put into commercial practice. Production and international trade The oil palm is a major oil crop, taking second place in the world supply of vegetable oil after soya bean. The following data are based on 1982 statistics from FAO. Between 1970 and 1982, world palm-oil production increased from less than 2 million t to over 6 million t and is still rising rapidly. South- East Asia isth e main area ofproduction , with 76% of the total world palm-oil production. Palm-oil production by country was 3.5 million t for Malay­ sia, 874000 t for Indonesia, 13000 t for the Philip­ pines, 77000 t for Papua New Guinea and 24000 t for Thailand. Malaysia dominates the palm-oil market with over 60% of the world production and supplies 80 % (about 3 million t or 90% of the country's produc­ tion) of the export market. The total area under oil palm is 122650 0h a with 6600 0h a in Sabah and Sarawak. Traditionally, plantation companies play a major role with 645700 ha. However, gov­ ernment smallholder schemes have increased their share with 35600 0h a planted in 1982. Palm-oil production in Indonesia is increasing steadily if less spectacularly than in Malaysia Elaeis guineensis Jacq. tree with fruit bunches with 36588 5h a planted in 1982,primaril y in state- and male inflorescence. owned plantations (25928 1ha ) and private estates (100676 ha). Only 30% of the Indonesian palm oil covered with petiole bases in young palms, smooth is exported. The domestic market is a main outlet in older trees (10-12 years old). Juvenile leaves where it supplies 48% of the total vegetable oils. lanceolate, entire to gradually becoming pinnate; In Papua New Guinea, oil palm is important to the mature leaves spirally arranged, paripinnate, up national product but in absolute quantity is of mi­ to 7.5m long; petiole 1-2 mlong , spinescent, clasp­ nor importance. In the Philippines and Thailand, ing the stem at base; leaflets linear, 35-65 cm x oil palm is still a minor crop though interest and 2-4 cm, up to 376 per leaf. Inflorescences unisex­ potential for expansion is present. ual, axillary, pedunculate, until anthesis enclosed Properties The main components ofpal m oil are in 2fusifor m or ovate spathes 10-30 cm long, with palmitic (47-52 %), oleic (34-41 %), and linoleic flowers 3-merous; male ones with numerous cylin­ acids (6-9%). Other fatty acids rarely form more drical spikes forming an ovoid body 15-25 cm long than 2-5 % of the total acid content. In palm oil, and bearing flowers with 6 stamens, connate at saturated palmitic acid and mono-unsaturated base, with linear anthers; female ones subglobose, oleic acid each accounts for 40% of the fatty acids 15-35 cm diameter, with numerous lanceolate, present. Crude palm oil also contains nutritionally spiny bracts, each subtending a cylindrical spike- valuable carotenoids (450-820 mg/kg) and toco­ let with 10-20 spirally arranged female flowers, pherols (450-850 mg/kg) which however, are each with two rudimentary male flowers; stigma reduced during refining to zero and about half the sessile, 3-lobed. Fruits ovoid-oblong drupes, 2-5 original value, respectively. The saturated fatty cm long, tightly packed in large ovoid bunches acid content in palm-kernel oil is 85 %. with 1000-3000 fruits; drupes with a thin exocarp, Description A monoecious, erect, one-stemmed an oleiferous mesocarp and a lignified endocarp palm-tree, usually 20-30 mhigh . Root system is ad­ containing the kernel with embryo and solid ventitious, forming a dense mat in the upper 35c m endosperm. ofth e soil,wit h only afe w roots penetrating deeper Growth and development After harvesting, than 1 m. Stem cylindrical, up to 75 cm diameter, oil-palm seeds are dormant. The physiology of this 120 A SELECTION dormancy is not well known. Germination of seeds a much lower oil content and are used only locally can be speeded up by dry heat treatment (40°C ) for in their natural area of distribution. 80 days, followed by cooling at a higher moisture A particular feature of the oil palm with consider­ content. Seedlings are usually kept in polybag nur­ able economic consequences is the occurrence of series for 12-14 months and planted in the field three natural fruit types under monogenic control, when they have 18-24 leaves.Th e stemha s a single which also form the basis for the classification of growing point, from which a leaf primordium de­ oil palms. velops about every second week. Succeeding pri- - Dura: homozygous (sh* shf) for the presence of mordia are separated by a divergence angle of a relatively thick endocarp (shell 2-8 mm); 137.5° (Fibonacci angle), causing leaf bases to be - Tenera: heterozygous (sh+ sir) with a relatively arranged in various sets of spirals, of which a set thin endocarp (0.5-4 mm); of 8 parastichies is normally obvious. Rate of leaf - Pisifera: homozygous (sh~ sir) for the absence production is up to 40 per year in the first two of an endocarp. years, dropping to a rate of 18-24 per year from The original Bogor palms and material derived year 8 onwards. From leaf primordium to fully from them were the thick-shelled types and as a 2 expanded leaf (2-10 m ) takes about 2 years. The population is generally referred to as Deli Dura. normal photosynthetically active life of a leaf is Pisifera is usually female-sterile. The cause of this about 2 years, so under natural conditions up to sterility is still unknown but may be reduced pro­ 50leave s are present per palm. In plantations, this tection of the developing embryo through absence number is usually kept at about 40. of lignified endocarp tissue. Tenera is preferred as In the first two years, lateral growth of the trunk planting material because it has more oil-bearing dominates, giving a broad base up to 60c m in diam­ mesocarp (60-90% per fruit weight) than Dura eter. After that, the trunk starts growing in height, (20-65 % per fruit weight). Within each fruit type, 35-75 cm per year, reducing its diameter up to 40 there is considerable variation apparently under cm. The rate of height increment and rate of leaf polygenic control. production appear to be independent. All leaf Ecology The natural environment of oil palms bases contain inflorescence primordia, but the isth e lowland humid tropics.The y thrive on a good first fully developed inflorescence does not appear moisture supply and open areas as they cannot before leaf 20 and usually much later, some three compete with faster-growing tree species. The oil years after germination. The length of male and palm does not grow under continuous flooding but female phases in individual palms is very variable istoleran t offluctuatin g water-tables with periods and irregular, but a population of palms shows of standing water. Hence, the natural habitats are clear seasonal trends. The physiological basis of considered to be swamps, riverbanks and other sex differentiation is not yet well understood, areas too wet for dicotyledonous trees of the tropi­ except that empirical evidence suggests that phy­ cal rain forest. Under cultivation, rainfall is often siological stress conditions seem to encourage the main limiting factor on production. Major maleness. Pollination is primarily by insects. One areas of oil-palm cultivation are in the equatorial of the insect vectors, Elaeidobius kamerunicus, belt where mean annual rainfall deficits do not was successfully introduced into Malaysia and exceed 600-650 mm annually. Highest yields are subsequently Indonesia in 1979. Before then, oil achieved where rainfall is well distributed palms in the region were wind pollinated, often throughout the year with an optimum of 150 mm requiring artificial pollination in the first few monthly. Little is known about temperature years. effects other than that oil palms grow less well at The mean interval between sexdifferentiatio n and higher altitudes (above 500-600 m) and at higher anthesis isaroun d 20month s and between anthesis latitudes (above 10°). In regions where minimum of female flowers and fruit ripeness 4-5 months. temperatures regularly drop below 20° C for pro­ Fruit ripening on the bunch proceeds simultane­ longed periods, productivity and growth are sever­ ously from top to bottom and from outer to inner ely reduced. The oil palm is also affected by high fruits. Ripe fruits become detached. temperatures. Photochemical efficiency seems to Other botanical information The genus Elaeis bereduce d above 35°C . Jacq. consists of two species: the African E. gui- Oil palms can grow on a wide variety of soils rang­ neensis, and E. oleifera (Kunth) Cortes, indigenous ing from sandy soils to lateritic red and yellow pod­ to South and Central America. E. guineensis is the zols, young volcanic soils, alluvial clays and peat major economic species. Fruits of E. oleifera have soils. A major criterion for relative suitability ELAEIS 121

seems to be water-holding capacity. As oil palms Considering the importance of moisture supply, it are responsive to soil nutrients, nutrient-release may be assumed that oil palms would benefit from characteristics are also important as they affect irrigation. However so far, there have been no efficiency of fertilizer use. reports on the use of irrigation on a plantation Propagation and planting Traditionally the scale. oil palm has been grown from seed. However, in Nutrient requirements have been studied intensi­ the late 1970s, tissue-culture techniques were de­ vely. Uptake and use are very much affected by veloped for vegetative propagation and in the mid various environmental conditions. Considerable 1980s vegetatively propagated clonal oil-palm ma­ use is made of foliar analysis as a diagnostic tool terial became available for commercial planting. for nutrient status combined with local specific Seedlings are grown in polybag nurseries for field trials. Generally nitrogen and potassium 12-14 months with the obvious requirements of show significant interactions, with nitrogen being good soil, regular water supply and modest the key element. Although single responses to amounts ofnutrient s applied at frequent intervals. phosphorus and magnesium are rare, including When transplanting into the field, dry periods these at maintenance levels, especially phosphor­ should be avoided. us, often give linear responses. On plantations in The development of tissue-culture techniques for Malaysia on poor red and yellow podzols, amounts vegetative propagation isa major breakthrough in of2- 4 kg nitrogen and 1.5-3 kg potassium applied oil-palm cultivation. Scaling up of production pro­ per palm annually are not uncommon. On the cesses is progressing and clones are expected to young, nutrient-rich volcanic soils in parts of become the main source ofplantin g material in the Sumatra, requirements are, of course, much less. 1990s in South-East Asia. Vegetative propagation Information on the need for micronutrients is less does not alter selection objectives but should ac­ well established for oil palm. There are well docu­ celerate progress by allowing effective selection mented cases of boron deficiency. On peats, there for more characteristics simultaneously; like are suspected cases of copper deficiency cured yield, harvest index, tolerance for competition, with copper sulphate. Adequate sulphur and chlo­ rate and uniformity of fruit ripening within rines are usually applied as compounds of nitrogen bunches. First results of selected clones suggest a and potassium. yield increment of 15-20 % over good seedling ma­ Pruned leaves are generally stacked between the terial. rows, providing a source of mulch together with Planting density is a major issue as it determines ground cover. As the canopy closes, the legume competition between palms for light, water and cover is gradually replaced by a natural cover, minerals, with competition for light seemingly the often consisting ofa mixture dominated by various major factor. It has been observed that when com­ grasses and ferns. The oil palm is a fairly labour petition between palms reduces the amount of dry intensive crop, requiring about one labourer per matter produced per palm, the amount of dry mat­ 4ha . The need for increased mechanization of field ter used for vegetative growth is less effected than operations becomes evident in a number of regions the amount used for fruit bunches. Hence maxi­ with a labour shortage such as in Malaysia. How­ mum yield of oil is reached at a planting density ever as a crop, it is not easy to mechanize. that islowe r (140-160 per ha) than the density that Diseases and pests The oil palm in South-East gives maximum total dry matter production. Asia is remarkably free from pests and diseases. Husbandry Generally at field planting, a legu­ Occasional outbreaks of bagworms (Psychidea) minous cover is established to protect the soil, pro­ and nettle and slug caterpillars (Limacodidae), vide humus, add to the nitrogen supply and sup­ notably in Sabah, Sumatra and the Philippines, press weeds. Harvesting paths are kept open and are easily controlled by a policy ofminimu m insec- clean weeding is practised around palms to pre­ ticidal intervention. The rhinoceros beetle vent competition from the cover crop and to facili­ (Oryctes rhinoceros) has readily adapted to the oil tate loose fruit collection. Otherwise spot weeding palms. Destruction of breeding sites and good is applied for general maintenance. During har­ ground cover generally ensures adequate control. vesting of bunches, fronds are usually removed as Other insects occasionally cause some damage well. If the number of leaves per palm drops below like Tirathaba mundella (oil-palm bunch moth), 35, yield declines. Hence the aim is to maintain and some root-feeding cockchafers, Valanga nigri- number of leaves at 35-40, which comes close to cornis (a grasshopper), but are only a minor prob­ a minimum pruning system. lem. 122 A SELECTION

Of the few diseases, Ganoderma causes high losses gin of the commercial material is rather restricted locally, especially when coconut areas are re­ and to some extent almost accidental. The oil-palm planted with oil palms. Infection takes place industry in Indonesia and Malaysia started with through contact with infected dead root tissue. material descended from four palms (thick-shelled Several diseases are observed in the nursery: dura) introduced in the 19th Century to the botani­ brown germ, Curvularia leaf-spot, blast (Phytium cal garden of Bogor (Indonesia). Their simultane­ and Rhizoctonia). All are easily controlled, howev­ ous introduction (probably from Mauritius or Ré­ er, both by cultural and fungicidal treatments. union) suggests that the four seeds may Well have Harvesting Under normal conditions of planta­ derived from a single (open-pollinated) fruit tions, harvesting ofbunche s generally starts about bunch. Seeds of these palms and their descendants 2^ years after field planting. Bunches ripen were widely distributed throughout Indonesia as throughout the year and harvesting takes place in ornamental palms. Avenue palms in Deli (North rounds at intervals of 2 or 3 weeks in any particu­ Sumatra) supplied the seeds for the first oil-palm lar area. Bunches are cut that have reached an es­ estates from 1911 onwards. In Malaysia, the first tablished degree of ripeness, usually expressed in estate was established in 1917. By the early 1920s, number of detached fruits per bunch. They are cut a number of breeding and selection programmes from the stalk with either a chisel or a 'Malayan had started, which produced improved planting knife', consisting of a sickle on a long bamboo or material generally referred to as Deli Dura. Until aluminium pole. So far, cost has defied more the 1950s,Del i Dura was used exclusively as plant­ mechanized forms of harvesting. Bunches are ing material in both Indonesia and Malaysia. transported to collection sites along the road and Elucidation of single-gene inheritance of shell from there direct to the factory. thickness caused interest in the Tenera fruit type (sh4 sh") as commercial material obtained from a Yield The oil palm is extremely responsive to en­ + + vironmental conditions and yields therefore show cross of Dura (sh sh ) with Pisifera (sir sir). Ma­ great variations. The course of yield over time, terial segregating for the shell-thickness gene de­ however, shows a clear trend, rising to a maximum scended from a single Tenera palm (SP 540) in in the first few years (6-8 years after planting in Sumatra was the major source of Pisifera for sever­ the field), usually declining slowly thereafter. In al breeding programmes. This palm probably has well managed plantations in Malaysia and Suma­ a common origin with material in the breeding pro­ tra, on soils with a reasonable availability of gramme at Yangambi (Zaire),descende d from nine nutrients and a good water-holding capacity under Tenera palms. By the 1960s, major breeding pro­ uniform and adequate rainfall, yields of bunches grammes in Sumatra and Malaysia concentrated of 24-32 t/ha are common. At the factory, extrac­ primarily on Deli Dura and 'Yangambi' Pisifera for tion rates of oil with reference to bunch weight are the production of commercial planting material. 20-22%; this represents oil yields of 4.8-7 t/ha, Since then, extensive new introductions have been which is higher than in any other oil crop. effected from various breeding programmes in West Africa (Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Cameroon and Handling after harvest Bunches are sterilized Zaire). In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Palm with steam under pressure to arrest breakdown of Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (Porim) started oil to fatty acids and to detach fruits from the a systematic programme of prospecting and col­ bunch. Oili sremove d from the mesocarp in mecha­ lecting from oil groves in West Africa and E. olei- nical presses; fibre and nuts are separated; kernels fera populations in South and Central America, are removed from the nuts. Crude oil undergoes significantly widening the basis for breeding pro­ several purification procedures (static settling, grammes. centrifugal purification and drying) before it goes into manufacture. Desirable qualities in palm oil Breeding Oil-palm breeding has progressed are low content of free fatty acids (FFA), low from simple mass selection (progenies and individ­ impurities, low moisture content, a low degree of ual palms within progenies) to various forms of re­ oxidization, good oxidative stability, good bleach- current selection for Dura and Pisifera that give ability and consistency of all properties. high-yielding Tenera. Kernels are usually extracted in separate milling It was estimated that in the first generation of units, either in the country or abroad. selection in Deli Dura, a relative increase in yield Genetic resources In common with several of 20-24% was realized, followed in the subse­ plantation crops in South-East Asia (notably rub­ quent 2-3 generations by improvements of ber, cocoa, coffee, tea, cinchona), the genetic ori­ 10-12 %. The change-over in the 1960s from Dura EUCALYPTUS 123 to Tenera gave an immediate yield increase of up Eucalyptus deglupta Blume to 20% (the proportion of oil in the bunch increased from 16-18% in Dura to 20-22% in Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 1:8 3(1849) . Tenera). MYRTACEAE In Malaysian programmes, considerable attention 2n = unknown is being directed to the components of growth in Synonyms Eucalyptus multiflora (Rich.) A. an effort to improve harvest index, reduce height Gray (1838-42), E. naudiniana F. Muell. (1886), E. increment and increase optimum planting density schlechten Diels (1922). and so to increase oil yield. Vernacular names Indonesia: leda, aiala Prospects The prospects for the oil palm appear (Malayu), kayu kawan (Maluku). Papua New Gui­ bright. The demand for vegetable oils is rising as nea: kamarere. Philippines: bagrâs (Cotabato), the standard of living increases in parts of the banikag (Agusan), amamanit (Zamboanga). Third World. As a crop, it is better suited than an­ Origin and geographic distribution This tree nual food crops to most soils prone to leaching in is found discontinuously distributed over Papua the humid tropics. It provides continuous ground New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines be­ cover and ecological conditions similar to the orig­ tween latitudes 10° N and 11 °S.I n Papua New Gui­ inal forest vegetation. Further increases in yield nea particularly well developed stands occur in may also be expected. Extrapolations from crop- New Britain; other occurrences are found in the growth models suggest that the physiological po­ south-east and in the north-west of the mainland. tential for oil yield of the oil palm may well be All of these sites are in lowland forest. There are 12-14 t/ha against maximum yields of 6 t/ha in also isolated stands of E. deglupta in some high­ 1986. The new possibility of clonal propagation is land areas of the mainland at elevations of an important factor in this respect. 1000-1500 m (in the Waghi and Jimmi Valleys). Forecasts for Malaysia are that total production There has been some speculation about whether of palm oil will reach 6 million t by 1991, levelling or not these highland stands are anthropogenic in off at around 6.21.Th e potential for Indonesia may origin. While the matter remains unresolved, it is be even greater because of the available land clear they have been present for many years. In resources and expected relatively lower costs of Indonesia E. deglupta occurs in Irian Jaya, Ceram labour. and Sulawesi. In the Philippines it is found on the In most countries with a suitable climate, oil-palm island of Mindanao. cultivation is expanding. The main drawback of Uses The timber is suitable for flooring, furni­ the oil palm is the difficulty of mechanization, ture, boat building, light and heavy construction, notably of harvesting operations, in a cost-effec­ particle board, veneer, plywood and pulpwood. tive manner. Hence, availability and cost of labour Description A large, impressive evergreen tree, may well become the main limiting factors. commonly reaching 60m i n height and 2m i n girth Literature 1 Corley, R.H.V., Hardon, J.J. & at breast height. Bole usually 50-70% of tree Wood, B.J. (Editors), 1976.Oi lpal m research. Else­ height; on river alluvium and unstable soils some­ vier Scientific Publishing Co.,Amsterdam . 532 pp. times buttresses up to 4 m. Bark smooth, decorti­ |2| Hardon, J.J., Rao, V. & Rajanaidu, N., 1985. A cating in strips, colour varying from white to pale review of oil-palm breeding. In: Russell, G.E. (Edi­ green when young, often changing to green, grey, tor): Progress in plant breeding 1. Butterworths, pink and orange with age, giving the bole an London, pp. 139-163. |3| Hartley, C.W.S., 1977. The attractive appearance; mature trees often with a oil palm. 2nd ed. Longman, London. 806 pp. |4| stocking of brown fibrous bark reaching to 2 m Turner, P.D. & Bull, R.A., 1967. Diseases and dis­ high. Small branches square in cross section often orders of the oil palm in Malaysia. Incorporated with 4longitudina l wings. Leaves (sub)opposite or Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur. 247 pp. 5| rarely alternate with age, ovate to ovate-lanceo­ Wood, B.J., 1968. Pests of oil palms in Malaysia late, 10-20 cm x 6-10 cm, shortly petiolate, acu­ and their control. Incorporated Society of Plant­ minate, glossy above, dull beneath; lateral veins ers, Kuala Lumpur. 222pp . inclined at 60° t o the main vein; leaves held almost (J.J. Hardon) horizontally on branches. Inflorescence a large terminal panicle of 3-7-flowered, compound umbels.Youn g buds have a double operculum of which the outer one early caducous; inner operculum acutely conical, wider 124 A SELECTION

per mm2i n cross section; arrangement usually soli­ tary but oblique chains of up to 20 vessels may sometimes occur. Tyloses absent or abundant, kino absent. Vessel members thin walled, distinct and 0.3-0.9 mm long; simple perforation plates horizontal or nearly so.Parenchym a visible on end surface with 10x lens, sparse to abundant, vasi- centric (rarely aliform) and diffuse. Diffuse paren­ chyma inconspicuous, occasionally tending to form short, uniseriate lines; kino absent to abun­ dant. Crystals abundant, occurring in chambered parenchyma strands. Rays visible, rarely hardly visible; on end surfaces using a 10x lens, numer­ ous, narrow, (6-) 10 (-15) per tangential mm, mostly uniseriate (60-90 %). Fibres dense, wall thickness variable with double wall thickness ranging from much less to greater than lumen di­ ameter; length (0.6-) 1 (-1.4) mm and diameter (10-) 13 (-15) urn. Growth and development Seeds retain viabi­ lity for several years, especially if stored in sealed containers at 4°C. When moistened, germination is rapid. Shoot growth appears to be continuous provided soil moisture is adequate. Young trees have a conical crown with a definite leader and Eucalyptus deglupta Blume - flowering branch. near horizontal branches. As the tree ages, branches curve up at the ends and the leader than long. Flower has many white to pale-yellow becomes less dominant. In time the tree acquires stamens, 2-10 mm long, anthers kidney-shaped a spreading, flat-topped crown. Flowering may with a small terminal gland. occur within the first year but more usually takes Fruit ovoid to club-shaped or globose, 3-5 mm x place after 2 years and thereafter annually. Flow­ 3-5 mm, pedicellate, brown, with 3-4 exserted ering can occur in all months ofth e year depending valves and a thin disc. Seeds small (15000-18000 on locality. In New Britain seeds are shed between per g)wit h a small terminal wing. December and April which are the wetter months Wood characteristics The wood is of moderate of the year. strength. It is moderately resistant to fungal Ecology E. deglupta isfoun d in lowland rain for­ attack in exposed situations above ground but is est habitats where the annual rainfall is 2500-5000 liable to termite and marine borer attack. Sap- mm and the monthly rainfall is usually greater wood is permeable but heartwood is resistant to than 150 mm. It does not grow well in areas with preservative treatment. The basic density of the a pronounced dry season. Monthly temperatures wood of young trees varies from 270-600 kg/m3; in lowland habitats are 23° C (mean minimum) to wood of mature trees (older than 50 years) is often 31° C(mea n maximum).I n highland areas tempera­ more dense (500-1100 kg/m3). The wood often has tures range from 13° C (mean minimum) to 29° C a broad ribbon-like figure when quarter sawn. It (mean maximum). The species may grow in cooler is non-siliceous and without taste or odour. It may environments but does not tolerate frosts. be lustrous, finishes smoothly, stains and paints It requires full overhead light for development and well and its glueing and nailing properties are dense stands are commonly found along rivers good. Sapwood white to light brown, 2-6 cm thick where it has colonized newly formed sand banks. and not distinct from the reddish brown heart- It is also found on sites that have been cleared or wood. disturbed in some way, e.g. landslide areas, volca­ Growth rings absent or sometimes weakly dis­ nic blast areas or old shifting cultivation sites. It played. Vessels large and distinctly oval; maxi­ is a rapid colonizer of such sites and grows in vir­ mum tangential diameters vary from 100-400 (im tually pure stands. In time, however, other species (mean 200-250 \im) and number from (5-) 9 (-22) colonize and form a dense understorey which pre- EUCALYPTUS 125 vents subsequent E. deglupta regeneration. Field observations suggest heart rot is more com­ The species grows best on deep well drained fertile monly found in trees growing on less well drained soils but isfoun d on a variety of soils ranging from sites. heavy silty clays to well drained pumice soils. Various stem-borers have caused damage in some Plantations have been grown successfully on aci­ areas. The most serious ofthes e in Papua New Gui­ dic soils and on limestone soils with a pH of 7.5. nea is the buprestid beetle (Agrilus opulentus). It can withstand short periods of flooding but not This mainly attacks small suppressed trees and swampy conditions. E. deglupta is easily killed by can kill them by girdling the stem. There is strong fire. evidence that susceptibility to Agrilus varies with Propagation and planting E. deglupta can be provenance. In trials in Papua New Guinea E. de­ propagated easily from seed or cuttings. Seedlings glupta originating from Mindanao weremos t resis­ are best raised in trays filled with sterile, fine, tant to attack while trees originating from Sulaw­ loamy sands.Th e trays should be kept in the shade esi and the highlands of mainland Papua New for the first few days after sowing but light can be Guinea were most susceptible. In Malaysia a cos- gradually increased to 50% full sunlight. Trans­ sid moth (Zeuzera coffea) has also caused stem dam­ planting to planting tubes can be done when the age. Other pests include the termite Nasutitermes seedlings have 2-3 leaf pairs. Further growth novarumhebridarum (in Papua New Guinea) and requires full sunlight. The seedlings are ready for the coreid bug Amblypelta cocophaga (in Solomon planting in the field when they reach 25-30 cm in Islands). Some control of the latter pest has been height. achieved by introducing the ant Oecophylla sma- Vegetative propagation can be carried out using ragdina from Papua New Guinea and by clearing branch cuttings but these must betake n from trees vegetation between the planting lines. Clearing lesstha n 2year s old. Best results are obtained from appears to benefit the plantation trees by remov­ cuttings containing a stem node and a segment of ing alternative insect host plants. a leaf. Hormones such as indole acetic acid, indole- Yield E. deglupta is one of the fastest growing butyric acid or napthalene-acetic acid will hardwood trees in the world. In pulpwood planta­ improve the success rate. tions yields of 200-300 m3/ha at 10-12 years of age Plantations can be established at 3-4 m regular are commonly achieved. High yields can also be spacings. obtained from plantations managed for sawlog Management Good weed control (usually aim production. A 20 year old plantation in New Bri­ strip along each planting line) is essential and 4-5 tain yielded 520 m3/ha from trees 54.5 m tall with tends each year for 2year sma yb enecessar y before mean diameters of 49.5c m at breast height. Yields site occupancy is achieved. Growth is usually can be substantially reduced by seasonal drought rapid and subsequent management depends on the stress. purpose for which the trees are being grown. If Handling after harvest The timber works well grown for pulpwood, trees can probably be har­ with allmachin e and hand tools. Care is sometimes vested after 10 years. Plantations grown for saw needed when drying sawn timber to prevent warp­ logs will require thinning. In Papua New Guinea ing. In such cases it is usually sufficient to weight thinning ofmalforme d trees and those with double stacks at the onset of drying and to place stickers leaders is carried out at 5 years; the stand is then at close intervals between the layers of timber. thinned to 250trees/h a at 10years , 100trees/h a at Excessive and/or irregular shrinkage (i.e. col­ 15 years and the final harvest is carried out at 25 lapse) can sometimes occur at excessively high years. E. deglupta does not coppice vigorously and temperatures in early stages of kiln drying. This reforestation must be done by replanting. The spe­ can usually be recovered by a steaming treatment cies has been used in enrichment planting trials (saturated steam at 100°C) . in logged-over forest and shows considerable Genetic resources Provenance trials in Papua promise. Responses to fertilizer boron and nitro­ New Guinea using seed collected across the whole gen have been obtained in plantations in Papua range of E. deglupta show the species varies in New Guinea. Foliar analyses suggest the critical morphology, growth and susceptibility to pests. leaf nitrogen concentration is 2.1% and the opti­ Mindanao, Sulawesi and New Britain prove­ mum nitrogen/phosphorus ratio is about 10. nances appear to be better than the mainland Diseases and pests Heart rot is sometimes Papua New Guinea provenances. These trials found in older trees but is unlikely to be a problem included most of the main Papua New Guinea in trees grown on a short (e.g. 10 year) rotation. provenances ofE. deglupta but not those of Indone- 126 A SELECTION sia or the Philippines. In view of the variability Fagraea fragrans Roxb. already evident, it is highly desirable that the remaining provenances be tested as soon as pos­ Fl. Ind. ed.Wall . 2:3 2(1824) . sible, especially as some may be threatened by LOGANIACEAE clearing for agriculture. 2n= 12 Prospects The species shows great promise for Synonyms Fagraea peregrina (Reinw.) Bl. reafforestation in wet tropical lowland areas with­ (1838), Fagraea gigantea Ridl. (1918), Fagraea out a pronounced dry period. It has particularly cochinchinensis A. Chev. (1919), Fagraea sororia high potential for industrial pulp production J.J. Smith (1923). because of its rapid growth and excellent wood Vernacular names Tembusu, ironwood (En). properties. Where heart rot and insect pests have Indonesia: tembusu (general), kayu tammusu been reported they appear to be only locally signif­ (Sumatra), ki badak (West Java), ambinaton (Kali­ icant. Further, due to the genetic variability of the mantan). Malaysia: tembesu (in many combina­ species and its very short reproduction period, tions, like tembesu padang, tembesu hutan), rer- there are good prospects for tree improvement iang. Philippines: urung, uring (Kuyónon), dolo which may help overcome these problems. (Tagbanûa), susulin (Tagalog). Burma: anan. Cam­ Literature |1|Davidson , J., 1973.A description bodia: tatrao. Laos: man paa. Thailand: tarn sao, of Eucalyptus deglupta. Tropical Forest Research kankrao. Vietnam: trai. Notes. No. 7. Department of Forests, Port Mor­ Origin and geographic distribution Tembusu esby, Papua New Guinea. 23 pp. j2| Fenton, R., is widely distributed, from Bengal, lower Burma Roper, R.E. & Watt, G.R., 1977. Lowland tropical and the Andaman Islands, Thailand and southern hardwoods: an annotated bibliography of selected Indo-China, over the Malayan Peninsula and species with plantation potential. External Aid Di­ Sumatra to Borneo, Sulawesi, south-western Phi­ vision, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, New Zealand. lippines and Yapen Island near north-western New 436 pp. |3|Heather , W.A., 1955.Th e Kamarere for­ Guinea. It has been introduced on Java. ests of New Britain. Empire Forestry Review Uses The valuable and durable timber is used 34:255-278. |4| Keating, W.G. & Bolza, E., 1982. both as sawn wood and as round posts and piles Characteristic properties and uses of timbers. Vol. for house and ship building, railroad sleepers, elec­ 1.South-Eas t Asia, Northern Australia and the Pa­ tric and telephone line poles, barrels, furniture, cific. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 362 pp. 5 Lamb, wood carvings, etc. Tembusu produces high-quali­ D., 1977. Relationships between growth and foliar ty fuelwood, from which excellent charcoal can be nutrient concentrations in Eucalyptus deglupta. made. The tree is planted on waysides and in parks Plant and Soil 47:495-508. |6|Logan , A.F., Philips, because of its fragrant flowers. It is also used for F.H., Eddowes, P.J., Harries, E.D. & Baines, R.B., reforestation of fields infested with imperata 1978. The pulping and paper making potential of grass. A decoction of the bark is used as a febri­ tropical hardwoods. Technical Paper No. 9. Divi­ fuge, and twigs and leaves are used to prepare a sion of Chemical Technology, Commonwealth Sci­ drink against 'bloody flux' i.e. dysentery. entific and Industrial Research Organisation, Properties The family Loganiaceae is remark­ Melbourne, Australia. 37 pp. |7| White, K.J. & able for the number of poisons it produces, of Cameron, A.L., 1972. Silvicultural Techniques in which strychnine is the best known. The bark of Papua New Guinea Forest Plantations. Bulletin tembusu contains an alkaloid which is isomeric No 1. Department of Forests, Papua New Guinea. with strychnine. There are approximately 5 mil­ 99 pp. |8| Whitmore, J.L., 1978. Bibliography on lion seeds/kg. Eucalyptus deglupta BI. USDA, Forest Service Description Usually a moderate-sized ever­ Research Note No ITF 17. Institute of Tropical green tree, 8-25 (-55) m high. Crown characteris­ Forestry, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. 18pp . tic, pyramidal when young, narrow, half ofth e tree (D. Lamb) length, dense, with thin branches. Stem cylindri­ cal and straight, often forked, diameter up to 0.75 (-2.5 ) m, sometimes with buttresses (up to 2.5 m). Root system with hair roots, a weakly developed tap-root, and superficial roots extending more than 6 m. Bark about 1.5-2 cm thick, dark grey- brown when dry, nearly black when wet, with deep longitudinal fissures. Slash with hard, dark olive- FAGRAEA 127

(70-) 130 (-170) urn; few in number (2-4 per mm2); vessel elements rather difficult to distinguish; per­ forations simple and slightly inclined; many ves­ sels filled with glistening tyloses. Parenchyma apotracheal, banded and continuous, sometimes interrupted, wavy, irregular in width, average width 130 um. Rays exclusively uniseriate (only upright cells), very narrow, not visible without lens on cross-section, numerous to very numerous, 15-16 per mm; low to very low, 660-1400 um. Fibres very dense. Growth and development Tembusu flowers periodically, usually about 4 months after the onset ofa dry period and bearsfrui t about 3month s after flowering. Early growth is reasonably rapid. It coppices well, and forms root suckers. Pollina­ tion is effected by butterflies and moths.Th e fruits are eaten by bats, birds and possibly ants and they can be transported by water. Otherbotanica l information Most members of the family Loganiaceae are climbers, but most Fagraea species in the region are trees. In Malay­ sia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea 30 Fagraea species occur. On the whole, Fagraea fragrans Roxb. habit, with flowers and tembusu is quite uniform. Foresters may strictly fruits. differentiate between F. fragrans and F. gigantea, the former occurring in secondary forest vegeta­ green outer bark, and yellow, tough and fibrous tions, the latter in high lowland forest. In Flora inner bark. Malesiana they are considered as ecotypes of the Twigs slender, with interpetiolar stipules. Leaves same species. opposite, oblong-lanceolate to lanceolate or obo- Ecology Tembusu is a light-demanding lowland vate-oblong, 4-15 cm x 1.5-6 cm, mostly thinly, species; it often grows as a pioneer on burned-over rarely firmly, coriaceous, with 4-9 pairs of veins; areas and in imperata-infested fields. It occurs in petioles thin, 1-2.5 cm long. humid, often seasonally inundated, light forest, in Flowers in few to numerous-flowered, axillary secondary forest, and, in Peninsular Malaysia, on inflorescences, about 2 cm in diameter, creamy- the beach as well. It grows very well in poorly aer­ white, later turning yellowish, with a strong, ated, compact or swampy clay soils, and on poor sometimes rather unpleasant sweet scent; pedun­ sands or podsols.I t prefers humid or even wet soils, cle thin, 1.5-7.5 cm long; pedicel thin, 0.5-2.5 cm; but not stagnant water. stamens and style far exserted. Fruit a small red Propagation and planting The berries are or orange berry, broadly ellipsoid, 0.7-1 cm in di­ pulped and washed by hand to free the seeds which ameter. are then air-dried. The fine seeds lose their viabi­ Wood characteristics Heartwood light yellow, lity in 1-3 months when stored in the open air, but darkening with age,heavy , with a volumetric mass they stay viable for longer when stored sealed. of 750 (-820) kg/m3, hard, strong, very durable. Seeds germinate within 60 days, with a success Sapwood relatively narrow, not clearly defined, rate ofabou t 80% . The seed ismixe d with fine sand paler than the heartwood. Texture fine to medium, and sown on shaded seed-beds. After sowing the even. Grain straight to interlocked, often irregu­ seed-bed is lightly covered with soil. Watering lar; rather glossy, taste not pronounced. should be done cautiously, irrigation is best done Growth rings not distinct. Zigzag markings shown from below. on backsawn faces. Vessels mostly in multiples of After 2month s 3 cm high seedlings can be pricked 2-7, diffuse; in contact with rays on both radial out; 6 months later the seedlings can be planted sides, sometimes with apotracheal parenchyma, in the field, when they are about 40 cm high. Best on the tangential sides; small to moderately small, planting stock is balled or container stock; the use 128 A SELECTION of stumps is reputed to promote stem-base sprouts. Roxb.). Tectona 28:606-611. |3| Leenhouts, P.W., Planting should preferably be done together with 1962. Flora Malesiana Ser. I, Vol. 6(2):304-309. |4| other species, e.g. with Schima bancana Miq. Reyes, L.J., 1938. Philippine Woods. Technical ('seru') or with a cover crop, as tembusu has a very Bulletin 7. Department of Agriculture and Com­ light crown cover which allows weeds to develop. merce, Bureau of printing, Manila, Philippines, Tembusu can very well be planted in imperata- pp. 416-417. infested fields, and it is already fire-resistant a few (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand) years after establishment. It isver y suitable for use in agroforestry as well. Planting distance is usually ca. 3m x 1m . Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. Management Height ofyoun g trees is improved by pruning the lower branches. Alon g rotation (up Philip. Journ. Sei. 5:130(1910) . to 100years ) seems necessary to obtain reasonable LEGUMINOSAE dimensions for timber. Thinning is necessary 2n = 22 every 5 years, until the age of 30, thereafter every Synonyms Flemingia congesta Roxb. ex Ait. f. 10years . (1812),Flemingia latifolia Benth. (1852), Moghania Yield Total volume production is relatively low, macrophylla (Willd.) Kuntze (1891). comparable to that of teak (which species needs Vernacular names Indonesia: apa apa (Java). better soil), about 5m 3/ha annually, under optimal Malaysia: serengan jantan, beringan. Philippines: conditions. Tembusu yields a better percentage of laclay-guinan (Tagalog). Laos: ko dok kam, hom log timber than teak because of its straight stems. sam muang (Xieng Khouang), thoua huat (Vien­ With a mean annual thickwood increment of 6.1 tiane). Thailand: khamin naang, khamin ling (cen­ m3/ha, a density ratio of 0.7, a conversion ratio of tral Thailand). Vietnam: cay dau ma (Vinh Phu), 0.75 and a timber ratio of 0.5, potential annual pro­ cay duoi chon (Thuan Hai). duction per ha can be estimated at: log timber 0.90 Origin and geographic distribution F. macro­ m3, poles 0.70 m3an d firewood 1.6 m3. phylla iswidel y distributed in South-East Asia and Handling after harvest The logs usually are in Taiwan, southern China, India and Sri Lanka. quite free from natural defects, except for knots It has been introduced and naturalized in East, due to the persistent branches. They are not very Central and West Africa. susceptible to Ambrosia beetle attack after felling, Uses F. macrophylla is one of the sources of the unless the bark is removed. Considering its den­ Arab dye which is called 'warrus' or 'waras'. sity, the wood is not too difficult to saw, but is 'Waras' is a purple or orange-brown coarse somewhat hard on tools. It has an unpleasant powder, consisting of the glandular hairs rubbed odour when freshly cut. It seasons very slowly, from dry Flemingia fruits, capable ofdyin g silk but without serious degrading, but it is liable to split not wool or cotton. It is a minor host of the Indian at the ends. The heartwood is reputed to be very lac insect. The stems are a source offlavonoi d com­ durable and very resistant to termites, but it may pounds. In Malaysia the plant is used for stomach be attacked by pinhole-borers. The wood contains complaints. In Malaysia, Sri Lanka, West Africa no silica, and its resistance to marine borers var­ and Madagascar the plant is used as a cover crop ies. The heartwood is difficult to impregnate, but and as a shade crop in young plantations of cocoa, the sapwood more easily so. It takes a good finish, coffee, bananas and rubber. In Ivory Coast it is and polishes well, but may pick-up in planing. It used to reduce nematodes in ananas plantations is generally not available in large dimensions. and as green manure and mulch. Prospects Sofar , tembusu has only been of local Properties The colouring matter of the dye is importance, but it may be a suitable timber for called flemingin. export, comparable with African species like iroko The leaves decompose slowly and are useful as (Chlorophora excelsa (Welw.) Benth.) and bilinga mulch material. Under humid tropical conditions, (Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild.) Merr.), or even at 4 t of dry matter/ha, half the mulch will have azobé (Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn. f.), due to decomposed in 53days . In-vitro digestibility of the its relative resistance to marine borers. leaves is twice as slow as that oîLeucaena leucoce- Literature ill Corner, E.J.H., 1940. Wayside phala (Lam.) de Wit, a fodder generally considered trees of Malaya. Government Printing Office, as easily digested by cattle. Singapore. 2nd ed. 1952. Vol. I: 424-425. |2| Essen- Leaf dry/fresh weight is about 28%; leaf surface burg, J.W.F., 1935. Tembesoe (Fagraea fragrans to weight ratio is 21.45m 2/kg leaf dry matter. FLEMINGIA - GALIELLA 129

Leaf nutrient contents are (based on dry matter): ing on very poorly drained soils with waterlog­ N 2.35-2.83%, P 0.19- 0.25%, K 0.98-1.40%, Ca ging. Its natural habitat is along watercourses, 0.56-0.74 % and Mg 0.18-0.22 %. both on clay and lateritic soils, as well as under Botany Woody, deep-rooting, tussock-forming drier conditions such as in fields infested with shrub, 1-4 m high. Young branches ribbed, silky. 'alang-alang' (Imperata sp.). The plant tolerates Leaves digitately trifoliolate; petioles narrowly shade and poor soils. winged, up to 10 cm long; leaflets lanceolate, 6-16 Agronomy Propagation is by seed. Treatment cm x 4-7 cm, papery, veins covered with silky of the seed with H2S04 improves the rate of germi­ hairs. Inflorescences dense axillary racemes, sub- nation. spiciform, sessile, 2.5-10 cm long, reddish, silky; Planting density varies according to the use of the bracts, ovate, 3-6 mm long; calyx 6-13 mm, pale species. The first phase (about 6months ) of the de­ velutinous with 5 lanceolate lobes; corolla with velopment of the plant is critical, and requires greenish elliptic standard and distinct parallel red careful weeding. Once established the plants veins, wings narrow and much shorter than the require little attention. keel, light purple at apex. Pods cylindrical, Under humid, tropical lowland conditions in Ivory inflated, 8-15 mm x 5mm , covered with fine glan­ Coast, with 1000 0plants/h a and 9regrowt h cycles dular hairs,dehiscent , dark brown, 2-seeded. Seeds of 3 months each, an average annual production globular, 2m m in diameter, shiny, black. Roots are of 12.4 t leaf dry matter/ha has been achieved. often nodulated. After 4years , under a quarterly cutting regime, no Ecology F. macrophylla can be found from sea- signs of senescence were observed. level up to 2000 m altitude, within a wide range Prospects F. macrophylla has an excellent cop­ of rainfall patterns, from seasonal to everwet picing capacity, and looks promising as a mulch (1100-2850 mm/year). It is a hardy plant that can producer in 'alley-cropping' systems including an­ resist long dry spells, but is also capable of surviv- nual crops. Owing to its slow decomposition rate, the mulch has long-term effects in weed control, moisture conservation and soiltemperatur e reduc­ tion. The species is useful as a cover crop in perennial plantations, as shelterbelt, in erosion control, and in planted fallows for soil improvement. Improve­ ment of young-development and its use in alley- cropping systems and planted fallows deserve research priority. Literature |1| Budelman, A., 1988.Lea f dry mat­ ter productivity of three selected perennial legu­ minous species in humid tropical Ivory Coast. Agroforestry Systems 7:47-62. |2| Verliere, G., 1966. Valeur fertilisante de deux plantes utilisées dans les essais de paillage du Caféier: Tithonia diversifolia et Flemingia congesta. Café, Cacao, Thé 3:228-236. (A. Budelman)

Galiella javanica (Rehm) Nannf. & Korf

Mycologia49:108(1957). SARCOSOMATACEAE (FUNGI) In —unknow n Synonyms Sarcosoma javanica Rehm (1893), Sarcosoma decaryi Pat. (1927), Sarcosoma novogui- neense Ramsb. (1917). Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. - 1, flower­ Vernacular names Indonesia: supa susu mun- ing branch; 2,fruiting branchlet. ding (Sundanese). 130 A SELECTION

Origin and geographic distribution G. java­ nous consistency. The tissue consists of loosely nica is found wild in many parts of Malaysia, Indo­ interwoven thin hyphae embedded in a gelatinous nesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea; it matrix. Asci cylindrical, up to 550 urn long by 20 is also known from Madagascar. um wide, each containing 8 ascospores which are Uses People in South Priangan (West Java) col­ ellipsoidal, finely warted, hyaline, 25-40 um x lect this locally abundant species for culinary pur­ 12-18 um. poses. Normally after cleaning and washing, the Ecology G.javanica is always found on decay­ gelatinous fruitbodies are sliced, spiced with gar­ ing wood in the wetter parts of lowland areas. lic (Allium sativum L.), tamarind (Tamarindus Literature |1| Le Gal, M., 1953. Les Discomy- indica L.) and capsicum peppers, occasionally cètes de Madagascar. Prodrome du Flore Micolo- mixed with dried salted fish and then simmered in gique de Madagascar. Muséum National d'His­ coconut oil. Some people find it tastes better than toire Naturelle, Paris. Vol. 4. pp. 206-212, fig. species of Auricularia Bull, ex Jussieu. In Mada­ 90-93. gascar the gelsqueeze d from the fruitbodies is used (M. A. Rifai) as a remedy for eye disorders. Properties Preliminary chemical analysis indi­ cates that, on average, the fruitbodies of G. Java- Garcinia mangostana L. nica contain 1.2 % crude protein and 1.4 % fat. Botany The fruitbodies take the form of apothe- Sp. PI. 1:443(1753). cia which are subglobose to almost turbinate, up GUTTIFERAE to about 5 cm high and 8 cm in diameter, dark 2n = variously recorded as 76,96 ,an d 120-130. brown, tomentose, with a fleshy to rubbery, gelati- Synonyms Mangostana garcinia Gaertn. (1790). Vernacular names Mangosteen (En). Man­ goustan (Fr). Indonesia, Malaysia and Philip­ pines: manggis. Cambodia: mongkhut. Laos: mangkhud. Thailand: mang-khut. Vietnam: cay mang cut. Origin and geographic distribution The man­ gosteen is only known as a cultivated species, al­ though there have been occasional reports of sightings ofa wild individual in Malaysia. Its vege­ tative characteristics resemble those ofth e species G.hombroniana Pierre and G.malaccensis Hooker f., which are indigenous in Malaysia and in the case of the former in the Nicobar islands also. Cul­ tivation has long been limited to South-East Asia, ranging from Indonesia eastwards to New Guinea and Mindanao and north via Malaysia into the southern parts of Thailand, Burma and Vietnam and to Cambodia. Only during the last two centu­ ries has the crop spread to other tropical areas, including Sri Lanka, southern India, Central America and Queensland, where orchards now cover small areas. Uses The mangosteen is probably the most highly praised tropical fruit. It iseate n fresh, since preserved forms are far less appealing. The fruit rind contains tannin and dye. Both the rind and the bark have several applications in traditional medicine. The dark-red wood is heavy, coarse and very strong; when available it is used in carpentry Galiella javanica (Rehm) Nannf. & Korf - 1-5, and to make rice pounders. young fruitbodies; 6-7, ripefruitbodies (apothecia); Production and international trade Produc­ 8,asci,paraphyses and ascospores. tion is highest in Thailand: 62000 t in 1981, from GARCINIA 131 an area given as 8000 ha in one report and 1200 0 pie; 0-3 of the cells containing a fully developed ha in another. For the same year the Philippines seed, enveloped by a white arillode. reports a yield of 700 t from an area totalling 400 Growth and development Mangosteen has not ha. Mangosteen does not figure in statistical data a true seed in the sense that it develops from cells from Indonesia; no production data for Malaysia of the inner carpel wall, not infrequently leading are available, but the area declined annually - and to polyembryony. Morphologically the seed has alarmingly - from 4300 ha in 1970 to 1240 ha in been described as a tuberculous hypocotyl; the 1980.Internationa l trade isnegligible , but the fruit embryo is underdeveloped. On germination a radi­ travels well and is sometimes found in markets as cle emerges from one end and the plumule from the far away as Europe (from South-East Asia) and the opposite end ofth e seed. Soon an adventitious root United States (from Central America). develops at the base of the young shoot, after Description Dioecious tree, 6-25 m high, with which the first radicle dies. Germination and ini­ a straight trunk, symmetrically branched to form tial growth proceed very slowly. It has been shown a regular pyramidal crown, as all parts ofth e plant that germination improves with seed weight up to exude a yellow latex when damaged. Leaves oppo­ a weight of 1g , whereas the rate of survival after site, with short petioles clasping the shoot so that one year is best for seeds weighing more than 1.3 the apical pair conceals the terminal bud; blades g,th e maximum seed weight being well over 2g . oblong or elliptical, 15-25 cm x 7-13 cm, thickly Slow seedling growth is attributed to a weak root leathery, entire, cuspidate at the apex, glabrous system, characterised by the absence of root hairs and olive-green above, yellow-green beneath with and poor development ofth e laterals.Th e evidence pale-green central nerve, prominent on both sides strongly suggests that initially the roots have pro­ and with many evenly spaced prominent side perties similar to those grown in water cultures nerves. and thus function defectively in solid potting mix­ Flowers solitary or paired at apices of branchlets, tures. Indeed, seedlings grow best in media such with short and thick pedicels, ca. 5.5 cm in diame­ as coconut fibre sphagnum and peat. Under favourable conditions plants reach a height of 25 ter; sepals 4,arrange d in 2pairs ;petal s 4,thic k and 2 fleshy, yellow-green with reddish edges; stami- cm and a leaf area of more than 200 cm after one nodes usually many, 1-2-seriate, ca. 0.5 cm long; year. ovary sessile, subglobose, 4-8-celled with promi­ With the emergence of side shoots growth quick­ nent sessile 4-8-lobed stigma. Fruit globose and ens. As a pair of side shoots grow out at practically smooth, 4-7 cm across, turning dark purple at every node,th e symmetry in the architecture of the ripening, with persistent sepals and still crowned young tree is striking. With the further branching by the stigma lobes; pericarp ca. 0.9 cm thick, pur- of these laterals the canopy becomes quite dense. The juvenile phase is generally extremely long (12-20 years) but under conditions favourable to growth trees may come into fruit much earlier. The youngest fruiting age - 5year s from planting - has been reported from Thailand. Trees make 2-4 flushes of shoot growth per year. The flowers are borne on twigs which did not par­ take in the previous flush. From appearance of the buds until petal fall takes 25-30 days; the fruit ripens 100-120 days later. In many areas the trees tend to flower twice a year, usually shortly after a flush. Trees can be productive up to a very great age. Other botanical information A description of the male flowers is occasionally quoted in the 19th Century literature, but in fact, no functionally male flowers have been found ever since. As the seed is apomictic, the far-reaching consequence is that all mangosteen trees may belong to a single Garcinia mangostana L. - flowering and fruiting clone. Some distinct forms have been reported, but branch. the only distinction which has been made repea- 132 A SELECTION tedly is between trees with small leaves and small rootstocks, raised in the same pot as the mangos- fruits andtree s with large leaves andfruit s of vari­ teen seedling. This greatly enhances the growth able size. of the mangosteen - both root and top - over the With some40 0specie s Garcinia L.i sa large genus. next few years, which is all the more remarkable Quite a number of species have edible fruits; of since the G.tinctoria root system hardly grows at these several are occasionally grown in gardens all. Efforts in Tanzania to improve seedling in South-East Asia for their fruit: G.dulcis (Roxb.) growth by using soil from under fruiting trees in Kurz, the very similar G.xanthochymus Hooker f. the potting mixture hadn o effect; thus it is unlike­ (syn. G. tinctoria (Choisy) W.F. Wight), G. prai- ly that the missing factor is symbiosis with root niana King, G.cowa Roxb. and G.atroviridis Griff, fungi. exJ . Anderson. To further complicate matters, the factor seems to Ecology Mangosteen isa crop ofth e humid trop­ be missing only in new areas, as authors in South- ics, often found in association with the durian. It East Asia do not refer to problems with seedlings thrives incondition s ofhig h temperature, high hu­ at all,apar t from mentioning theslo w growth, 2-3 midity, a short dry season to stimulate flowering years being needed for the plants to reach the rec­ and an uninterrupted water supply. Shade is ommended height of 40-60 cm for field planting. required during the early years and shelter It isno tuncommo n tofin d healthy seedlings grow­ throughout life. Protection is offered by other ing spontaneously under fruiting trees and these trees inmixe d orchards (Thailand) andi n gardens. may meet the needs of most home gardeners. Nur­ Stress should be avoided; a tree which visibly suf­ series with substantial numbers of seedlings are fers seldom recovers. There is much confusion found only inThailand . TheTha i nursery methods about rainfall and soil requirements, but an may be of great interest, also in view of the short assured year-round water supply is essential. In period from planting tofirs t crop. spite of the weak root system the tree tolerates Important elements of the nursery work are the heavy soils which impede water movement, pro­ selection of large seeds, which are sown without vided transpiration is limited by a sheltered site delay, a growing medium with little substance and and high humidity. Under dry conditions irriga­ high moisture retention such as shredded coconut tion is needed at small soil moisture deficits and fibre, resting on a freely draining base, high hu­ thick mulches arever y beneficial. midity andshad e (e.g.b ycoverin g thenurser y beds Traditional growing centres arelargel y within 10° with coloured polythene tunnels). Watering canb e ofth e equator, butorchard s in Queensland, Mada­ used to supply nutrients, for instance in the form gascar and Honduras indicate that its potential of diluted cowdung. range is wider. The tree is grown up to 1000m ele­ The problems with seedling growth and survival vation, but the growth rate is higher in the low­ have led to numerous trials with other propaga­ lands. tion methods, particularly grafting onto related Propagation andplantin g Mangosteen is pro­ species which allhav e strong root systems. Several pagated from seed,th eseedling s beingtru e to type. workers report initial success with rootstocks of The seed is short-lived, but sowing can be delayed the genera Garcinia, Platonia Mart., Pentadesma a few weeks by leaving it in the fruit. Heavy bear­ Sabine and Clusia L., butther e hasbee n no follow- ing trees and fruit from the main crop are chosen up to confirm these findings. Of the Garcinia spe­ and only thelarg e seeds are sown. cies, G. tinctoria and G. morella Desr. showed Anyone whoha strie d toestablis h thecro p outside promise in more than one trial; but, again, these its traditional production centres emphasizes the results await confirmation. Most budding and problems in raising seedlings: extremely slow grafting methods have failed, positive results growth, seedlings arresting development for many being limited to inarching, the traditional method months after thefirst , second orthir d pair of leaves of propagation in South-East Asia for all fruits have been formed, eventually leading to the death which do not respond to simpler methods. of most seedlings. It would seem likely that the Attempts to root mangosteen cuttings and (air)- seedlings are missing some vital substance. This layers have also failed; only mist propagation of is suggested by the dramatic growth response to cuttings offers some prospects. There are no yeast extract (rich in vitamin Bl), as against the reports on the effect of any of these methods on failure ofseedling s torespon d tominera l nutrients the precocity of the trees. or rich potting mixtures. An even stronger indica­ Field planting should be done quickly and neatly: tion isth erespons e toinarchin g Garcinia tinctoria without exposure andundu e loss ofroots , and with GARCINIA 133 water and shading material ready at the planting ripening season - appears to be a major constraint site. on the commercialization of the crop. Husbandry Shade is maintained for several The main harvesting season in Malaysia is from years and gradually reduced. The slow growth June to August, but the period varies because flow­ makes the plant very vulnerable to weeds and as ering follows the fickle dry season. Timing of the the shade screen may hide weeds, regular checks harvest also appears to be influenced considerably are needed. A heavy mulch around the tree pro­ by altitude and shade. Often a small second crop vides a good alternative to weeding. In South-East is produced in December in Malaysia. Asia trees are not planted in pure stands, but Yield Yield of fruit-bearing trees in Malaysia either in home gardens or in mixed orchards with varies from 200-2000 fruits per tree. Data on area durian or rambutan as the dominant species and and yield in Thailand for 1981 work out to 5-8 t/ha, mangosteen and langsat as the subsidiary species. depending on which area figure is correct. For an The mixed stand affords the necessary shelter for estimated mean weight of 100 g per fruit and 250 the mangosteens which require an area of 25-50 trees/ha, this equals 200-300 fruit per tree. Trees m2pe r tree, depending on growing conditions. in two small orchards in the Nilgiri hills in south­ There is no specific information available on hus­ ern India produced 360 fruit per year on average bandry. Mangosteen benefits from irrigation, even over a period of 18 years, the best trees yielding in rather wet areas.Trickl e irrigation may be ideal more consistently and so ariving at 500 fruit per for this crop with its exacting water requirements. year. Boosting the growth rate in the early years with Handling after harvest Although the fruit wall water and nutrients (nitrogen) shortens the unpro­ stands up to rough treatment, the delicate flesh ductive period. The branching habit makes prun­ segments donot . Hence the fruit should be handled ing desirable as well asdifficult . Complete removal with care. It should lie still in its transport boxes of some branches to the trunk in order to thin the and impact on the boxes (e.g. on a moving truck) canopy and thinning of the subsequent regrowth or on the fruit (e.g. by pouring fruit from a bin) in the interior may be worth trying. should be minimized. The fruit lends itself to trans­ Diseases and pests The mangosteen does not port by air, provided it can be offered in sufficient suffer much from pests and diseases. The impor­ quantity and uniform quality to justify sales pro­ tant disorder of the fruit is gamboge, yellow spots motion campaigns in overseas markets. ofexudat e on the skin. Any physical damage to the Genetic resources The assumption that all latex vessels brings about the disorder: punctures mangosteen trees may belong to a single clone has by sucking insects (capsids), strong wind, rough discouraged collectors. Hence the only sizeable harvesting and handling. If gamboge infiltrates germplasm collections are in Thailand, in Chanta- the fruit it becomes inedibly bitter. However, if the buri (the largest) and Songkla University. Germ- fruit is left on the tree the gamboge gradually dis­ plasm of the genus is held in several countries, but appears during ripening. Several caterpillars feed collections comprise only a few of the approxi­ onth e young leaves and damage by sucking insects mately 400 Garcinia species. may lead to fruit drop.A numbe r offungu s diseases Prospects The mangosteen, already far too has been identified, of which the red {Phellinus scarce for such a delicious fruit, is rapidly losing noxuis) and the brown (Ganoderma pseudofer- ground in South-East Asia, asdemonstrate d by the reum) root rots are sometimes serious. No control dramatic decline of tree numbers in Malaysia. measures are known. Home gardeners - not to mention commercial Harvesting Ripe fruit eventually drops and if it growers - can no longer afford to wait 10-15 years falls on a layer of mulch it will still be in good con­ for trees to come into fruit. The long harvest period dition. Growers do not risk leaving the fruit on the and the resulting high picking cost also forms a tree this long and pick it when the colour changes. major constraint. The fruit ripens over a period of more than 2 Although research work has sofa r failed to resolve months and the intervals between harvests are these problems, the Thai growers must have at usually too long, so that much of the fruit is rather least some of the answers, because they continue immature, leading to disappointed consumers. to grow the crop commercially on a large scale. To Bamboopole s with a V-shaped cut at the top which turn the tide for the mangosteen in South-East can hold a single fruit are used in Malaysia, but Asia the research effort should be resumed with in orchards ladders and picking baskets are more a thorough study of the Thai propagation and hus­ efficient. The high cost of picking - due to the long bandry techniques, including quantative data on 134 A SELECTION precocity of bearing and harvesting efficiency. To Vernacular names Indonesia: intip-intip (Cen­ shorten the harvest period, irrigation-more speci­ tral Java), kembang karang (West Java: Bantam), fically trickle irrigation - may prove useful if a sangau (Lingga and Riau Archipelago). Philip­ brief interruption in the water supply helps to trig­ pines: culot (Ilocos Norte), gulaman (Bicol: Bulu- ger synchronous flowering. san and Sorsogon). Literature |1|Ahmad , S., 1983.Past , present and Origin and geographic distribution Tropical future research on mangosteen with an example seas all over the world. Widely distributed in Indo­ of research and production in Malaysia. Proceed­ nesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam and south­ ings International Workshop for promoting ern China. research in tropical fruits, Jakarta. 20 pp. |2| Uses This is one of the chief algae collected in Ameyda, N. & Martin, F.W., 1976. Cultivation of Malaysia and Indonesia for the preparation of neglected tropical fruits with promise. Part 1. The agar forming hard jellies. On Java, hand collected mangosteen. USDA, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico,ARS - specimens are also eaten fresh or prepared as a S-155. 18 pp. |3|Bourdeaut , J. & Moreuil, C, 1970. salad vegetable, or they are cooked and eaten Le mangoustanier, ses possibilités de culture en mixed with rice. Collection for agar preparation Côte d'Ivoire et à Madagascar. Fruits 25:223-245. and for human consumption also takes place in |4| Campbell, C.W., 1966. Growing the mangosteen India, Vietnam, China and Japan. in Southern Florida. Florida State Horticultural Production and international trade Recent Society 79:399-400. |5| Horn, C.L., 1940. Stimula­ representative data for G. acerosa are not avail­ tion of growth in young mangosteen plants. Jour­ able for South-East Asia or on world scale.I n India nal ofAgricultura l Research 61:397-400. |6| Hume, 50-300 t dry G. acerosa are collected each year in E. P. & Cobin, M., 1946. The relation of seed size south-eastern India (Mandapan-Cape Comorin) to the germination and early growth of the man­ and in north-western India (Kathiawar Penin­ gosteen. Proceedings American Society of Horti­ sula). In 1976 world production of dried Gelidium cultural Science 48:298-302. j7| Krishnamurthi, S. (including Pterocladia and Gelidiella) was 5000 t. & Madhava Rao, V.N.M., 1965. The mangosteen Production and international trade from South- (Garcinia mangostana L.): its introduction and East Asia mainly consists of wild-gathered sun- establishment in peninsular India. In: Krishna­ dried raw materials. In 1977 dry Gelidium valued murthi, S. (Editor): Advances in agricultural US$ 1000-1200 per tonne. Fresh or dried speci­ sciences and their application. Coimbatore, India, mens are sold on the local markets. pp. 401-420. |8| Molesworth Allen, B., 1967. Production of dried red seaweed (probably mainly Malayan fruits: an introduction to the cultivated Eucheuma spp. and Gracilaria spp.) for Indonesia, species. Donald Moore Press, Singapore, pp. the Philippines and Thailand together was 9300 0 66-71. |9| Oliver, G.W., 1911.Th e seedling inarch t in 1978, 115000 t in 1979, 12500 0 t in 1980 and and nurse plant methods of propagation. Bulletin 94000 t in 1981. The bulk of this production was 201. United States Department of Agriculture, in the Philippines. The world annual production Bureau of Plant Industries. 43pp . of agar was 4800 t in 1976 and 6000 t in 1977, 2/3 (E.W.M. Verheij) of which in Japan. In 1976 the Philippines pro­ duced 100 t of agar. Total value of the 1976 world production was US$ 47 million and in 1977 it was Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskal) Feldmann US$ 40 million. To achieve this 1977 level of pro­ et Hamel duction, 150000 t of fresh red seaweed (fresh weight) must have been collected. In 1983 good Revue générale de Botanique, Paris 46: 533 quality agar was sold on the international market (1934). for approximately US$ 16pe r kg. GELIDIELLACEAE (ALGAE) Properties Agar is a major constituent of the 2n = unknown cell walls ofagarophytes , which are red algae from Synonyms Gelidium regidum (Vahl)Grevill e in the families Gelidiaceae, Gelidiellaceae and Graci- Montagne (1830), Gelidiopsis rigida (Vahl) Weber- lariaceae. The term is now generally applied to van Bosse (1904). In India in pre-1970 literature those algal galactans which have agarose, the dis- this alga is often cited as Gelidium micropterum accharide agarobiose, as their repeating unit. Kiitzing. This is a misidentification, this Gelidium Agar is soluble in and extracted by hot water; it species also occurs in India but has no economic gels at room temperature. It is extensively used for relevance. microbiological plating media, but because of its GELIDIELLA 135 excellent gelling properties at moderate tempera­ and frequently incurved abaxially. External corti­ ture, agar also finds much use in bakery products, cal cells anticlinally elongated in transection, up confectionery manufacture, aswel l asi n puddings, to 4 umbroa d and 7u mlong . Internal cortical cells creams and for jellied and canned products. Gel- more rounded, grading into a medulla of larger strength of agar from G. acerosa, as well as its vis­ elongated cells of about 30 urn in diameter. Tetras- cosity, are greater than that of agars from Graci- porangia in the apical portion of modified swollen laria spp. and Corallopsis spp. Sulphate contents branchlets of conical shape. Tetrasporangia ofth e Gelidiella agar are much lower than of other oblong 40-50 urn long by 20-30 um broad, crucia- agars. tely divided, sparsely and often irregularly dis­ Description Thallus up to 5 cm high, several persed over the branch, the lower usually in a more tufted, entangled, cylindrical, and sometimes advanced stage of development than those near arcuate axes rising from a decumbent and arcuate the apex. Sexual reproduction method unknown. axis, up to 500/ur n in diameter, attached to the sub­ Growth and development There is no reliable stratum by stoloniferous rhizoids. Erect axes information available about the seasonality and cylindrical or very slightly compressed, to 700 urn reproduction of G. acerosa in South-East Asia. In in diameter, sometimes gradually tapering toward the Philippines (Ilocos Norte) it is most frequent the apices and usually with sparse, filiform, disti- in the dry season (November-April), but collec­ chously arranged opposite or subopposite branch- tion data suggest a year-round occurrence. In lets, up to 30 mm long, generally shorter apically India and on Hawaii this alga also occurs all year, with maximum occurrence and thallus size when the temperature is submaximal for the locality. After periods of maximum growth in India forma­ tion of stichidia occurs and shedding of tetras­ pores takes place. 5000-10000 tetraspores can be formed per gram fresh weight. In Hawaii thalli be­ gin to bleach and start dying during the warmest periods. The mode of germination of tetraspores is of the Gelidium type, a type that has not been found in any red alga outside the Gelidiales. Other botanical information Gelidioid algae is a designation used for all Gelidium-like algae; seaweeds that are often harvested for high quality agar production. Although quantities of commer­ cial agar produced from other agarophytes (Ahn- feltia and Gracilaria spp.) on a world-scale are higher, the gel-strengths of these agars are some­ what inferior. Most gelidioid algae belong to the order Gelidiales.Thi s order comprises two families of non-parasitic algae: the Gelidiaceae (genera Gelidium Lamouroux, Pterocladia J. Agardh, Beckerella Kylin, Suhria J. Agardh, Porphyroglos- sum Kützing, Acropeltis Okamura, Ptilophora Kützing, Yabatella Okamura, Pterocladiastrum Akatsuka and Acanthopeltis Okamura) and the Gelidiellaceae (only genus Gelidiella Feldmann & Hamel). Of these, only the first three genera of Gelidiaceae mentioned here, as well as the genus Gelidiella, each include several species with wide geographic distribution. In some cases species of Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskal) Feldmann & Hamel the genera Wurdemannia J. Agardh and Gelidiop- -1, habit (S = stichidia); 2,apex (schematic); 3, sti- sis Schmitz (recently renamed as Ceratodictyon chidium with tetraspores; 4,transverse section ofsti- Zanardini) are also considered to belong to the chidium; 5, detail of transverse section of sterile gelidioid algae. These two genera do not belong to part. the Gelidiales, however. 136 A SELECTION

The important economic species of gelidioid algae taining 2m l acetic acid per litre for 3-4 hours. Pre­ in most parts of the world, belong to the genera cipitated CaC03 is then added to achieve pH 6.5 Gelidium and Pterocladia. In South-East Asia, and the product is filtered and gelled. Firm gel is however, the most common gelidioid agarophyte sliced and frozen between-12 °C and-18°C. After is Gelidiella acerosa. thawing, the shreds are soaked in 1% bleaching Ecology This tropical alga occurs in the algal powder and exposed to air (for 4 hours). Bleached turf on surf-exposed and moderately wave-shel­ shreds are washed free of chlorine with S02 and tered rocks and reefs in the lower eulittoral and dried. This results in a pearl-white agar with a gel the sublittoral zone. It is found in tide pools at strength of30 0g/cm 2 per 1.5 %.I fn o freezing equip­ higher levels on the shore and occasionally found ment is available agar can be flocculated by treat­ growing on shell fragments in shallow water. Full ing the filtrate with 90% industrial alcohol. The sunlight can be tolerated without much bleaching. alcohol used can be redistilled. Some water movement is needed for growth, but Prospects World demand for agar ishighe r than highest water movement values in Hawaii are the available seaweed supplies. This has often limiting. Optimum growth takes place in salinities resulted in overharvesting of known seaweed pop­ between 35 and 40 promille but short-period sali­ ulations which, in turn, has reduced subsequent nity fluctuations between 10 and 80 promille can harvests. As a consequence, the price offoo d grade be survived. agar has increased out of proportion to its value, Propagation and planting Cultivation is still causing arapi d decline in sales. Cycles occur every at an experimental stage. In India apical frag­ few years, discouraging the commercial producer ments have been grown in constant-depth plant­ as well as the consumer. If the future production ings (attached to ropes and nets) and in constant- of agar will have to be based on wild sources only, level plantings (attached to cement pipes and coral the fluctuating cycles will result in customers stones).I n all cases growth was between 5-265 mg/ becoming discouraged by the undependable source. g per day during the growth seasons. In 6 months Thus the controlled cultivation ofseawee d is essen­ the fragments had grown to 7 times their original tial to the future ofth e agar industry. Ifn o satisfac­ weights and the maximum population density be­ tory cultivation methods become available, hand came 129 g/m2 wet weight (in natural populations collecting of wild sources for the local market will a maximum growth of 131 g/m2 per 6 months has remain the major way ofutilizin g G. acerosa. been observed).Bette r growth and/or proliferation Literature |1| Santelices, B., 1974. Gelidioid occurs after addition (under laboratory condi­ algae, a brief résumé of the pertinent literature. tions) of 200-225 mg/1 NaN03, or ca. 30 mg University of Hawaii, United States Sea Grant NaH2P04, or 70-85 mg/1 indolyl-acetic acid (IAA) Program, Marine Agronomy. Technical Report No or an increase in pH to 8.2-9.2. 1. 11 pp. (Mimeographed). |2| Santelices, B., 1978. Harvesting Hand collection during spring tides Multiple interaction of factors in the distribution or by divers is the current method of harvesting. of some Hawaiian Gelidiales (Rhodophyta). Pacif­ Mechanical collection has not been successful up ic Science 32:119-147. |3| Sreenivasa Rao, P., 1970. to now. The best harvest season for these natural Systematics of Indian Gelidiales. Phycos 9:63-78. populations will be just after shedding of the !4| Trono, G.C. Jr., 1986. Philippine seaweeds. In: tetraspores. Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Yield Quantitative data about the agar contents Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natu­ of G. acerosa differ considerably, depending on the ral Resources and University of the Philippines, calculation methods used. Published data range Quezon City. Vol. 1:201-288. between 12.6-48%. (W.F. Prud'homme van Reine &A.M . Hatta) Handling after harvest Specimens to be sold fresh on the local market have to be transported without delay. Most specimens are sun-dried im­ Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex mediately after harvest and then sold. Dried ones Walp. used for future consumption are reconstituted to nearly fresh condition by blanching in boiling Repertitorium bot. syst. 1:67 9(1842) . water for 2 minutes. In India agar is prepared by LEGUMINOSAE soaking sun-dried seaweed in 1% KOH solution 2n = 20 for 12hours , this is then washed free of alkali and Synonyms Gliricidia maculata (H.B.K.) Kunth boiled with 30-40 times its volume of water con­ ex Walp. (1842). GLIRICIDIA 137

Vernacular names Mother of cocoa, quick stick (En). Indonesia: gamal. Philippines: kak- auâti (Tagalog). Laos: khê: nooyz, khê fàlangx. Thailand: khae farang. Vietnam: sât thu, hông mai. Origin andgeographi c distribution Native of the seasonally dry Pacific Coast of Central Amer­ ica from sea-level to 1200m , but long cultivated and naturalized intropica l Mexico, Central Amer­ ica andnorther n South America, upt o 1500m .Th e species wasals o transported toth e Caribbean and later to West Africa. It wasintroduce d to the Phi­ lippines by the Spaniards in the early 1600s, and to Sri Lanka in the 18th Century; from there the tree reached other Asian countries including Indo­ nesia (around 1900),Malaysia , Thailand and India. Uses Thetre e iswidel y used for many purposes. The wood is often utilized as firewood, charcoal or as posts and farm implements, locally for furni­ ture, construction purposes and railway sleepers as well. G.sepium leaves areuse d asfodder , mostly in the form of a supplement to low protein rough­ age. The species is extensively used in different cropping systems, e.g.a sa shade tree in tea, cocoa or coffee plantations, as live stakes to support va­ nilla, black pepper and yams (West Africa), as a hedge, a green manure crop in intercropping sys­ tems with arable crops; it is also being tested in alley-cropping systems. The tree has also been Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. - 1,leaf; planted to reclaim denuded or imperata-infested 2,flowering branch; 3,fruiting branch. lands. After fermentation seeds, bark, leaves or roots can be used as a rodenticide and pesticide; 7-17 per leaf, opposite except in upper part of flowers serve for honey production. The tree is rachis, elliptic or lanceolate, 3-6 cm x 1.5-3 cm, often planted as an ornamental. Inth e Philippines rounded orcuneat e atbase , acuminate attop , thin, the juice of the leaves, bark and roots is used to dull green and glabrous above, grey-green and alleviate itches and wounds. often pubescent beneath; petioles 5m mlong . Properties On a dry matter basis G. sepium Flowers in 5-12 cm long, axillary racemes, about foliage has a high feed value with protein levels 2c mlong , on8-1 2m m long, slender pedicels; calyx varying between 22-27% of dry matter, crude campanulate, 5-toothed, light green tinged with fibre 16-23% of dry matter and digestibility val­ red; corolla whitish-pink or purple, with a broad ues ranging from 50-75%. The feed may have standard, turned back andyellowis h near thebase , toxic effects on horses and poultry, but this isno t 2 oblong, curved wings, and a narrow keel; sta­ the case for ruminants. Palatibility and voluntary mens 10,white , 9 united in a tube and 1 separate; intake vary widely, possibly duet ogenotyp e varia­ pistil with stalked, narrow red ovary and whitish tion in respect to specific odours and/or coumar- curved style. Podnarrow , flat, 10-15 cm x 1.2-1.5 ines. cm, yellow-green when immature, turning yellow­ Description A small deciduous tree up to 12m ish-brown, shortly stalked andwit h a short mucro, high with a short trunk up to 50 cm in diameter, splitting open at maturity. Seeds 4-10 per pod, with smooth or slightly fissured, whitish-grey to elliptic,ca .1 0m m long, shiny, dark reddish-brown. light brown bark, often branching from the base; Wood characteristics Light-brown sapwood the mature tree has an irregular spreading crown and dark-brown heartwood turning reddish on of thin foliage. exposure to air,hard , coarse-textured with irregu­ Leaves alternate, pinnate, 15-40 cm long, with lar grain. It is very durable and termite-resistant. slender, yellow-green, finely hairy rachis; leaflets The dense wood with a volumetric mass up to75 0 138 A SELECTION kg/m3 is difficult to work. Wood does not reach necessary; seeds may be sown directly. Nursery large dimensions, the bole seldom has a diameter stock can be transplanted after 3months . The tree of more than 40 cm and a length of 8m ; normallly, can very easily be propagated by large cuttings, dimensions are smaller, especially if the tree is 3 cm thick and 0.5-2 m long; the bark may be regularly coppiced. In young coppices the wood is incised to assist rooting. Cuttings should be taken less dense with a volumetric mass of around 500 from mature branches with brownish-green bark kg/m3. and planted fresh. Rooting starts 6-7 weeks after Growth and development Mature seeds are planting; nodulation normally occurs within 3 light, (4500-) 8000(-11000 ) per kg;the y germinate months. Trees obtained from cuttings often are in 7-10 days. Early seedling growth is slow, but more shallow-rooted than trees grown from seed. once established growth is fast, up to 3 m/year. Most trees are planted in rows as livefence s or con­ After cutting trees resprout vigorously. Flowering tour plantings, or scattered as shade trees or live and fruiting take place during the dry season, stakes; these can easily be established by the large when the tree has shed its leaves. Flowers are cuttings, which accounts partly for the popularity insect-pollinated; the species is outcrossing. Pods of the tree. Spacing and management (cutting ripen 40-55 days after flowering, seeds are mature back) depend on the function of the trees. Hedge when pods turn yellow-brown; fruiting is relati­ plants are spaced about 50c m apart, but shade and vely uniform with about 20 days from first to last support trees are planted as much as 5 m or more seed dispersal. In its native area in most years seed apart both ways. When the tree is used as a live production isabundan t with predictable timing. In post for black pepper or vanilla, the crops can be more humid zones shoot growth tends to be contin­ planted at the sametim e asth e tree. Such live posts uous and the evergreen tree flowers only sporadi­ provide some protection against climatic stress. In cally on the basal parts of twigs from which the woodlots spacings of 1.5 m x 2 m to 2 m x 2.5 m leaves have dropped. are common. Other botanical information G. maculata has Management G.sepium is normally planted for been used extensively as a synonym for G. sepium. several purposes and only seldomly in pure stands Recently G. maculata has been proposed as a dis­ for land reclamation and/or fuelwood production. tinct species with a natural geographic distribu­ Diseases and pests Few diseases and pests have tion, which is different from G. sepium, i.e. Yuca­ been recorded and only sporadically do these tan Peninsula, northern Guatemala and Belize. It cause noticeable damage. When intercropped the differs from G.sepium byhavin g white flowers, and tree may either positively or negatively affect crop smaller pods and seeds. Most Gliricidia planted as pests. In several cases the tree has been reported an exotic can be attributed to G. sepium, but to control pests, e.g. in Sri Lanka termite damage former introduction of G.maculata cannot be ruled to tea was minimized and similarly in the Philip­ out. pines stem-borer damage to rice. In India on the Ecology In its native range the climate is relati­ other hand, the tree was found to have a positive vely uniform sub-humid with an annual rainfall of effect on the transmission of aphids (Aphis cracci- 900-1500 mm and a five month dry period. The spe­ vora) causing the rosette disease in groundnuts. cies has been introduced successfully in more Harvesting Trees may be harvested either for humid zones with up to 3500 mm annual rainfall foliage or wood production, or both. For optimal and no marked dry season. In its native range, foliage production trees should be harvested once mean annual temperature varies from 20-29°C , or twice during the first 2-3 years, thereafter once maximum temperature below 42°C ; light night every 3-4 months. In this way, fodder or green ma­ frost is tolerated, but not prolonged frost. G. nure yields of 3-4 kg dry matter per tree per har­ sepium occurs naturally in early and middle suc- vest or up to 43 t/ha per year fresh leaves may be cessional vegetation types on disturbed sites such achieved. Living fences and shade trees are nor­ as coastal sand dunes, riverbanks, floodplains and mally cut back to 1-2 m to where browsing cattle swidden lands. It tolerates a wide range of soil or agricultural crops cannot interfere with types, both alkaline and acidic, but prefers free regrowth. Trees grown in alley-cropping systems drainage. The tree resprouts after fire. are coppiced low for optimal foliage production. Propagation and planting G. sepium is easily In woodlots first harvesting can be carried out 3 propagated from seed or cuttings. Direct seeding after 3-4 years giving wood yields of 8-15 m /ha is not often applied; potplants or bare rooted stock per year. Subsequent coppicing is done every 2-3 are raised in nurseries. No seed pre-treatment is years and yields up to 40% more than the first har- GLYCINE 139 vest. Wood production from living fences has been pida (Moench) Maxim. (1873), Soja max (L.) Piper reported at 9 m3/km per year. All harvested pro­ (1914). duce is normally locally utilized. Vernacular names Soya bean (En). Soybean Genetic resources and breeding Early intro­ (Am). Soia, soja, pois oléagineux de Chine (Fr). ductions in many countries usually had a very nar­ Indonesia: kedelai, kacang Jepun, kacang bulu. row genetic base and distinct landraces have Malaysia: kacang soya, kacang bulu rimau, evolved in several areas. Recent provenance eval­ kacang Jepun. The Philippines: utau, soybean, uations indicate significant differences in growth balatong. Burma: lasi, pengapi, peryatpym. Cam­ rates. Further rapid genetic gains can be expected, bodia: sândaèk sieng, sândaèk an gen sar. Laos: as seed production starts early, superior types can thwàx khôn, thwàx tê. Thailand: thua lueang, thua be cloned and production cycles are short. phra lueang, thua rae. Vietnam: dâu tuong, dâu Distinct selection programmes for high-yielding, nành, quantan. palatable fodder cultivars and for arboreal culti- Origin and geographic distribution Soya vars combining wood and foliage production are bean originated as a domesticate in the eastern desirable. Germplasm collections have been made half of northern China around the 11th Century by the Oxford Forestry Institute (UK), CATIE BC. From there, it spread to Manchuria, Korea, (Turrialba, Costa Rica), International Livestock Japan and the Soviet Union where the centuries- Centre for Africa Humid Zone Programme (Iba- long process of domestication took place. Soya dan, Nigeria) and Visayas State College of Agri­ beans were mentioned in Japanese literature culture (Leyte, the Philippines). The Oxford For­ around 712 AD. Soya bean was introduced to estry Institute administers an international Korea between 30 BC and 70 AD. In 1765, Samuel network of provenance evaluation. Bowen introduced soya bean to the United States Prospects Although quite common in South- from China. Soya beans were introduced from East Asia, Gliricidia sepium is not grown in large China, Japan and Korea to most of the South and numbers in many areas. There appears to be scope South-East Asian countries through the Silk for expansion of the cultivation of this versatile Route. tree. It has excellent properties for various forms Uses Soya beans are used in the preparation of of agro-forestry, as well as for site reclamation, a variety of fresh, fermented and dried food prod­ including suppression of such obnoxious weeds as ucts like milk, tofu, tempeh, miso,yuba , soya sauce Imperata cylindrica Beauv. Its prospects may be and bean sprouts. Soya beans are used not only for further enhanced depending on the results of food but they serve also as a cure for various dis­ breeding programmes and alley-cropping trials. eases and body ailments. Soya beans (preferably Literature |1|Chadhokar , P.A., 1982. Gliricidia black ones) are included in medicines to improve maculata, a promising legume fodder plant. World the action ofth e heart, liver, kidneys, stomach and Animal Review 44:36-43. |2|Hughes , CE., 1987.Bi ­ bowels. ological considerations in designing a seed collec­ Soya beans are processed to extract oilfo r food and tion strategy for Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. for numerous industrial purposes. As an edible oil, (Leguminosae). Commonwealth Forestry Review it enters the market as salad oil, cooking oil, mar­ 66(l):31-47. |3|Lindsa y Falvey, J., 1982. Gliricidia garine and shortening. The cake remaining after maculata - a review. International Tree Crops oil extraction is rich in protein and is predomi­ Journal 2:1-14. |4| Withington, D., Glover, N. & nantly used for feed. Modern uses ofsoy a bean pro­ Brewbaker, J., 1987. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) teins in food include defatted flours and grits, con­ Walp.: management and improvement. Nitrogen centrates, isolates, textured flours and textured Fixing Tree Association Special Publication 87-01. concentrates. 255 pp. Production and international trade Total (K.F. Wiersum) world area of soya bean is 52.6millio n ha and pro­ duction of soya beans is 96 million t. The United States has 48% of the total area with 56% of total Glycine max (L.) Merr. world production. Brazil ranks second with 10mil ­ lion ha and a production of 16 million t. China is Interpret. Rumph. Herb. Amboin. 274(1917) . the leading producer in Asia with 10millio n t from LEGUMINOSAE 7.5 million ha. Among the South and South-East 2n = 40 Asian countries, India and Indonesia were the Synonyms Phaseolus max L. (1753), Glycine his- major producers in 1986 with 1.0 and 1.2 million 144 A SELECTION the market. A high quality fibre is extracted from low, turning red to purple when ripe. Seed 1 per the inner bark, used among other things for the fruit, large and horny. famous Sumba bow strings, as well as for fishing Seeds take several months to 1yea r to germinate. lines and nets, the fibre being durable in sea water. Thejuvenil e phase lasts 5-8 years.Twig s flush and The wood is of no particular value, partly because flower throughout the year, but the climate in the additional cambia lead to an anomalous stem major centres imposes a degree ofsynchrony , often structure. leading to two distinct harvest periods per year. Properties The kernels are nutritious; they con­ Six botanical varieties are distinguished. Culti­ tain about 50% starch, 11% protein, a little fat vated trees belong to G.gnemon var.gnemon, char­ and 1.7 % ash. The leaves also are rich in minerals acterized by its tree habit and large fruit size. It and protein. is native to the Philippines, Sulawesi and Sumba Botany A slender dioecious evergreen tree with and towards the east of New Guinea and Fiji, but a straight dominant trunk, 5-10 m high, grey, it is often found naturalized in secondary forests marked with conspicuous elevated rings; trunk elsewhere in South-East Asia. The other varieties clad with numerous whorls of branches down to are shrubs with much smaller fruit. the base. Branches thickened at base.Leave s oppo­ Ecology The tree occurs wild in rain forests at site, elliptical, 7.5-20 cm x 2.5-10 cm; secondary elevations up to 1000 m; it is common on river- nerves bent, joining. banks in New Guinea. Areas with a distinct dry Inflorescences solitary and axillary, on older wood season seem to be preferred for cultivation, proba­ too. Female flowers 5-8 at each inflorescence bly because ofth e concentrated harvest in such en­ node, globose and tipped. Fruit 1-3.5 cm long, vironments. There appear to ben o specific require­ ellipsoid, shortly apiculate, almost velvety, yel- ments with respect to soil quality and depth, but moisture retention or water seepage should suffice to bridge the dry season. The tree has been recom­ mended for environmental protection (for 'green­ ing') programmes. Agronomy The tree ispropagate d from seed and by air layering. For small tree numbers, seedlings growing spontaneously under bearing trees are collected and raised in a nursery until they are large enough to be planted. For larger quantities of trees large mature seeds which have dropped from the tree are collected. After removal of the rind, the seed is dried in the shade and stored until a sufficient quantity has been gathered. The seed is pre-germinated in a box filled with alternating layers ofsee d and sand. After three months of daily watering, germination may be sufficiently advanced to be able to transfer the seedlings to the nursery, where they are raised - initially under shade - for six months or more, and then trans­ planted early in the rainy season. Using air layers has the advantage that the best mother trees can be selected, so that the young plant comes into fruit straight away and that only female (i.e.seed-producing ) trees are obtained. The success of air layers depends on the place of cinc­ turing: the top of the ring of bark to be removed should be at the edge of a swollen node. Rooting takes two months or more. After separation the layers have to be nursed for some time before field Gnetum gnemon L. - 1, branch with young fruits; planting: they are pruned to balance top and roots 2, branch with mature fruits; 3, female inflores­ and raised in the shade in pots. cences; 4,male inflorescences. Melinjo is grown as a garden tree or on field GossYPiuM 145 borders, as well as in mixed orchards (e.g. near Indonesia and Malaysia: kapas. Philippines: kâpas Jakarta) and even as a pure crop (e.g.nea r Batang, (Iloko), bûlak (Pangasinan), pernambûko (Taga- Central Java). Trees are planted about 5 m apart log). Cambodia: krabas. Laos: fay hua. Thailand: and once established, crop care is limited to occa­ faai. Vietnam: bông se. sional weeding. The tree recovers readily from Origin and geographical distribution The pruning which may be employed to limit tree wild species of Gossypium L. occur in arid regions height, to induce a flush ofshoot s for use as a vege­ of the tropics and subtropics. G. hirsutum or table, or to fashion the tree after repeated harvest­ upland cotton probably occurs wild in north-east­ ing of shoots. It is not clear to what extent the har­ ern Brazil. vesting of shoots interferes with fruiting. The Seed of upland cotton ('latifolium') was taken by inflorescences are borne on young shoots as well the Spaniards from a comparatively small area in as on older branches. The fruit is harvested by Mexico to the United States about AD 1700.I t has climbing the tree; as the branches break-off easily been introduced successfully into the tropics, sub- this isno t without risk. Information on pollination tropics and warm temperate regions of the world. requirements, yield levels and harvest periods is G. hirsutum is the major industrial cotton which lacking. began as a Peruvian coastal hybrid between G. No pests or diseases have been reported apart from arboreum L. (carried across the Bering Sea) and an unidentified sucking insect in Batang district G. raimondii Ulbrich. Nearly all cotton in South- that sometimes ruins the harvest. Trees may have East Asia is upland cotton. to be protected against rats and squirrels. Uses Cotton lint is the most important and ver­ Although the rind and the seeds can be eaten fresh, satile vegetable fibre in the world today and is the fruits are usually boiled or process to make woven into fabrics, either alone or combined with crisps. This isa n important home industry in Java; other fibres. The invention and the development after removing the rind the seed is carefully of the saw gin and the development of the factory heated, the tough husk is broken open and the hot system, together with the ease of production and kernel is pounded into a flat cake. The cakes are adaptability to machine manufacture, caused a sun-dried, graded and packed for sale. A crisp rapid expansion in the use of cotton. Although the snack ('emping') is prepared by cooking the cakes bulk is used for textile manufacture, cotton also in boiling oil until they inflate. supplies yarn, cordage, twine and tyre cord. The Prospects Better insight into the potential and seeds yield a semi-drying edible oil which is used actual yield levels is needed to be able to assess in lard substitutes (shortening), as salad and cook­ the prospects for the crop. The techniques of emp­ ing oil, and in margarine manufacture. Low-grade ing preparation leave room for improvement and oil is used in the manufacture of soap, lubricants, markets could be developed, perhaps even over­ sulphonated oils and protective coatings. The re­ seas. However such developments depend on size­ sidual seed cake, decorticated or undecorticated, able and reliable supplies,i.e .o n yield levels which is an important protein concentrate for livestock. will make growing melinjo attractive in compari­ Low-grade cake is used as manure. The whole seed son with alternative crops. may also be used as cattle feed. Cotton seed hulls Literature |1| International Board for Plant are used as roughage for livestock and as bedding Genetic Resources, 1981.Vegetables . IBPGR Sec­ and fuel. Dry stalks are excellent as household retariat, Rome. pp. 42-43 |2| Rahardja, P.C., 1982. fuel. The fuzz from seed delinting after ginning is Bertanam melinjo. P.T. Penebar Swadaya, Jak­ used in upholstery, felt, paper and explosives. arta. 42pp . |3| Rao, A.N. & Keng, H., 1975. Anoma­ Production and international trade The lous secondary growth in Gnetum gnemon. Annu­ world average consumption of cotton fibre is als of Botany 39:973-974. nearly 3kg/perso n per year, in the industrial world (E.W.M. Verheij) 8kg , in the developing world 1.5 kg. World produc­ tion in 1984ha s reached 39millio n t of seed cotton (seed + lint + fuzz), only part of which reached Gossypium hirsutum L. the world market. The main producing countries and their annual production in million t of seed Sp. PL ed. 2:97 5(1763) . cotton are: China 18,Sovie t Union 9,Unite d States MALVACEAE 8, India 4, Pakistan 3 and South-East Asia 0.3. 2/i = 52(2 6 + 26) Seed-cotton production in South-East Asia in 1000 Vernacular names Cotton (En). Coton (Fr). t per 1000ha : Burma 120/210,Thailan d 90/75,Indo - 146 A SELECTION

nesia 45/50,th e Philippines 6/5,Vietna m 9/16, Laos in length from the base to the top; nodes bearing 15/7,tota l 300/360.Th e total world production area leaves with axillary branches. Leaves spirally is about 36millio n ha, with 0.4millio n ha in South- arranged, long-petiolate; lamina usually 3-5- East Asia, less than 1% of the total area. The prin­ lobed, 7.5-15 cm x 7.5-15 cm, cordate at base and cipal exporting countries are the United States, with triangular and acuminate lobes, usually with Egypt, the Soviet Union and China. stellate hairs and glands on undersurface of main Cotton can be grown on smallholdings as well as veins; stipules present but caducous, falcate, ca. on large estates. 10m m x 4mm . Properties Among the world's major textile Flowers solitary on axillary, sympodial branches, fibres cotton has a unique combination of proper­ seemingly opposite the leaves, stalked with 3 ties, being strong, comfortable (especially in the glands near the top ofth e pedicel; epicalyx consist­ hot, humid weather of South-East Asia) cheap, ing of 3 (-4) large toothed segments; calyx small, washable, durable and printable. It also blends cup-shaped, obscurely lobed; petals 5,obovate , ca. well with other fibres to give it additional 5c m long, initially creamy-white and turning pink strength, lustre and crease resistance. or red; stamens numerous, filaments united in a 100 kg upland seed cotton contains some 35 kg staminal column; ovary superior, style inside sta- fibre and 62 kg clean cotton seed, the latter with minal tube, stigma lobed. Fruit a leathery, spheri­ 6 kg fuzz, 15k g hulls, 10k g oil and 31k g cake. The cal or ovoid capsule, 2-6 cm long, (3-) 4-5-locular cake contains 15k g crude protein, 15k g starch and with numerous seeds.Seed spear-shaped , 3.5-5m m 1 % gossypol, harmless to ruminants, but requir­ long; testa with short and very long, convoluted ing heating for use in pig or poultry feed. hairs. 1000-kernel weight is 100-130 g. Growth and development Depending on culti- Description A perennial shrub, usually culti­ var and climate, the growth period ranges between vated as an annual subshrub, 1-1.5 (-3) m high. 160 and 220 days. Normally the crop stands on the Tap root robust, often with 4 rows of lateral roots. field for 6 months. The hypocotyl appears above Main stem monopodial with internodes decreasing the ground 4-10 days after sowing. Cotton remains unbranched until at least 1 month after planting. Branching isdimorphic . The main-stem apex initi­ ates main-stem leaves and lateral buds in the axils of these leaves. Normally only one bud develops. At lower nodes the true axillary bud remains vege­ tative and may develop into a vegetative branch (monopodium), replicating the main stem and car­ ried at an acute angle. After floral induction the extra-axillary buds at subsequent main-stem nodes are reproductive and develop into horizontal fruit­ ing branches (sympodia). The fruiting branches usually appear between the fourth and the ninth main-stem nodes in upland cultivars. A sympodial apex initiates one true leaf and then transforms into a flower primordium. The axillary bud be­ tween the flower bud and the leaf continues growth of the branch, producing a further seg­ ment, which in turn also terminates with a flower bud and a leaf which has an axillary bud. The de­ velopment of successive axillary buds along a branch may be repeated leading to a typical zigzag structure. A visible flower bud is called a 'square', a developing fruit a 'boll'. In upland cotton 0-4 vegetative branches are formed, which in turn may carry secondary sympodia. The main stem does not Gossypium hirsutum L. - 1, flowering branch; 2, carry flowers. flower in longitudinal section; 3, fruit; 4, opened Flowering starts about 8 weeks after planting and fruit. normally continues for 6week s or more, but under GOSSYPIUM 147 optimum conditions the bulk of the crop is derived number of fruiting branches and reduces the crop­ from the first 3-4 weeks of flowering. The time ping period. Cotton is a sun-loving plant and can­ taken from flowering to the opening of the boll is not tolerate shade, particularly in the seedling about 8 weeks. Fibres reach their full, genetically stage. Reduced light intensity, due to prolonged determined length during the first 4 weeks and overcast weather, shading from interplanted crops then cellulose is deposited inside the fibre cell dur­ or too dense a stand of cotton, retards flowering ing the next 4week s until maturity. and fruiting and increases boll shedding. Shedding Other botanical information The cultivated of over 50% of squares, flowers or young bolls, due cottons are found in 4 of the Gossypium species: to early bollworm, drought orwaterlogging , is nor­ these are the diploid Old World cottons G. arbo­ mal. Upland cottons are day-neutral. reum L. and G. herbaceum L., and the tetraploid The crop will not tolerate very heavy rainfall and, New World cottons G.hirsutum and G. barbadense where grown as a rain-fed crop, the average rain­ L. fall is usually 800-1200 mm. Modern cotton culti­ Several subdivisions of G. hirsutum have been pro­ vars have some ability to overcome drought, and posed, especially in varieties, but these differ to recover from a dry spell to resume growth and such an extent that they are not presented here. fruiting. Adequate, but not excessive, moisture is - G. arboreum: the flowers are yellow with a pur­ required for early vegetative growth. The first plish base and a coarsely pitted, tapering cap­ flowering period requires relative dryness to speed sule. It originates from Asia. up formation of fruiting branches. An increase in - G. barbadense: Sea-island cotton. It has initially moisture is required for boll setting and renewed yellow, later pink, flowers with a basal reddish growth, followed by dry weather for ripening and spot and a coarsely pitted capsule. It originates harvest. Sufficient soil moisture is essential dur­ from tropical South America. ing the flowering period. - G. herbaceum: it has yellow flowers with a pur­ Cotton can be grown on avariet y ofsoil sfro m light plish base and a smooth, rounded capsule. It sandy soils to heavy alluvium and Rendzina-type probably originates from eastern Africa. clays. Soils must be permeable to water and to Commercial cottons can be classified by length of roots to a depth of at least 100 cm, preferably over lint: 150 cm, with pH 5.5-8.5. Cotton is one of the more - very short staple (< 16mm) ,typicall y from culti- salt-tolerant crops. vars of G. herbaceum and G. arboreum, known Propagation and planting Commercial cotton collectively as 'desi' cottons, rain-grown; is always grown from seed. Seeds may be treated - short staple (16-24 mm), ditto; with mud or cow dung to make sowing easier. It - medium staple (25-28 mm), mainly from upland is usually recommended that fuzzy seeds should be cultivars of G.hirsutum, mainly rain-grown; delinted by machine (or, much more costly and - long staple (29-33 mm), from long-stapled environmentally difficult by concentrated sul­ upland cultivars and cultivars of G. barbadense, phuric acid), because delinted seeds are easier to rain-grown or under irrigation; plant by machine than by hand, and germinate fas­ - extra-long staple (> 35 mm), from cultivars of ter. In peasant cultivation ginners are normally G. barbadense, grown under irrigation. required to set aside seed for planting. Seeds The very drought-hardy 'desi' cottons are still should bestore d in cool,dry ,well-ventilate d condi­ grown for local, coarse cloth and the oil in its seed tions before they are transported later to the seed but, on the whole, it is an insignificant crop found distribution centres. in drier areas. Inth e tropics most cotton isgrow n by smallholders Ecology Cotton performs best in desert cli­ who sell their seed cotton to the ginners. Ginneries mates, under irrigation. Commercial cotton pro­ may be privately, cooperatively or state owned. duction now extends from 37° N to 32° Si n the New Cotton is also grown as a second or dry season World, and from 47° N in the Ukraine to 30° S in crop, based on residual soil moisture. Planted clo­ the Old World. It grows on lowland below 1000 m. sely when using short season cultivars, or grown The optimum temperature for germination is3 4°C , normally where supplementary irrigation is avail­ for the growth of seedlings 24-29°C , and for later able. Here it meets stiff competition from more val­ continuous growth 34°C . Low temperature uable crops such as vegetables or tobacco on non- increases the production of vegetative branches saline soils, or less laborious crops such as maize and extends the cropping period. Cotton is suscep­ or soya beans. tible to frost. High temperature increases the Cultivation ismostl y done by animal-drawn impie- 148 A SELECTION ments (oxen or water-buffaloes, 15anima l days and The recommended combination of high plant den­ man-days/ha) or byhan d (50man-days/ha ) and still sity and control of insect pests will increase the only rarely, by two or four-wheeled tractors (150 economic response to,an d thus the demand for, fer­ kWh/ha). In view of the small size of farms, con­ tilizers, especially N and K. On acid soils N and tract cultivation is the norm. P, and on sandy soils K are then particularly in The land should be prepared early and to a depth demand. Sustainable cotton growing is possible of at least 15cm . Planting should be early, as soon only on a nutrient replacement basis per hectare: as rainfall is adequate for the germination and N100 kg, P 40kg , K8 0k g to produce 11see d cotton growth of the crop. Peasant-grown cotton com­ and 3 t stalks (rain-fed) and N 180 kg, P 60 kg, K monly suffers from delayed planting, priority 120 kg to produce 2.5 t seed cotton and 5 t stalks being given to the food crops. In hand planting, (irrigated). Half the N and all the P and K should cotton isusuall y sown at a seed rate of 11-14 kg/ha be placed in a groove 5c m away from the intended and at a depth of about 25 mm with 3-6 seeds per plant line and the rest of the N as a side dressing hole in rows or ridges. Ridges are an advantage 6week s after sowing. as they can be tied to conserve water under dry Cotton should not be grown for more than 3 out conditions and aid drainage under wet conditions. of 4 years on the same field. It grows well in rota­ Thinning isdon e when the plants are 6-10 cm high tion with cereals, tobacco and leguminous crops. and 2plant s per hill are usually left. The optimum Diseases and pests Diseases are of less impor­ spacing depends on the size and fruitfulness of the tance than pests. The most common diseases are plant permitted by local conditions, and on the bacterial blight (Xanthomonas malvacearum) and interactions between cultivar, soil and fertilizer Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), (often asso­ treatment, and climate. It ranges from 80-20 cm ciated with nematodes). Excellent varietal resis­ to 100-40 cm with 1-2 plants per hill. Plant densi­ tance is available against bacterial blight and fair ties may vary between 40000-100000 plants/ha, resistance against Fusarium wilt. Growing cotton but are generally between 50000-6 000 0 plants/ha. only once every 3 years or more on the same field Husbandry Cotton seedlings are sensitive to with resistant cultivars will check these diseases. competition from weeds that should be controlled No resistance isavailabl e against the dreaded leaf- early to prevent damage to the crop. Blanket weed­ roll complex so far only found in Thailand. Some ing against the first flush of weeds before sowing, control is possible by growing planting seed only close planting, early and frequent weeding, place­ on isolated fields free and far from any leaf-roll. ment of manure, fertilizing and banking-up some Moreover, scrupulous weekly roguing of each fur­ 6week s after sowing, all help to reduce hand weed­ ther generation of rapid (i.e. high yield) seed mul­ ingt osom e 15man-days/ha . It alsohelp st o prevent tiplication is necessary, while keeping the fields weed-borne white fly. Chemical weed control 'free from suspected vectors (e.g. aphids and white applied to smallholders' cotton usually is a costly fly). error. Cotton has a wide spectrum of successive pests. In Irrigation intervals on deep permeable sandy some countries with irresponsible insecticide pro­ loams to heavy clays should be 2-3 weeks and less paganda, this has lead to excessive self-perpetuat­ for very light, very heavy and shallow soils. The ing spraying, killing off all natural enemies and irrigation period should be 19weeks ; a longer peri­ a neglect of good farming practices. Farmers and od is a sign of poor water management and may cotton workers in the Philippines and Burma are result in a high level ofpes t incidence. Most irriga­ becoming receptive to an integrated approach to tion is by gravity using furrows. Water saving is crop protection. possible by alternate furrow irrigation or by hand- Bollworms are among the most serious cotton watering with a hose pipe. As little fertilizer is pests. They feed in the bolls damaging lint and seed used in cotton growing in South-East Asia, animal and causing considerable reduction in yield and manure, preferably bulked up five-fold or more by quality. The main bollworms are American boll- composting, is almost the only means available for worm (Heliothis armigera) which also thrives on fertilization. It should be applied inside the furrow e.g. maize, sorghum and citrus; pink bollworm close to the future plant lines or in each plant hole. (Platyedra gossypiella) and spiny bollworm (Earias The only fertilizer available to any extent is urea. spp.). This is applied in quantities of up to 100 kg/ha Leaf, stem and bud-sucking bugs can cause consid­ when rain-fed or up to 150 kg/ha when irrigated, erable damage to cotton. Jassids (Empoasca spp.) carefully side-dressed and covered during early are the first pest to appear but a dense coating of squaring. GossYPiuM 149

long hairs (> 100/cm2an d > 0.6 mm)o n leaves and tion, the actual picking and forced cleaning have stems provides excellent protection. White fly to be accounted for. (Bemisia) and cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), are Yield Present seed-cotton yields vary between later season pests. Cotton stainers (Dysdercus 800 kg/ha in Africa and 2500 kg/ha in the Soviet spp.) occur in all cotton-growing countries. About Union. Under favourable climatic conditions, pest 4 alternating sprayings of organophosphates and control and irrigation, yields of 3000 kg/ha (1100 pyrethroids can overcome this pest. This has been kg lint) are feasible. Under rain-fed conditions convincingly proved in the Philippines where sub­ yields of 1000 kg/ha seed cotton (350 kg lint) can stantial further savings on insecticides were be achieved. The lint percentage (also known as achieved by using careful spot-spraying and top- the ginning out-turn) varies between 33-40% spraying only. Here,fai r preventive control can be according to cultivar. obtained by strict phyto-sanitation, very early cul­ The average yield in fibre in South-East Asia is 250 tivation of maize or sorghum followed by early, kg/ha, in Indonesia 300, the Philippines 400, Thai­ close planting of cotton using an early maturing land 400, Burma 200, Laos 700,Vietna m 200.T o be cultivar. competitive cotton should have a farmgate price The many closerelative s to cotton occurring in the for seed cotton which is 3x that ofth e staple grain same or adjacent ecological areas can be a source (paddy, maize or sorghum). of insect pests, especially stainers. Therefore, cot­ Handling after harvest After picking the seed ton stalks must be pulled out to prevent ratooning cotton is cleaned and graded. Subsequently the and the subsequent build-up of disastrous early lint is removed from the seeds by ginning, which populations of insect pests. can be done with a hand gin (capacity of 2-3 kg Nematodes are rarely a problem but can be con­ lint/hour) or mechanically with a saw gin (capaci­ trolled by rotation whereby cotton is cropped once ty of 300 kg lint/hour) for the shorter-stapled cot­ every 3 or more years. Usually cotton is used as tons or with a roller gin (capacity of 30 kg lint/ a nematode-cleaning crop by tobacco and vegeta­ hour) for the longer-stapled fine types. After gin­ ble growers as it seems to shed infested hair roots ning the lint is spun into yarn and the seed fed to leaving the young nematodes to perish. ruminant livestock, exported or processed into Harvesting All cotton in South-East Asia is vegetable oil and cotton cake. The lint is baled picked by hand which creates some 40-60 man- under pressure and covered with hessian or days/ha of work for farmers' families or village la­ another material. bourers, usually women. It also produces beauti­ The seed from the first 1/3 of the crop picked is fully clean seed cotton that can be ginned easily usually the most viable and is kept separately in and cheaply in low-cost ginneries. One picker can clearly marked bags. The lint from the first 2/3 of harvest 25-40 kg of seed cotton per day depending the crop is also the most mature and strong. on the availability of open bolls. Picking is very Genetic resources Germplasm collections are laborious. It should be done every 3-4 weeks, so accessible through the United States Department that open cotton is not left in the field for too long of Agriculture (USDA), Beltsville (United States) which may result indeterioratio n ofth e colour and and FAO, Rome. the quality of the lint. It is then sorted into clean Breeding Generally American uplands are the and stained cotton before marketing. Harvesting main sources of improving performance regarding begins about 4 months after sowing, lasts for 2 earliness, yield, response to close spacing, fertiliz­ months and 2-3 pickings are usually done. Com­ er and irrigation, rapid and strong leaf develop­ plaints often heard concerning shortage of picking ment, boll weight, ginning percentage, fibre length labour are nearly always due to low payment (a and strength. African (ex-American) uplands con­ piece-work rate per kg clean picked seed cotton of tribute to vigour and persistence, fibre weight less than 1/8 of the farmgate price of seed cotton (micronaire) and maturity, and resistance to jas- or less than 1/3 ofthat of the staple grain). sids, bacterial blight and drought. The triple Machine picking by stripping or spindle-picking, hybrid G. hirsutum (G. arboreum x thurberi however, is far more expensive, since losses may Todaro) improves yield potential, ginning-percent- amount to 25% of the farmgate price of seed cot­ age and fibre strength. Further interspecific ton. They are the result of using a wider row spac­ hybrids are being tried using wild African, Ameri­ ing, spoiling cotton by dropping, and the loss of can, Arabian and Australian diploids. Advanced grade and staple due to rough handling and forced selections from this hi-tech work are usually avail­ heat cleaning. On top of this, the costs of defolia­ able to cotton breeders all over the world. This may 150 A SELECTION provide a source of leaf-roll resistance urgently press. j5| Munro, J.M., 1987. Cotton. Longman, needed in Thailand. London. 436pp . |6|Mutsaers , H.J.W., 1982. Kutun, More than half of the research in cotton is breed­ a morphogenetic model for cotton. Ph.D. Thesis ing work, which indicates an over-estimate of its Wageningen Agricultural University. 97 pp. |7| contribution to cotton growing or the textile Oldeman, L.R. & Frère, M., 1982. A study of the industry. In effect, yield level, area cultivated, agroclimatology of the humid tropics of South- employment and net earnings depend more on East Asia. FAO, Rome. 229 pp. |8| Tavarasook prices and farming practices (like moisture man­ Charaspan, 1980. Cotton in Thailand. Internatio­ agement, crop protection and fertilizer use) than nal Consultancy on Cotton Production and on genetic yield potential. Improvement of these Research, Manila, the Philippines. practices depends on out-of-station involvement of (G.J. Kerkhoven &A . Koopmans) researchers in farming. Cotton breeders should share responsibility for seed multiplication from the yearly issue of selfed Heritiera simplicifolia (Masters) Kos- breeders' seed to the yearly supply of pure and term. sound farmers' planting seed. It should be grown in isolation on 1/10 ofth e intended production area Madjelis Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia [Council close to reputed ginneries, ginned, mechanically for Sciences of Indonesia]. Penerbitan [Publica­ delinted and possibly treated under supervision. tion] 1.A monograp h ofth e genus Heritiera Aiton: Prospects The marketing of most cotton in 52-56 (1959). Also: Reinwardtia 4(4): 514-518 South-East Asia isstil l not well developed enough, (1959). making it unattractive to farmers. So, many STERCULIACEAE farmers abandon cotton growing, turn to low input 2n = unknown crops, or neglect it. Synonyms Tarrietia simplicifolia Masters Prospects for higher yields by applying integrated (1874). crop protection and for expansion of rain-grown Vernacular names Mengkulang (standard cotton are bright in Burma and in Thailand. The trade name for several Heritiera spp.). Brunei: drive in Indonesia is towards expansion of hectar- kembang. Indonesia: teraling (Sumatra), mempa- age depending on the doubtful prospects of maize. tar putih (Bangka), tabajang (Bassap-Dyak), karai Philippine cotton production is declining due to (Sandakan-Borneo), serikaja (Sangkulirang-Bor- the low-price state-like cotton monopoly. Vietnam neo),pangaita n (Dusun-Dyak). Malaysia: mengku­ is concentrating on expansion of area rather than lang siku keluang, malima (Peninsula), kembang on increasing yields, but in view of the shortage (Sabah, Sarawak). of land and low yields it may consider reversing Note:mos t ofthes e names are also used for related its priorities. Laos is steadily increasing its yield species. level but may also expand its cotton area. Cambo­ Origin and geographic distribution H. simpli­ dia and Malaysia have virtually no cotton or cot­ cifolia is found in the Malay Peninsula (not in Per­ ton prospects. Sustainable expansion of cotton lis, Kedah and Penang), Sumatra and Borneo. It production in South-East Asia can be expected to is widely distributed but always occurs scattered. take place mainly in Burma and Thailand. Essen­ Uses The wood is a very good general-utility tial to thisdevelopmen t are integrated crop protec­ timber. It is not very durable, but suitable for inte­ tion and an attractive farm price for seed cotton. rior construction, flooring, furniture, ship masts Literature |1| Adkisson, P.L. et al., 1982. Con­ and other ship constructions above the waterline. trolling cotton's insect pests: a new system. On the export market it is recommended for join­ Science 216:19-22. |2| Cauquil, J. & Follin, J.C., ery, flooring and other purposes as an alternative 1983. Presumed virus and mycoplasma-like organ­ to a dense type of mahogany. It makes attractive ism diseases in Sub Saharan Africa and in the rest veneer and plywood. of the world. Coton et Fibres Tropicales Production and international trade H. simpli­ 38(4):309-317. |3| Hearn, A.B. & Constable, G.A., cifolia ismostl y of local importance and is not gen­ 1984.Cotton . In:Goldsworthy , P.R. &Fisher , N.M. erally available in commercially important quan­ (Editors): The physiology of tropical field crops. tities for shipment from Malaysia and Indonesia John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 495-527. |4| as a separate timber. It is much exported from the Kerkhoven, G.J., 1988.Agricultura l Compendium, Riau Archipelago to Singapore. It is also traded Chapter 6. Elsevier Publishers, Amsterdam. In in combination with the Dipterocarpaceae Shorea HERITIERA 151 spp. dark red lauan from the Philippines and dark Wood characteristics H. simplicifolia is a me­ red meranti from Malaysia. dium-weight, pink-brown, moderately hard, ma­ Description Large monoecious evergreen tree, hogany-like wood, with a volumetric mass of up to 50m high and about 135c m in diameter; but­ 640-720 kg/m3. It resembles the closely related tresses large, up to 3 m high and up to 2 m wide, niangon from West Africa (H. utilis (Sprague) thin. Crown rather open, made up of a few large Sprague). The heartwood is brown, red-brown or branches and spreading to 36m . Bole straight and dark red-brown; the sapwood is 4-12 cm wide, yel­ columnar. Bark 2-3 mm, yellowish-orange with low, light red or light red-brown, not always darker spots, fissured or smooth, peeling off in clearly demarcated. The grain is straight to deeply strips of 20 cm x 3 cm; living bark 5-8 mm, pink interlocked, the texture moderately coarse to to brown. Leaves simple, alternate, rigid coria­ coarse. Occasionally fiddleback or ray figures are ceous;petiol e 2.5-6 cmlong ,thickene d at apex and present. The wood islustrous , containing silica; its base; blade broadly elliptical to obovate elliptical, mechanical properties are close to those of teak; (3.5-) 4.5-10 (-13) cm x (6-) 7.5-17 cm, emargi- but it is stiffer and tougher, and generally superior nate at apex, subacute at base; secondary veins to niangon. parallel, numerous; upper surface glabrous, lower Growth rings are rather indistinct, but are gener­ surface covered with tiny star-like scales. ally indicated by widely spaced lines of terminal Inflorescences paniculate, axillary, 3-9 cm long, parenchyma or by variation in the size and number densely red hairy; flowers bell-shaped, 1.5-2 mm of the pores, though the wood is diffuse-porous. long, violet; calyx 5-lobed; male flowers have a Vessels moderate to large sized, visible without very short androgynophore. Infructescence up to lens, (100-) 260(-320 ) |xm,fe w to rather numerous, 10 cm long; fruit a samara, greenish-red; nut obli­ usually evenly distributed, solitary and in radial quely ovoid, up to 15m m long and 12m m in diame­ multiples of2-6 ; occasionally lumina with reddish ter; wing up to 9 cm x 3 cm. Seedling and sapling gum deposits or blocked by tyloses; perforations leaves palmately compound. simple. Parenchyma not distinct without lens, vasicentric, 1-4 cells wide,alifor m with very short wings, and diffuse in aggregates, sometimes numerous; tangential lines between the rays, rar­ ely continuous; lumina sometimes with red gum; crystals occasionally present. Rays not distinct without lens on transverse surface, conspicuous on the radial one, producing a silvery grain; heter­ ogeneous, in 2 sizes, 1-8, usually 4-5 cells wide and 20-65 cells high; lumina with red gum and sili­ ca grains. Fibres non-septate, medium thick- walled. Gum ducts absent. Growth and development H. simplicifolia flowers at the beginning of the rainy season, but not every year. In Malaysia flowering is from (Feb­ ruary-) April-June (-September), fruiting from March to October. Other botanical information In the view of Kostermans the genus Heritiera Dryand. com­ prises 29 species ranging from India, Malaysia, New Guinea and the Pacific region to tropical Aus­ tralia with 2specie s in tropical Africa. The genera Argyrodendron F. Muell. and Tarrietia Blume have been united with Heritiera. Whether the merging of Heritiera with Tarrietia is justified seems doubtful, the first being characterized by basal nerves and scales, while the latter has pinna- tely veined leaves or leaflets and stellate scales. Heritiera simplicifolia (Masters) Kosterm. -1, flow­ Apart from H. simplicifolia, the timber of H. java- ering branch; 2, fruit. nica (Bl.)Kosterm. , H. borneensis (Merr.) Kosterm. 152 A SELECTION

and H. aurea Kosterm. is also commercially impor­ timber. Its scattered appearance in natural forests tant and widely used in Malaysia and Brunei, and hampers its commercialization and endangers its it is exported from Sumatra to Singapore. H. litto- survival, if cut without management precautions. ralis Aiton is valuable to local markets (it grows Research on all silvicultural aspects is urgently in the transient zone from mangrove to fresh water needed. swamp from East Africa and India to tropical Aus­ Literature |1| Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of tralia, including Indo-China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Depart­ the Philippines and Papua New Guinea). H. utilis ment, Sabah, Malaysia, pp.461-465 . |2jDahms , K.- (Sprague) Sprague and H. densiflora (Pellegr.) G., 1981.Asiatische , Ozeanische und Australische Kosterm. are exported from Africa. H.forties Buch.- Exporthölzer. DRW-Verlag, pp.192-194 . |3| Desch, Ham. is extensively used locally in India and H.E., 1954. Manual of Malayan Timbers. Malayan Burma. Forest Records No 15. Malaya Publishing House, Ecology H. simplicifolia is found scattered (less Singapore. Vol. 2:583-588. |4| Farmer, R.H., 1972. than 1 tree/ha) in lowland mixed dipterocarp for­ Handbook of Hardwoods. 2nd ed. Department of est, on flat or undulating terrain with well-drained the Environment. Building Research Establish­ clay soils,u p to 300m in altitude. ment, Princess Risborough Laboratory. Her Stand establishment and management H. Majesty's Stationary Office, London, United utilis in Africa is artificially regenerated by strip Kingdom, pp. 126-127. |5i Foxworthy, F.W., 1927. planting. It could be that a similar method is pos­ Commercial timber trees of the Malay Peninsula. sible for the closely related H. simplicifolia. Natu­ Malayan Forest Records No 3. Federated Malay ral regeneration techniques as used in regular States Government, pp. 144-146. |6| Lopez, D.T., management of mixed dipterocarp silviculture 1981. Malaysian timbers - Mengkulang. Malay­ may provide another method, but pure stands are sian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 47. 7 pp. |7| probably not a good management target. More­ Whitmore, T.C., 1973.Tre e flora ofMalaya . A man­ over, natural regeneration seems to be scanty. ual for foresters. Forest Department, Ministry of Handling after harvest A common defect of//. Primary Industries Malaysia, Forest Research simplicifolia is said to be brittle heart, up to a core Institute, Kepong. Longman. Vol. 2:363-364. of 15 cm. Logs are rarely attacked by pinhole bee­ (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand) tles (Ambrosia sp.).Th e silica in the wood, and the occasional irregular grain make sawing fairly dif­ ficult. The wood dries quite quickly with only very Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.L. Juss.) slight seasoning defects, such as cupping, bowing Muell. Arg. and springing. Once dry, the timber israte d as hav­ ing only small movements in service. Quartersawn Linnaea 34:20 4(1865) . faces may pick up in planing, but a 20° cutting EUPHORBIACEAE angle will produce a smooth finish. Blunting 2n = 36 effects on tools are severe to medium. It is difficult Vernacular names Natural rubber, para rub­ to turn and to chisel, and straight-through mortis­ ber (En). Caoutchouc (Fr). Indonesia: karet. ing is inadvisable due to splintering of the exit Malaysia: getah asli. Cambodia: kausuu. Laos: faces. It nails fairly well, but preboring is advised. jaang. Thailand: yang phara. Vietnam: cao su. Glueing gives no problems. Finishing with the Origin and geographic distribution The usual treatments gives good results, when the centre of origin of natural rubber covers part of grain isproperl y filled. The wood peels satisfactor­ the Amazon Basin, parts of Matto Grosso (Upper ily, and also makesver y good hardboard and super- Orinoco) and the Guianas. Geographically, wild hardboard. and semi-wild Hevea is found in the northern part The wood is not very durable, but is rated as dur­ of South America from Brazil to Venezuela and able for interior work in the tropics and under dry from Colombia to Peru and Bolivia. conditions. It is prone to termite and marine borer Natural rubber was first introduced into South- attack, but is not particularly susceptible to East Asia from the Neotropics in 1876. Early powder-post beetle attack. It is rapidly destroyed attempts to encourage its planting were not well by fungi when in contact with the ground. It is not received. However, with the arrival and expansion a difficult timber to treat with preservatives (it is of the motor car industry and the increased classified as 'average'). demand for natural rubber, it soon grew into an Prospects H. simplicifolia provides valuable important plantation crop in a number of tropical HEVEA 153 and subtropical countries. Today, rubber is grown New York, Tokyo and Kobe, where quotations of in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Viet­ spot and future prices are readily available on nam and China in Asia, as well as Ivory Coast, every trading day. Nigeria, Cameroon, Liberia and Gabon in Africa. Prices of natural rubber move in tandem with the In South America, particularly in Brazil, despite level of industrial activity and short-term imba­ the massive opening up of new land for rubber cul­ lances in supply and demand in the industrialized tivation, production continues to be hampered by countries. Historically, price movement follows a major leaf disease known as South American rubber trade cycles with each cycle averaging 48 Leaf Blight. months. Currently, natural rubber of all types and Uses The rubber tree, when tapped, produces a grades is enjoying high prices with SMR-CV (Stan­ milky liquid (latex). The latex can be processed dard Malaysian Rubber - Constant Viscosity) and into latex concentrate, sheet rubber or block rub­ RSSl (Ribbed Smoked Sheet) averaging more than ber; iti smarkete d tomanufacturer s asnatura l raw US$ 1.20 per kg (1988),th e highest in many years. rubber. The United States is still the world's largest con­ The main users ofnatura l raw rubber are tyre man­ sumer of natural rubber. In 1986, it consumed ufacturers who consume 60-70 % of the total 74545 0 t or 17% of the world's total production; world volume of natural rubber produced. The bal­ next came Japan (534970 t or 12.2%), China ance isdivide d among manufacturers ofrubbe r car (420960 t or 9.6%), India (254330 t or 5.8%) and components (e.g. producing engine mountings, South Korea (17978 5 or 4.1%). West Germany, bushes, weather strips, V-belts, hoses and joint France, Italy and the United Kingdom account for rings), manufacturers of engineering components 618285 t or 14.1%. Other countries, including (e.g.buildin g mounts, anti-vibration mounts, dock Eastern Europe, account for 16312201 or 37.2 %. fenders, flooring and high quality sheeting), and Properties Latex consists of a colloidal suspen­ manufacturers of consumer products (e.g. foot­ sion of rubber particles in an aqueous serum. The wear, sports goods, toys, gloves, latex threads, rubber content oflate x may vary from 25-40 % but catheters, swimming caps and condoms). is usually between 30-35 %. Properties of rubber Moreover, when felled for replanting, the rubber depend on the processing of the raw product after tree is also sawn to give rubber wood (i.e. timber). collection. With proper treatment, it can be used for high val­ The natural rubber molecule is made up of many ue added products like furniture, chipboard, par­ isoprene units forming a polymer, chemically quet and many other wood products. Furthermore, known as css-l,4-poly-isoprene (C5H8)n with a high rubber wood can also be converted into fuel char­ molecular weight. Rubber generally has a high vis­ coal. cosity which, for freshly prepared natural rubber, Seeds contain a semi-drying oil that can be used ranges from 55-90 centipoise. In storage and dur­ in making paints and soap. ing transit, the viscosity of natural rubber Production and international trade Of the increases to 70-100 centipoise depending on the total world consumption of about 13.6 million t of duration. rubber in 1986,4.3 9 million t or 32.3% was natural Owing to its high structural regularity, natural rubber. Of the world natural rubber supply 92 % rubber tends to crystallize when stored at low tem­ comes from Asia, with Malaysia, Indonesia, Thai­ perature or when stretched. The strain-induced land and Sri Lanka as the major producers, ac­ crystallization behaviour gives natural rubber its counting for about 80% . The total area of natural unique high tensile strength in pure gum or in non- rubber is estimated to be around 7millio n ha. reinforcing filler vulcanisâtes. The most important group of rubber producers are Natural rubber has an intrinsic density of about smallholders who cultivate more than three 0.92 g/cm3 and a bulk density of 0.85 g/cm3. It has quarters of the world area. In Thailand more than a tendency to cold-flow unless restricted by physi­ 95% of all rubber is grown on smallholdings. In cal constraints. Indonesia and Malaysia these proportions are Properties of latex concentrate are specifically about 80% and 65% respectively. Rubber is partic­ defined by the dry rubber content (d.r.c), the vola­ ularly suitable as a tree crop for smallholders. tile fatty acid number (V.F.A.) ,mechanica l stabili­ The bulk of natural rubber is exported mainly to ty time (M.S.T.), the KOH number, alkalinity, col­ industrialized countries. This explains why the our, etc. The properties of latex concentrate commodity is actively traded on the international specify that the dry rubber content (%) should be markets in Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, London, a minimum of 60, the difference between d.r.c. and 154 A SELECTION t.s.c. (total solid content) should not exceed 2%; main stem, or stem leader dominated by a diffuse the volatile fatty acid number should not exceed array of heavy branches. Leaves alternate or 0.20 but a typical latex concentrate can be kept at subopposite at apex of shoot, trifoliolate, petioles a low level of V.F.A. (e.g. <0.05 ) with good preser­ long with apical glands; stipules deciduous. Leaf­ vatives; the minimum requirement of mechanical lets elliptic or obovate, 4-50 cm x 1.5-15 cm, stability time is 650 seconds; the KOH number (g), entire and pinnately veined. Flowers in axillary which determines the ionic content of latex, panicles onbasa l part ofne w flush, unisexual, with should not exceed 1.0, although immediately after bell-shaped, 5-lobed perianth, bright yellow on production it is usually 0.4-0.5; the alkalinity of ripening; male flowers smaller than and outnum­ the latex with low ammonia type is 0.2 % and with bering the female flowers, attached at the base of high ammonia type 0.6 %; the coagulum content the lateral branchlets of the inflorescence, with a (%) should not be equal to or greater than 0.05; staminal column with 10 sessile anthers spirally the dried latex film should be a light colour. arranged; female flowers located at the apices of The properties of raw rubber are subject to the the main and lateral branchlets of the inflores­ Standard Malaysian Rubber (S.M.R.) grades. Cur­ cence, with a green disk at base and a superior, rently, there are 9 S.M.R. grades (see reference 8 3-celled ovary terminated by 3 sessile sticky stig­ for their properties). mas. Fruit a 3-lobed capsule, 3-5 cm in diameter, Description A tree, 30-40 m high, about 15 m light brown when mature. Seed 1 per carpel, ovoid, in cultivation. Root system massive, tap-root 1-2 about 2c m x 1cm . m long, laterals spreading to about 10 m. Trunk Wood characteristics Rubber wood is a light cylindrical, bark smooth to slightly corky and pale hardwood with an air-dry volumetric mass ranging to dark brown in colour. Branching varying consi­ from 560-640 kg/m3. The timber is whitish-yellow derably; shape conical with light branches emerg­ when freshly cut and turns pale cream when sea­ ing from a prominent main stem, broom or fan- soned, often with a pinkish tinge. The sapwood is shaped with 4-5 heavy branches coming out of a not differentiated from the heartwood. It has a moderately coarse but even texture and a straight to shallowly interlocked grain. The wood is very susceptible to insect and fungal attacks and there­ fore requires good preservative treatment before use. The wood is easy to saw and crosscut, without severe blunting of the saw-teeth. It is also easy to plane, turn and bore, producing smooth surfaces. Rubber wood has good nailing properties and is fairly resistant to splitting when nailed. Rubber wood seasons fairly rapidly and shrinkage is quite small. Consequently, products made from properly dried rubber wood will retain their shape and will not distort or split during usage under normal con­ ditions. Bark characteristics From the periphery to­ wards the centre the bark consists of cork layers, hard bark, and soft bark. Soft bark mainly consists of vertical rows of sieve tubes and latex vessels. Latex vessels are modified sieve tubes. They are formed from the cambium in concentric rings as cells which fuse longitudinally while the cross- walls disintegrate. Within each ring, vessels are laterally interconnected but the connections are disrupted as the trunk expands. Latex vessels of trunk, branches and leaves are interconnected. The latex-vessel cylinders generally run clock­ Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.L. Juss.) Muell. wise at an angle of about 3.5°t o the vertical, which Arg. -1, flowering branch; 2, fruit. is why tapping cuts are made from upper-left to HEVEA 155 lower-right. The diameter of the latex vessels, the flowers develop into mature fruit. This develop­ number of vessels per ring and the number of rings ment takes about 5 months. Seeds are viable only in the virgin bark are important characteristics, for a few days. Storage in sealed containers with because they largely determine the content of the damp sawdust can extend the viability period to latex vessel system of a tree. one month. Growth and development Germination of Other botanical information At present 10 seeds usually takes place 7-10 days after sowing. species are distinguished in Hevea: H. brasiliensis, Seedlings and buddings exhibit growth periodi­ H. benthamiana Muell. Arg., H. camargoana Pires, city. Terminal buds of main stems produce long H. camporum Ducke, H. guianensis Aublet, H. mi- internodes with leaves clustered towards the end crophylla Ule, H. nitida Mart, ex Muell. Arg., H. of them. The shoot pushes out vertically, slowly pauciflora (Spruce ex Benth.) Muell. Arg., H. rigi- for 2-3 days, then rapidly before tailing off for 1-2 difolia (Spruce ex Benth.) Muell. Arg. and H. spru- days. The energy for growth is then diverted into ceana (Benth.) Muell. Arg. Only H. brasiliensis, H. leaf development. Leaf petioles and leaf blades guianensis and H. benthamiana yield usable rub­ show the same kind of growth as the shoot, but the ber while the latex of other species is undesirable blades go on growing for 3-4 days longer than the because of its high resin and low rubber content. petioles. When their growth ceases, the blades However, other Hevea species possess desirable change colour from dark reddish to light green, traits which could be used for breeding purposes and continue to droop. During the next stage the (e.g. better wood strength, disease resistance and leaves rise to the horizontal position after which dwarfing). Dwarfing is found in H. camargoana they become dark green. A complete cycle takes and H. nitida var. toxicodendroides (R.E. Schultes about 36 days, 18 for extension growth and 18 for & Vinton) R.E. Schultes. H. microphylla is unique leaf development. Subsequent growth proceeds in in Hevea; it has pistillate flowers with a conspi­ similar cycles, and as the plant grows, the leaves cuously swollen torus. appear in whorls. Ecology Rubber is a crop of the lowland tropics Branching begins about 1 year after sowing, between 6° N and 6°S . Attempts to cultivate rub­ depending on the clone. The more vigorous clones ber as far south as the Sco Paolo Region in Brazil branch early whereas the less vigorous could take and as far north as Mexico and the Guangdong up to a year. The branches appear sequentially and Province in China have met some degree of suc­ the number ranges from 4-8 in one storey. They cess. The optimum day temperature is 26-28°C. emerge from axillary buds. One year old seedlings Preferably rubber should not be planted at alti­ may already be 2.5 m tall. After the first year of tudes above 400-500 m because the low ambient growth, the plants will then go through a phase temperature retards girth growth, delays tapping, of rapid vegetative growth for the next 4 years and reduces latex production. before they start flowering and fruiting. The annual rainfall requirement ranges from After branching girth development starts and 2000-3000 mm with 170-200 rainy days.A wel l dis­ growth periodicity isles spronounced . Girth devel­ tributed annual rainfall of 1500 mm is considered opment decreases when trees are tapped. To pre­ the lower limit for commercial production. In Indo­ vent wind damage a rather short tree with a sym­ nesia the best rubber areas have annual rainfall metrical crown starting about 3 m above ground totals between 2500-4000 mm. In high rainfall level is preferred. When trees reach a certain age areas soils should have good internal drainage. A they partly or completely shed their leaves, large number of rainy days, especially with rain usually once a year. The intensity of leaf shedding, in the morning, is undesirable because it disrupts usually called wintering, depends on climatic con­ the tapping schedule. Rubber can also tolerate a ditions and varies with clone. A dry period of one 2-3 months drought period in some areas. A dry month or longer causes partial or complete leaf period of 1mont h or longer causes partial or com­ fall. This causes a drop in latex production espe­ plete leaf fall. cially during refoliation. Along with new leaves, Wind is an important factor because it may snap flowers are produced. Both self- and cross-pollina­ trunks and branches. tion is carried out by small insects. Self-incompati­ Owing to its extensive root system rubber needs bility occurs in some clones. Only a small propor­ a well drained, root-penetrable soil, at least 1 m tion of female flowers set fruit and afterwards deep with an adequate moisture storage capacity. many of the fruitlets are shed. Even with hand pol­ Temporary waterlogging with flowing water lination no more than 5% of the pollinated female causes little damage. It can be grown in soils rang- 156 A SELECTION

ing from sandy to red lateritic and yellow podzols, ding called young budding and it is used in raising young volcanic soils, alluvial clays and peat soil. advanced planting material. Crown budding is a Rubber is less demanding in terms of soil fertility method ofproducin g a 3-component tree which, for and topography than other tree crops such as oil example, combines a disease-resistant crown with palm and cocoa and is often planted on land which a high-yielding production trunk budded on a seed­ is not suitable for these crops. In West Malaysia ling rootstock. This technique is used in South rubber producing areas have been classified in America where Microcyclus ulei is a serious prob­ zones on the basis of factors limiting growth and lem, and sometimes in Malaysia to overcome leaf production such as strong winds, disease inci­ disease. dence, soil type and topography. After budgrafting the planting material can be Propagation and planting Rubber can be es­ nursed as bare-root stumps (e.g. budded stumps, tablished by planting seed at stake or by raising stumped buddings and mini-stumps) or as polybag- plants in nurseries and later transplanting them raised buddings (2-whorl polybag-raised buddings, to the field. Seedling trees are used but improved large polybag-raised buddings and soil-core vegetatively propagated planting material is often whorled buddings). Raising bare-root planting ma­ preferred. This can easily be obtained by budgraft- terial requires a suitable and well-prepared soil ing rootstock by a technique developed in 1916 in while for polybag plants only the potting medium Indonesia. and a good water supply matters. Lifting and root Seed from vigorous high-yielding parents are used pruning ofbare-roo t plants is time and labour-con­ to produce rootstock. As seeds are viable only for suming but once this is done the material is easy a short time, planting must be done soon after har­ to handle and to transport. Polybag plants need vesting. They are first germinated on shaded beds constant attention. They are ready for transplant­ and transferred to the nursery soon after germina­ ing immediately but they need great care during tion, where they are either planted in the ground transport to prevent root damage, while the large or in perforated polythene bags. polybag plants are difficult to handle. Polybag Budwood is grown in special nurseries in which plants, however, develop more quickly after plant­ trees budded with the desired clone are closely ing.Soil-cor e buddings have much the same advan­ spaced. Green budstick isobtaine d by cutting back tages and disadvantages as polybag plants, but as the buddings which then start producing numer­ they are raised in the ground they are less suscepti­ ous shoots. About 4 crops of budsticks can be ble to drought in the nursery. obtained per year. In the case of brown budwood For the production of seedling trees 'clonal' seed about 1cro p a year can be harvested. is used, obtained from monoclonal or polyclonal Budgrafting is carried out by making an inverted plantings which are known to produce high-yield­ U-shaped incision on the rootstock 4-5 cm above ing families. These 'clonal' seedlings are cheaper soil level and inserting the bud patch without a to produce and they may have greater wind resis­ petiole under the bark ofth e bud panel. It is essen­ tance and may reach maturity earlier than brown- tial that the rootstock and scion are at an active budded rubber, but they are more variable and stage of growth and that their cambial tissue seedling plantings usually give lower yields. Ger­ should be closely appressed and tied in place. mination and nursery procedures are essentially About 3week s after budding the strips are opened the same as for raising stock. and the successful stock stems cut back above the All planting material, buddings and seedlings, are bud patch to allow the new bud to sprout. pruned to restrict development to one single stem Brown-budding is the traditional budgrafting free from any branches up to 3m ,t o ensure enough method in which 12-18 month old rootstock is bud­ tappable bark for high panel tapping. ded with budwood of about the same age. This In smallholdings temporary intercropping of method was later superseded by the green-budding young rubber with food crops isa common practice technique. This refers to budding 4-6 months old, to provide cash income when the trees are still still green stock with buds from green budsticks. immature. On flat or undulating land intercrop­ The advantage of this method is the short nursery ping can be carried out during the first 1-3 years period and the economic production of budwood. after planting without adversely affecting rubber Green-budding, however, requires greater skill plants. than budding older stocks. Further improvement Budded stumps with bare roots are planted in holes has been axchieved by budding of 7-8 (-10) week of4 5c m x 45 cm x 45 cm.Thes e are normally dug old rootstock. This is an early form of green-bud­ in advance, refilled and allowed to settle naturally HEVEA 157 with time and rain. Rock phosphate is added at a first extracted, followed by the felling of all trees rate of about 100g pe r hole during refilling. A simi­ and removing stumps along the lines of the future lar procedure is used for planting advanced plant­ planting, then burning and stacking the non-burnt ing material (maxi-stumps)wit h bare roots, except vegetation in wind rows. that larger planting holes are used. Because of Maintenance of young plants during immaturity their susceptibility to drought, cylinders of poly­ include weeding, manuring and sometimes mulch­ thene sheeting (sarongs) are temporarily placed in ing.Weedin g isth e most important and also costly. the planting hole around the upper half of the tap­ Frequent weeding is required. Initially only the root. It isfille d with a mixture of good soil and rock tree circles to a radius of about 1 m are weeded, phosphate and after watering covered with grass. but later on this is done for the whole tree row or When the first leaves are properly hardened the rubber strip. At the same time noxious weeds sarongs are removed. For polybag plants, planting should be controlled or removed in the inter-row holes are made at the time of planting. legume cover. Once the rubber trees reach maturi­ The preference for planting patterns has varied ty, the number of weeding rounds can be reduced over the years between square spacings of about due to shading of canopies. It is then sufficient to 5 m to avenue plantings with 8-10 m between the weed the rubber strip and to slash the inter-row rows and 2-3 m in the row. The former has the vegetation once or twice a year. On estates chemi­ advantage of optimal use of soil and space, early cal weed control has replaced manual weeding closure of the canopy and less wind damage, the except during the first year after planting when latter of cheaper maintenance, lower tapping costs green scions and leaves are still found below a and space for temporary intercropping. The cur­ height of 1 m. rent recommendations of the Rubber Research During the immature phase, branch pruning or Institute of Malaysia for smallholders practising controlled branch pruning is routinely carried intercropping is to plant rubber in east-west rows out. at distances of 9m x 2.7-3 m. The amount of fertilizer applied to the trees is High planting densities give the highest yields/ha determined after assessing the nutrient status of but trees take longer to reach a tappable size and both plant and soil. The method of fertilizer appli­ give lower yields per tree and per tapper. This is cation varies with terrain. For flat to undulating why smallholders, who are usually interested in terrain, a general broadcast of fertilizer is advo­ maximization ofyield/ha , plant at higher densities cated, on hilly terrain the fertilizer should be (500-600 trees/ha) than estates (400-450 trees/ha) applied along the planting rows after strip spray­ which are interested in maximization of net finan­ ing. For immature rubber, the fertilizer should be cial returns. evenly applied in a ring or broadcast along the Cover crop establishment is a standard practice in planting strips. both new planting and when replanting on estates In the nursery and during the first few years after and is done just before planting. Drainage is field planting, fertilizers are frequently applied in required in areas which are waterlogged. The most small quantities. Subsequently, applications are common leguminous species used are Pueraria made twice a year and, when trees have reached phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth., Centrosemapubescens maturity, usually only once a year when the new Benth. and Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. leaves are formed after wintering. The amount of Though legume covers compete in the first year of nutrients removed in the latex is low, but may establishment rather strongly with the rubber increase considerably when yield stimulants are their overall effect on the rubber trees is beneficial used. To compensate for these losses and for the and may extend over a 20-year period. immobilization of nutrients in trunks and Husbandry The economic life cycle ofrubbe r in branches, annual fertilizer rates per ha used are plantation is 30-35 years. After each cycle, re­ in the order of 50 kg N, 20 kg P, 60 kg K and 20 planting is necessary to realize optimum usage of kg Mg. Fertilizer recommendations for young the land. Land preparation for replanting is done trees are based on soil type and for mature trees mechanically which involves cutting old stands, on soil and leaf analysis, stimulation and on the stacking and burning. This is followed by plough­ specific requirements ofclones .I n Malaysia young ing, rotovating, preparation of planting holes and rubber receives mainly N and P, and fertilizer rec­ planting. This last operation must coincide with ommendations only differentiate between sandy the rainy season. If rubber is to be planted on land and clayey soils. Mature trees receive N and K, under forest, trees of economic importance are while P and Mg are only given when leaf analysis 158 A SELECTION indicates the need for it. Both organic and inorga­ Other common sap-sucking insects, like scale nic fertilizers are used, the former is preferred on insects and mealy bugs, may occasionally cause sandy and lateritic soils. sufficient damage to warrant treatment in nurser­ Diseases andpest s There are several important ies and of young plantings. Other pests that may diseases and pests which attack rubber both in the require occasional attention in young rubber are nursery and in the field. slugs and snails, and a variety ofmammal s ranging The 3 most important fungi in South-East Asia from rats to elephants. Giant snails (Achatina which cause root disease are, in order of signifi­ fulica) cause damage in parts of Indonesia. cance, Rigidoporus lignosus, Ganoderma pseudo- Harvesting Tapping of rubber starts 5-6 years ferreum and Phellinus noxius, giving rise to white, after planting. Trees are opened for tapping when red and brown root disease respectively. They 50-70 % of the trees in a given area, measured at cause much destruction and total tree losses in 150 cm height, have attained girth size of at least new plantings and replanted areas of rubber. 45 cm. Tapping involves cutting the bark from top Hence proper control of these diseases during pre left (at 150 cm height) to bottom right. The slope and post-planting essential. Pre-planting control of the tapping cut is at an angle of about 30° to isaccomplishe d by removing all infected inoculum the horizontal. The amount of bark consumed is sources and post-planting control is achieved by determined by the frequency of tapping. Cutting regular inspection and treatment of the affected iscarrie d out using a knife with a V-shaped cutting plants with calixin. Early establishment of cover edge leaving a grooved channel along which the crops is also effective in controlling root diseases. latex can flow (excision method). Important fungal leaf diseases are Colletotrichum The tapping system is characterized by a combina­ and Oidium, causing secondary leaf fall, Coryne- tion of the number of cuts per tree, the length of spora: leaf spot and Phytophthora: leaf fall. Oidium the cut and the frequency of tapping. According attack can be controlled by protective sulphur to an international notation the length of the cut dusting. In large areas of disease it can effectively is given as a fraction of the circumference: S/l is be avoided by aerial spraying with defoliants a few a full spiral, S/2 a half spiral, S/4 a quarter spiral, weeks before wintering. Refoliation then takes S/R a reduced spiral, S a full spiral. The frequency place in a relatively dry period. Bird's eye spot dis­ of tapping is expressed as d/1fo r daily tapping, d/2 ease caused by Helminthosporium heveae is also for alternate day tapping. The system S/2 d/2 is common but is confined to the nursery. The most considered as standard and is referred to as 100% damaging and most feared leaf disease is South intensity. The relative intensities of other systems American Leaf Blight (SALB) caused by Microcy- are expressed as a percentage of the standard in­ clus ulei. So far the disease is confined to South tensity. and Central America. Infected trees lose their At each tapping a thin slice of bark is removed. leaves after every new flush resulting in die-back The latex runs along the cut and then down a verti­ and ultimately the death of the trees. An inte­ cal grove to a metal spout driven into the tree grated approach combining the use of tolerant which channels the latex into a cup. The conven­ clones, judicious application of fungicides (e.g. tional tapping method is one in which subsequent carbamates), correct manuring and maintenance, cuts move downwards till about 5 cm above the and planting in somewhat drier areas is at present join in buddings.Abov e the cut the bark is renewed the best solution to the SALB problem. from the cambium. To ensure good bark renewal Pink disease, caused by Corticium salmonicolar, is tapping cuts should stop at a distance of about 1.5 also of economic importance as it attacks the mm from the cambium. Normal bark consumption trunk and branches and causes branch snap. How­ for a half spiral cut tapped alternate daily is 2-2.5 ever, this is easily controlled by calixin or bor­ cm a month. When there are no periodic resting deaux mixture. periods it takes 5-6 years to tap the bark of a 150 With respect to pests,undergroun d ones are impor­ cmhig h panel.Afte r completing the first panel, the tant and require attention at all stages of rubber second one is opened at the same height on the growth. These include termites (Captotermes cur- opposite side of the trunk. When this panel has vignathus) and grubs of certain Melolonthis bee­ been used tapping continues on the renewed bark tles. Among the above-ground pests, yellow tea of the first panel. Later on the renewed bark of the mite (Hemitarsonemus latus) and thrips (Scirto- second panel is retapped. In this system about 10 thrips dorsalis) are commonly present in nurseries years is allowed for bark renewal before tapping where they cause defoliation of tender leaflets. can start again. When this cycle is complete the HEVEA 159 trees are about 30 years old and are considered made per tap on a 60-100 cm long and 1- 2 cm wide, ready for replanting. Before replanting, intensive vertical strip of bark, previously scraped and tapping is done for 3year s before cutting out. treated with ethephon. The second method com­ In smallholdings where the trees are often tapped bines puncture tapping and the conventional exci­ daily, bark consumption ismuc h greater. After the sion tapping methods. Here, 3puncture s are made first and second panels have been tapped twice the on the existing half spiral 9 times on d/2 followed higher situated bark is exploited. A high panel, as by 3successiv e conventional tappings at the same it is called, is also used on estates where it is often frequency. In Sumatra (Indonesia) a commercial exploited in combination with a low, regenerated system has been developed involving puncture tap­ bark panel, either on the same or on the opposite ping of young trees every fourth day over 2 years side ofth e tree. In these double cut systems periods with periodic 2.5% ethephon stimulation. It is in which only the upper or only the lower panel then followed by conventional tapping, first of the istappe d alternate. Upward tapping ofhig h panels previous puncture-tapped bark, and then later of gives higher yields than downward tapping but it the remaining virgin bark on the same panel. requires greater skill to control the tapping knife. The number of trees a tapper is assigned to tap in On older trees, control upward tapping (CUT) on a day is called a tapping task. The size will depend the high panel is now an accepted practice. on the length and the number of cuts per tree and Yield can be stimulated by application of ethylene furthermore on the age and condition of the trees containing chemicals (e.g. ethephon) on the tap­ and the topography of the land. A skilled tapper ping cut of young trees and on the bark of older can tap (with half spiral downward) 400-500 trees trees either directly below (downward tapping) or in 3-4 hours. When a tapper begins at 6 a.m. he above (upward tapping) the tapping cut. In young can start collecting the latex about 5 hours later trees stimulation is usually not recommended, al­ when the latex flow from the cut has stopped. No though in Ivory Coast stimulation starts with the tapping can be done during rain or when the panel first panel because of a labour shortage. Non- iswet . Ifther e isfrequen t morning rain then recov­ intensive methods of stimulation involving low ery tapping in the afternoon is carried out. The ethephon concentrations, low frequency of appli­ latex is collected in buckets and brought to a cen­ cation together with periodic stimulation rest, tral point for bulking and transport to the factory. may be used at an earlier stage. Stimulation On estates in Ivory Coast the latex runs from the should, in fact, always be combined with a lower spouts into plastic bags which are collected once tapping intensity than was used before the com­ a month by ordinary labour. These bags contain mencement of stimulation. However, stimulation coagulated latex from 4 tappings which requires of trees calls for increased fertilizer use. In prac­ special processing. tice stimulation is considered as a means of main­ Yield Yield is largely dependent on the cultivar taining or obtaining reasonably high yields at low planted and the agro-management inputs given to tapping frequency, thus as a method of saving the trees during the periods of immaturity and pro­ labour and costs. duction. Because of the superior management and As it is now common practice to use stimulants at better inputs,yield s are normally higher on estates a later stage of exploitation (probably after about than on smallholdings. 10 years of tapping) it is advisable to use systems In general latex yield is expressed in kg/ha per right from the beginning which can be converted year. In South-East Asia, average estate yield is to lower intensity systems when stimulation is about 1500kg/h a per year, ranging from 1200-2000 introduced. In view of this S/2 d/2 (100% ) is recom­ kg/ha per year. The average yield from a small­ mended for clones not sensitive to dryness and S/2 holding is about 800 kg/ha per year and ranges d/3 (67%) for clones more prone to dryness and from 400-1500 kg/ha per year. In Malaysia, the brown blast. For smallholders tapping daily and average national yield is about 1150 kg/ha per using stimulants, special S/4 systems are recom­ year. mended to avoid exhaustion of trees. Handling after harvest When rubber latex The advent of stimulants has enabled the develop­ arrives at the factory, it is filtered and bulked ment of non-conventional, less skilled labour- before coagulation. After coagulation, it is pro­ demanding methods using a needle instead ofa tap­ cessed into either sheet rubber, crepe rubber or ping knife. The most promising, called micro tap­ block rubber. Generally, formic acid is used to co­ ping techniques, are puncture tapping and micro- agulate the latex. Under normal factory condi­ X tapping. In the first method 4-6 punctures are tions and depending upon the concentration of the 160 A SELECTION latex and the acid used, this process will take a of about 6-fold i.e. from 500 to 3000 kg/ha per year few hours. have been achieved. Modern clones like RRIM Ifth e production line is set-up for sheet rubber, the (Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia) 600 and coagulated rubber is milled through 3-4 different 712, PR (Proefstation voor Rubber, Indonesia) 255 pairs of rollers. The first few rollers are usually and 261, PB (Prang Besar, Peninsular Malaysia) smooth and the last is ribbed. The milled sheets 217, 235, 255 and 260, and GT (Gondang Tapen, are then dried in a smoke house for 4 days to pro­ Indonesia) 1ar e products ofthi s achievement with duce ribbed smoked sheets (R.S.S.). yields averaging about 2 t/ha per year after the If crepe rubber or air-dried sheet is required, the first 5 years of tapping. However, present-day coagulated rubber is milled using a battery of breeders now recognize that emphasis should not power driven crepers to produce a well-knitted be placed on yield alone but on other desirable thin crepe. After milling, the crepe can then be characteristics also, such as vigour, quality of vir­ dried in suitably constructed hot air rooms or gin and renewed bark, colour and stability of latex, chambers. resistance to leaf and bark diseases and to wind For SMR (Standard Malaysian Rubber) block rub­ damage. Response to stimulation and to low inten­ ber production, the coagulum is generally creped sity tapping has become an additional criterion in and hammer-milled to produce crumb rubber. The selection. The use of other Hevea species to incor­ crumbs are then dried in hot air at 110° C in deep porate resistance to leaf diseases (in particular bed driers. The dried crumbs are then baled into South American Leaf Disease) has also been pur­ 33 1/3 kg bales, wrapped in polythene sheets and sued in breeding. packed into 11woode n crates. Prospects The prospects for natural rubber are For latex concentrate production, the filtered very good. The demand is expected to increase in latex is subjected to one of the following methods view of the demands of the automobile industry of processing: centrifugation, evaporation or and the possible diversification ofrubbe r in manu­ creaming. In South-East Asia, centrifugation is facturing. This would help to stabilize prices at a the most widely used. During centrifugation, the favourable level on the world market and persuade lighter rubber particles are separated from the planters to continue planting rubber. heavier serum to produce a concentrated fraction In most rubber producing countries, rubber will of about 60% dry rubber content. These are then continue to be cultivated, although the scale and stored and tested before export. For export, the emphasis will vary from country to country. This latex is either shipped in bulk in the ship's deep is because rubber is still an important income crop tank or in containers or in flexible bags, usually for planters in most countries. Various govern­ of 11 pellet. ments have increased the budgets for research and Genetic resources The surviving seedlings development and given new emphasis to the from Wickham's introduction in 1876provid e only transfer of technology to smallholders. By incor­ a narrow genetic base. Subsequent introductions porating new germplasm into Hevea breeding pro­ into Indonesia made by the Dutch (1896, 1898 and grammes the prospects for further yield improve­ 1913-1916) and by the British into Malaya ment are promising. (1951-1954) were added as genetic resources but Literature |1|Abraham , P.D., 1981.Recen t inno­ did not have much impact on breeding progress. vations in exploitation of Hevea. Planter (Kuala Another small introduction of various Hevea spe­ Lumpur) 57:631-648. |2| Australian Centre for cies was made to Malaysia in 1966. Further aug­ International Agricultural Research, 1985. Small­ mentation of genetic resources in the South-East holder rubber production and policies. Proceed­ Asian region was implemented through the intro­ ings of an international workshop held at the Uni­ duction of large numbers of wild Hevea germplasm versity of Adelaide, South Australia, 18-20 from Brazil in 1981. Germplasm collections are February 1985. ACIAR Proceedings Series No 9. maintained in Malaysia and Ivory Coast. 151 pp. |3| Compagnon, P., 1986. Le caoutchouc Breeding Selection and breeding of new rubber naturel. Maisonneuve & Larose, Paris. 595 pp. |4| clones or cultivars is still the most efficient means Dijkman, M.J., 1951. Hevea: thirty years of of reducing the cost ofproduction . However, it has research in the Far East. University of Miami now been realized that further spectacular yield Press, Coral Gables, Florida. 329pp . |5| Malaysian increases as occurred during the early years of Timber Industry Board, 1986. Malaysian Rubber- controlled breeding are now most unlikely to wood, abeautifu l and versatile timber. Kuala Lum­ occur again. Over the last 60years , yield increases pur. |6| Ong, S.H., Mohd Noor, A.G., Tan, A.M. & INDIGOFERA 161

Tan, H., 1983. New Hevea germplasm - its intro­ torn tomanj, tebawang amdjah. Malaysia: gher- duction and potential. Proceedings RRIM Plant­ mie bomong. Philippines: tagem tageman, tinta- ers' Conference. Kuala Lumpur, pp. 3-7. |7| Pee, tintahan. New Guinea: tildjil, wiereka. T.Y &An i Bin Arope, 1976.Rubbe r owners' manu­ - I. spicata: Trailing indigo, spicate indigo (En). al. Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Indonesia: basingan, sibar, baleh-angien. Lumpur. 316 pp. |8| Rubber Research Institute of - I. suffruticosa ssp. suffruticosa: Indonesia: taem- Malaysia, 1978. Standard Malaysian Rubber taem, tagom-tagom, torn cantik. Malaysia: (SMR) Bulletin No 9. |9| Tan, A.G. & Mohd Ali tarom. Philippines: anil, tagum, tayom. Sujan, 1981.Rubbe r wood for furniture manufac­ - I. suffruticosa ssp. guatemalensis: Guatemala- ture. Planter (Kuala Lumpur) 57:649-655. |10| Tan indigo (En).Indonesia : torn presi. Hong, 1987. Strategies in rubber tree breeding. In: - I. tinctoria: Common indigo, Indian indigo (En). Abott, A.J. & Atkin, R.K. (Editors): Improving Indonesia: torn jawa, tarum alus, tarum kaju. vegetatively propagated crops. Academic Press, Philippines: tagung-tagung, tagum. Cambodia: London, pp. 27-62. |11| Wessel, M., 1988.Heve a (in trôm. Laos: khaam. English). In: Rehm, S. (Editor): Handbuch der Origin and geographic distribution The large Landwirtschaft und Ernährung in den Entwick­ genus Indigofera (ca. 700 spp.) is distributed lungsländern. 2.Aufl . Band 4.Specielie r Pflanzen­ throughout the tropics and subtropics of Asia, bau in den Tropen und Subtropen. Verlag Eugen Africa and the Americas, the greater part of the Ulmer, Stuttgart (in press). species occurring in Africa and the southern (Mohd Noor A. Ghani, Ong Seng Huat & Himalayas. About 40 species are native to South- M. Wessel) East Asia, and many others have been introduced. Many species are cultivated in all tropical regions. I. arrecta is a native of East and South Africa and Indigofera L. has been introduced in Laos, Vietnam, the Philip­ pines (Luzon) and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Sp. PL 2:75 1(1753) ;Gen . PI. (ed. 5):33 3(1754) . Sumba, Flores). I. hirsuta and I. spicata are native LEGUMINOSAE to Africa and Asia and have been introduced in the x = 8 American tropics. Both the subspecies of 7. suffru­ 2n = 16: I. arrecta, I. hirsuta, I. suffruticosa, I. ticosa originate from tropical America, and are tinctoria. locally cultivated in Java. I. tinctoria probably In = 32:1. spicata. originates from Asia, but its distribution is now Major species and synonyms pantropical. - Indigofera arrecta Höchst, ex A. Rich., Tent. Fl. Uses Several Indigofera species are widely used Abys. 1:184(1847) ; as a source of the blue dye indigo throughout the - Indigofera hirsuta L., Sp. PL 2:75 1(1753) ; tropics, especially I. arrecta, I. suffruticosa and I. - Indigofera spicata Forssk., Fl.Aegypt .Arab. : 138 tinctoria. They are also recommended as a cover (1775), synonym: I. hendecaphylla Jacq. crop and for green manure, especially on tea, cof­ (1786-1793); fee and rubber plantations; the same applies to I. - (a) Indigofera suffruticosa Miller ssp. suffruti­ hirsuta and I. spicata. Some species are cultivated cosa, Gard. Diet.ed .8 n . 2(1768) ,synonym : I. anil as fodder crop. The leaves of I. arrecta and I. tinc­ L. (1771); (b) Indigofera suffruticosa Miller ssp. toria are used in traditional medicine for epilepsy guatemalensis (Moc, Sesse & Cerv. ex Backer) and nervous disorders and tohea l sores and ulcers. de Kort & Thijsse, Blumea 30: 135 (1984), syn­ A decoction of leaves oil. hirsuta is given for diar­ onym: I. guatemalensis Moc, Sesse & Cerv. ex rhoea and stomach complaints. Backer (1908); Production and international trade The culti­ - Indigofera tinctoria L., Sp. PL 2: 751 (1753), syn­ vation of Indigofera on a large scale started in the onym: I. sumatrana Gaertner (1791). 16th Century in India and South-East Asia. Later Vernacular names General: indigo (En). Indo­ large plantations were also established in Central nesia: torn, tarum. Malaysia: tarom. Philippines: and (the southern parts of) North America. The anil. Thailand: khram. Vietnam: châm. export ofindig o to Europe was ofgrea t importance - I. arrecta: Natal-indigo, Bengal-indigo, Java- and had to compete with the dye from woad, Isatis indigo (En). Indonesia: tarum daun alusj, torn tinctoria L., which was cultivated mainly in atal, torn katemas. France, Germany and Britain. The commercial - I. hirsuta: Hairy indigo (En). Indonesia: djukut, production of synthetic indigo, which came into 162 A SELECTION use in 1897,prove d catastrophic to the production of natural indigo, and by 1914onl y 4% of the total world production was of vegetable origin. At pre­ sent, the crop is still cultivated for dye, on a small scale, in India (in the northern part of Karnataka) and in some parts of Africa and Central America. In Indonesia, Indigofera is still grown in some vil­ lages on the north coast of Java and in the whole of east Indonesia where natural indigo goes into traditional and ritual fabrics. Properties Indigofera plants contain the gluco- side indican. After soaking the plants in water, enzymic hydrolysis transforms indican into indoxyl (indigo-white) and glucose. Indoxyl can be oxydized to indigo-blue. Many species contain toxic organic nitro com­ pounds. For instance I. spicata should not be rec­ ommended as a forage crop as it contains indospi- cine, a hepatotoxic amino-acid that interferes with both the synthesis and utilization of arginine. On the other hand, I. tinctoria is said to be palatable for cattle. Leaves of I. arrecta and 7. tinctoria respectively contain (% dry matter basis):N 4.46,5.11 ; P2O50.02, 0.78; K20 1.95,1.67; CaO 4.48,5.35 . In pot experiments I. hirsuta was antagonistic to root nematodes and reduced soil populations of Meloidogyne incognita, Belonolaimus longicauda- Indigofera tinctoria L. -1, flowering branch. tus and Pratylenchus brachyurus. Indigofera suffruticosa Miller - 2, fruit. Description Shrubs, shrublets or herbs (but then woody the at base), with spreading or ascen­ pods, containing 4-6 seeds. ding branches and with indumentum of biramous - I. suffruticosa ssp. guatemalensis has smaller hairs. Leaves alternate, usually imparipinnate, flowers (3mm ) and straight pods with 1-3 seeds. sometimes trifoliolate or unifoliolate. Flowers in - I. tinctoria is a small shrub (up to 1m high) with axillary racemes, pedicelled, calyx campanulate 5 mm long flowers, straight or slightly curved with 5 teeth, corolla papilionaceous. Fruit gener­ pods, containing 7-12 seeds. ally a linear pod (in some species almost globose), Other botanical information I. arrecta, I.suf­ straight or upcurved, with 1-20 mostly globose to fruticosa and I. tinctoria are closely related and in­ ellipsoid seeds. Seedlings with epigeal germina­ termediate specimens (possibly of hybrid origin) tion, cotyledons thick, short-persistent. have been found. - I. arrecta is a large shrub up to 3 m high, often Several other Indigofera species in South-East cultivated as an annual, with ca. 5 mm long Asia are useful to man. I. linnaei Ali and I. dosua flowers and 2-2.5 cm long straight pods, con­ Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don are used medicinally and taining 6-8 seeds. as fodder, I. cassioides Rottler ex DC. is used - I. hirsuta is a small shrub (up to 2m high) , pilose against colds and fever, while /. decora Lindl. is with spreading hairs (one of the arms of bira­ occasionally used as an ornamental. mous hairs is very long), with up to 6 mm long, Ecology Indigofera species can be grown from reddish flowers and straight pods, containing sea level up to 1650 m and do best on permeable 6-9 cubic seeds. soils, rich in organic matter. As a dye plant Indigo­ - I. spicata is a shrublet up to 1 m high with ca. fera is grown on upland soils and as a secondary 5 mm long, red flowers and straight pods, up to crop on paddy soils. Land should be properly 3.5 cm long, containing 7-9 round seeds. drained. - I. suffruticosa ssp. suffruticosa is a shrub up to - I. arrecta, when used as a cover crop, can only 2.5 m high with 5 mm long flowers and curved be grown in gardens with little or no shade. INDIGOFERA 163

Plants prefer a hot, moist climate with a rainfall can be harvested three times a year. Total life span of no less than 1750 mm/year. The crop with­ for dye crops is2- 3 years, and 1.5-2 years for cover stands waterlogging up to a period of two crops. Indigo is harvested only once on paddy soils months. asth e plants have to give way to the next rice crop. - I. hirsuta does best on fertile sandy loams, but Yield I. arrecta is the chief source of blue dye; grows fairly well on moderately poor sandy it is also used as a cover crop and a green manure soils. crop. The yield from the leaves of this species is - /. spicata is reported to be a short-day plant; it higher than from any other species of Indigofera. tolerates some shade. The crop can stand rain Annual yields of 22-100 t green matter/ha have and drought and tolerates acid soils with low been reported in India; the recorded output of phosphate levels; it prefers clay soils but gives indigo cake is 137-325 kg/ha per year. good cover on sandy soils. I. hirsuta is widely cultivated in the tropics and - I. tinctoria is susceptible to heavy rainfall and subtropics for forage and soil improvement, in waterlogging. West Africa as dye crop also. In the United States In the natural or naturalized state, most species green matter yields average about 22t/h a per year, are found on open, sunny places like waste land, in India about 10t/h a per year in coconut groves. roadsides, riverbanks and grassland, some species I. spicata is a valuable cover crop and green ma­ are found up to 2000m above sea level. nure crop.Si xmont h old plants can yield 251gree n Propagation and planting Propagation is by matter/ha with more than 200 kg N. This species seed, except for I. suffruticosa, which is propagated is also cultivated for dye. by cuttings. To prevent insect damage seeds can Yields of I. tinctoria as a dye crop are in the order be treated with woodash before sowing. Seeds of of 10-13t/h a per year, but may vary widely accord­ I. arrecta and /. hirsuta possess a hard seed-coat ing to area, season and cultivation method. and must be scarified. Land is prepared by plowing Handling after harvest The harvested or by hoe. Sowing is done either on seed-beds or branches are placed in a tank containing water to directly into the field, 3-4 seeds per hole, 60 cm which some lime has been added and weighted within rows and 45-60 cmbetwee n rows.I. spicata, down with planks. After some hours of fermen­ when grown as a cover crop, needs a wider spacing tation, during which enzymic hydrolysis leads to (1.5 m between rows). Germination takes about 4 the formation of indoxyl, the liquid is run off and days.Whe n seed-beds are used, seedlings are trans­ constantly stirred for several hours to stimulate planted at 4-6 weeks. oxydation of the indoxyl. Afterwards the solution Cuttings are made by dividing well-developed is left to rest and the insoluble indigo settles to the branches into pieces 30 cm long, which are kept bottom as a blueish mud. The water is drained and for 2-3 days in a cool place before planting. Cut­ after drying the indigo, it is cut into cubes or made tings, 2-3 per hole, take by the second week. into balls. To dye textiles, indigo is reduced to a Husbandry Weeding and earthing up is done soluble form by a fermentation process under alka­ about one month after planting and again one line conditions. In traditional preparations of the month later. Cover crops are slashed at regular dye, various reducing agents such as molasses, intervals. together with coconut-milk, bananas, leaves of Diseases and pests I. arrecta can be attacked Psidium guajava L. are used, while the alkalinity by Bacillus solanacearum. On Java /. tinctoria is is maintained by adding lime. After the textile has not susceptible to pests and diseases; after lignifi­ been dipped in the solution it turns blue when cation, however, in humid regions, it is attacked exposed to the air. by Corticium salmonicolor (djamoer-oepas). In Prospects Interest in natural dyes is increasing other production areas I. tinctoria is reported to in many countries. Possibly this will increase the be attacked by various fungi and insects and by importance of indigo as a crop again. the nematode Heterodera glycines. I. hirsuta and Literature |1| Backer, CA. & Bakhuizen van I. spicata are not seriously affected by diseases or den Brink, R.C., 1963. Flora of Java 1:589-592 . |2| pests. Byrne, M., 1981.Indig o dyeing: past and present. Harvesting Branches are harvested, usually Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Econom­ early in the morning, when the plants are 4-5 ics 5: 219-227. |3| Duke, J.A., 1981. Handbook of months old and the crop has made a closed stand. legumes of world economic importance. Plenum This is usually the flowering stage. About 3-4 Press, New York. pp. 94-101. |4| de Kort, I. & months later the plants can be cut again; a crop Thijsse, G., 1984.A revisio n ofIndigofer a in South- 164 A SELECTION east Asia. Blumea 30:89-151. |5| Krochmal, A. & Kangkong seed is produced on a commercial scale Krochmal, C, 1974.Th e complete illustrated book in Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, Thailand and of dyes from natural sources. Doubleday, New Japan. In Malaysia 20% of kangkong farmers York. pp. 8-13. |6| Oei, L. (Editor), 1985. Indigo, grow their own seed. In Thailand paddy farmers Leven in een kleur. Stichting Indigo, Amsterdam. in Nakorn Pathom Province produce seed as an 223 pp. additional cash crop. The seed trade in Malaysia (R.H.M.J. Lemmens &P.C . Wessel-Riemens) and Singapore is not well organized. Chinese mid­ dlemen import seed from Thailand and Taiwan. Malaysia imports about 1801o f seed annually. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Properties Unfortunately, most sources do not state whether only leaves or stems and leaves were Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 44(1775) . analyzed. Mean values per 100 g edible portion: CONVOLVULACEAE water 90.2 g, protein 3.0 g, fat 0.3 g, carbohydrate 2« = 30 5.0 g, fibre 1.0 g, ash 1.6 g, Ca 81 mg, Mg 52 mg, Vernacular names Kangkong, water convol­ Fe 3.3 mg, provitamin A 4000-10000 IU, vitamin vulus, water spinach (En). Patate aquatique, C 30-130 mg. Energy value 134 kJ. liseron d'eau (Fr). Indonesia: kangkung, kan- Description Annual or perennial, fast-growing koong. Malaysia: kankung. Philippines: kang­ herb with smooth, succulent, hollow stems rooting kong, balangog, galatgat (Iloko). Cambodia: trâk- at the nodes in wet ground. Leaves alternate, long- uën. Laos: phak bongz. Thailand: phak bung. petioled, triangular or lanceolate, 2.5-15 cm x Vietnam: rau muong. 0.5-10 cm, heart-shaped or hastate at the base; Origin and geographic distribution Kang­ petioles green or purple. kong originated in tropical Asia (possbily India) Flowers borne singly or in clusters of 2-7 in the and can be found in South and South-East Asia, leaf axils, funnel-form, 4-7.5 cm long with a limb tropical Africa, Latin America and Oceania. How­ about 5 cm wide, with a magenta or purple throat, ever, only in South and South-East Asia is kang­ or pink, lavender or purple. Fruit an ovoid capsule, kong an important leaf vegetable. It is intensively 7-9 mm in diameter, smooth, brown, cupped by the grown and frequently eaten in Malaysia, 5-lobed calyx, containing 2-4 seeds. Seed angular Singapore, Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan and to rounded, smooth or velvet, 4 mm long, black or southern China. Uses Both leaves and stems are cooked or lightly fried in oil and eaten in various dishes. The vines are used as fodder for cattle and pigs. In Malaysia it is widely grown in fish ponds by the Chinese who feed it to their pigs. Production and international trade Produc­ tion figures are difficult to obtain due to the lack of any registration of information concerning pro­ duction and trade. In Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore white kangkong is mainly grown on a commercial scale. In Thailand and Malaysia it is the second most widely grown leafy vegetable after pak choi (Brassica rapa L.). Red kangkong is col­ lected from the wild and consumed in rural areas of Malaysia, but in Thailand and Singapore it is sometimes sold in the markets as well. In Malaysia the area under cultivation is esti­ mated to be 600-1100 ha with a total production of 60000-220000 t/year. Marketing in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore isusuall y done by middle­ men. Kangkong isexporte d from Bangkok to Hong Kong and to a lesser extent to European countries. In Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore in 1982, farmers' revenues were US$ 0.05-0.40 per kg. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. -flowering branch. IPOMOEA 165 light to dark brown. Seedling exhibits epigeal ger­ field kangkong', or 'floating kangkong'). Although mination, with horseshoe-shaped cotyledons. the products harvested from kangkong grown Growth and development Germination rates under dry and wet cultivation methods are quite of kangkong are usually low (< 6 0% ) and varies different, the same cultivars or landraces can be with the colour of the seed-coat, being highest in used in both modes of cultivation. the black-seeded types. Plants start developing - Upland cultivation. Under these conditions strong lateral branches from cotyledonary buds kangkong roots in soils which are not inun­ 2-3 weeks after sowing. Thereafter the main axis dated. Seeds are either broadcast or sown in and both laterals each produce about 1lea f every rows (in Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand). In 2-3 days. Harvest takes place 20-30 (-50) days Thailand the seeds are usually soaked for 12-24 after sowing. Flowering is required only for seed hours in water before sowing. Besides seed, cut­ production and may start 48-63 days after sowing tings are used for propagation in China and under conducive conditions. Taiwan. Cropping takes place on beds. Plant Other botanical information Ipomoea reptans densities may vary between 30-170 plants/m2. Poir. (1814)i s an incorrect synonym often used. - Wet cultivation. Paddy-field kangkong is prac­ Two types ofkangkon g are distinguished in South- tised in Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, East Asia: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and India. Planting - (1) Red Kangkong: plants with green/purple may be direct by cuttings or by transplanting 6 stems, dark green leaves with sometimes purple week old seedlings raised on nursery beds (in petioles and veins, and light-purple to white China, Taiwan and Hong Kong). Planting flowers. Plants of this group can be found grow­ densities may vary widelyfro m 200000-150 000 0 ing wild in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and cuttings or seedlings/ha. Floating kangkong is Java (Indonesia) (Indonesia: kankoong beeasa; mainly practised on a commercial scale in ponds Malaysia: kankung air; Thailand: pak boong and rivers in Thailand, China and Taiwan. Inte­ thai). Flowering and seedset do not always grated systems with fish, kangkong, pigs and occur. In Thailand and Malaysia, red kangkong chickens are formed. There is no root contact is gathered by the local population for food and with the soil. Cuttings are anchored in the water as animal feed. by bamboo sticks forming a kind of bed. - (2) White kangkong: plants with green/white Husbandry stems, green leaves with green/white petioles, - Upland cultivation. Weeding and watering are and white flowers. This type is generally culti­ normally done by hand. Chicken, duck and pig vated in South-East Asia (Indonesia: kankoong manure are used as a basic application in Thai­ nagree; Malaysia: kankung putih, kankung land, Malaysia and Singapore. Night soil is no darat. Thailand: pak boong chin). In the Philip­ longer permitted as manure in these countries. pines and Taiwan two cultivars of white kang­ Fertilizers (e.g. ammonium sulphate, urea) are kong are distinguished: one with broad leaves used as a top dressing immediately after sowing and one with narrow and pointed leaves. In and 10-15 days later. In China, night soil is the Malaysia and Singapore no cultivars are distin­ most important fertilizer for kangkong. Applica­ guished. Recently, cultivars have been devel­ tion of higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer do not oped in Thailand (includin g KSP 1). solely increase yields; leaf:stem ratios and dry Ecology Probably kangkong is a quantitative matter content, especially of stems and petioles, short-day plant. It produces optimum yields in the are decreased while nitrate content increases. lowland humid tropics, with stable high tempera­ Therefore, the amount of nitrogen available in tures and short-day conditions. Adapted to a wide the soil plus that provided as fertilizers should range ofsoi l conditions, kangkong has a relatively be monitored carefully to avoid unacceptably high soil moisture requirement and clay soils are high amounts of nitrate in the produce. generally suitable. Soils with a high level of orga­ - Wet cultivation. The water level is raised in nic material are preferable. The optimum pH is be­ paddy-field cultivation according to the devel­ tween 5.3-6.0. opment of the crop. Young plants can not with­ Propagation and planting Kangkong can be stand flooding. In China and Hong Kong night grown in various ways. It is usually cultivated as soil is applied diluted with irrigation water. In an upland crop (e.g. the 'Chinese market-garden­ Taiwan, a basic application of 10 t/ha of cow- ing system', or the 'ditch-and-dike system' in Thai­ dung is followed by a top dressing of 50 kg/ha land), but it can also be grown in water (e.g. 'paddy- of ammonium sulphate after each harvest. In the 166 A SELECTION

Bangkok area about 315 kg of NPK-fertilizer is kangkong is eaten 2-3 times a week, being one of commonly applied twice a month. Cultivation is the most popular leaf vegetables. Research should terminated in the event of low temperatures in focus on the effects of harvest time on the quality 'winter' (in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong), ofth e produce, and on the interaction with fertiliz­ flowering (in Thailand), or serious disease or er application. Breeding efforts should concen­ pest problems. trate on obtaining cultivars that are well adapted Diseases and pests Owing to the short growing to specific environments and resistant to white period of one crop of upland kangkong, diseases rust. and pests do not cause much harm. Where ratoon- Literature |1| Cornells, J., Nugteren, J.A. & ing is practised they can become a nuisance. White Westphal, E., 1985. Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica rust (Albugo ipomoea-aquaticae) is reported from Forsk.): an important leaf vegetable in South- East Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong. Asia. Review Article. Abstracts on Tropical Agri­ Damping-off of seedlings caused by Pythium sp. culture 10(4):9-21. |2| Linnemann, A.R., Louwen, may occur, and occasionally Cercospora leaf spot. J.M., Straver, G.H.M.B. & Westphal, E., 1986. In­ Rootknot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) may fluence of nitrogen on sown and ratooned upland become troublesome in ratoon cropping. Caterpil­ kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.) at two plant­ lars of Spodoptera litura and Diacrisia strigatula ing densities. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural and aphids can cause some damage. Science 34:15-23. Harvesting Consumers have specific prefer­ (E. Westphal) ences with regard to the quality ofth e product (e.g. number of leaves, stem length, percentage of fibre, taste, etc.). Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. - Upland cultivation. Harvest takes place from 20-50 days after sowing. In Thailand, Malaysia Tabl.Enc. 1:465(1791). and Singapore uprooting the plants 20-30 days CONVOLVULACEAE after sowing is common practice. Ratooning is 2« = 90 only practised in home gardens. In China and Synonyms Convolvulus batatas L. (1753), Con­ Taiwan ratooning is common. volvulus edulis Thunb. (1784), Batatas edulis - Wet cultivation. Harvesting is done by cutting (Thunb.) Choisy (1833). young shoots about 2 weeks after planting, and Vernacular names Sweet potato (En). Patate subsequently twice a week. In the Philippines douce (Fr).Indonesia : ubi keledek, huwi boled, ubi plants are cut about 5 cm above ground level jawa. Malaysia: ubi kastela, keladi. Papua New every 4-6 weeks. Guinea: kaukau (Pidgin), kaema (Motu). Philip­ Yield Under upland cultivation, yields per crop pines: kamote. Burma: myonk-ni. Cambodia: dam range from 7-30 t/ha offres h produce, which large­ long chvië. Laos: man daang, men keo. Thailand: ly depends on the cultivation period. Yields per man thet, mantheed. Vietnam: khoai lang, khoai year are up to 400t/h a of fresh produce. Under wet day. cultivation yields are difficult to compare because Origin and geographic distribution Sweet cultivation periods differ greatly. Ananual yields potato is an established tropical crop, and widely of 24-100 t/ha are reported. For floating kangkong grown in Asia and Oceania. It is found in tropical, an annual production of 90 t/ha of fresh produce subtropical and warm temperate regions. It is gen­ is reported for Thailand. erally accepted that sweet potato originated from Handling after harvest Shoots are washed im­ Central America or northern South America, mediately after harvest and tied into bundles, based on the distribution patterns of wild rela­ often containing 8-10 shoots. They may be tives, variation in cultivated populations from wrapped in a banana leaf, with open ends, or America, and archaeological relics. packed in polythene-lined crates to protect them Three lines of dispersion from the centre of origin from wilting. have been postulated: Genetic resources A collection of at least 50 - The kumara line is prehistoric, with a transfer landraces of kangkong is available at the Kaset- from northern South America to eastern Polyne­ sart University in Bangkok (Thailand). sia; Breeding Not much breeding work has been car­ - The batatas line dates from the first voyage of ried out on the crop in South-East Asia. Columbus, introducing the plant to Africa and Prospects In Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore Asia through Europe; IPOMOEA 167

- The kamote line represents the direct transfer content and a light flesh colour appear to be gene­ from Mexico to the Philippines via Hawaii and tically linked. It may bedifficul t therefore to select Guam in the 16th Century. orange-fleshed cultivars with a high dry matter Uses Storage roots of sweet potato are used content. Vitamin Cconten t ishig h in sweet potato, mainly for human consumption (70-10 0 %) i n most ranging from 20-50 mg per 100 g on a fresh weight tropical countries. Small portions are used as feed basis. (10-30 %); negligible amounts are for industrial Sweet potato greens are rich in vitamins Aan d B2, purposes (5-10%). In temperate Asia, however, iron and protein, the average composition being 30-35 % is produced for industrial purposes, 5580 IU per 100 g, 0.32 mg per 100 g, 4 mg per 100 mainly for starch and alcohol. g, 2.7 %, all on a fresh weight basis, respectively. Consumption of sweet potato in tropical Asia is in Description A perennial herbaceous plant. the form of dessert, snacks or supplementary food. Root system with fibrous, adventitious roots and In Papua New Guinea and in some Oceanian coun­ enlarged roots,derive d from secondary thickening tries it is a staple food. of some adventitious roots, serving as a storage Young shoots are often consumed as a green vege­ organ, and variable in shape, size, number, skin table and the terminal tips (usually 10-15 cm colour (white, yellow, brown, red, purple), and long), petioles and tender leaves are also eaten. flesh colour (white, yellow, orange, purple). Stems Sweet potato greens are rich in vitamins, minerals prostrate or ascending, or occasionally twining, and protein, and considered as an important addi­ 1-8 m long, much branched from several nodes. tional source of food in the tropics and subtropics. Leaves spirally arranged with a phyllotaxy of 2/5, Production and international trade The simple,lackin g stipules;petiol e 5-30 cmlong , with world sweet potato cultivation area peaked at 15 two small nectaries at the base, grooved above; million ha with a total production of over 130 mil­ lamina usually ovate, 4-15 cm x 4-12 cm, entire, lion t in the early 1970s. There has been a signifi­ angular, or palmately lobed. cant reduction in the world production area, to 8 Flowers axillary, solitary or in cymes;pedice l 3-18 million ha with 111millio n t output in 1985. Asia accounts for 91% of the world's total production, amounting to 102millio n t. China isth e main producer with 90millio n t, about 81% of the world's total production. Other Asian countries with a significant production are: Indo­ nesia (2.3millio n t),Vietna m (2.0millio n t), Japan (1.5millio n t) and the Philippines (1.0millio n t). Properties Nutritional quality and chemical composition of storage roots are genetically deter­ mined, but vary widely due to various environmen­ tal and cultural conditions. Freshly harvested storage root consists of 16-40 % dry matter, ofwhic h 75-90 % is carbohydrate. The carbohydrates consist mainly of starch (60- 80 % dry matter), sugars (4-30 % dry matter), and small amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins. Sucrose is most commonly found in fresh storage roots. There are also small amounts of glucose and fructose. Maltose increases in cooking due to the activation of amylase. The crude protein ranges from 1.3 % to more than 10% on a dry weight basis. The energy value averages 479k J per 100 g. The variation in beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) is 0-22 mg per 100 g on a fresh weight basis. Orange- fleshed cultivars are rich in beta-carotene. Howev­ er, white or yellow-fleshed types which are poor in beta-carotene but with a high dry matter con­ Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. - 1, flowering branch; tent, are preferred in the tropics. High dry matter 2,storage roots. 168 A SELECTION cm long; calyx 5-lobed; corolla funnel-shaped, Other botanical information There area large white or lavender with purple throat; stamens 5, number of sweet potato cultivars and landraces; of unequal length, attached near the base of the many have evolved through systematic breeding. corolla; ovary surrounded by lobed orange nec­ However, an appreciable number have resulted tary, stigma 2-lobed, white orpal e purple. from farmers' selections in populations through Fruit a5- 8m m long capsule, with 1-3 seeds. Seeds natural hybridization and spontaneous mutation. black and about 3 mm long; testa usually very For instance, there are probably about 5000 lan­ hard. draces grown in Papua New Guinea that were der­ Growth anddevelopmen t Sweet potato is nor­ ived inthi s manner. mally grown asa nannual . Planted cuttings, which Ecology Sweet potato is grown between lati­ are usually taken from theti p of the vine, start to tudes 48° N to 40°S . At the equator it is grown at form adventitious roots from the soil-covered altitudes ranging from sea level to 3000 m. Its nodes at the base of axillary buds in about 2 days. growth is maximum at temperatures above 25°C ; The adventitious roots form a fibrous root system. when temperatures fall below 12° C or exceed New stems also arise from thenode s of the cutting. 35°C , growth is retarded. Dry matter production The stems are thin and mayb e prostrate or twin­ increases with increasing soil temperature from ing, and also form adventitious roots at the nodes 20-30°C , but declines beyond 30°C. It is a quanti­ when in contact with the soil. Storage roots (3-12 tative short-day plant. per plant) develop in the top 30 cm of the soil by Sweet potato is a sun-loving crop; however, it can secondary thickening of some of the adventitious tolerate a 30-50 % reduction of full solar radia­ roots, both from the original cuttings and from tion. Light saturation ofsingl e leaf photosynthesis creeping stems. occurs at around 800uE/m 2 per second; light satu­ Approximate growth duration of sweet potato is ration inth ecanop y increases with increasing leaf 3-7 months depending on environment and culti- area index. Optimum leaf area index in the field var. Growth occurs inthre e distinct phases: is 3-4 at solar radiation of 380 g cal/cm2 perday . - an initial phase in which the fibrous roots grow Photosynthetic rate of the canopy in the field is extensively, with only moderate growth of the highest between 10a.m . and2 p.m . vines; Sweet potato grows best with awell-distribute d an­ - an intermediate phase in which the vines grow nual rainfall of 600-1600 mm during the growing extensively and the storage roots are initiated, season. Dryweathe r favours theformatio n and de­ with a considerable increase in leaf area; velopment of storage roots. Soil moisture at - a final phase in which bulking of the storage 60-70 % offiel d capacity isfavourabl e for the ini­ roots occurs, with little further growth of the tial phase, 70-80% for the intermediate phase, vines and fibrous roots, with total leaf area and 60% fo rth efina l phase. Sweet potato is relati­ being constant during this phase and then dec­ vely drought tolerant mainly because ofit s poten­ lining later on. tial forregeneratio n androo t penetration. Howev­ The storage root produces sprouts readily from the er, itcanno t withstand long periods ofdrought ; the vascular cambium region, almost always at the yield is considerably reduced if drought occurs stalk endo ffreshl y harvested storage roots butca n about thetim e ofstorag e root initiation. also arise from the middle and distal parts of aged The crop can be grown on a wide range of soil ones. types,bu ta well-drained, sandy loam with a clayey Flowering canb e induced bygraftin g sweet potato subsoil is considered ideal. It cannot stand water­ onto free-flowering cultivars or onto other Ipo- logging andi susuall y grown onmound s or ridges. moea species. Most sweet potato cultivars are self- Poor aeration oroxyge n concentration ofles s than incompatible. The flower opens before dawn and 10% in the soil, in the initial phase, increases the is receptive only until about 11 a.m. of the same degree oflignificatio n of stele cells and suppresses morning; thus, the chance that any given flower the primary cambium activity, resulting in young may fail tob epollinate d ishigh . Natural cross-pol­ roots developing into fibrous roots. At the final lination is carried out by hymenopterous insects, phase, it restrains the secondary cambium activi­ particularly bees. ty, favouring vine development at the expense of the storage roots. Flooding shortly before harvest The seeds germinate very irregularly due to the may result in the loss of storage roots due to rot­ hard testa, but germination can be improved by ting in thesoi l or during subsequent storage. scarification. Germination of scarified seeds The best bulk density of the soil is 1.3-1.5 g/ml. occurs in 1-2 days, andi s epigeal. IPOMOEA 169

Higher bulk densities tend to reduce storage root However, fertilizer isseldo m applied inth e tropics. formation, resulting in reduced yields or poorly Type and dosage of fertilizer depend on soil type, shaped storage roots. The optimum soil pH for environment and cultivar. It is estimated that 70 sweet potato is 5.6-6.6, but it still grows well even kg N, 20 kg P and 110 kg K are removed from the in soils with a relatively lower pH, e.g. 4.2. It is land by a sweet potato crop yielding about 15 t/ha sensitive to alkaline or saline soils; maximum soil of storage roots. Sweet potato plants develop defi­ salinity without yield loss (threshold) is about 1.5 ciency symptoms when the nutrient levels in the dS/m. tissues (stems and leaves) fall below 2.5% N, Propagation and planting In the tropics sweet 0.12 % P, 0.75 % K, 0.16 % Mg, 0.2 % Ca and 0.08 % potato is propagated vegetatively from vine cut­ S. Manure incorporation may also be employed to tings, but slips or sprouts obtained as cuttings improve the fertility. This is a common practice in from storage roots are sometimes used. Vine cut­ smallholdings and traditional agriculture. tings about 30 cm from the tip are generally used, Sweet potato is used in a wide variety of cropping but sometimes from the middle portion as well. In systems around the world. Rotating sweet potato areas where the plant cannot grow all year round, with other crops, such as rice, legumes, maize, is sprouts from storage roots of the previous crop are desirable to control diseases, pests and weeds in used as planting material. Propagation by seed is the subsequent crop. possible but used only for breeding purposes. Diseases and pests In Asia and Oceania, scab If there is no critical dry season, sweet potato can caused by Elsinoe batatas isth e most prevalent dis­ be planted at any time. In regions with a critical ease in the sweet potato, followed by Fusarium dry season planting early in the rainy season is the wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) and witches' broom best. If the rainy season is long and excessive, it (also called 'little leaf), caused by mycoplasm-like isusuall y planted towards the end ofth e rainy sea­ organisms. Soil rot (Streptomyces ipomoea), black son. Land preparation varies from planting on the rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata), Java black rot (Diplo- flat land in less intensive systems, to plowing, har­ dia tubericola), scurf (Monilochaetes infuscans) rowing and ridging in more intensive systems. and some virus diseases occur in sweet potato but Planting on ridges isrecommended . Cultivation in their distribution and importance vary with mounds, with several cuttings in each mound, is region. The use of disease-free planting material, employed in the tropics, e.g. small-scale produc­ and crop rotation are the most reliable means of tion in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. controlling these diseases. Some genetic materials Vine cuttings are inserted into the soil horizon­ are resistant to scab, Fusarium wilt, witches' tally or at an angle with 3-4 nodes covered by soil. broom and black rot. The placement of the cuttings is done manually in Sweet-potato weevil (Cylas formicarius) is the most parts of the tropics. The optimum plant den­ most destructive insect pest in the tropics and sub- sity depends on local conditions and practices; tropics. Combination of the following measures is however, sweet potato readily compensates to recommended to control this pest: some extent for a sparsely planted density. - crop rotation; Number and mean weight of storage roots, and the - eradication of Ipomoea weeds, alternate weevil yield per plant decrease with increasing plant den­ host in the surrounding areas; sity. Normally vine cuttings are planted 25-30 cm - use of clean planting material or dipping cut­ apart in rows with 60-100 cm between rows; the tings in a suitable insecticide solution; total yield may be expected to be highest with - regular hilling to fill soil cracks around plants 40000-5 0 000 plants/ha. to prevent weevils entering to lay eggs in the Husbandry Weed infestation during the first roots. two months of growth poses a problem in stand de­ Besides the above measures, the use of a recently velopment, and requires adequate control to developed sex pheromone is effective in capturing ensure high yield. Thereafter, vigorous growth of the male weevils. No germplasm with effective the vines causes rapid and effective coverage of the weevil resistance is available so far. ground surface and smothers weeds.I n the tropics, Harvesting The harvesting period for sweet manual weeding is generally practised, but herbi­ potato storage roots isno t clearly defined; it varies cides are sometimes used in large-scale produc­ with cultivar, cultural practices and climate. In tion. South-East Asia, sweet potato is generally har­ Sweet potato responds well to fertilizer, particu­ vested 3-4 months after planting. In the Philip­ larly if the land has been continuously cropped. pines, early-maturing cultivars are harvested 170 A SELECTION

70-80day s after planting, late-maturing ones after eral, storage life extends only to 1-2 months. 120-150 days. In Papua New Guinea, sweet potato Genetic resources According to the Internatio­ is harvested after 5-6 months in the lowlands, 6-8 nal Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in months in the highlands and 8-12 months or more 1980, there were 6900 accessions of germplasm in the mountainous areas. 'Progressive harvest­ maintained worldwide. However, many of them ing' (piece-meal harvesting) is a common practice are duplicated and it is estimated that about 3500 in tropical countries where sweet potatoes are are real cultivars or landraces. Intensive collec­ grown for home consumption. It is generally rec­ tion activities sponsored by IBPGR are still in pro­ ommended to harvest within four months to pre­ gress in some areas. Excellent collections of germ- vent weevil damage. In the tropics, manual har­ plasm are maintained at the Asian Vegetable vesting using simple implements such as sticks, Research and Development Center (AVRDC) in spades, hoes, etc., is practised. Mechanical har­ Taiwan, the International Institute of Tropical vesting is done only in large-scale production Agriculture (UTA) in Nigeria, and the Centro areas where the terrain is suitable for machinery; Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Ense- a variety of plows, either animal or tractor-drawn, nanza (CATIE) in Costa Rica. Recently, the Inter­ are used. national Potato Center, Peru, initiated a large col­ Yield Average yield of storage roots throughout lection including wild species, mainly from Latin the world is 15 t/ha. The average yield in Asia in America and the Caribbean. In Asia and Oceania, 1985 was 16 t/ha; it varied from around 20 t/ha many accessions are alsomaintaine d by individual (China, Korea and Japan) to 5-8 t/ha (Burma, national programmes. Papua New Guinea has the Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea and largest collection with more than 2500 accessions. Vietnam). The yield potential of sweet potato is Breeding Varietal improvement ofswee t potato high. However, various abiotic and biotic stresses through breeding has received special attention at in the tropics prevent the full expression of this AVRDC and UTA. Extensive breeding pro­ potential. grammes have also been carried out in Asia, espe­ Handling after harvest Post-harvest handling cially in China, Japan and Taiwan. In the Philip­ procedures differ greatly between temperate and pines and Indonesia, breeding activities are also tropical regions. Sweet potatoes grown in temper­ in progress. Utilization of sweet potato, preferred ate regions are harvested and handled mechani­ types, and production constraints vary with cally, the procedures often causing damage to the region, and breeding goals should reflect the needs storage roots. In temperate areas, harvested stor­ of each region. age roots are normally cured for 4-7 days at tem­ In Asia and Oceania, biotic constraints such as peratures of 29-35° C and a relative humidity of scab and weevil, and abiotic ones such as drought, 85-90% in specially heated storage sheds which excess rainfall or flooding and high temperature must be well ventilated. This treatment promotes deserve consideration in genetic improvement pro­ the formation of wound cork and the production grammes. In addition, eating quality (flavour, ofphenolic s on damaged surfaces thereby prevent­ taste and texture), nutritional value, high yield, ing excessive water loss and pathogenic infection. early maturity, appearance and uniformity, and Once the curing procedure is complete, storage storability are important characteristics which roots are stored at 13°C, and 80-90 % relative hu­ require improvement to meet the needs of human midity. Under these conditions, storage roots can consumption. be kept for 12 months or longer, depending on the Although utilization of wild relatives has been cultivar. attempted in various sweet potato breeding pro­ In tropical countries, root storage is difficult grammes since the 1930s, the Japanese cultivar because of rotting, weevil damage, and sprouting. 'Minamiyutaka' is the only example of a commer­ Most growers use methods such as progressive cial cultivar derived through controlled genetic harvesting or growing early- and late-maturing introgression from the hexaploid Ipomoea trifida cultivars to avoid the problem ofstorage .Th e roots (H.B.K.) G.Don. are usually consumed within a few days of harvest. Prospects Sweet potato has a great yield poten­ For transport to the market, roots are packed soon tial, high nutrient productivity, and can survive after harvest into sacks, boxes or crates. The roots under a widerang e ofadvers e environments. Great may remain viable for up to a week; however, the potential exists for using sweet potato for human quality deteriorates rapidly after a few days. Stor­ consumption, animal feed, industrial uses and pro­ age in pits or mounds is often practised but, in gen­ cessing in Asia and in many other tropical regions. KlBATALIA 171

To reach use its full potential through improve­ (Kepong). Thailand: badubuwae. ment programmes the different utilization pat­ Origin and geographic distribution K. terns should be taken into consideration. In this arborea is found in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia approach not only varietal improvement but also (Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi) and the Philippines management practices, post-harvest handling and (Palawan). processing technology should receive due atten­ Uses On Java the latex of K. arborea is used as tion. a medicine against stomach disorders, dysentery Literature |1| Agata, W. & Takeda, T., 1982. and worm diseases.A fe w drops are said to be effec­ Studies on dry matter production in sweet potato tive in the expulsion of intestinal worms. To this plants. Journal of Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu end it ishel d in bamboo scrapings which are subse­ University 27:75-82. |2| Anonymous, 1982. Sweet quently extracted with water; the juice extruded potato cultivation in China (in Chinese). Shanghai is administered. On south-eastern Sulawesi the Science & Technology Publishing Company, wood is used for sabre sheaths. Shanghai, China. 378pp . |3| Bouwkamp, J.C., 1985. Properties The toxalbumin kicksiin seems to be Sweet potato products: a natural resource for the present in the latex. A fairly easily decomposed tropics. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United and not very toxic alkaloid is found in the bark; States. 271 pp. |4| Hahn, S.K. & Hozyo, Y., 1984. it paralyses the heart when allowed to act directly Sweet potato. In: Goldsworthy, P.R. & Fisher, on the heart of frogs. The wood of K. arborea is N.M. (Editors): The physiology of tropical field not considered durable. crops.Joh n Wiley &Sons ,Chichester , pp.551-567 . Botany Large evergreen tree, 7.5-45 (-65) m |5| International Board For Plant Genetic high; stem straight, 15-100 cm in diameter. Leaves Resources, 1980. Directory of germplasm collec­ opposite; petioles 5-14 (-30) mm long; blades ellip- tions. Root and tuber crops. IBPGR, Rome, Italy. |6| Martin, F.W. &Jones , A., 1986. Breeding sweet potato. In: Janick, J. (Editor): Plant Breeding Reviews. Vol. 4. Avi Publishing Company, Inc., West Port, Connecticut, pp.313-345 . |7| Onwueme, I.C., 1978.Th e tropical tuber crops. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 167-195. |8| Sakamoto, S., 1976. Breeding of a new sweet potato variety, Minamiyutaka, by the use of wild relatives. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 10(4):183-186. |9| Villareal, R.L. & Griggs, T.D. (Editors), 1982. Sweet potato. Proceedings of the first internatio­ nal symposium. AVRDC, Shanhua, Taiwan. 481 pp. |10|Wargiono , J., 1980.Swee t potato and its cul­ tural practices. Central Research Institute ofAgri ­ culture. Technical Bulletin No 5. Indonesia. |11| Yen, D.E., 1974. The sweet potato and Oceania. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. 389pp . (S. Sakamoto, H. Takagi &CG . Kuo)

Kibatalia arborea (Blume) G. Don

Gen. Syst. Bot. 4:8 6(1837) . APOCYNACEAE 2n = unknown Synonyms Kickxia arborea (Blume) Blume (1828). Vernacular names Indonesia: kibenteli, kitum- bali (West Java), kayu santen (Central and East Java), lingorumbolia (Sulawesi, Malili), soliti Kibatalia arborea (Blume) G. Don - 1, flowering (Sulawesi, Muna). Malaysia: jelutung pipit branch; 2,fruit; 3, seed. 172 A SELECTION tic to obovate, 16-26(-35 ) cm x 8-13 cm, coria­ widely throughout Mexico and Central America ceous orpapyraceous , entire, subglabrous. to northern South America prior to 1500 AD.Th e Inflorescences lax, 8-10c mlong , with fewt o many common form wasbrough t by Spanish galleons to flowers; peduncles 2-5 mm long, pedicels 3-5 cm the Philippines in the early 1600s, from whence it long; flowers fragrant, 5-merous, regular, with was pantropically distributed inth e 19th Century. small calyx and white or creamy corolla; corolla The Salvador forms aremor e recent in distribution tube 24-45m m long, lobes elliptic tonarrowl y obo­ and are known by such names as 'lamtoro gung' vate, 30-40 mm x 10-18mm . Fruits (mericarps) in Indonesia, 'giant ipil-ipil' inth ePhilippine s and pendulous, very narrow ellipsoid tover y narrowly 'subabul' in India. Leucaenas are found throug­ clavate, 25-85 cm x 1-2.5 cm. Seeds fusiform with hout South-East Asia; on many islands common grains 28-35m m x 2-3.5 mm,bearin g a long beak, leucaenas dominate the vegetation on coralline which is glabrous for about 50m man dbearin g an soils. apical coma for30-4 0 (-80) mm; coma white, hairs Uses Leucaenas are versatile multipurpose 20-100 mm long. Thetre e can be found flowering trees. In South-East Asia they usually provide a and fruiting allyea r round. combination of fodder, fuel wood, posts, shade, Ecology K. arborea isfoun d at 0-500 m altitude food andgree n manure. Foliage isfe dt o ruminant in lowland tropical rainforest, often on stream animals as browse or by cut- and-carry methods, banks andstee p slopes. or it is milled for poultry and pelleted for foreign Prospects Many aspects of K. arborea are marketing. Wood is cut for home fuel wood and unknown. Themedicina l value of the latex needs used in industries such as ceramics and electrical more pharmaceutical research and the wood, al­ power generation; it is also converted into char­ though notsuitabl e for construction work, mayb e coal. Increasing use is made ofth e wood for posts of interest toth ewoo d industry. and props, in chipboard and plywood, for paper Literature |1| Rudjiman, 1987. A revision of pulp, and for furniture and parquet flooring. In Beaumontia Wallich, Kibatalia G. Don and Val- Asia theyoun g green shoots areeate n prior toleaf ­ lariopsis Woodson (Apocynaceae). Series of revi­ let unfolding, buti n theAmerica s the green seeds sions ofApocynacea e XIX. Agricultural Universi­ are eaten. Alley farming involves planting leu­ ty Wageningen Papers 86-5:43-47. |2| Woodson, caena hedges on contours at intervals of 3-6 m R.E., 1936.Studie s on the Apocynaceae VI. The with crops in between. Hedges provide a high- Philippine Journal ofScienc e 60(3):205-231. nitrogen green manure, protect against soil ero­ (Rudjiman) sion andca nb eharveste d forfodde r or wood. Other uses include living fences, support systems for vines like pepper andpassio n fruit, shade trees Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) deWi t for coffee andcoco a andornamentals . Throughout the tropics leucaenas provide amajo r nitrogen-fix­ Taxon 10:5 3(1961) . ing component of lowland forests, notably on LEGUMINOSAE wasteland, where they are often a primary source 2n = 104 of fixed nitrogen inth eecosystem . Thedrie d seeds Synonyms Leucaena glauca (Willd.) Benth. are widely used for ornamentation and household (1842),Leucaena latisiliqua (L.) Gillis (1974). items. Vernacular names Leucaena, jumbie bean Production and international trade Leu­ (En). Indonesia: lamtoro, lamtoro gung. Malaysia: caena leaf meal is milled, pelleted and shipped lamtoro. Philippines: ipil-ipil, lepili. Cambodia: internationally in a highly variable annual vol­ kânthum theet, kratin. Laos: kan thin. Thailand: ume, largely toJapa n and Europe for animal feed. kra thin. Vietnam: bochét , schemu. Demand is estimated to be up to 1millio n t/year, Origin and geographic distribution Leucaena far exceeding production, with world prices simi­ evolved in the Guatemalan centre of origin, as a lar tothos efo ralfalf a pelletso rhay . Pricesi n local probable tetraploid hybrid ofdiploi d speciesi n this markets in Asia vary widely for both fodder and region. Two major forms arefound . The 'common' wood. However, leucaena is the primary legumi­ shrubby form grows to 8m high and is evidently nous feed inlarg e regions ofIndonesi a andth ePhi ­ indigenous to the Yucatan Peninsula. The arbor­ lippines, and the trees are a major source of fuel eal 'Salvador' type grows to 16m and appears to wood in these and other countries. Most produc­ have originated inth eregion s ofSalvador , Guate­ tion is on communal lands or small farms. mala and Honduras. Both forms were distributed Attempts to commercialize production on large LEUCAENA 173 plantations (1000 ha or more) for dendrothermal Flowers numerous, in globose heads with a diame­ energy in the Philippines have not been a great ter of 2-5 cm, white, calyx ca. 2.5 mm, corolla ca. success. 5 mm, stamens (10 per flower) and pistil 10 mm Properties Leucaena foliage isnote d for its high long, anthers pilose, dehiscing at dawn. Pod 14-26 digestibility and high protein values. Typical val­ cm x 1.5-2 cm, pendant, brown at maturity. Seeds ues for 'browse fraction' offoliag e include 55-70 % 18-22 per pod, 6-10 mm long, brown. digestibility, 20-25 % protein, 6% ether extract, Wood characteristics Leucaena produces a 6-10 % ash, 30-50 % N-free extract (neutral deter­ medium hardwood with a specific gravity of be­ gent fibre 20%) , 1.5-2.5% tannins, 0.8-1.8 ppm Ca tween 0.5 and 0.6 and a moisture content which and 0.23-0.27 ppm P. The seeds and leaves contain varies between 30-50% depending on maturity. galactomannan gums that block protein extrac­ Heating values (bone-dry) average 19*250 kj/kg. tion and possibly its utilization by animals; they Bark is thin. The wood turns well, matures to a may potentially have useful biomedical properties. golden brown colour and is hard enough for floor­ The trees occasionally exude a gum very similar ing. It accepts preservatives well but does not to gum arabic, with similar uses and properties; resist termites. Pulp yields are high (50-52 %), lig- sterile hybrids exude copiously. nin levels low, fibres short (1.1-1.3 mm); paper Description Shrub or tree up to 18m tall , forked quality is generally considered excellent. when shrubby or after coppicing, with greyish Growth and development Leucaena sets pods bark and prominent lenticels. Leaves bipinnate cyclically every 3-4 months if moisture is suffi­ with 4-9 pairs of pinnae, variable in length up to cient, due to the suppression of vegetative growth 35 cm, with a large gland (up to 5 mm) at base of during fruiting. Arboreal cultivars have been petiole. Leaflets 11-22 pairs per pinna, 8-16 mm selected for greatly reduced flowering. Fruits x 1-2 mm, acute. ripen in 10-15 weeks. The flowers are self-fertile and most seed results from self-pollination (this is not true for related species with In = 52 or In = 56). Seeds have a hard seed coat and survive for a long time in the soil. Seedlings produce a single strong tap-root in the first month, followed later by feeder roots. Nodulation occurs within 2 months. Rates ofgrowt h in height usually increase after 3 months, continuing linearly for 3-4 years. Coppiced stems sprout 5-15 branches, depending on diameter ofth e cut surface, and 1-4 stems domi­ nate after a year of regrowth. Individual leaves persist from 4-6 months and fold at night or under stress. Other botanical information Other Leucaena species that occur in South-East Asia include L. pulverulenta (Schlecht.) Benth., first introduced to Indonesia in the early 1900s. It proved better adapted to the cool coffee-growing highlands than leucaena and was used as a rootstock for leucaena. Since 1980 L. diversifolia (Schlecht.) Benth. has become an important parent of new leucaena hybrids grown in Asia because of its tolerance of the psyllid insect pest and cool temperatures. The common and giant forms ofL. leucocephala are dis­ tinguished taxonomically as L. leucocephala var. leucocephala (common form, shrubby, small plant parts, pubescent shoot tips) and L. leucocephala var.glabrata Rose(gian t form, arboreal, with large plant parts, glabrous shoots). Intermediate types Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit - flowering are referred to as the 'Peru' form. The giant or 'gla­ and fruiting branch. brata' form gives the highest yields of both fodder 174 A SELECTION and wood. The best known cultivars in South-East Diseases and pests Leucaena has few pests, the Asia are K8, K28, K29, K67, K156 (a cultivar of L. only serious one presently being the psyllid insect diversifolia) and K636 which resulted from (Heterophylla cubana), newly introduced to Asia research work in Hawaii, and the cultivar Cun­ in 1985.Th e psyllid is a tiny 'jumping plant louse' ningham resulting from research work in Austra­ associated with young leaves; populations vary lia. Psyllid-resistant cultivars KX1, KX2 and KX3 greatly but maximize on plants that are conti­ are based on species hybrids now becoming popu­ nuously pollarded or browsed. Predatory and para­ lar in Asia. sitic insects control the psyllid effectively in its Ecology Leucaena is found in lowlands up to native Americas, and are being introduced to some 1000 m elevation, but new hybrids such as KX3 South-East Asian countries. Plant resistance is greatly extend this range to cooler climates. Leu- becoming increasingly available from species caenas generally require annual rainfall in the hybrids of the genus Leucaena. Disease is rare on region of 650-1500 mm, but can be found in drier leucaena, but seedling and stem rots occur occa­ and wetter sites depending on competitive vegeta­ sionally due to Phytophthora drechsleri or Fusa­ tion. They thrive under irrigation regimes similar rium semitectum. The pods are commonly invaded to those used for crops like maize, > 1200 mm/year. by seed weevils, which - together with organisms Leucaenas favour soils with pH > 5, and have a causing rot - can reduce seed crops. low tolerance of free aluminium. They perform Harvesting Fodder is harvested from hedges best on coralline and other calcareous soils, but 50-100 cm in height. Harvest cycles range from can be found on saline soils and on alkaline soils 6-12 weeks depending on temperature. Foliage up to pH 8. should be harvested before it becomes excessively Propagation and planting Direct seeding is woody, at a time when it can be consumed entirely preferred for fodder and hedgerow plantings, with by ruminant animals. Wood harvest periods range a density of 75000-12 5 000 plants/ha. For success­ very widely, from 1-8 years, depending on size of ful germination, seeds must be scarified (3 minutes product desired and harvesting equipment. in hot water at 80°C , nicking, or acid etch). Most Machetes are commonly used in Asia, but band- South-East Asian soils bear abundant rhizobia, saws and chainsaws can also be used. but inoculation is advised. Seedlings are raised in Yield Fresh herbage yields on good sites nor­ the nursery in long narrow containers (3 cm x 15 mally exceed those ofothe r shrubby legumes, rang­ cm), accomodating the strong tap-root without ing from 40-80 t/ha per year (ca. 25% woody) coiling. Transplanting is done when seedlings are where moisture is sufficient. In seasonally dry 3-5 months old, preferably after a month in the full tropics, the range narrows to 20-50 t/ha. Much sun. Bare-rooted seedlings can be transplanted lower yields than these generally reflect con­ effectively if shoot and roots are topped. straints of climate or soil fertility, notably acidity Leucaena establishes relatively slowly, producing or phosphate deficiency. Wood yields compare a lignified tap-root before more dramatic seedling favourably with the best tropical trees, with growth can occur. It grows is to a height of about height increments of 3-5 m/year and wood incre­ 1 m in 3 months, followed by steady elongation to ments of 20-60 m3/year for arboreal varieties. 3-5 m and branching with flowering in the first Handling after harvest Fodder is commonly year. Soil shading is complete in 3-5 months if vig­ fed fresh or provided as a browse. Sun-drying is orous seedlings are planted at a distance of 1 m practised for leaf pelleting and marketing, often x 1 m. Until then weed control is essential. Soil by placing branches over trelliswork or on asphalt preparation should include phosphatic fertilizer to allow the leaflets to drop.Woo d handling is simi­ for rapid growth and liming where feasible to pH lar to that of other fuel wood or pulpwood species. 5.5o r above. Field preparation by plowing or disk­ Genetic resources Twomajo r collections occur ing is preferred, but transplanting can also follow in Hawaii and in Australia. They comprise about burning or use of contact herbicides. 1800accession s derived largely from 7 expeditions Management Several pre and post-emergence to Mexico and Central or South America where the herbicides such as alachlor can be used effectively genus is indigenous. About 20 of these accessions on leucaenas. Direct seeding requires more land were identified as superior cultivars in perfor­ preparation and careful ring-weeding until trees mance trials and are now widely deployed in are established and the weeds shaded out. Leu­ South-East Asia. These are identified by K caena trees exhibit considerable longevity under numbers (Hawaii) and CPI numbers (Australia). a variety of coppicing regimes. Native local populations of leucaena in Asia show MANIHOT 175 limited genetic variation and are not recommend­ pp. |6| Oakes, A.J., 1968. Leucaena leucocephala; ed for production purposes, as they are outyielded description, culture, utilization. Advancing Fron­ by improved cultivars. tiers of Plant Science (India) 10:1-114. |7| Pound, Breeding Twelve species of the genus Leucaena B. &Martine z Cairo, L., 1983.Leucaena , its culti­ are widely recognized by botanists. A thirteenth vation and use. Overseas Development Adminis­ has also been validated (L. saluadorensis Hughes). tration, London. A few other taxa are classified as 'doubtful spe­ (J.L. Brewbaker &Ch.T . Sorensson) cies'. Most species have 2n chromosome numbers of 52 or 56; 104 and 112 chromosomes have also been reported. Species hybrids are rare in nature. Manihot esculenta Crantz The authors, in Hawaii, have attempted all pos­ sible combinations of the 12 species and created EUPHORBIACEAE 65viabl e species hybrids that differ widely in mor­ In = 36 phology and ecology. All species can be hybridized Synonyms Manihot utilissima Pohl (1827). with leucaena, and two of the crosses, designated Vernacular names Cassava, tapioca (En). KX1 and KX2, have high insect tolerance and are Manioc (Fr). Indonesia: ketela pohon (Java), ubi being evaluated widely. Breeding programmes are kayu (Malayu). Malaysia: ubi kayu, ubi benggala. being carried out by the University of Hawaii, the Philippines: kamóteng-kahoi (Sulu), balangai Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association and the Com­ (Bisaya). Burma: palaw-pinan-u-pin. Cambodia: monwealth Scientific &Industria l Research Orga­ dâmloong chhë:. Laos: man tônz. Thailand: man nization (CSIRO), Queensland, Australia. Pro­ sampalang. Vietnam: san, mi, khoai mi. gress has been made in improving yield, acid Origin and geographic distribution Cassava tolerance, tolerance of cold and growth form. is indigenous to tropical America like all the spe­ Prospects Newly-bred varieties widen the cli­ cies (98) of the genus Manihot. It is not known in matic range of leucaena to the highlands and sub­ a wild state and the origin of cassava as a crop is tropical regions, with high cold tolerance charac­ unknown. It is assumed that it was first cultivated terizing some new hybrids (KX3). Improved bole in north-eastern Brazil, based on the abundance shape (K636), psyllid resistance (KX1, KX2), low of related wild species, but Mexico and Central mimosine content (KX3) and increased vegetative America are also mentioned as centres of domesti­ vigour are among other advances in breeding. cation. Cassava was certainly already cultivated Improved alley-farming methods of managing leu­ in many parts oftropica l America in the first mille- caena have been developed in Africa and Indone­ nium BC.Initia l cultivation is thought to be consi­ sia. These are expected to improve crop yields in derably earlier. In the post-Columbian Era, the association with leucaena and aid in the stabiliza­ cassava plant spread from the American Conti­ tion of shifting systems of agriculture and of frag­ nent. Early introduction byth e Portuguese is men­ ile tropical soils. tioned for several Asian countries. The period Literature |1|Brewbaker , J.L., 1987. Leucaena: around 1810 is the most likely period when it was a multipurpose tree genus for tropical agrofor- introduced into Indonesia. For the Philippines, an estry. In: Steppler, H.A. & Nair, P.K.R. (Editors): early introduction by Spanish explorers and tra­ Agroforestry, a decade ofdevelopment . Internatio­ desmen from Mexico has been suggested. For all nal Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), countries in South-East Asia it is true that adop­ Nairobi,pp .289-323 .|2 |Brewbaker , J.L., 1987.Spe ­ tion was quite slow initially. On Java in 1880, cas­ cies in the genus Leucaena. Leucaena Research sava cultivation had spread little. Good export Reports 7:6-20. |3| Hughes, CE., 1988. Leucaena opportunities for starch and dried storage roots, salvadorensis; status, distribution and genetic failures of rice and maize crops causing famines conservation. Leucaena Research Reports in several years, and propagation campaigns in 9:99-105. |4| International Development and favour of cassava organized by the colonial Dutch Research Centre (IDRC), 1983.Leucaen a research authorities formed the main reasons for the rapid in the Asia-Pacific region. Proceedings of expansion of cassava cultivation in Indonesia at Singapore Workshop, Nitrogen Fixing Tree Asso­ the beginning of the 20th Century. ciation (NFTA) & IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. 192 pp. It is now a major crop in South-East Asia, particu­ |5| Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1987. Biolog­ larly in Indonesia and Thailand. ical and genetic control strategies for the Leu­ Uses Of the world production of cassava, 65% caena psyllid. Leucaena Research Reports 7(2).10 9 is used for human consumption, 20% for animal 176 A SELECTION feed and the remaining 15% for starch and indus­ of the roots varies from 30-40%. Cassava roots trial uses.Fo r human consumption, the roots, after can contain dangerous amounts ofcyanogeni c glu- peeling, are boiled or fried, either as they are or cosides. Protein content of fresh cassava leaves is after drying or fermenting. up to 7% . The leaves also contain reasonable Use varies considerably between different coun­ amounts of vitamins A and C. tries in South-East Asia. In Thailand, local use for All cultivars contain cyanogenic glucosides. Glu- human consumption is very low. 95% is exported, coside content (such as HCN) in the central part mainly to European countries for animal feed. The of fresh storage roots varies from 30 to 200 mg/kg, remainder is for local human consumption and in­ and can sometimes be even more. Small amounts dustrial uses. In Indonesia, 60% of production is are tolerable, but man should not consume more used for immediate human consumption, 25% than 1 mg HCN per kg body weight per day. Gluco- fresh and 35% after drying; 25% is used for starch side content is also influenced by ecological condi­ production, most of which is for human consump­ tions and mineral supply. High nitrogen content tion as kerupuk, cookies and other snacks. The and low potassium content in soil increase the glu- remaining 15% is exported. In Malaysia, the coside content. The first rains after a dry season starch industry uses about 90% of all the cassava can also cause a large increase in glucoside. If the produced. The remaining 10% is used for animal cells of storage roots are crushed, glucosides and feed. In Malaysia too, only a very small proportion enzymes make contact and the HCN is split off. of local production is used for human consump­ This is the key to methods of removing HCN. The tion. In other countries in South-East Asia, cas­ volatile HCN should be allowed to escape. Boiling sava is used mainly for human consumption and is not always a guarantee that the product is safe, starch production. as the HCN may be caught in the starchy paste. Regionally, cassava leaves are used for human or Rasping and slowdryin g ofth e product is effective. animal consumption. Sun-drying reduces toxicity, but is not very effec­ Production and international trade Produc­ tive. Although local consumers usually know how tion of fresh roots from cassava in Asia in 1986 was to prepare a safe product, accidents still occur, 44 million t/year, which represents 32% of world especially with children. Cassava leaves also con­ production. The main producers are Thailand with tain considerable amounts of cyanogenic gluco­ 15millio n t and Indonesia with 13millio n t. Indo­ sides, but no accidents have been reported due to nesia has been the leading producer for many their consumption. It is advisable, however, to cut years. The very rapid increase in Thailand, from the leaves into pieces and throw away the cooking about 2 million t in 1964 to 20 million t in 1984 is water. most remarkable. At the beginning of the 1960s, Description A perennial, monoecious, culti­ the export of cassava to Europe started, to be used vated shrub, up to 4 m tall, all parts containing as a component of animal feed, initially as meal, white latex and varying concentrations of cyano­ later as chips and from about 1969 as pellets. In genic glycosides. Seedlings form a tap-root with 1986, however, production decreased to 15 million generally slender secondary roots; adventitious t, due to market restrictions in Europe. roots arising from stem cuttings, very variable in Other Asian countries with a significant cassava shape, size, position and number, usually 5-10 production are India (6.0millio n t), China (3.6 mil­ (-20) per plant, usually tapering but also long and lion t), Vietnam (3.0 million t) and the Philippines slender, cylindrical to globose, up to 100 cm x 15 (1.7millio n t). cm, serving as a starch storage organ in the paren­ Properties Storage roots consist almost exclu­ chymatous cells of the white, yellowish or reddish sively of carbohydrates, mainly starch. Content of pith; storage roots are white, brownish or reddish protein, fat, most vitamins and minerals is low. and become lignified with age. Stems woody, Only the vitamin C content is of any importance. unbranched to variously branched, predominantly Protein in cassava storage roots is especially defi­ brownish or greyish, usually with prominent leaf cient in sulphur-bearing amino-acids. The edible scars. Leaves spirally arranged with phyllotaxis portion of fresh storage roots represents 80-90 % 2/5,petiolate , simple; petiole 5-30 cm long, basally of the total storage-root weight. Average composi­ attached to the blade or slightly peltate; blade tion of the edible part of fresh storage roots is: car­ entire to 3-10-partite to near the base; lobes bohydrates 35% , protein 1.0 %, fat 0.3% and min­ oblong, obovate, linear or lanceolate, 4-20 cm x erals 1.0%. Energy content of edible portion 1-6 cm, entire, acuminate. amounts to 600 kJ per 100 g. Dry matter content Inflorescences are lax terminal racemes, 3-10 cm MANIHOT 177

and ecological conditions. The number of shoots per planted cutting depends on the length and orientation of the cuttings and on soil conditions. Number of shoots increases with cutting length; fewer sprouts emerge from cuttings planted upright or at an angle than from horizontally planted ones. New leaves are formed continuously, but the rate decreases with time. Older leaves die and fall after 40-200 days. After a certain number of nodes (leaves) have formed (depending on cultivar and ecological conditions), the growing point becomes reproductive. As a result of this, a number of axillary buds just below the growing point sprout and develop into simi­ larly sized branches (generally two to four). Later in the growth period this process can be repeated once or more. However cultivars also occur that do not branch at all. There is evidence that for some cultivars long days stimulate flower initia­ tion. Flowering, however, does not always occur due to early abortion of inflorescences. In cassava, both cross-pollination and self-pollina­ tion occur naturally. Male and female flowers hardly ever open simultaneously in the same raceme; however male and female flowers on dif­ ferent branches of the same plant commonly open Manihot esculenta Crantz 1, young branch with simultaneously. Male sterility is frequent. Cross- incompatibility has not been found. Three to five leaves; 2,storage roots. months after fertilization, the fruit matures. long; flowers unisexual with 5 united sepals and Other botanical information A satisfactory no petals,th e pistillate basal, opening first, the sta- general botanical classification of cassava below minate apical; male flowers with pedicel 4-6 mm species level does not exist. Its pantropical distri­ long, calyx about 1 cm long, divided to or beyond bution by man and its cultivation since ancient the middle, yellowish, stamens 10 in two whorls; times has resulted in an enormous number of culti­ female flowers with pedicel 0.5-2.5 cm long, calyx vars that when they are all compared, show contin­ up to 1.3 cm long, stigmas 3, thick, warty-lobed, uous variation in every characteristic studied. ovary 3-carpelled. Fruit a 6-winged subglobose Many attempts to classify the cultivars formally capsule, 1-1.5 cm in diameter, with up to 3 ellip­ have failed and are usually only of historical or soid seeds, 12 mm long, carunculate, variously local practical value. marked or plain. All cassava cultivars contain cyanogenic gluco- Growth and development All economic plant­ sides (mainly linamarin), which releases toxic ing is done with stem cuttings. Planted cuttings HCN by enzymic breakdown. Glucosides are pre­ start toroo t from the soil-covered nodes at the base sent in all plant parts. Formerly cultivars were of the axillary buds and the stipule scars some 5 divided into two groups: 'sweet' and 'bitter' culti­ days after planting. About 10 days after planting, vars according to their glucoside content in the sprouting starts. At that time, the callus can also central part of the storage roots. This distinction be observed at the base of the cutting, from which is not justified as all kinds of intermediates occur a large number of adventitious roots emerge. Two and correlation between the glucoside content and to four months after planting, storage roots start the taste is far from general. to develop by secondary thickening of a number Ecology Distribution of cassava is worldwide in of the adventitious roots. In tropical regions, an regions between 30° N and 30°S . At the more almost fixed proportion of dry matter production extreme latitudes, the growth period is limited is stored in the roots once secondary thickening because of the incidence of frost, which results in has started. This proportion depends on cultivar the plant dying off immediately. The optimum tem- 178 A SELECTION perature range is 20-30°C. Specific cultivars are In Asia, cassava is usually planted vertically. The necessary for successful cultivation at an average drier the soil the greater the part of the stem that temperature of 20°C . should be placed in the soil. Under very dry condi­ Cassava is grown in regions with 500-6000 mm of tions, cuttings should be planted at an angle and rainfall per year. Optimum annual rainfall is largely covered with soil.Ther e isn o clear relation 1000-1500 mm, without distinct dry periods. Once between planting angle and yield. Horizontal established, cassava can resist severe drought. planting leads to a large number of thin stems, During prolonged periods of drought, cassava which may cause lodging. Planting upside down plants shed their leaves but resume growth after should be avoided, as it greatly decreases yield. the rains start, making it a suitable crop in areas Soil preparation varies from practically none with an uncertain rainfall distribution. Owing to under shifting cultivation to ploughing, harrow­ its drought resistance, cassava is planted in many ing and possible ridging in more intensive crop­ regions as a reserve crop against famine in dry ping systems. Planting on ridges is recommended, years. This phenomenon has often caused its intro­ especially in areas with a rainfall of more than duction. Waterlogging will soon destroy the crop. 1200m m per year. It may not give higher yield, but Good drainage is essential to cassava. harvesting is easier and soil erosion may be A linear relationship has been observed between reduced, especially by tied ridges. Plant density is the amount of absorbed incoming radiation and 10000-15000 plants per ha in sole cropping. In growth, thus high irradiance is preferred. inter-cropping, densities are usually lower. Cas­ Cassava is grown on soils with very different phys­ sava for home consumption is often planted ical and chemical characteristics. Best growth and together with crops such as maize, groundnuts, yield is obtained on very fertile sandy loams. It has other grain legumes, coconuts or bananas. For the ability to continue to produce reasonably on large-scale production, sole cropping is the most highly depleted or even eroded soils where other common method. crops can no longer produce. It is frequently culti­ Planting is usually at the beginning of the rainy vated as (one of) the last crops before the fallow season. Though it is mostly by hand, large-scale period starts in a shifting cultivation system. Gra­ planting can be mechanized. Cuttings are then velly or stony soils causing problems with root planted horizontally. penetration are unsuitable. This is also true for In Java, a special grafting technique has been de­ heavy clay or other poorly drained soils. Cassava veloped by a farmer called Mukibat. Manihot gla- growth and yield is reduced drastically on saline ziovii Muell. Arg. ('tree cassava') is used as a scion soils with an electrical conductivity of more than and ordinary cassava asth e rootstock. This system 50Sm/ m and on alkaline soils with a pH above 8.0. is used by many small-scale farmers in Java, espe­ The optimum pH is between 5.5 and 7.5, but culti­ cially for back-yard production. Very high yields vars are available that can tolerate a pH as low can be obtained with this system, especially under as 4.6 or as high as 8.0. Reasonably salt-tolerant dry conditons. The reason may be that Mukibat cultivars have been selected too. Cassava is toler­ plants have a more extensive root system, allowing ant to high levels of exchangeable aluminium and greater uptake of water and nutrients. It is a very available manganese. labour-intensive system and probably not suitable Propagation and planting In commercial pro­ for large-scale production. duction, cassava is exclusively propagated from Husbandry For 2-3 months after planting, stem cuttings. Propagation with storage roots is weeding isnecessar y every 3-4 weeks.B ythi s time impossible as the roots are devoid of buds. Propa­ the canopy will cover the soil and weeding gation by seed ispossibl e but is only used for breed­ becomes less necessary. Use of herbicides is still ing. Cuttings, well lignified, 20-30 cm long and limited though pre-emergence and post-emergence 20-25 mm diameter, preferably from the middle of herbicides are used more frequently where labour the stems of plants 8-14 months old, are most suit­ is scarce, e.g. in large-scale production. able. Healthy material should be taken and should As yet, fertilizers are hardly used, though in the be dipped in fungicide and insecticide before plant­ long term yield will decline if fertilizers are not ing. applied. In fact, the use of fertilizers is often not Time between cutting stems and planting should economic because of low and uncertain prices. be as short as possible (no more than a couple of Moreover, the crop can still produce reasonably days). Whole stems can be stored in shady places on soils of low fertility where other crops, like for 3 months. maize, will hardly produce at all. In general, cas- MANIHOT 179 sava responds well to farmyard manure. Nutrient continents. Nevertheless, yields on the farm are removal by 1 t of fresh storage roots is nitrogen much lower than what is possible. Under optimum 2.3kg ,phosphoru s 0.5kg , potassium 4.1 kg and cal­ conditions, a yield of 30 t/ha of dry storage roots, cium 0.6 kg. Nutrient removal by 11 of total plant i.e. 90t/h a of fresh storage roots, is possible. Much (storage roots, stems and leaves) isnitroge n 4.9 kg, depends on climate, soil fertility and the inputs. phosphorus 1.1 kg, potassium 5.8 kg and calcium Annual yields of fresh roots of 30-40 t/ha are not 1.8 kg. Stems are often taken from the field and difficult to achieve. But, as cassava is often grown used as firewood. Fertilizer recommendations for on soils of low fertility with low inputs, such yields cassava are not easy to make. In East Java, good are quite rare in practice. yield responses are obtained with nitrogen fertiliz­ Leaves can be taken from plants grown for roots ers and farmers are increasingly using small or from plants specially cultivated for their leaves. amounts of nitrogen. Critical requirements of If the leaves of a crop intended for root production major elements to prevent deficiency in the youn­ are harvested there is a reduction in the storage gest fully expanded leaf-blades of cassava plants root yield. If cassava is grown specially for its 2-5 months old are: nitrogen 5.0%, phosphorus leaves the first harvest can be 50-70 days after 0.4 %, potassium 1.2 %, calcium 0.7 % and magne­ planting; yields of 2000 0kg/h a per year have been sium 0.3%. reported. Symbiotic fungi of cassava roots (mycorrhiza) Handling after harvest Once harvested, cas­ under certain conditions can significantly sava must be consumed or processed within a cou­ increase phosphate availability. ple of days. Physiological changes cause blue or There is a wide variety of cropping patterns and brown vascular streaking in the roots, just below rotations involving cassava. Though rotation with the peel, within 2 days after harvest. In addition, other crops is preferable, cassava is sometimes there is a microbial deterioration that normally grown continuously on the same land, especially starts after the onset of physiological deteriora­ in dry areas not suitable for other crops and in tion but usually within a week of harvest. First Thailand too,becaus e ofth e economic importance symptoms are blue or brown streaks throughout ofth e crop.Whe n grown in fallow systems, cassava the root. Spoilage is quickest in damaged roots. is usually planted at the end of the rotation cycle, For danger oftoxicit y due to consumption immedi­ as it is still able to produce relatively well at lower ately after harvest, see under Properties. fertility levels and it also makes a smooth transi­ Some progress has been made with storing fresh tion to the fallow. roots. One method is to pack fresh, undamaged Diseases and pests Damage by pests and diseas­ roots in moist sawdust in boxes; this method can es is relatively moderate in South-East Asia. Cas­ be used for marketing roots in urban areas. Stor­ sava bacterial blight (Xanthomonas spp.) is pre­ age for up to two months is possible. Microbiologi­ sent in Asia but no severe damaga has been cal deterioration, however, still occurs. Another reported. Leaf-spot (Cercospora spp.) is quite com­ method of storing cassava is by drying pieces of mon but there are no clear data available about roots, called 'gaplek' in Indonesia. These chips the level of yield reduction it causes. The major should be dried within a short period to avoid dete­ pest in South-East Asia is probably the red spider rioration. Sun-drying is quite common. The shape mite (Tetranychus spp.). Locally, scale insects can of the chips is important for quick drying, a cube cause serious reduction in yield. 1 cm across is recommended. In commercial pro­ Harvesting Cassava has no distinct period of duction, chips are dried on concrete floors, as in harvesting, because the crop is perennial. For Thailand. Afterwards they are converted into pel­ human consumption, it is usually harvested 9-12 lets, which are denser than chips and easier for months after planting. It is sometimes harvested transport. For small-scale drying on the farm, mats earlier if needed for food. When grown for starch of woven bamboo material are often used. production, it may be harvested after 18 months Cassava can also be stored as flour. For this pur­ or even later. Optimum harvest period depends on pose, roots are peeled, rasped, squeezed, and then root quality, yield and climatic conditions. If har­ slowly roasted and dried. This product is called vesting is delayed, storage roots become too 'farinha de mandioca' in Brazil and 'gari' in West woody. Africa. Cassava starch is usually prepared in spe­ cial factories. The roots are washed, crushed and Yield Average world yield offres h roots is9 t/ha. further processed. The starch is usually separated There is quite a lot of variation from one country by centrifuging. to another; in Asia, yields are higher than on other 180 A SELECTION

Genetic resources In South-East Asia, there 29-30 January 1973. International Research De­ are only limited cassava germplasm banks. The velopment Center, Ottawa, IDRC-OlOe. pp. 43-48. largest cassava germplasm bank is at CIAT (Cen- |3| de Bruijn, G.H. &Dharmaputra , T.S., 1974. The tro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) in Co­ Mukibat system, ahig h yielding method of cassava lombia, containing about 3000 accessions from production in Indonesia. Netherlands Journal of large parts of Central and South America. Agricultural Science 22:89-100. |4| Cock, J.H., Breeding Serious breeding of cassava started in 1985. Cassava, new potential for a neglected crop. Indonesia in about 1908, largely with genotypes Westview, Boulder, Colorado, United States. 205 imported directly from South America. The most pp. |5| Falcon, W.P., et al., 1984. The cassava eco­ extensive breeding programmes are at CIAT in nomy of Java. Stanford University Press, Stan­ Cali, Colombia and at UTA (International Insti­ ford, California. 212 pp. |6| Howeler, R., 1980. Soil- tute of Tropical Agriculture) in Ibadan, Nigeria. related cultural practices for cassava. In: Weber, Some local breeding is done in South-East Asia. E.J., Toro, J.C. & Graham, M. (Editors): Cassava In Indonesia, the new cultivars 'Aldira I' and cultural practices. Proceedings ofa workshop, Sal­ 'Aldira II' have been bred in this way. The main vador, Bahia, Brazil, 18-21 March, 1980. Interna­ efforts in plant breeding are devoted to increasing tional Research Development Center, Ottawa, yield, and to disease and pest resistance. Selection IDRC-151e. pp. 59-69. |7|Onwueme , I.C., 1978. The for root yield can be improved by using the time tropical tuber crops. John Wiley &Sons , Chiches­ between planting and start of starch storage in ter, pp. 109-163. |8| Rogers, D.J., 1963. Studies of roots as well as the proportion of biomass stored Manihot esculenta Crantz and related species. in the roots. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 90:43-54. |9| One major problem associated with efforts to select Rogers, D.J., 1965. Some botanical and ethnologi­ new cassava genotypes is the difficulty in moving cal considerations of Manihot esculenta. Econom­ planting material (cuttings) around the world ic Botany 19:369-377. |10|Tindall , H.D., 1983.Veg ­ because of disease problems. A number of cultivars etables in the tropics. Macmillan Press, London, have been sent from CIAT to several countries of 533 pp. |11| Veitkamp, H.J., 1985. Physiological South-East Asia as septic meristem cultures. causes ofyiel d variation in cassava (Manihot escu­ Selection within locally developed cultivars may lenta Crantz). Agricultural University Wage­ sometimes be more rewarding than the introduc­ ningen Papers 85-6.103pp . tion of promising cultivars from outside. Breeding (G.H. de Bruijn &H.J . Veltkamp) is oriented towards low glucoside content but up to 1988n o cyanide-free cultivar has yet been found. Prospects Owing to the population growth, cas­ Metroxylon sagu Rottboell sava production for human consumption in Asia, just as elsewhere in the tropics, is steadily increas­ Nye Saml. K. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift. 2: ing and the crop will probably increase even more 527-528 (1783). in the future. As a feed, cassava may become more PALMAE important ifth e use ofstorag e roots in local animal 2n = 26 feed receives more attention. Production for the Synonyms Metroxylon rumphii Mart. (1845) feedstuff market in western Europe is rather with many varieties, designated by Beccari (1918); uncertain due to import restrictions. Metroxylon squarrosum Becc. (1918) with many In Australia, research on cassava began at the end varieties. of the 1970s to develop relevant production sys­ Vernacular names Sago palm (En). Sagoutier tems for starch, feeds and fuel alcohol. No signifi­ (Fr). Indonesia: pohon rumbia (Bahasa Indonesia), cant commercial production has yet started in kirai (Sunda), ambulung, kersula (Java), lapia 1988. (Ambon). Malaysia: rumbia. Papua New Guinea: Literature 1| Boerboom, B.W.J., 1978. A model sak-sak (Pidgin). Philippines: lumbia. Burma: tha- of dry matter distribution in cassava (Manihot gu-bin. Cambodia: sa kuu. Thailand: sa khu. esculenta Crantz). Netherlands Journal of Agri­ Note: In the Indonesian-Malay language region, cultural Science 26:267-277. |2| de Bruijn, G.H., the word 'sagu' denotes the edible starch from the 1973. The cyanogenic character of cassava (Mani­ pith of any palm and each of these palms may be hot esculenta). In: Nestel, B. & Mclntyre, R. (Edi­ called 'pohon sagu' (sagotree) .Th e 'pohon rumbia' tors): Chronic cassava toxicity. Proceedings of an designates one of them, namely the 'true' sago interdisciplinary workshop, London, England, palm dealt with here. METROXYLON 181

Origin and geographic distribution The sago areas are estimated to be 13000 0 ha in Indonesia, palm probably originates from New Guinea and 35000 ha in Malaysia (mainly Sarawak and the Moluccas but has not dispersed beyond South- Sabah), less than 1000h a in Brunei, 5000h a in the East Asia and the nearby Pacific islands. In Indo­ Philippines, 20000 ha in Papua New Guinea, 5000 nesia, the palm is now found too in parts of Sula­ ha in Thailand and 1000 0h a on the Pacific islands. wesi, Kalimantan, Sumatra and West Java, as well Most sago starch is consumed locally or traded on as on many smaller islands with a non-seasonal cli­ domestic markets. It accounts for less than 3% of mate, notably the Riau Islands, Nias and the Men- international trade in starches. Some ofi t is traded tawai Islands. In Malaysia, the palm grows in as sago pearls: partially gelatinized kernels, 1-2 Sabah, Sarawak and on the Peninsula. Some are mm in diameter, obtained by forcing raw starch found in Brunei and in the Philippines (Minda­ paste through a sieve and stirring the bits of paste nao). In Papua New Guinea, large areas are cover­ which came through on a hot-plate until hard and ed with sago palm. There is also a small area in rounded. Sometimes, pearled starches of non-palm southern Thailand. It is found at least as far east origin are erroneously called 'sago pearls' or even as the Solomon Islands and probably the Santa just 'sago'. Cruz Islands (species have not been identified with Unambiguous economic statistics are scanty. In any certainty). 1983, the export of dry sago starch from Sarawak The world's largest contiguous sago palm swamps was 25000 t (value MY$ 9 million), 70% of it des­ and forests are found in New Guinea, totalling 5-6 tined for Japan. On Bengkalis (Riau Islands), an million ha, with 4-5 million ha on the Indonesian old centre of sago starch production, 30mill s oper­ part of the island. ated in 1980 with a total output of 6600 t/year of Uses The starch stored in the trunk is a staple dry starch. In the 1930s, 30000-40000 t/year wet food, notably in New Guinea. Usually, wet starch starch production from the east coast of Sumatra, is boiled, fried or roasted, alone or mixed with was exported to Singapore to be refined and re­ other foodstuffs, resulting in products of different exported. The once prosperous sago-starch trade durability. In Indonesia and Malaysia, the starch through Singapore has steadily declined since the is used industrially in the manufacture of cakes, 1950s. noodles and kerupuk, and in the United States for Properties Purified sago starch consists of 27 % custard powders. Non-food uses include sizing amylose and 73% amylopectin. The dry matter in pastes for paper and textiles. It is a very suitable samples from Irian Jaya of raw wet sago starch as raw material for further industrial processing, e.g. used for local consumption (usual water content high-fructose syrup, ethanol and adhesives. 35-45 %) contained ash 0.15 %, fibre 0.4 %, starch The palm has many secondary uses. Whole, young 97% and a trace of nitrogen. A sago-based diet trunks, pith and pith refuse are given to animals. should be complemented with other foodstuffs to The 'bark' of the trunk is used as timber or as fuel. provide essential proteins, minerals and vitamins. Walls, ceilings and fences can be constructed from In Sarawak, the dry matter content of the rasped the petioles and mid-ribs of the leaves ('gaba- whole pith of 6 palms contained: nitrogen 0.15%, gaba'); the fibrous outer layer of petioles is used phosphorus 0.046%, potassium 0.45%, calcium for cordage and to weave mats. The leaflets pro­ 0.24 %, magnesium 0.09 % and starch 54 %. duce one of the best ataps (roof thatch) available, Sago weevil larvae in Sarawak contained crude the main use of the palm in West Java. Young leaf­ protein 3-7 % and crude fat 20-30 % on a fresh lets are made into baskets for the transport and weight basis. storage of fresh (wet) starch. The growing point Description A medium to tall palm-tree, once of the palm with its surrounding tissues may be flowering only, monoecious , forming basal eaten raw or cooked (palm cabbage). suckers. Roots spongy but with a tough central The larvae of insects feeding on the pith of the fibro- vascular strand, not extending to great trunk, notably weevils of the genus Rhynchopho- depth; pneumatophores (air roots) present. Trunk rus, are eaten raw, boiled or roasted in most places 30-60 cm in diameter, 7-20 (-25) m high, lower where sago palm isa staple.A mushroo m ( Volvaria part ringed with leaf scars, upper part covered uolvacea Fries) which grows on pith refuse is with semi-persistent leaf-sheats; epidermis thin, relished in the Moluccas. very sclerenchymatous, surrounding the fibrous Production and international trade Of the bark, 5-10 mm thick; under the bark, an extremely total sago palm area of 5-6 million ha available hard layer ofsclerenchymatou s fibre bundles, up to only an estimated 200000 ha is planted. Planted 1 cm thick, surrounding the parenchymatous pith. 182 A SELECTION

cent outside; flowers 3-merous with 6 stamens. Fruit a depressed-globose to obconical drupe, 2.5-4.5 cm in diameter, covered with 18(19 ) longi­ tudinal rows of yellow-brown scales, rhomboid, downwardly directed; mesocarp spongy. Seed subglobose, about 3c m in diameter; endosperm ho­ mogeneous, horseshoe-shaped in longitudinal sec­ tion; seeds often fail to develop, resulting in fruits filled with a fleshy, hypertrophic mass only. Growth and development The seed is viable as soon as the fruit is shed but may quickly loose its viability. In the field, germinating seeds are always fully ripe (brown pericarp, brown but still living testa, strong endosperm), and lie on top of the soil in a thin layer of water which does not cover the seed completely. Seeds usually germi­ nate within 3weeks . Vegetative growth is divided into arosett e stage of3.5- 4 years and a trunk stage of 4-14 years, depending on palm type. During the rosette stage, leaves are formed at a rate of 2 per month, slowing down to 1 per month during the trunk stage. Thus, trunk age can be estimated by counting the leaf scars. Longevity of adult leaves is 18-24 months. Basal suckers are formed mainly during early vegetative growth, the first appear­ ing in the first year. Starch is stored in the paren­ chyma (pith) ofth e trunk, which is gradually filled from the base upward. Volumetric mass of the starch does not exceed 330k g per m3 of pith in the Sepik area of Papua New Guinea. Towards flower­ Metroxylon sagu Rottboell - cluster of trees. ing, if the upper trunk part is not yet filled to ca­ pacity, starch is translocated upward from the Leaves 18-24 in vigorous trunked palms, simply lower part and temporarily stored in the parenchy­ pinnate, 5-7 m long (sometimes up to twice as ma of the upper part before most of it is consumed long); petiole very robust, dilated at its base into in flowering and fruiting. a stem-clasping sheath; sheath and petiole The generative stage is heralded by the 'shooting' unarmed or armed to various degrees with needle­ of the main stem, forming the main flowering axis: like spines, up to 22 cm long, arranged in trans­ internodes become longer, stem diameter and leaf verse combs; leaflets up to 100 per leaf, 50-160 cm size decrease and rate of leaf formation increases. x 3-6 cm, often with small spines along the mar­ The development of the inflorescence is phased: gins and on the mid-rib and sometimes with an api­ first the main axis develops, then the first-order cal, filiform appendage, margins usually valvate branches, subsequently the second-order and reflexed. branches, etc. The male flowers open first and, Inflorescence rust-coloured, apparently a terminal after they have wilted, the bisexual flowers open. panicle, 3-5 (-7.5) m high and wide; first-order As most germinating seeds are found when two branches erect or standing out candelabra-like, palms which stand within each other's proximity morphologically constituting separate lateral have flowered simultaneously, it has been con­ inflorescences spirally arranged on the main stem cluded that sago palm is mainly a cross-pollinator. in the axils of reduced leaves or bracts, rigidly and Viability of pollen in the bisexual flowers is dis­ distichously branched to the third order; third- puted. It takes about 2 years from the outwardly order branches spadix-like, densely packed with visible start ofth e generative stage to the shedding spirally arranged pairs of flowers, each pair con­ of the fruits, after which the trunk dies. So the sisting of one male and one bisexual flower; bracts total life span ofa sago palm ranges between 10-20 of the first to the third order, smooth to spinules- years. METROXYLON 183

In the meantime, suckers of various ages, some al­ nity, is, however, tolerated. Although found on ready with a trunk, may have developed under the mineral, peat and muck soils,sag o palm grows best parent palm. These suckers may form trunks them­ on mineral soils with a high organic matter con­ selves up to several metres away from the parent tent (upt o 30%). palm, having formed a prostrate stem first. If a In New Guinea, sago palms occur mainly in 4vege ­ 'mature' trunk is not harvested, new suckers are tation types. Ranging from land inundated most of formed at flowering. the year to less flood-prone lands, one may succes­ Other botanical information The distinction sively encounter sa.go-palm-Phragmites swamp of two species of sago palm (M.rumphii - the spiny (groves of trunkless sago palms in dense stands of one; M. sagu - the spineless one) cannot be upheld. the reed Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.), The time taken by a single generation ofsag o palm sagopal m swamp (densestand s ofsag o palms, most - from seed to seed - which appears to be mainly of them trunkless), and sago palm forest (sago genetically determined, ranges from some 10 years palms in various stages ofdevelopmen t mixed with to over 20 years. Recent taxonomie publications, dicotyledonous trees in various proportions). On unfortunately, do not take this variation in life peat soils that are dry most of the year, Campno- span into account, which is probably basic to the sperma-sago-palm forest (sago palms forming an distinction of types by sago growers. Palms also understorey under a closed canopy of Campno- differ in other respects, such as spininess, leaf sperma brevipetiolatum Volk.) can be found. The form, starch colour; even differences in starch most and the largest trunks are found in the sago- taste can be distinguished. palm forest. In Indonesia, excluding New Guinea, 5 sago palm As the water becomes more brackish, sago palm types are recognized. On the island New Guinea often border on stands of the more salinity-toler­ 13type s are distinguished, 10 of which are said to ant nipa palm (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.). be more or less regularly cultivated and it appears Propagation and planting Sago starch is that the 5Indonesia n types are among them. They mainly harvested from wild or semi-wild (i.e. may have been spread by man, as the cultivated planted but neglected) stands. Only in Peninsular types often do not produce any viable seeds. Culti­ Malaysia, especially in the State of Johor, is sago vated types, however, usually occur in small plots. palm occasionally cultivated as a plantation crop. This is an obstacle to the obligatory cross-pollina­ Sago palm is mostly propagated by means of tion, as in small plots two different trunks of the suckers. Rooted suckers about 1 year old with a same type do not often reach their period of cross- basal diameter of 10-15 cm are severed from pollination at the same time. Whenever these selected parent palms with a clean vertical cut types occur in larger groups of the same type they through the runner, leaving some 15 cm of runner usually do produce viable seeds. It appears there­ on the sucker to serve as food reserves. The cut fore that cross-pollination between typesi s unlike­ wound is rubbed with wood ash to prevent rot. ly or even impossible. The types may thus, have Roots should be kept from drying out. All the to be considered as separate cultivars and possibly leaves are cut off, except for the youngest unfolded even deserve species status. leaf and the spear. Suckers can be raised in poly­ Ecology The best conditions for sago palm thene bags first or, as is sometimes practised in growth are an average temperature of at least Sarawak, they may be tied to a raft while their 26°C , a relative humidity of 90% and an irra- roots hang in water to await regrowth before field- diance of about 9 MJ/mz per day. Sago palm is a planting. Usually about half the propagated tree ofth e humid tropical lowlands, occurring nat­ suckers seem to be successful. Propagation by seed urally up to 700m above sea-level. has a considerably higher rate of success but via­ Natural stands of sago palm occur on swampy bleseed s are difficult to obtain and the heterogene­ coastal plains, flood plains of rivers and higher up ity of the offspring, e.g. spininess, is a drawback. on flat valley floors. When growing downstream Suckers are planted at 6m x 6 m to 7 m x 7m along rivers, tidal influences may be part of the in 30 cm deep and wide holes, which are loosely habitat of sago palms, having a bearing on the half-filled with moist topsoil, and the suckers are level and salinity of flood water or ground water. staked. Only the roots should be buried and no soil Daily flooding is harmful to seedling growth, as spilled on the shoot, which might easily rot. Plenty is salinity corresponding to electric conductivities of shade should be provided. (EC) of over 1 S/m. (EC of sea water is 4.4 S/m). A start has been made on attempting vegetative Occasional flooding, even with water of high sali­ propagation in vitro. 184 A SELECTION

Husbandry The sucker is established as soon as separation of bark and pith, pulverization of the the spear plus a new leaf have unfolded, normally pith and separation of the starch grains from the within 3months . Shade is then gradually removed other pith constituents. Traditionally, most of the and the planting hole filled up. processing is done at the felling site. The trunk is Weeding is necessary until the leaf canopy has split lengthwise with wedges or partly debarked closed. Old leaves are pruned and used as mulch. (i.e. the bark proper plus the outer hard layer of One sucker isallowe d todevelo p into a trunk every fibre bundles is removed). The exposed pith is 2 years if clump spacing is 6 m x 6 m, or every pounded loose and pulverized with a hoe-like or one and a half year if the spacing is 7 m x 7 m. adze-like instrument or rasped with a nail-studded All other suckers are pruned. Thus, an annual plank. The starch grains are leached out ofth e pul­ yield of 136-139 trunks per hectare may be verized pith with water over a sieve and the starch achieved. The water table should be no lower than is recovered from the slurry passing through the 50 cm. Fertilizers are used nowhere; in Peninsular sieve by letting it settle. Pith starts fermenting Malaysia, the palms grow on flood-prone river spontaneously as soon as it is pulverized, giving banks, the river water probably carries all the nec­ off an acid smell and causing irreversible staining essary nutrients. Deficiencies have been shown to of the starch. So starch extraction should follow lower the rate of leaf formation and the leaf area pith pulverization as soon as possible. of new leaves in seedlings. Traditionally, only the wet starch (starch content Diseases and pests None of the pests is econo­ 60%) is carried from the field. In planted stands, mically important. The major one is the red stripe the trunks are usually cut into lengths of about weevil (Rhynchophorus vulneratus) from Sarawak, 1m .Thes e logs (starch content 20-25 %), weighing R. ferrugineus from Siberut (Indonesia) and the 80-120 kg, are rolled and floated to a central mill rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes centaurus) from Papua for further processing, a network of waterways New Guinea. Their larvae feed on the palm pith; being indispensable. adult rhinoceros beetles are also harmful by gnaw­ Genetic resources No collections oftype s have ing through the heart ofth e crown. Two nettle cat­ been made up to 1986. erpillars, Setora nitens and Dama trima, are Breeding Neither selection nor breeding have reported to attack sago-palm leaves, D. trima been attempted. For cultivation, palm types are mainly attacks those ofyoun g palms. needed with a brief rosette stage and quick 'matu­ Harvesting Maximum starch content is reached ration' in order to allow an early first harvest. In some time between flower initiation and the ripen­ Sarawak a government agricultural research ing of the fruits. For maximum starch production station has been established at Dalat. Experiments per palm, the palm is felled after the appearance are being done on (a) fertilizer application, (b) of the inflorescence. For maximum production planting distance and (c)a desuckering regime. rate, however, trees should be felled before flower Prospects Sago palm is one of the underex- initiation when starch accumulation rate has not ploited trees in South-East Asia. Vast areas of nat­ yet slackened. In general, harvesting isno t physio­ ural sago palm stands, on New Guinea in particu­ logically restricted to a certain time of the year. lar, are left unused because of the inaccessible After felling, the crown is severed from the trunk habitat and the remoteness of the natural stands. and the old leaf-sheaths are removed. The leaf- Since about 1970, international interest in sago bearing part ofth e trunk contains little starch. palm as a plant resource in equatorial swamps has Yield Top annual yield of dry starch from a first increased and desk studies have demonstrated its crop of palms of short life cycle in Peninsular economic viability as a plantation crop. Sago Malaysia is about 25t/ha , equivalent to 138 trunks palms have been introduced into other parts of the of 180 kg each. Yields of the subsequent ratoon world for research. crops stabilize at about 15 t/ha (85 trunks of 180 At present research is intensifying. In Sarawak, kg each). Recorded production of dry starch from traditionally the only place where some research single 'mature' trunks in uncultivated stands is done on the crop, a large agronomic research range from 20-400 kg. The production capacity of station on peat is now being developed. In Indone­ semi-wild stands is estimated at 50 trunks per ha/ sia research is also being taken up, on agronomy year, producing 10t/ha , whereas good quality wild in South Sulawesi and on starch production and stands on the drier parts of swamp lands are esti­ distribution in trunks of various types of palms in mated to produce 25trunk s per ha, yielding 5 t/ha. Seram in the Moluccas. Handling after harvest Processing consists of Literature |1| Flach, M., 1983. The sago palm. MORINDA 185

FAO Plant Production & Protection Paper No 47. been distributed by man and carried westwards FAO, Rome. 85 pp. |2| Flach, M. & Poetiray, P.V. into the Indian Ocean by sea currents, reaching (Editors), 1986. The development of the sago palm the Seychelles and similarly into the Pacific be­ and its products. Report ofth e FAO/BPPT Consul­ tween 30° N and 30° S latitude, reaching the Mar­ tation; Jakarta, Indonesia, 16-21 January 1984. quesas, Hawaii, and Easter Island. It is present FAO, Rome. 252 pp. |3| Flach, M. &Schuiling , D.L. throughout South-East Asia both wild and culti­ Revival of an ancient starch crop; a review of the vated. It often occurs wild in coastal zones. agronomy of the sago palm. Agroforestry Systems Uses Most parts of the tree have been widely (in press). |4| van Kraalingen, D.W.G., 1984. Some used medicinally since ancient times. In Vietnam observations on sago palm growth in East Sepik roots serve to treat stiffness and tetanus and have River Basin (Papua New Guinea). DME/EPU been proven to combat arterial tension. Elsewhere Report No 1/84. Department of Minerals and Ener­ they are used as febrifuges and as a tonicum. The gy, Energy Planning Unit, Konedobu, Papua New bark is used as a tonicum and as an antiseptic on Guinea. |5| Rauwerdink, J.B., 1986. An essay on skin lesions, ulcers and wounds. Leaves are used Metroxylon, the sago palm. Principes, the Journal to treat dysentery, diarrhoea, colic, nausea and of the Palm Society 30(4):165-180. |6| Ruddle, K., convulsions and as a febrifuge, tonicum and anti­ Johnson, D., Townsend, P.K. & Rees, J.D., 1978. septic. The fruits are used as a diuretic, a laxative, Palm sago- Atropica l starch from marginal lands. an emollient and as an emmenagogue, for asthma University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. 223 pp. |7| and other respiratory problems, as a treatment for Stanton, W.R. & Flach, M. (Editors), 1980. Sago: arthritic and comparable inflammations, in cases the equatorial swamp as a natural resource. Pro­ of leucorrhoea and sapraemia and for maladies of ceedings of the Second International Sago Sympo­ inner organs. Roots,leave s and fruits may have an­ sium, Kuala Lumpur. 1979.Nijhoff , The Hague. 244 thelmintic properties. pp. |8| Tan, K. (Editor), 1977.Sago-76 :Paper s of the In traditional therapy the parts used are adminis­ First International Sago Symposium 'The Equato­ tered raw or asjuice s and infusions or in ointments rial Swamp as a Natural Resource'. Kuching and poultices. (Malaysia), 1976. Kemajuan Kanji (now: Kemikro Before the introduction of synthetic dyes (e.g. ali­ Bhd), Kuala Lumpur. 330 pp. |9| Tomlinson, P.B., zarin) the red dye from the rootbark of Indian mul­ 1971. Flowering in Metroxylon (the sago palm). berry was important. In the late 19th Century, Principes, the Journal of the Palm Society there were plantations in coastal areas of northern 15:49-62. |10|Yamada , N.& Kainuma , K. (Editors), Java and adjoining islands. Nowadays, single 1986. Sago-'85, the third International Sago Sym­ trees are encouraged or cultivated in gardens posium. Tokyo, Japan, May 20-23,1985. The Sago mainly for medicinal purposes. Cultivation for the Palm Research Fund. Tropical Agricultural dye is restricted to areas where traditional textile Research Center. 233pp . dyeing is still important, e.g. in the production of (D.L.Schuilin g &M . Flach) high quality batik on Java. Despite the smell of putrid cheese when ripe, the fruits are eaten raw or prepared, as are the leaves Morinda citrifolia L. also. The fruit-pulp can be used to cleanse hair, iron and steel. The wood splits excessively in dry­ Sp. PI. ed. 1:176(1753) . ing and uses are restricted to fuel and poles. In RUBIACEAE Malaysia and Thailand the tree is used as a sup­ In = 44 port for pepper plants. Synonyms Morinda bracteata Roxb. (1814), M. Properties Curative properties of the plant litoralis Blanco (1845). parts are ascribed to the presence of medicinally Vernacular names Indian mulberry (En). Mor- active anthraquinone dérivâtes. The basis of the inde (Fr). Indonesia: bengkudu, kemudu, pace. morindone dyeing matter, called Turkish red, is Malaysia: mengkudu, kemudu. Papua New Gui­ the hydrolysed (red) form of the glycoside morin- nea: riro (Bougainville). Philippines: bangkoro, din. This is the most abundant anthraquinone nino, apatot. Burma: al. Cambodia: nho:. Laos: which is mainly found in the rootbark which nho: ba:nz. Thailand: yo ban. Vietnam: nhàu. reaches a concentration of 0.25-0.5% in fresh Origin and geographic distribution Indian bark in 3-5 years. It is similar to that found in mulberry is a native of Queensland (Australia). It Rubia tinctorium L. and to synthetic alizarin. isnaturalize d in the Caribbean region. It may have The fruit contains rancid smelling capric acid and 186 A SELECTION unpleasant tasting caprylic acid. The presence of after sowing. Plant growth is 1.2-1.5 m in 6 antibiotically active compounds is presumed. The months. Flowering and fruiting starts in the third nutritional value of the fruit and leaves is consid­ year and continues throughout the year. Maxi­ erable. The leaves are a rich source of vitamin A. mum age is at least 25years . Description Evergreen shrub or small crooked Other botanical information M. citrifolia is tree with a conical crown, 3-8 (-10) m high, with sometimes subdivided into two varieties: var. citri­ a deep tap-root. Bark greyish or yellowish-brown, folia and var. bracteata (Roxb.) Hook.f. The latter shallowly fissured, glabrous. Branchlets quadran­ has calyx-limbs with 1-2 leaflike, linear-lanceo­ gular. Leaves simple, elliptic-lanceolate, (10-) late lobes ca. 1-1.5 cm long; the stem is straighter 15-50 cm x 5-17 cm, entire, acute to shortly acu­ and the leaves are smaller than var. citrifolia. minate at apex, cuneate at base, pinnately nerved, Ecology Indian mulberry is commonly found up glabrous; petioles 0.5-2.5 cm long; stipules vari­ to altitudes of 1500 m in humid and seasonal cli­ able in size and shape, broadly triangular. Inflores­ mates ofth e region, with an estimated annual rain­ cences globose heads, 1-4 cm long peduncled, in fall of 1500-3000 mm or more. In areas where the axils of stipules opposite normally developed plant is cultivated, the soil is usually well struc­ leaves; flowers bisexual, fragrant; corolla funnel- tured and of volcanic origin (Java), but it may be shaped, up to 1.5 cm long, white; stamens inserted poor and ferralitic (Cambodia). In the wild the on the mouth of the corolla; stigma bilobed. Fruit plant also appears on infertile, degenerated soils, an ovoid syncarp of red-brown, pyramidal, sometimes badly drained or with a very low water- 2-seeded drupes, 3-10 cm x 2-3 cm, yellow-white. retention capacity and a deep water table. Seeds black, with hard albumen and distinct air The species occurs in evergreen, (semi-) deciduous chamber. to more or less xerophytic formations, often typi­ Growth and development Seed remains viable cally littoral vegetations. It also occurs in pioneer for at least 6 months. Germination is 3-9 weeks and secondary vegetation after cultivation and bush-fires (Cambodia), deforestation or volcanic activity (Krakatau). It ispersisten t and very toler­ ant. The ability of the seeds to float explains its wide distribution and occurrence on many sea­ shores. Inland distribution-agents are fruit-eating bats and birds. Propagation and planting Indian mulberry is propagated by seeds which should be sown in nur­ sery beds. After germination, seedlings are trans­ planted at ca. 1.2 m x 1.2 m in well-tilled soil. Husbandry Weeding iscarrie d out at least twice and starts about 1 month after transplanting. No maintenance is needed after the first year. Inter­ cropping with cereals and perennials is possible (e.g. shade in coffee). Harvesting High yielding bark may be expected after 3-5 years. The roots are dug out, cleaned in water, and the bark removed. Yield Yield of bark is reported to be 500-1000 kg/ha, containing about 0.25 % morindin. Handling after harvest After drying in the sun for several days, the bark is ready for use. In the complex cold-dyeing process of the Java batik, cloth is prepared with an alkalic emulsion, four times a day, for ten days. The bark is pounded with djirak bark (Symplocos fasciculata Zoll.), mashed with water and applied to the cloth by hand. This is repeated for five days. The cloth obtains a clear Morindia citrifolia L. - 1, flowering branch; 2, red, wash-fast colour. Elsewhere, the same dyeing inflorescence-infructescence. principle is used. Djirak bark serves as a mordant. MUNTINGIA 187

It isric h in aluminium salts. Genetic resources The species is diminishing in its natural habitat. It is not very likely to be endangered by serious genetic erosion given its pioneering character, itsnatura l variation andit s wide,thoug h small-scale, cultivation. There aren o reported germplasm collections. Prospects Renewed interest innatura l dyesan d medicine in Indonesia and elsewhere may revive bark production. Evaluation of fruits and leaves for nutritional purposes is recommended. Literature |1|Abbot , I.A. & Shimazu, C,1985 . The geographic origin of plants most commonly used formedicin e by Hawaiians. Journal of Ethno- pharmacology 14(2/3):213-222. |2|Haake , A., 1984. Javanische Batik: Methode, Symbolik, Geschich­ te. Verlag H. Scaper, Hannover, pp. 17-23,94-108. |3| Hidayat, E., 1978. Pohon Cenkudu (Morinda citrifolia L.) dan manfaatnya khususnya sebagai obat tradisional [M.citrifoli a L.an dit sspecia lus e as a traditional drug.] Bull. Kebun Raya (Indon.) 3(4):141-144. |4| Martin, F.W & Ruberté, R.M., 1980. Techniques and Plants for the Tropical Sub­ sistence Farm. United States Department of Agri­ culture (USDA). Agricultural Reviews and Manu­ als ARM-s-8.5 6pp . (J.J. Groenendijk)

Muntingia calabura L. flowering and fruiting Muntingia calabura L. branch.

Sp. PL1 :50 9(1753) . flowering continuously on fan-like branches; ELAEOCARPACEAE mainline branches becoming erect after leaf fall Vernacular names Capulin (En). Indonesia: and soi n turn contributing toth eformatio n ofth e cerri, kersen, talok (Java). Malaysia: kerukup trunk. Branches horizontal, pendent towards the siam. Philippines: dâtiles. Cambodia: krâkhôb bar- tip. Leaves simple with prominent asymmetry of ang. Laos: khoom sômz, takhôb. Thailand: takhop the leaf blade base; leaf margin serrate, lower leaf farang. Vietnam: trûng câ, mât sâm. surface greyish pubescent. Flowers in 1-3 Origin andgeographi c distribution A neotro­ (-5)-flowered supra-axillary fascicles, hermaphro­ pical species which - although notcultivate d - has dite, pentamerous with white petals; number of become pantropical. Capulin was introduced to stamens increasing from 10-25 in the first emerg­ the Philippines late inth e19t h Century, butit sin ­ ing flower in the fascicle to more than 100i n the credible capacity to establish 'under-foot' quickly last; development ofth e superior ovary inth e same has made it one ofth e most common roadside trees order declining, so that from the third and later, in South-East Asia. flowers do not normally set fruit. Fruit a dull-red Uses School children compete with bats and berry, 15m m in diameter, with several thousand birds for the sweet berries, which can also be pre­ tiny seeds inth esof t pulp. served as indicated by the name 'jam fruit'. Old Growth and development Inflorescences are sources in the Philippines mention the use of initiated byth e growing shoot along with the sub­ flowers to prepare an infusion against headaches, tending leaf and develop along with this leaf, the colds, etc.Th e pliable bark can be used as rough fruit maturing shortly before the leaf falls. The cordage. Thetre e serves as a roadside shade tree; flower fascicle is inserted supra-axillary, up to the wood issof t ando f no value. halfway along the internode. In the axil proper of Description Small evergreen tree, growing and the same leaves, side shoots are formed; these 188 A SELECTION emerge before theinflorescenc e flowers, but exten­ pruning. No serious pests or diseases have been sion growth is delayed until after the abscission reported, apart from the bats. of the subtending leaf. Under favourable condi­ Genetic resources and breeding Yellow and tions flowering fascicles are formed with every white-fruited varieties are known and there may third leaf, but this mayb e delayed until the fifth, be scope for selection. seventh or nineth leaf or indefinitely. Side shoots Prospects Capulin is very common but has are spaced further apart, but like the fascicles, hardly been studied in South-East Asia, although they are normally found in alternating positions the battered appearance ofth e roadside trees testi­ along the branch. fies tofrequen t contacts with students.Th e species Thus growth and development are neatly struc­ is likely to become more prominent in built-up tured at the shoot level, in a system which allows areas, but could also play a larger role in gardens. continuous extension growth and fruit produc­ Literature jl| Bawa, K.S. & C.J. Webb, 1983. tion. Flexibility isafforde d byvaryin g the spacing Floral variation and sexual differentiation in of the fascicles, the number offlower s per fascicle Muntingia calabura (Elaeocarpaceae), a species and these xexpressio n of each flower. The flowers with hermaphrodite flowers. Evolution 37:1271- open just before dawn and last for only a day;bee s 1282.|2 |Fleming ,T.H. , Williams, CF., Bonaccorso, are the main pollinators. The species is self-com­ F.J. &Hurst , L.H., 1985.Phenology , seed dispersal patible and intensive pollination is needed to and colonization in Muntingia calabura, a neotro­ reach the normal number of several thousand pical pioneer tree. American Journal of Botany seeds per fruit. The flowers in a fascicle open 72:383-391. |3!Webb , C.J., 1984.Flowe r and fruit sequentially at intervals ranging from 4-9 days. movements in Muntingia calabura: a possible Within 2week sfro m opening ofth e last flower, the mechanism for avoidance of pollinator - dispenser first flower of the following fascicle may already interference. Biotropica 16:37-42. reach bloom. A series of remarkable pedicel move­ (E.W.M. Verheij) ments lifts each flower bud above the plane ofth e plagiotropic shoot just before anthesis and turns the flower toa pendent position within 2day s from Musa textilisNé e fruit set. Thus theflower s areconspicuou s to polli­ nators and segregated from the concealed fruit. Anal. Cienc. Nat.4:12 3(1801) . This favours bats asth emai n dispersers ofth e seed MUSACEAE and reduces the likelihood of the bats damaging 2n = 20 the flowers. The fruit ripens in 6-8 weeks from Vernacular names Abaca, Manila hemp (En). anthesis andth elif e span of the mature leaf is only Indonesia and Malaysia: pisang manila, pisang slightly longer. benang. Philippines: abacâ, pisang-utan, agotai Fresh seed germination is enhanced by passage (stout abacâ), agotag or amoguid (mountain through the digestive tract of bats. The seed is abacâ), lanot (fibre), samoro. Vietnam: chuôisoi . well-represented in the seed banks of forest soils Origin and geographic distribution Abacâ is and requires thehig h temperature andligh t condi­ indigenous to the Philippines but has been intro­ tions of large gaps in the forest for germination; duced to Malaysia, Indonesia and Central Amer­ the seedlings dono ttolerat e shade. ica. Thepresen t zone of successful cultivation lies Ecology Capulin is a typical pioneer species, between approximately 5°S and 15° N latitude. colonizing disturbed sites in tropical lowlands Commercial cultivation ismainl y concentrated in which can sustain continuous growth. It thrives the Philippines andi n Ecuador. at elevations of up to 1000m . In South-East Asia Uses Abacâ ismainl y used for cordage, pulp and it is one ofth e most common roadside trees, espe­ paper manufacture and in thefibr e craft industry. ciallyi nth edrie r parts, such asEas t Java. It estab­ The fibre, which isth e principal product obtained lishes itself in trodden yards andalon g shop fronts from abacâ, is used in the manufacture of tissue where no other tree takes root. The preferred pH paper, tapes and abrasive buckles, telephone is 5.5-6.5; salt tolerance is poor. cables andwir e insulations, filter paper, cigarette Agronomy The tree is not normally cultivated, filters, coffee andte a bags, textile dyefilters , base it spreads spontaneously. Seedlings flower within for meat casings orsausag e skins,plu g wraps, med­ two years. Air layers made for home gardens fruit ical plaster, medical gas masks, gowns and hospi­ straight away. Rich moist soils ensure continuous tal linen, absorbent cover stock fordisposabl e nap­ production which is sustained by replacement pies, book binders, coasters, hot pads, parchment MUSA 189 papers,mimeograp h stencil-based tissue and paper In Ecuador, average annual production between linings for gold and silver foils. Other non-traditio­ 1979-1983wa s 500001 .I n 1987,th e price of highest nal products are microglass air-filter media, X-ray grade of abacâ was US$ 75-85 per bale while the negatives, vacuum filters, oil filters, lens tissue, lowest grade was US$ 52-55 per bale. carbon and wax paper and coatings of some tab­ Properties Abacâ fibres are an excellent raw lets, pills and capsules. High grade pulp is used in material for paper and dissolving grade pulps, due the manufacture of currency and other specialty to their low lignin, ash, silica and extractive con­ papers. tents, and high total cellulose content, all of which In the cordage industry, abacâ fibre ismainl y used contribute to high pulpyiel d and low consumption in making ropes, twines, marine cordage, binders of chemicals in the pulping and bleaching treat­ and cord. ments. It has also a high pentosan content which Fibre craft includes lucrative handicraft items contributes significantly to the high bursting, such as abacâ foot wear, doormats, curtains and folding and tensile strength of its pulp handsheet. draperies, floor rugs, bags, place mats, wall deco­ Chemical analysis of abacâ fibres (oven dried at rations and other partially woven items. 105°C ) showed that they contain: 9.5-13 % lignin, Abacâ is also used in the manufacture of construc­ 79-90 % cellulose (mainly a-cellulose), 1% solvent tion materials such as roofing and floor tiles and extract, 2% water extract and 1% ash.Abac â fibre to reinforce concrete and asphalt. isfa r more resistant to decomposition in salt water Other parts of the plants have varied uses. The than most other vegetable fibres. It is three times dried outer leaf-sheath called 'bacbac' is useful in stronger than cotton and twice as strong as sisal the manufacture of ceiling board, sliding board fibres. and wallpaper substitute. It is also used in making Description Roots of the mature plant all ad- trays, wall panelling and place mats. The inner leaf-sheaths are used for making roofings and shading transplanted seedlings. They are also ideal as plates or food containers during picnics. The leaves are used for shading and wrapping. Production and international trade When early attempts to establish abacâ plantations in neighbouring countries floundered due to the crude processing techniques and a slump in demand after the First World War, the Philippines again became the sole source of the world's abacâ fibre supply around 1922. However, in 1929, the United States introduced abacâ growing to Ecua­ dor, which has since become a source ofabou t 15% of the world's supply. Between 1980-1983 77% of the fibre on the international market came from the Philippines while Ecuador supplied the remaining 23%. In the Philippines, the total land area planted to abacâ averages 16790 2h a (1983-1986)wit h an aver­ age annual fibre production of 8609 8 t. The aver­ age annual export ofabac â fibre in the same period reached 42102 t earning the country US$ 46 mil­ lion from exports. The United States accounts for 36.9% of the total export from the Philippines while the United Kingdom accounts for 24.6%, Japan for 18.1% and the rest is shared by other countries like France, India, Korea, Canada, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Egypt and Mozambi­ que. Abacâ production in the Philippines consists of 75% baled and 25% loose fibres (1bal e = 125kg) . Musa textilis Née - fruiting plant. 190 A SELECTION ventitious, arising from the corm. Pseudostems tract. It is the most popular clone in the replanting 2.5-6 mhigh , 15-20 cmi n diameter at base, mostly programmes and is the most widely grown in the green in colour, sometimes irregularly streaked Philippines. deep brown, red, purple or even almost black to­ 'Bongulanon': stems medium-sized; very free suck- wards the base, bearing up to 12 leaves. Sheath ering; maturing early, but with a short productive 40-50 cm long, stiff. Leaf blades narrowly oblong, life and yields decline after 5-6 years; requires 150-200 cm x 40-60 cm, cuneate and unequal at moist well-drained alluvial soils and cannot be base, rounded or acute at top, generally of a uni­ grown on stiff clays or dry sandy soils;yield s about form deep-green above, glaucous beneath. 2.3% of strong, white, good-quality fibre which is Inflorescence a drooping spike, consisting of easily stripped. It used tob e the most widely grown bracts and flowers in axils of bracts; bracts leath­ clone in Central America. ery, lanceolate, 30-35 cm x 10-12 cm, green, 'Maguindanao': stems large;relativel y hardy; first slightly shaded with pink outside, dull brown harvest 15-18 months after planting, with a long inside. Flowers arranged in dense two-rowed fasci­ productive life of 15 years or more; can be grown cles, 10-12 in axil of each bract, with perianth of on a wide range of soils, except heavy clays; root 5 fused outer tepals and one adaxial inner tepal; system shallow and plants are easily blown over; female flowers in basal part ofinflorescence , ovary yields about 1.75% of strong, white, soft fibre, inferior, 5 cm long; male flowers in upper part of which is easily stripped. inflorescence with 5slightl y exserted stamens and Other important cultivars include ' Inosa', 'Mine- one staminode. nonga', 'Linawaan', 'Linino', 'Tinawagan Pula', Fruit bunch horizontal, lax. Fruits narrowly ovoid 'Itom' and 'Tinawagan Puti'. or ellipsoid, 5-8 cm x 2-5 cm, obsoletely curved Canton fibre is produced by a natural hybrid of at maturity, narrowed at base into a stout truncate Musa textilis x M. balbisiana, a clone of which stipe about 7m m long, pericarp 1m m thick, ripen­ is 'Itom'. ing green; pulp scanty, pale buff in colour. Seeds Ecology Abacâ is a plant of the hot humid trop­ numerous, subglobose-turbinate, very irregular in ics. In the Philippines it is usually grown in shape, about 2-3 mm x 3-4 mm, smooth. regions below 500 m with a well-distributed rain­ Growth and development Emergence is com­ fall of 2000-3200 mm per annum, an average tem­ pleted 2-4 weeks after sowing, but vegetative de­ perature of about 27° C and a relative humidity of velopment is very slow. Growth accelerates after about 80%. It grows best on friable well-drained 2-4 months. Flowering (50% ) starts 18-24 months loams, rich in organic matter and potash. It cannot after planting. Time to fruit maturity ranges from stand waterlogging. It is easily damaged by high 27-34 months under normal conditions but takes winds and windbreaks should be provided. longer at higher altitudes. Plants raised from one Propagation and planting Abacâ can be propa­ year old suckers may flower 10-12 months from gated by suckers, corms or seed. Propagation by planting, those grown from corms flower 16-18 seed is not recommended because the plants take months after planting. The number of suckers per 1-2 years longer to mature and are not true to hill may vary between 10an d 20. type, since abacâ is highly heterozygous. The use Other botanical information Based on the of suckers and corms (or corm sections: 'seed results of many cross fertilizations and phenotypi­ pieces') is recommended for commercial propaga­ cal studies, wild relatives of Musa textilis include tion of abacâ. M. acuminata Colla ssp. banksii (F. Muell.) Sim- In the preparation of corms, care should be taken monds (Agotay) and M. balbisiana Colla (Pacol). not to destroy the bud eyes. Matured suckers More than 100cultivar s of abacâ are grown in the intended as planting material are used as replants Philippines but only about 20 of them are of any in vacant spaces in already established planta­ commercial importance and these are distributed tions, especially when sources ofalternativ e plant­ throughout the different regions of the country. ing material are quite far away. The 3mos t commonly grown are: In large-scale operations it is advisable first to es­ 'Tangongon': large, hardy, and vigorous, 4.5-5.5 tablish an abacâ nursery to produce the necessary m in height; not exacting with regard to soil condi­ planting material. An abacâ nursery one ha in size, tions and grows well on heavy clay soils; does not planted on hills, in double rows spaced (2 + 1) m sucker freely; tends to grow out of the soil and is x 1 m will produce approximately 40000 'seed easily blown over; yields 2.5-2.75 % of strong, pieces' after a year. This is enough to plant 15 ha heavy, coarse fibre, which is rather difficult to ex­ on the square at a spacing of 2m x 2m . MUSA 191

'Seed pieces' are planted in 40-50 cm deep holes another but, generally, the most serious and dan­ spaced 2 m x 2 m for ordinary-sized cultivars and gerous are: mosaic virus (transmitted by Aphis 2 (-3) m x 3 m for more vigorous cultivars. spp.), bunchy top virus (transmitted by Pentalonia Depending on spacing, planting method (square, nigronervosa), and vascular wilt (Fusarium oxy- triangular, double row) and cultivar planting sporum f. cubensis). densities vary between 2500an d 3800 plants/ha. Complete eradication of the infected plants Planting is best done at the onset of the rainy sea­ ensures effective control of abacâ mosaic and son. bunchy top. Vascular wilt disease can be effecti­ Planting cover trees, such as Erythrina fusca Lour, vely controlled by digging out the affected plants ('dapdap'), Albizia falcata (L.) Backer ('Mollucan and burning them, and by quarantine and exclu­ sau') and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit sion. Other less serious diseases include dry sheath ('ipil-ipil'), is recommended to provide shade since rot caused by Marasmius spp., stem rot caused by abacâ is easily damaged by excessive heat and to a fungus (Helminthosporium torulosum), and tip protect plants from strong winds. Leucaena must over. be pruned periodically to restrict tree height and Important pests include brown aphid (Pentalonia to open up the plantation. nigronervosa), an important vector of viruses Husbandry Shallow cultivation and ring weed­ which can be controlled with the use of insecti­ ing is carried out at 2-3 month intervals for up to cides (e.g. parathion, malathion) in combination a year. Underbrushing weeds and cutting dried with the eradication of diseased plants. Corm wee­ leaves isdon e during the succeeding years at quar­ vil (Cosmopolites sordidus) can be controlled by terly intervals before applying fertilizer and before keeping the plantation clean, spraying insecti­ harvesting. cides and dipping seed pieces containing eggs in Drainage canals should be constructed to allow 0.1% dieldrin or aldrin and applying granular fen- better soil aeration because abacâ cannot with­ sulfothion at 3 g per plant or carbufuran at 30 kg/ stand waterlogged conditions. Dry and hanging ha, around the base of the plant. Slug caterpillar leaves, shrubs and grasses are periodically (Thosea sinensis) can be controlled by spraying removed byrin g weeding, strip weeding or general with lindane at 7-10 day intervals. weeding. Pruning and thinning are done by remov­ Harvesting The first harvest depends upon the ing excess young suckers, leaving about 8 suckers abacâ cultivar used, the environmental conditions per hill to mature every year to avoid overcrowd­ and the cultural methods employed. Abacâ grown ing. 1001o f fresh stalks + leaves of abacâ remove at higher altitudes usually takes longer to mature per hectare: 280 kg N, 30 kg P205, 517 kg K20 and than that grown at lower elevations. Pseudostems 124k g CaO. In established plantations NPK fertil­ are considered mature and should be harvested izer is applied before and after the rainy season, when the flag leaf appears, which precedes the ap­ depending upon the appearance of the stand. Fer­ pearance of the inflorescence. Under normal con­ tilizer is applied around the hill 15 cm from the ditions the first harvest takes place 18-24 months base where the roots are concentrated. In Central after planting. Subsequent harvests are done America sodium nitrate is applied 3-4 times per every 3-4 months in favourable areas and every year at an annual rate of 450 kg/ha. 5-7 months under less favourable conditions. Har­ Cover crops and/or intercrops such as upland rice, vesting abacâ consists of topping the plant by cut­ mungbean, cowpea, groundnut and other legumi­ ting the leaf crown at the base of the leaf blades, nous short-season crops may also be planted for and tumbling the topped pseudostems with a slant­ additional income during the first year. ing cut near ground level. Compared with other crops, abacâ requires mini­ Yield In the Philippines, the annual fibre yield mal care and in most cases the plants are just left ofabac â ranges from 0.31-1.71 t/ha, averaging 0.56 to grow at their own rate until maturity. The dura­ t/ha over the period 1981-1985,dependin g on culti­ tion of profitable production varies according to var and location. In Ecuador, average yield is cultivar and growing conditions. In properly main­ 1.5-2.5 t/ha. tained areas production may not decline for over Handling after harvest The leaf-sheaths are 20 years. peeled off the pseudostem. In a process called tuxy- Diseases and pests To date, some 17 diseases ing, the strips of the leaf-sheaths containing the have been recorded, 9o fwhic h are caused by fungi, fibre are torn off. The tuxies are stripped to pull 2b y bacteria, 2b y viruses and 4b y nematodes. The off the non-fibrous material. This is hard manual importance of a disease varies from one area to work which can be lightened by pulling the fibres 192 A SELECTION on a powered spindle. The clean fibre is dried in plantations to tend more profitable crops or even the suno rair-drie d under aroof .Drie d abacâ fibres take another job, and only come back when the are packed inbale s andproperl y graded according abacâ plants are ready for harvest. Hence, appro­ to length, degree of cleaning and colour before priate abacâ-based cropping systems are needed marketing. which will provide growers with a steady income Genetic resources The Philippines are the pri­ during the abacâ establishment phase as well. mary gene centre for abacâ. The largest germ- At present, the supply of abacâ fibres cannot meet plasm collections are maintained at the Institute the increasing demand. Moreover, each grade of of Plant Breeding, College, Laguna, and at the abacâ fibre hasit sow nmarket , sofibr e production National Abacâ Research Center based at the should be tailored to the particular end use for Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, which it is intended. Thus both expansion and Leyte. More than 200cultivar s and wild types are diversification are called for. Increased produc­ maintained at both institutions. tion through improved husbandry should be cou­ Breeding Abacâ breeding in the Philippines pled with improved processing methods. In the began in 1909 in south-eastern Mindanao and area of cultivar development, research should be north-eastern Leyte. After the Second World War geared totailo r abacâ genotypes toth e production the outbreak of abacâ mosaic caused serious of high value products. Considerable effort should losses; a cooperative project was set up at Los be devoted to breeding for disease resistance as Barios with the primary aim of developing abacâ abacâ mosaic and bunchy top continue to cause cultivars that are resistant to mosaic. Initial find­ serious problems. More research is also needed to ings showed that theF l hybrids between pacol (M. develop stress-resistant cultivars for marginal balbisiana) and abacâ are highly resistant to the areas. disease. The main objectives in abacâ breeding Literature jl[ Fiber Development Authority, are: 1983. Proceedings of the Symposium on abacâ - high degree ofresistanc e to pests and diseases, research and development, 16-18 June, 1982. - early maturity, Manila, the Philippines. 80 pp. |2| Fiber Develop­ - high yield andhig h fibre recovery, ment Authority, 1984. Profile of the Philippine - good fibre quality, Abacâ Industry. Manila, the Philippines. 185pp . - adaptability to varying climatic and soil condi­ 3 International Documentation Center on Abacâ, tions, including drought resistance. 1978. The Abacâ. University of the Philippines at Wild relatives available for improvement include: Los Banos, Laguna. 133pp . |4|Martinez , R.P., 1950. Pacol (M. balbisiana), Agotay (Musa acuminata Abacâ culture and production. CATIE, Turrialba, ssTp.banksU),A\insa.nay(Musatextilis x M. acumi­ Costa Rica. 65 pp. |5| National Documentation nata ssp. banksii), Canton and Minay. The latter Center for Agriculture, Forestry &Rura l Develop­ two types arebot h putative hybrids between abacâ ment, 1980. Selected Abacâ research: cultural and pacol. These wild relatives are possible management and marketing practices. UPLB, sources ofresistanc e toimportan t pestsan ddiseas ­ Laguna, the Philippines. 213pp . |6| Palmer, E.R., es, vigour, resistance to drought and other desir­ 1982. The use of abacâ for pulp and papermaking. able agronomic characteristics. Tropical Science 24(1):1-16. |7| Purseglove, J.W., Prospects The increasing demand for abacâ 1972.Tropica l crops.Monocotyledon s 2. Longman, both by local processors and foreign users indi­ London, pp. 377-384. |8| Spencer, J.E., 1953.Th e cates bright prospects forth eabac â industry. With abacâ plant and its fiber, Manila hemp. Economic the rapid evolution in technology, more and more Botany 7(3):195-213. varied uses of abacâ are discovered. Thus, there (L.R. Gonzal &O.B . Capuno) is a continuous proliferation of industries using abacâ asa ra wmateria l forth emanufactur e of var­ ious items. Myristica fragrans Houtt. The increased utilization ofabac â benefits theeco ­ nomy, in particular with respect to foreign Handl. pl.-kruidk. 3:33 3(1774) . exchange earnings and employment. Abacâ is well MYRISTICACEAE adapted tomountainou s androllin g areas, andca n 2« = 44;th e chromosomes are holokinetic, i.e. be used in reforestation programmes for soil con­ with the spindle attached along their whole servation. Its only drawback is the long period length. until first harvest and some farmers neglect their Vernacular names Nutmeg, mace (En).Noi xd e MYRISTICA 193 muscade, macis (Fr).Indonesia : pala banda, bunga from Sri Lanka. Approximately 15% ofth e produc­ pala. Malaysia: buah pala, bunga pala. Laos: chan tion consists of mace, the remainder is nutmeg. In theed. Thailand: chan thet. Vietnam: dâu khâu. 1987 prices, for first quality Siauw nutmeg, with Origin and geographic distribution Probably 110 seeds per lb were around US$ 850 per tonne nutmeg originates from the southern Moluccan and for first quality, unbroken Siauw mace US$ Islands, especially Banda (Indonesia). Originally 1800pe r tonne. nutmeg and mace were known throughout South- Since July 1987 the Grenada Cooperative Nutmeg East Asia and mainly distributed from Java. The Association and the Association Pala Indonesia first record in Europe, in Constantinople, dates have reached an agreement on yearly sales on the from 540 AD. At the end of the 12th Century the international market. Indonesia is allowed to sell spices were generally known in Europe. The fur­ 6000 t of nutmeg and 1250 t of mace, and Grenada ther history ofnutme g isclosel y related to colonial 20001o f nutmeg and 3501o fmace . Both producing history. In 1512 the Portuguese discovered Banda countries have a sales contract with Catz Interna­ and obtained a monopoly for nutmeg. They were tional in Rotterdam. Through this agreement ousted by the Dutch, who took over the monopoly, prices are expected to rise approximately to three­ and held to it rigorously, even by extirpation, to fold the present prices. keep the prices down. In 1772th e French broke the Properties The seeds of nutmeg consist of rumi­ monopoly. In 1802, during their rule of Indonesia, nate endosperm and they are surrounded by a true the British finished it. Centres of cultivation came arillus, constituting the mace. Both nutmeg and into being in other parts of the tropics; they all dis­ mace consist of water, an intricate complex of aro­ appeared again, some due to diseases. In 1843 some matic essential oils (7-16 %), fat or nutmeg butter plants were introduced in Grenada (West Indies); (25-40%), starch, proteins, cellulose, resins and this has led to large scale production on that minerals. Both the essential oil and nutmeg butter island, which has become the second largest pro­ contain myristicin, which is hallucinogenic and ducer after Indonesia. poisonous. The main centre of cultivation is now Banda and Description A dioecious evergreen tree, 5-13 surrounding islands. Nutmeg is cultivated on a smaller scale on other Indonesian islands, notably Manado, western Sumatra and in western New Guinea. Sri Lanka, India (Kerala) and the island Penang in West Malaysia also have a sizeable cul­ tivation. The crop has also been dispersed to many other humid tropical regions and enters the world market also from there, albeit on a very small scale. Uses The nutmeg products, dry shelled seeds and mace (dried aril) are sold as spices whole or ground. In most countries they are used in confec­ tionery but in western Europe also in meat and soups. Essential oils and extracts are often used in the canning industry, in soft drinks and in cos­ metics. Shelled seeds can be used as a drug but the consumption of two ground nutmegs is said to cause death, due to the myristicin content. Nut­ meg quality broken, wormy and punky (BWP) and mouldy nutmegs are often used for distilling essen­ tial oil. Young husks are made into confectionery. On old husks an edible mushroom can be culti­ vated which possesses a light nutmeg flavour. Production and international trade Indone­ sia and Grenada share approximately 90% of the production for the the world market, with Indone­ Myristica fragrans Houtt. - 1,flowering and fruit­ sia ca.6 0% and Grenada ca. 30% . Small quantities ing branch; 2, aril (mace) enveloping the seed; 3, of nutmeg and mace also enter international trade cross-section of a nutmeg. 194 A SELECTION

(-20) m high, conical shaped if free growing. planting of an excess of male seedlings. The oldest Leaves alternate, simple and exstipulate; petiole recorded method appears to be to feed the fruits about 1 cm long; blade elliptic to lanceolate, 5-15 to pigeons. The sex of the consuming pigeon would cm x 3-7 cm, entire, acuminate, aromatic when then determine the sex of the tree. Also leaf form bruised. and venation, shape of seeds and form of branches Inflorescences axillary, in umbellate cymes, male received attention. First reports, however, were ones usually many- flowered, females 1-3-flowe- never followed by conclusive later publications. red. Flowers fragrant, pale yellow, with a 3- lobed Attempts have been made to identify the sex-chro­ perianth; male flowers with an at base usually mosomes, with a view to the possibility of sexing slightly narrowed perianth and 8-12 stamens young seedlings. This resulted in the hypothesis adnate to a column; female flowers with a superior, that the female sex is heterogametic to the effect sessile, 1-celled ovary with a single basal ovule, that 4 of the supposed 8 sex-chromosomes show which isnormall y anatropous to hemi-anatropous. facultative nucleolar properties. This especially Fruits peach-shaped berries, 5-8 cm long, fleshy, shows up in female meiosis where these 4 chromo­ splitting open into two halves when ripe, showing somes orientate to one side. The same hypothesis the ovoid, 2-3 cm long, dark brown shiny seed, implies that in male trees the orientation of these with hard seed coat, that is surrounded by a laci- sex chromosomes would deviate from the mecha­ nate red aril, attached to the base of the seed. The nism assumed for the female trees. If true, seed­ mace of commerce is the dried aril and the nutmeg lings could be 'sexed' through counting the chro­ is the dried kernel of the seed, often called nut. mosomes with facultative nucleolar properties in Growth and development The seeds should be growing root tips. This hypothesis, however, has planted before they dry out, so immediately after not been tested in practice, as the chromosomes collecting. Germination of seeds in the shell takes are very small (0.4-1 um)an d isodiametric, requir­ some 4-6 weeks;withou t the shell they may germi­ ing quite some experience. nate in half that time. Good growing trees may Other botanical information Myristica argen- reach in 4 years an average height of 3 m and a tea Warb. (1891),calle d Papua or Macassar nutmeg girth at 40 cm height of 15.7 cm. Nutmeg is a slow (En), 'palalak ilaki ' and,jus t asM. fragrans, 'bunga grower, but growth can continue very long, up to pala' in Indonesia, is locally also cultivated for its 60-80 years. Dependent on soil and climate the seeds and mace, especially in New Guinea. The tree may ultimately reach a height of 20 m and seeds are much larger than those oftru e nutmegs. 2 occupy 100 m . Under continuously humid condi­ Ecology The crop belongs in tropical lowlands tions development of new shoots and leaves also without a pronounced dry season. Flowering is is continuous. probably induced by short dry periods. The crop The tree has a very superficial root system, with can grow on any kind of soil provided there is on only one tap-root, which may penetrate the soil for the one hand sufficient water and on the other nei­ over 10m ,provide d it reaches no water table. Such ther standing water nor a high water table. penetrating roots do not develop on marcots. Propagation and planting Trees are usually Usually a tree takes 6 years until first flowering, raised from seeds, resulting in equal numbers of but if growing vigorously this period may be shor­ male and female trees. The seedlings reveal their tened to 4 years. In female trees a good positive sex at first flowering, which usually occurs some correlation exists between trunk diameter and 6year s after planting. Therefore usually 2-3 seed­ productivity and also between trunk diameter of lings are planted on the same spot. Male trees are young trees and later productivity. Male trees then cut out and excess female trees may be trans­ have a slightly smaller diameter, so keeping only planted to positions where there are no female the largest saplings may reduce the percentage trees. It is generally thought that in plantations male trees. only 10% of the trees should be male trees to The fruits develop in only 6 months if few fruits acquire full production. are growing and it takes up to 9 months if there Planting distance for fully grown trees should be are many fruits on the tree. around 10 m x 10 m. But the trees reach this size The plant is not strictly dioecious. The male trees only after some 20 years of growth. Male trees show different degrees offemaleness , varying from should be regularly spread in the plantation to no fruits at all till as many fruits as a good female secure pollination. Normally, however, trees are tree. It is often tried to determine the sex of seeds planted at approximately 6 m x 6 m and thinned or seedlings at an early stage, in order to prevent later on if need arises. MYRISTICA 195

Other methods of propagation have been devel­ easily infected by all kinds of small animals and oped, in order to circumvent the problem of the insects. The labour-intensive way of harvesting in dioecy. Air-layering was developed in Grenada. If Indonesia diminishes losses, especially of mace. a branch is wounded, water shoots are formed. Yield Production per female tree differs widely. These are incised for two thirds; a piece of plastic Excellent trees may produce about 5000 fruits but is inserted in each opening. Then the wounded trees with about 1000 fruits are fairly common. place is packed in some rooting medium and cover­ With 250femal e trees/ha and at 5 g per dry shelled ed with plastic, sometimes after treatment with a seed production is 1250 kg of nutmegs/ha. At an growth substance. About 3-5 months later, roots airdry weight rate of 1 mace to 4 nutmegs, mace formed from the callus at the top of the wound production reaches approximately 300 kg/ha. penetrate the plastic. Then the water shoot is cut Outside Banda and Grenada, however, nutmegs off and planted in a nursery. After a period of are only grown in small numbers by small farmers. growth it is hardened off and planted in the field. There are hardly any yield figures available for This method succeeds in 60-70 % of cases. such plantings. Another more successful method, also developed Handling after harvest After harvest the seed in Grenada is approach-grafting. In this method is removed from the pericarp and subsequently the the rootstock is usually hung in a pot in an espe­ arils are separated from the seeds.Th e nutmegs are cially selected mother tree. Other methods, such usually dried in their shell, often above a slow as budding on (male) seedlings or on other species burning and smoking fire or, if only small quanti­ of the same family have also been tried; they are ties are available, in the sun. Above a fire insect usually less successful and no reports are avail­ attack is prevented. In the sun there is a danger able on their results in the long run. of overheating, through which the fat in the seeds Husbandry The tree isa slow grower, especially may melt, which results in broken kernels at shell­ in its first years. Young plants are usually planted ing. When properly dried the kernels (nuts) rattle under 50% shade. With increasing age this shade in the shell. Then the shell is cracked to free the can be reduced progressively and after 6-7 years dry kernel. Nuts (kernels) are graded according to the plants can grow without any shade at all, pro­ size. The main qualities are 110 nuts per lb or 80 vided the soil is covered well, preferably by a cover per lb and ABCD, a mixture of sound nuts of var­ crop. ious sizes. Flowers are formed on young tops of branches and Mace (the arils) is also dried, mostly in the sun. in order not to hamper flowering those branches After drying it needs storage in the dark to change should not touch other trees. its colour from the original red to orange- yellow. Well spaced trees may reach an age ofove r 80 years It is also sorted into different qualities, mainly and continue production. In nutmeg groves the whole, broken and fine. lower branches are usually cut off to facilitate col­ Genetic resources Myristica fragrans is not lection of dropped seeds, but these branches, if left known in its wild state. The largest variability is on the tree, would remain productive. probably found in Banda and a number ofclos e rel­ Very little is known on fertilizer application. atives occur onth e neighbouring islands.Al l other Usually no fertilizer is used. On the island of plantings throughout the world have been derived Banda plantations on volcanic soils have originally from plants from this region. remained productive for hundreds of years. Breeding The slow growing female trees possess Diseases and pests The only disease of major only 1-ovuledflowers . Thismake s the nutmeg a dif­ importance is Corynium myristica, a fungus that ficult but scientifically interesting target for causes the fruits to open when still young. Conse­ breeding. However, the very limited market for its quently the arils and seedsremai n underdeveloped products makes a breeding effort unattractive. As and are worthless. The conidia are spread by wind is to be expected in a predominantly outbreeding and rain. plant, the variability is great. Plants differ consi­ Harvesting In Indonesia, especially on Banda, derably, not only in such aspects asvigour , produc­ fruits are harvested when they are open. Harvest­ tivity and sex-ratio, but also in size, colour and ing is done with a small basket on a long pole, to shape ofleaves ,flower s and fruits. In 1940 planned which a sharpened piece of iron is usually selection started in Indonesia, but the results were attached. In Grenada usually seeds with the mace lost during the Second World War. In Grenada also around it are collected after they have dropped some promising trees have been brought together from the split fruits. Mace on the ground is very in special plantings. Quick results will probably 196 A SELECTION be achieved by selection and vegetative propaga­ ular fruits. The usually juicy sarcotesta around tion of highly productive females. the seed is eaten. The sweet tasting fruits are con­ Prospects The present world nutmeg and mace sumed fresh, the more sour ones are eaten stewed. consumption of some 100001coul d be produced on The sarcotesta can be canned or used as jam, but a well-managed 10000 ha, and possibly even less. loses a lot of its flavour. Other less important uses: Unless the demand expands, there are hardly any the seed kernel (embryo) can be used for the pro­ possibilities for improved or increased production. duction of rambutan tallow, a solid fat similar to Literature |1| Flach M., 1966. Nutmeg cultiva­ cacao butter, which is edible and also used for tion and its sex-problem; an agronomical and cyto- soaps and candles. The seed itself is edible (after genetical study ofth e dioecy in Myristica fragrans roasting) but is bitter and narcotic. The wood is Houtt. and Myristica argentea Warb. Medede­ suitable for general construction. The tree is very lingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen 66-1. 87 ornamental when it fruits. pp. |2| Flach, M. & Cruickshank, A.M., 1969. Nut­ Medicinal uses: the fruit is said to be astringent, meg. In: Ferwerda, F.P. & Wit, F. (Editors): Out­ stomachic and anthelmintic; the roots are used in lines ofperennia l crop breeding in the tropics. Mis­ decoctions for treating fever; the bark as an astrin­ cellaneous Papers 4, Landbouwhogeschool gent for disease of the tongue; the leaves are used Wageningen, pp. 329-338. |3| Janse, J.M., 1898. De in poultices for headache. The fruit wall contains nootmuskaatcultuur in de Minahassa en op het a toxic saponin; cases of poisoning are known; eiland Banda. [Nutmeg cultivation in North however, in Java it isdrie d and used as a medicine. Sulawesi and on Banda island]. Meded. 's Lands Dyes: young shoots are utilized as a green dye for Plantentuin 28. 230pp . |4|Reddy , D.B., 1977. Pests, silk which has already been dyed yellow with tur­ diseases and nematodes of major spices and condi­ meric {Curcuma domestica Val.; Malaysia: kelan- ments in Asia and the Pacific. Technical docu­ tan, pattani). The fruit walls are used, together ment, Plant Protection Committee for the south­ with tannin-rich parts of other plants, to dye silk east Asia and Pacific region No 108:13-14. |5| black after a preliminary red staining (Malaysia: Sinclair, J., 1958. Arevisio n ofth e Malayan Myris- pekan). Leaves are utilized, together with mud, as ticaceae. Singapore Gardens Bulletin 16:205-472. an impermanent black dye. (M. Flach &M . Tjeenk Willink) Production and international trade Natural stands are scattered. Trees from seed are often found in home gardens and tree borders along the Nephelium lappaceum L. fields. Orchards consist of budded trees; they may be pure rambutan stands or mixed plantations Mant. PI. 1:125(1767) . with durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) and some SAPINDACEAE langsat (Lansium domesticum Correa) or mangos- 2n = 22 teen (Garcinia mangostana L.) trees. Statistical Synonyms Nephelium glabrum Cambess.(1829) , data for 1981/82 give a production of 433000 t in (also used for N. maingayï), N. chryseum BI. (1847), Thailand and 115000 t in Indonesia (Java: 73000 N. sufferrugineum Radlk. (1879). t). The data show that in both Thailand and Java Vernacular names Rambutan (En). Litchi che­ rambutan production took third place among velu (Fr).Indonesi a and Malaysia: rambutan. Phi­ fruits, after mango (Mangifera indica L.) and tan­ lippines:usân , rambutan. Cambodia: ser mon, chle gerine (Citrus reticulata Blanco). In the Philip­ sao mao. Thailand: ngoh, phruan. Vietnam: chôm pines the cultivated rambutan was introduced chôm, vai thiêu. from Indonesia, mainly in this century, and rambu­ Origin and geographic distribution The ori­ tan is not listed among the 20 main tree fruits. In gin is untraceable because escapes from cultiva­ Malaysia the rambutan comes first in both area tion blur the original distribution. The species (1200 0h a in 1980)an d production (no data, but the ranges from southern China (Yunnan and Hainan) yield level is2-5. 6 t/ha).I n Thailand and Malaysia through the Indo-Chinese/Malaysian Peninsula, canning is of importance. Thailand exports some Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi) to fresh (1984: 340 t) and canned fruit (1984: 1200 t), the Philippines. The plant is cultivated through­ mainly to Singapore, Hongkong and the EEC. out the humid tropics of Asia (Sri Lanka to New Properties The fruit isnutritious : carbohydrate Guinea) and in small numbers in the humid tropics content 16% of fresh weight; mineral content of America, Africa and Australia. 0.91 % (calcium 10.6, phosphorus 12.9 and vitamin Uses The trees are cultivated for their very pop­ C 30m g per 100g) .Th e seed kernel yields 30-43 % NEPHELIUM 197 of solid fat, remarkable for its high content of ara- long; petals usually absent, sometimes up to 4 chidic acid (34.7% ) and oleic acid (42.5 %); after reduced ones, not exceeding 1.6 mm. Disc com­ heating the fat turns into a yellow, pleasant smell­ plete, hairy or glabrous. Stamens (4-) 5-8 (-9), ing oil. The wood is hard, heavy, red to reddish exserted in males; filament has dense long hairs white or somewhat brown and liable to split during at least in the basal part; anther dehiscing latero- drying. introrse, lengthwise. Pistil 2- or rarely 3-merous, Description Tree,fairl y large in natural vegeta­ densely hairy, well developed in hermaphrodite tion; clonal trees small, 4-7 m high and usually flowers; ovary warty; style well-developed; stigma with a spreading habit, branching according to spreading to finally recoiled. Fruits ellipsoid to Sarconne's architectural model. Leaves alternate, subglobular, up to 6 cm x 3.5 cm, usually only 1 paripinnate, up to 6-jugate; leaflets ovate to obo- locule, yellow to purplish red, hardly stalked, vate, 5-28 cm x 2-10.5 cm, usually horizontal, apparently often at least in the apical part finally above glabrous or sometimes slightly hairy on the dehiscing, glabrous, usually densely set with fili­ midrib, beneath variably hairy, domatia common form, curved, 0.5-2 cm long appendages; wall cor­ to absent, apex truncate to acuminate, nerves iaceous, up to 2.5 mm thick. Seed covered by a slightly to strongly curving, veins scalariform to usually thick, juicy, white to yellow, translucent coarsely reticulate. sarcotesta. Seedling: cotyledons remain enveloped Inflorescences pseudo-terminal to usually termi­ by fruit wall; leaves paripinnate, only first pair nal. Flowers either male (only stamens well devel­ opposite. oped) or hermaphrodite and either effectively Growth and development The seeds are short­ female (stamens small, anther not dehiscing) or lived and therefore sown directly after washing male (stigma not opening), actinomorphic, whi­ and removal of the sarcotesta. Germination takes tish, yellowish or greenish; sepals 4-5 (-7), nearly 7- 10(-20 ) days.Seedling s grow weakly and young free to more than halfway connate, 0.7-2.1 mm trees are hard to establish. Trees grown from seed come into bearing after 5-6 years; budded trees after 1-2 years; maximum production is reached after 8-10 years. Growth is rhythmic. In the seed­ ling periods of fast and slow growth alternate; in the sapling growth comes to a complete standstill after a flush, the last leaves being reduced to mere bracts which are placed well below the naked bud and drop quickly. Axillary buds may emerge dur­ ing that period, but usually the terminal bud resumes growth, suppressing lateral growth. Con­ sequently, non-flowering twigs grow terminally and become long and slender. The terminal inflor­ escences put an end to extension of the axis and lateral shoots on twigs which have borne the crop are the main mode of branching for the tree. Flowering occurs during the dry season. Well-de­ veloped inflorescences onvigorou s shoots general­ ly show good fruit set and retention. Bloom may continue for several months (e.g. cv. Lebakbulus), extending the harvest period. The fruit ripens about 110day s after bloom. Typically, fruit ripens well into the rainy season. Since a good crop sup­ presses flushing, most vegetative growth - both terminally and laterally - occurs in the rainy sea­ son, after harvest. The most vigorous ofthes e early shoots (early in the crop cycle) are likely to flower for the next crop. Rambutan is effectively dioecious. Orchards are Nephelium lappaceum L. 1, flowering branch; 2, planted with female trees which produce few if any fruiting branchlet. functionally male flowers. Hence, special mea- 198 A SELECTION sures are often required to ensure that pollination 'Simacan', 'Sinyonya', 'Maharlika') are grown. (presumably by small Trigonoid bees and butter­ Important features of the cultivars are thickness, flies) does not limit fruit set. colour, juice-content and aroma of the flesh; Other botanical information Three varieties whether or not it adheres to the seed ('clingstone', are recognized by their leaflet characteristics versus 'freestone' cultivars); and whether the only: papery skin of the seed comes off with the flesh. - var. lappaceum: widest above middle, midrib Ecology Rambutan thrives in the humid tropi­ sparsely pilose below, nerves strongly curved. cal lowlands (sea-level up to 600 m), within about Distribution: Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, 12°fro m the equator. The trees occur in the lower Java, Borneo, the Philippines (Palawan, Basi- or middle storey in different types of primary and lan) and possibly Seram; commonly cultivated. (late) secondary forest, ranging from dry land to - var. pallens (Hiern) Leenh.: widest at or below swamp. Rainfall usually exceeds 250 cm per year. middle, midrib usually glabrous below, nerves Exposure to dry wind leads to browning of the leaf slightly curved. Distribution: ranges from China margins; sheltered locations or wind screens are (Yunnan, Hainan), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, recommended. Deep, well-drained soils of fertile Vietnam, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, the south­ sandy loam or clay loam are preferred. Ap H range ern Philippines to Sulawesi. of 4.5-6.5 is indicated; at higher pH iron and zinc - var. xanthioides (Radlk.) Leenh.: widest at or deficiencies are common (chlorosis, leaf-yellow­ below middle, midrib densely shortly hairy ing). below, nerves slightly curved. Distribution: Bor­ Where the dry season lasts long (e.g. East Java), neo. bloom can be relied upon, although the timing var­ Rambutan is a very variable species and therefore ies from year to year. Consequently the harvest difficult to distinguish from other Nepheliums, may easily be advanced or delayed by a month or especially N. ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. more. Even in such well-defined monsoon climates (among growers known as N. mutabile Blume, ver­ some trees or branches may flower out of season. nacular: (ka)pulasan, meritam) and N. cuspidatum For trees growing in areas with a bimodal or con­ Blume (vernacular: gompal benang, lotong), tinuous rainfall distribution the timing of flower­ which are also famous for their edible fruits. The ing becomes very erratic; in that case the intensity fruits ofN. cuspidatum resemble rambutan, but the of bloom appears to be correlated with the dura­ tree has a different habit with a long bole and leaf­ tion of water stress. Production of out-of-season lets drooping, large, above more hairy (rambutan: crops apparently is not worthwhile, for the com­ short bole; spreading, smaller, leaflets above mercial crop remains concentrated in areas with (sub)glabrous). Grown pulasan resembles rambu­ a distinct dry spell. Out-of-season crops may be too tan in habit, but the fruits are different, the appen­ erratic for producers; moreover consumers consid­ dages of pulasan are short and stumpy instead of er fruit quality inferior. long, filiform. Propagation and planting Many trees are still Rambutans are traded under various names, which grown from seed, but commercial production may refer to fruit characteristics, to the centre of comes by and large from clonal trees. Nurseries production, or to a specific cultivar. Since estab­ use the modified Forkert budding, taking seeds lished trade names have also been given to some from seedling trees to produce the rootstocks. cultivars, the names are rather confusing. In Seeds are pre-germinated and the seedlings raised Malaysia this problem has been tackled by giving in intensive-care beds under shade for about two 'R' numbers to old and new clones in a selection months before being transplanted to the nursery programme. The selections R3 ('Peng Thing rows. The stocks are budded within a year; to stim­ Cheng'), R134,R15 6 ('Muar Gading'), R160 ('Khaw ulate active growth the nursery rows and the Tow Bak'),R16 1('Le e Long'),R16 2('O h Heok') and mother trees receive water and nitrogen before R170 ('Deli Cheng') are recommended throughout budding. Budwood is defoliated 10-14 days before the country; others are more location-specific. use to start the development of the axillary buds. Important cultivars in Thailand are 'Chompoo', Budding before flowering is avoided as it results 'Rongrien', 'Bang Yi Khan', 'See Tong' and 'Nam in many flowering budlings. One hundred germi­ Tan Kruad'. In Java cultivars 'Lebakbulus', 'Bin- nating seeds yield about 50 good rootstocks; after jay', 'Tankue', 'Rapiah' and 'Simacan' have domi­ budding these produce about 25 saleable plants nated the nurseries since the 1930s. In the Philip­ early in the next rainy season. Home gardeners pines introductions from Indonesia (cultivars often propagate young water shoots by air NEPHELIUM 199 layering. Such marcots root well, but losses after on tall trunks to improve pollination. separation and during field establishment tend to Diseases and pests No disease control is prac­ be excessive. Inarching of rooted stocks into twigs tised, except sulphur treatments in Thailand of the mother tree is a good but laborious propaga­ against powdery mildew (Oidium nephelii) during tion method. bloom to fruit set. Loss of limbs is caused by stem Planting density ranges from lesstha n 100t o about die-back (Thyronectria pseudotrichia). Stem 300 trees per ha (10 m x 10 m to 7m x 5 m). The canker (Dolabra nepheliae) disfigures the surface actual spacing depends on the vigour of the stock- of branches and twigs; the incidence is reduced if scion combination and on the growing conditions the canopy does not impede air drainage. (soil depth, irrigation). Pests occur only incidentally, but a fruit-piercing Intercropping is possible in the first few years; moth, identified as the cacao pod borer (Acrocer- later sole cropping is common. cops cramerella), is becoming a regular pest. There Husbandry Pruning could possibly play an is no tested control recipe. Numerous caterpillars important role in control of tree size. Growers are and beetles feed on young shoots and inflores­ aware that supplementary irrigation is desirable; cences. Mealy bugs may shelter in fruit panicles; water stress after flowering results in low fruit set they are cultured by ants and sooty mould grows and reduced sarcotesta development ('flat fruit'), on the secreted honey dew. Fruit flies only attack setting back both yield and fruit quality. overripe fruit. The fruit is eaten by bats, rodents Irrigation complicates clean weeding; to save and monkeys and the crop may have to be guarded water, to reduce weeding and to improve tree day and night against these visitors. growth, generous organic mulching under the Harvesting The fruit is non-climacteric and has trees is recommended. Nutrient removal by the to be harvested when ripe. Entire panicles are crop is rather low: according to Malaysian find­ twisted or cut off the tree using a bamboo pole ings 15 kg N, 2 kg P, 11.7 kg K, 5.9 kg Ca and 2.7 which is slit at the top or which contains a small kg Mg per ha for a crop of 7300 kg/ha. knife. Depending on the cultivar the trees may Pruning out all shoots which grow in the interior have to be picked twice per week for 2-8 weeks. of the tree is common in Thailand and Indonesia. In Indonesia and Malaysia the fruit is sold as The canopy isno t opened up,o n the contrary: after bunched panicles. In Thailand and the Philippines harvest the panicle remains are cut out to stimu­ individual fruits are detached before marketing. late the growth of side shoots. Consequently the Yield Indications of yield vary. A survey in trees have long bare limbs, which extend further Malaysia found yields from 2-5.6 t/ha; statistical and further outwards.Thi s weakens the shoot/root data on area and production in Thailand in 1981/82 feed-back controls and hastens tree ageing, as evi­ work out to a mean yield of 7.5 t/ha. An excellent denced by the progressive decline of the lower orchard near Surat Tani, Thailand, produced 170 limbs. The opposite approach, fairly drastic prun­ kg per tree, or 20 t/ha, in the 11th year. Flowering ing in the foliated fringe is practised in places near and fruit set promised a heavy crop the next year, Kuala Lumpur. Particularly branches which have but there did not seem to be much room for further fruited are cut out after harvest. Since these are increases in yield. Yields for cv. R168 are reported the main source of lateral shoots, which are less in northern Queensland of 88 kg in the 6th year. likely to flower next time, their removal keeps the It is not unusual for individual trees to produce canopy open and brings the terminals which are 5-10 kg 2 years after planting. These figures give predisposed to flower into prominence. This prun­ an idea of maximum yield levels for rambutan. ing system keeps the trees small and their branch­ Pulasan (N. ramboutan-ake) is said to be far less ing pattern simple, provided that the remaining productive. twigs indeed produce enough fruit to moderate the Handling after harvest The fruit travels rather tree's reaction to such rigorous pruning. Under well if packed properly, but shelf life is only a few these conditions tree spacings of 6 m x 4 m or 5 days, mainly because filaments and skin turn m x 3m may be feasible. black; keeping the fruits moist and shaded slightly In Thai orchards spot treatments with naphtyl ace­ elongates this period. Research work suggests that tic acid (NAA) to increase the proportion of male cold storage at 5-10°C and fungicidal treatment flowers on the trees are standard practice. In may extend the shelf life to several weeks. Remo­ recent years the results of NAA application have val ofth e panicle stem hastens deterioration as the been lessreliabl e and keen growers now interplant sarcotesta comes into contact with the air. their orchards with functionally male trees, raised Genetic resources The genetic diversity of cul- 200 A SELECTION tivated rambutan is narrowing now that home markets. Thus agronomic improvements open a propagation has been abandoned in favour of the long-term perspective for expansion. The scope for few cultivars that are available from nurseries. Ex­ out-of-season production and fruit preservation ploration in remote areas is still bringing further appears to be limited. Fickle yield and poor fruit diversity of wild rambutan to light. Seeds are too quality may remain limiting factors for out-of-sea­ short-lived to be of use for germplasm conserva­ son production. Moreover, increased trade within tion. Tree collections exist in all South-East Asian the region should leave a very short off-season, countries: Thailand (Bangkok, Chantaburi), since the main harvest period in most of Indonesia Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur), Indonesia (Lembang, (December-April) supplements the peak season in Bogor) and the Philippines (Los Bafios), and out­ Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (June-Sep­ side South-East Asia in China, Mexico, the United tember). This also limits the regional market for States, the Seychelles and Australia. It is also processed (canned) rambutan; outside South-East unknown whether other species of Nephelium L. Asia canned produce has to penetrate the estab­ can be crossed with rambutan; likely candidates lished market for canned litchi, which is not easy. are N. ramboutan-ake (pulasan) and N. cuspidatum Of other species of Nephelium which hold promise because ofthei r tasty fruit. Other species of Nephe­ for commercial production, the pulasan has the lium, of which the fruits are occasionally con­ same ecological niche as rambutan and sweeter sumed, are N. aculeatum Leenh., N. maingayi and often slightly larger fruit; N. cuspidatum also Hiern., N. reticulatum Radlk. and N. uncinatum has tasty fruit, but the trees are usually tall and Leenh. difficult to harvest. Breeding Breeding by crossing selected parents Literature |1|Almeyda , N.,Malo , S.E. &Martin , has yet to start; all cultivars have been obtained F.W., 1979.Cultivatio n of neglected tropical fruits by cloning superior plants. Most cultivars origi­ with promise, part 6. The Rambutan. Science and nate from the wild variety lappaceum; therefore Education Administration, US Department of the scope of the other two varieties (pallens and Agriculture, New Orleans. 14 pp. 2 Buisson, D., xanthioides) for cultivar improvement has to be 1986. Analyse architecturale de quelques espèces investigated. There is a need to select not only for d'arbres fruitiers tropicaux. Fruits 41:477-498. |3| fruit characteristics, but also for productivity and Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1966. manageable tree size. These attributes may be The wealth of India 7. Publication & Information linked to number of fruit per panicle and to the Directorate CSIR, New Delhi, pp. 13-14. |4| Inter­ number and fruitfulness of laterals emerging on national Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1986. twigs which have borne the previous crop. Testing Genetic resources of tropical and sub-tropical of a wide selection of potential rootstocks and the fruits and nuts (excluding Musa). IBPGR, Rome, cloning of stocks are among the current breeding pp. 123-125. |5j Leenhouts, P.W., 1986. A taxono­ objectives in Malaysia. mie revision of Nephelium (Sapindaceae). Blumea Prospects The short-term outlook ranges from 31:373-436. |6| Ng, S.K. & Thamboo, S., 1967. bleak for Thailand, the largest producer, to bright Nutrient removal studies on Malayan fruits: dur- for the Philippines, where rambutan is a relatively ian and rambutan. Malaysian Agricultural Jour­ new crop. In spite of relatively high yield levels nal 56:164-182. |7| Shaari, A.R., 1983. Aspects of rambutan growing in Thailand is declining owing research and production of rambutan in Malaysia. to over-production and low prices. In Malaysia Paper (mimeo) International Workshop for pro­ planting and grubbing seem to be balanced, al­ moting research on tropical fruits, Jakarta, May/ though data on age distribution ofth e tree popula­ June 1983. 16 pp. |8| Valmayor, R.V., Mendoza f., tion is lacking. On the basis of nursery output, D.B., Aycardo, H.B. & Palencia, CO., 1970. rambutan growing is on the increase in Indonesia, Growth and flowering habits, floral biology and at least in Java. In the Philippines rambutan is still yield of Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn.). a minor crop with great potential for expansion. Philippine Agriculturist 54:359-374. |9| Watson, Rambutan can also become an important fruit tree B.J., 1983. Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum L. in the humid tropics outside South-East Asia. and Pulasan, Nephelium mutabile Blume. Queens­ Rambutan trees come into bearing quickly and land Department of Primary Industries Info Series progress in the control of tree size and flowering QI 83018: Tropical tree fruits for Australia. Bris­ will make production in orchards attractive, bane, pp. 198-203. through the combined effect of much higher yield (P.C. van Weizen &E.W.M . Verheij) levels, lower prices and widening demand in the OCTOMELES 201

Octomeles sumatrana Miq.

Fl.Ind . Bat.Suppl .133,33 6(1861) . DATISCACEAE 2ra = unknown Synonyms Octomeles moluccana T. & B. ex Hassk. (1866). Vernacular names Binuang, erima (trade names, En). Indonesia: benuang, benua, winuang (Kalimantan); beliem, teng, starka (Irian Jaya). Philippines: binuang, barawisan, sarrai. Papua New Guinea: erima, ilimo, ipa. Origin and geographic distribution Binuang occurs from Sumatra to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, and northwards to the Philip­ pines. It is absent from Peninsular Malaysia, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusa Tenggara). Uses The light and soft wood issuitabl e as a non­ durable timber for light indoor construction and moulding, (low-quality) plywood core- and back veneer, match-boxes, packing-cases, coffins, pulp- wood and fish-net floats. Because of their big size, logs are used for dugouts. The wood is almost cer­ tainly suitable for chip- and fibre-board, but it is too brittle for matches. It can be considered as a substitute for the better known white lauans (Pen- tacme contorta Merr. & Rolfe), and in some cases for the African 'Obeche' (Triplochiton scleroxylon Octomeles sumatrana Miq. 1, flowering branch; K. Schum.). Young leaves are used as a vegetable 2,fruiting branch. in northern Sumatra. A decoction of the bark, together with mashed mature individuals and sometimes with a few roots of Morinda citrifolia L. and leaves oîSymplo- coarse teeth on the margin; midrib and base of cosfasciculata Zoll, isuse d to dye split rattan, turn­ veins brown, tertiary nerves crossbar-like. ing it red in 7days . Flowers sessile, about 0.5 cm long, borne in pend­ Properties The inner bark contains bitter and ant spikes, male ones 20- 60 cm, female 8-12 cm purgative components and a yellow dye. long; ovary 0.1-0.2 cm high, free calyx tube 0.2- Seed weight is about 5100-11*500 seeds/kg. 0.4 cm high, lobes broadly triangular, ca. 1m m x Description Large evergreen tree, up to 60 m 2mm . Fruiting spikes 15-40 cm long, on 10-20 cm high or more; clear bole up to 30 (-40) m long, long peduncles; capsules spindle-shaped, about 1.2 usually of good form, diameter up to 2.5 (-4) m. cm long, containing numerous very small seeds; Large trees usually with rather narrow buttresses seeds ca. 1m m x 0.25 mm. up to 6 (-10) m, spreading up to 4 (-6) m from the Wood characteristics Timber soft and light to bole centre; crown semi-globular in old trees, very light, volumetric mass (200-) 340 (-450) kg/ young trees with branches in whorls, somewhat m3, quite brittle, not durable when exposed. Sap- like a pagoda; bark up to 6 cm thick, pale outside, wood 7.5-15 cm wide, moderately sharply defined, whitish or yellowish grey, irregularly cracked or whitish-yellow or almost white, sometimes not dis­ fissured flaking; slash of outer bark thin, brown, cernable from heartwood. Heartwood variable in separated from living bark by a dark line; inner colour, pale brown to yellow-brown with pinkish (living) bark fibrous and moist, brown; sapwood hue, or even reddish-grey to brown-grey. Texture pale yellow to almost white. medium to coarse, grain straight, often inter­ Leaves simple, alternate, thin; petiole up to 30 cm locked or crossed. Broad stripes and lustre on long; blade ovate with pointed tip and often heart- quartersawn face. No taste, but green or wetted shaped at the base, 12-30 cm x 6-23 cm; leaves wood may have foetid odour. of young trees and suckers much larger than of Growth rings generally not distinct. Vessels 202 A SELECTION clearly visible without lens, solitary and in groups seedlings should be transplanted into containers of 2-3, (1-) 2-4 (-7) per mm2, evenly distributed or beds, under some shade for the first days. Plant­ or sometimes amassed in initial zones of growth ing stock is 15-20 cm high after 4 months and rings, medium to moderately large, average tan­ planted at spacings of 3m x 3 m, 3m x 5m or gential diameter 0.1-0.3 mm, often distinctly oval. 5 m x 5m . Tyloses occasional. Management Only a few plantation trials are Parenchyma paratracheal, in narrow sheaths known and little pertinent knowledge of its man­ around vessels, not aliform. Apotracheal paren­ agement exists. chyma diffuse. Rays mostly medium sized (50-100 Canopy closure occurs within 1-1.5 years, and |im), but some more narrow, uniseriate rays may self-pruning is quite good. No weeding is needed, be present. About 4 rays per tangential mm, less and binuang stands are not sensitive to fire. than 2 mm high, distinctly heterogeneous, light Diseases and pests The leaves are favourite yellow on end-grain. Fibres thin walled, yellow on food for defoliators like the moth Characoma sp. end-grain. No intercellular canals. Harvesting No data are available on the cycle Growth and development Germination rate of of binuang in plantations. the seeds is about 40% directly after harvest, but Yield No data are available. In plantation trials declines rapidly to 25% after about 60 days and in Sabah the two largest trees had a diameter of to 0% after 90 days. For short-duration storage, ca. 20 cm and a height of ca. 14 m about 2 years seeds should be dried in the sun. Germination peri­ after planting. odi s about 2weeks .Growt h ofbinuan g can be very Handling after harvest Green logs float in fast under conditions of full light and good soil; water. They usually are sound, but have to be a tree in Bogor for instance reached 25 m height taken out of the forest, sawn and stacked to dry and a diameter of 47c m at breast height in 4 years. very soon after felling, as blue-stain fungi and Lyc- Final height and especially volume may be extre­ tus beetles attack the timber easily. Seasoning is mely high, for instance a volume of more than 95 easily done, without cracks, but warping is pos­ m3 has been reported for a single tree. Flowering sible, and stacks should be weighted to avoid this. and fruiting is not restricted to a certain period Light-coloured timber is said to be easier to season ofth e year. Binuang does not regenerate as a pure than dark-coloured timber. Brittle-heart may be a stand under its own shade in the rain forest. common defect. Other botanical information The light col­ The timber is easily worked and peeled. Cut green oured bole, the nearly horizontal branches in it has a pungent and unpleasant odour. Inter­ young trees, and the form, texture and venation locked grain may cause some problems in planing, of the leaves provide the best field characters for but usually finishing is easy. Nails do not hold binuang. On river banks, from a distance, young well, and iron may cause discolouring. The light- binuang trees may be mistaken for Anthocephalus coloured timber is easy to impregnate, the dark chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich, ex Walp. (common bur- timber less so. Durability outdoors and in contact flower tree), but their crowns are deeper and less with soil is very poor. Indoor the wood is consid­ flattened at the top. ered fairly durable, though liable to termite and Ecology Binuang is a light-demanding species Ambrosia beetle attack. from the rain forest, especially common along Prospects Binuang grows rapidly, even on poor rivers on alluvial flats, at altitudes up to 800 m, soils. In Indonesia it is recommended for being wherever rainfall is above 1500 mm per year and used in the timber estate programme. In a 30-years distributed evenly. It may occur gregariously, rotation a mean annual increment of 25-40 m3/ha usually in a succession preceding the rain forest was expected. Best prospects for the future possi­ climax on young alluvial soils or on recently blyli e in its cultivation for plywood and pulpwood, erupted volcanoes, growing often near-dominant as the wood produces a very satisfactory pulp. in even-aged stands, but it may also grow as scat­ Research should focus on all silvicultural aspects. tered individuals in openings in the rain forest. In Literature |lj Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees such cases it prefers humid valley soils. of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Gov­ It often harbours bees nests attached to the ernment Printing Office, Kuching, Sarawak, pp. branches (so-called lalau- trees). 82-83. |2| Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Propagation and planting The very small seed Sabah Forest Record No 6.501pp . |3| Dahms, K.G., should be sown mixed with fine sand, in seed-trays 1981. Asiatische, Ozeanische und Australische which are placed in water. When 1-2 cm high, Exporthölzer. DRW-Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 71-72. ONCOSPERMA 203

|4| Pratiwi & Harun Alrasjid, 1988. Prospect of tion may easily run into many ten-thousands of binuang tree (Octomeles sumatrana Miq.) for stems annually, as even the durable nibong piles timber estate. Duta Rimba 19(99/100):29-33. |5| have to be replaced every two years. In many Shim, P.S., 1973. Octomeles sumatrana in planta­ places, simply collecting stems from the forests tion trials in Sabah. The Malaysian Forester without further management is endangering the 36(1):16-21. |6| van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1953. In: resource. A silviculturally justified management Flora Malesiana. Vol. 4(4).pp . 382-385. system is becoming more and more necessary. The (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand) export of nibong from Benkalis (Sumatra) to Malaysia was forbidden in 1934! Sites where nibong grows are also in demand for Oncosperma tigillarium (Jack) Ridl. shifting cultivation, and thus the cultivation of the palm has to compete with the food sector. The Journ. As. Soc. Straits 33:173(1900) . role nibong plays in the fishing industry, however, PALMAE justifies great care for sustained yield. 2n = 32 Description A tall monoecious palm, up to 25 Synonyms Areca tigillaria Jack (1820), Onco­ m or more in height, diameter 10-15 (-25) cm, sperma filamentosum Blume (1836). usually clustered and many-stemmed, usually up Vernacular names Nibong (En). Indonesia: to 10, sometimes many more. Stems grey, straight gendiwong (Java), erang (Sunda), libung (Suma­ or slightly curved, with many black prickles of tra), nibung (Kalimantan, Irian Jaya), sumasula 2.5-6.5 cm or more length. Leaves up to ca. 3.5 m (Sulawesi). Malaysia: nibong, anau, kenab. Philip­ long, pinnate, with numerous, drooping leaflets, pines: anibong (Tagalog, Bisaya), anibung (Tagba- nua). Cambodia: ta-aon. Thailand: nibong (Pat- tani), chaon, laao cha on (Peninsula). Vietnam: nhum. Origin and geographic distribution Nibong occurs near the sea-shore over a wide range of South-East Asia,fro m Indo-China, Malaysia, Indo­ nesia and Papua New Guinea to the Philippines. Uses The hard, elastic and durable outer zone of the stem is used for many purposes. As it splits well it can easily be processed into very long straight pieces. Large quantities are used in con­ struction, for piling, rafters and flooring, includ­ ing slats in thatching-work and stems scooped out for gutters. Large numbers of stems go also into the piling for fishery-palissades (jermals), where length and elasticity are highly appreciated. The wood is also used for tools and weapons (bows, ar­ rowheads and spears) and may be used for furni­ ture.Th e spines on the stem are used for blow-darts and as heads ofjavelin s for spearing fish. The cabbage (palmite) is excellent to eat, raw or cooked. Flowers are used to flavour rice, fruits to make preserves and as substitute for betel (Areca catechu L.). The leaves are used for basketry, roof­ ing, and at some places in ceremonies;the y contain fibres which may be of industrial interest. The sheaths of the inflorescences are used as contain­ ers. Nibong is also an elegant ornamental. Production and international trade Locally the timber for piling is of very great importance Oncosperma tigillarium (Jack) Ridl. - I, habit of for the fisheries, because a substitute of compara­ the trees; 2, base of the stem; 3,part of the infructes- ble quality is hard to find. In such areas consump­ cence. 204 A SELECTION ca. 60-105 cm x 2-3 cm. is usually plentiful. Propagation by seed is pos­ Inflorescences 30-60 cm long, flowers in spikes up sible, but subsequent planting in the open leads to to 40 cm long, yellow. Fruits globose, about 1 cm insuperable problems with weeding. Therefore diameter, dark green at first, finally black-purple. strip planting is advised with planting distance 10 Wood characteristics Stems have an outer m x 3 m. Opening the canopy progressively is a zone of dark brown or even black, elastic, very necessity. Planting in Imperata infested fields strong and durable wood, and a soft non-durable should be postponed until secondary succession core. Palm timber differs from hardwood in having has provided a forest vegetation suitable for strip the vascular bundles scattered throughout the planting, as the grass overgrows young stock. stem section, and not in the outer zone only, mak­ Grass fires may kill young palms, and more inten­ ing adult palms less vulnerable to forest fires and sive burning kills adult clumps. damage caused by other agents. Management Under closed canopy the young Growth and development In Sumatra nibong palms grow unsatisfactorily. Providing more light usually flowers during the months June-August by, for instance, killing competing undesirable and fruits in November-December. Germination species by poison-girdling or felling is often quite percentage is reported to be up to 60% . Under effective. Complete removal of canopy over very shade, 80% of the viable seeds germinate within young stands will provoke heavy weed growth 1-3 months. Heavy shade retards germination. with lianas and rotans. Seedlings need light to grow satisfactorily, but full Management ofestablishe d stands probably ispos ­ light in the dry season kills many. Naturally estab­ sible by selective harvesting of stems every ten lished seedlings often are found on mounds, well years, leaving one or more shoots per clump. Natu­ above the high-water mark. Seedlings cannot with­ ral regeneration by seedlings can fill the gaps. stand waterlogging. Burning before felling to get rid of the prickles on Established palms multiply by root-suckers. An the stems often causes extensive damage, convert­ adult nibong is often taller than surrounding dico­ ing stands into unproductive secondary vegeta­ tyledonous trees.Bird s and bats disperse the seeds, tions. and the palm competes quite well at first with the Harvesting The normal composition ofa nibong receding mangrove and other tree species entering forest may be assumed at about 250 stools/ha (6.5 the scene.A mixe d stand grows up,i n which finally m x 6.5 m), consisting of: about 800 poles with di­ the hardwoods overgrow nibong. In this process ameter 15-20 cm, which are directly harvestable; peat formation seems to harm nibong if layers of about 800 poles with diameter 10-15 cm, harvest- more than 0.5 m thick are formed. able after 10 years; about 800 poles with diameter Human interference like cutting stands for local 5-10 cm, harvestable after 20 years; numerous consumption and shifting cultivation (in particu­ younger poles, diameter less than 5 cm, harvest- lar the effects of burning) has reduced nibong able after 30years . stands in many locations. This may have serious Yield Well-stocked stands contain several effects, because the palm cannot establish itself as hundreds ofstems/ha . Production in well managed easily in secondary forest as it does in natural suc­ stands isestimate d to beu p to 60stems/h a per year. cession. With adiamete r of15-2 0 cman d an average length Ecology Nibong grows in large numbers near of 17m pe r tree,woo d production amounts to about the sea-shore, behind the mangroves, on elevated 20m3/ha. spots in areas offres h water swamps.I t also occurs Prospects Nibong is a valuable natural on denuded rocks and scattered in other vegeta­ resource. To prevent over- exploitation and extinc­ tions. Sea-shore stands seem to be an abundant tion of natural stands, official reservation of resource, but in reality the zone of occurrence nibong forest areas, followed by simple yield regu­ often is quite irregular and narrow, only a few lation and control, together with some silvicul- hundreds of metres. Nibong forest appears to be tural measures where needed, are absolutely nec­ a stage in the succession of vegetations where ac­ essary. More research is needed on how to cretion of land occurs. It grows behind the man­ establish and maintain nibong plantations. grove forest zone, at places where peat soil starts Literature 1 Becking, J.H., 1948. Korte be­ to beforme d in fresh water swamps aboveth e high­ schrijvingen van de houtsoorten aanbevolen voor est flood mark. bosculturen op Java en Madura. Unpublished Propagation and planting Natural regene­ report, pp.69-70 .Referre d to inIndonesia n Forest­ ration on suitable sites with mother trees nearby ry Abstracts, 1982, No 379, p. 31 |2| Heidema, E.J., ORTHOSIPHON 205

1941. Nogmaals het niboengvraagstuk. (With a Botany A perennial herb, 25-200 cm high, with summary in English). Tectona 34:753-771. |3| quadrangular, poorly ramified, ascending stem. Schreuder, E.J., 1939. Het niboengvraagstuk in Leaves decussate, ovate or rhombic, 2-9 (-12) cm Benkalis. (With summary in German). Tectona x 1.5-5 cm,0.5- 2 (-4.5)c mlon gpetiolate , cuneate 32:165- 189. |4| Uhl, N.W. & Dransfield, J., 1987. at base, acute or acuminate at apex, serrate, gla­ Genera Palmarum. The L.H. Baily Hortorium and brous or minutely pubescent, glandular-punctate. the International Palm Society. Allen Press, Law­ Inflorescences opposed cymes arranged in termi­ rence, pp. 464-467. nal racemes, 7-29 cm long. Flowers pedicellate, (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand) with calyx 2.5-4.5 mm long (up to 12m m in fruit), bilabiate, gland-dotted and corolla 10-20m m long, tubular, bilabiate, white or (pale) lilac; stamens 4, Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. long-exserted from the corolla tube; sometimes the flowers are cleistogamous, in which case the corol­ Fl. Ind. Bat. 2:94 3(1858) . la is hidden in the calyx. Fruit splitting into 4 LABIATAE oblong-ovoid nutlets, 1.5-2 mm long. 2n = unknown Three cultivars are distinguished: one with blue Synonyms Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. and two with white flowers. The white flowered (1831). cultivar with reddish stems, petioles and leaf veins Vernacular names Java tea (En). Thé de Java appears to possess the best diuretic qualities. (Fr). Indonesia and Malaysia: kumis kucing. Phi­ Ecology Java tea occurs in the wild in thickets, lippines: kabling-gûbat. Cambodia: kapen prey. regrowths, grasslands and along forest borders Laos:hnwà d mêew.Thailand : yaa nuat maeo. Viet­ and roadsides, often in shaded not too dry locali­ nam: ràu mèo. ties, in the tropics up to 1000m altitude. Origin and geographic distribution Java tea is distributed from India, through Malaysia to tro­ pical Australia. It isno w grown in South-East Asia (since 1928 in Java), Africa, the Soviet Union (Georgia) and Cuba. Uses In Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea, leaves are used as a strong diuretic in infusions (tea) against various kinds of kidney complaints and illness, renal calculi, Phos­ phaturie catarrh ofth e bladder, gout, etc.an d also, in combination with other drugs, to stimulate the kidneys and as a medicine for nephritis, gallstones and diabetes.Th e crude herb issai d to cause vomit­ ing. In gardens the plant is also cultivated as an ornamental. Production and international trade Indone­ sia is the main producing country (Java, Sumatra). Before the Second World War about 80 t/year of dried leaves was exported to the Netherlands, Ger­ many, France, Japan and the United States. After the war interest waned because moremoder n diur­ etics became available. There is still some export to Europe and other parts ofth e world, but statisti­ cal data are not available. Properties The diuretic effect ofJav a tea is pos­ sibly based on the combination of a high potassium content (600-750 mg per 100 g fresh leaf) and the presence of inositol and saponins. Flavonoids and their metabolites might be responsible for the bac­ teriostatic activity ofJav a tea in treatments of kid­ Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. - flowering ney and bladder diseases. branch. 206 A SELECTION

Agronomy Propagation is by stem cuttings, tana Lour. (1790), O. praecox Lour. (1790), O. aris- 15-20 cm long, which have some buds. Cuttings tata Blanco (1837). are usually planted under shade, at distances of Vernacular names Rice (En). Riz (Fr). Indone­ 40-60 cm between plants and rows. Direct plant­ sia and Malaysia: padi. Philippines: palay. Burma: ing in the field or in the backyards, as is most com­ sabar-bin. Cambodia: sröw.Laos :khauz . Thailand: mon, can be done all the year round. For planta­ khao. Vietnam: Ma. tions, planting in a nursery for a period of 45 days There are specific vernacular names for the rice with the cuttings placed vertically with only one grain, unhulled grain, polished rice, cooked rice bud visible ispreferred . Weeding isdon e regularly. (depending also on how it is cooked), left-over rice Inflorescences should be removed. Heavy manur­ and even rice stuck to the bottom of the pot. ing is necessary. It is advised to add a N-fertilizer Origin and geographic distribution O. sativa at the rate of 100kg/h a after each harvest. evolved along the foothills of the Himalayas and Fungi species that have been reported to cause dis­ was probably first cultivated in ancient India. Rice eases on Java tea are Moniliopsis aderholdii, Pythi- has been cultivated for 9000 years. Indonesia, um debaryanum, Botrytis cinerea and Corticium Malaysia and the Philippines began rice cultiva­ rolfsii. tion some time after 1500 BC. Rice cultivars are Harvest starts 8-10 weeks after planting. Every planted throughout the humid tropics and in many 2-3 weeks the upper 4-6 leaves of the shoots are subtropical and temperate areas with a frost-free plucked by hand. Yield of dry leaf amounts to 1500 period longer than 130 days. kg/ha per year. Smallholders usually sun-dry Uses Rice is the main staple food of 40% of the leaves. In estate farming artificial drying is prac­ world population and the main food in Brunei, tised. Moisture content after drying should be Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the below 8% . Properly dried leaves should be pressed Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. as soon as possible to prevent moisture uptake. The rice grain is usually cooked by boiling in Packing is done in ordinary tea chests, each con­ water, or by steaming, and is eaten mostly with taining up to 50k g of leaves. pulses, vegetables, fish or meat. It isofte n the main Genetic resources and breeding As no germ- source of energy and the principal food of many plasm collections exist, plants should be collected millions of people. Flour from rice is used for from all growing places.Th e wild relative Orthosi- breakfast foods, meat products, baby foods, separ­ phon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen is rare in Malay­ ating powders, refrigerated, preformed, unbaked sia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New biscuits, dusting powders, bread mixes, pancake Guinea, more common from India to Indo-China. and waffle formulations. The waxy rice flour has Prospects Java tea certainly has promising me­ superior qualities as thickening agent for white dicinal properties.Th e active constituents, howev­ sauces, gravies, puddings and oriental snackfoods. er, are still unknown. More research isneeded . For Glutinous rice is used for making sweetmeats. a good quality product a survey on market require­ Starch is made from broken rice, and used as ments and potential for expansion is needed. laundry starch and in foods, cosmetics and textile Literature |1|Acosta , L., Lerch, G. & Sklizkov, manufacture. Beers, wines and spirits are manu­ V., 1985.Alguno s aspectos fitotecnicos en la intro- factured from rice in the East. ducción a cultivo de Orthosiphon stamineus en The husk or hull is used as fuel, bedding, absor­ Cuba. Boletin de resenas: Plantas médicinales 14. bent, building board, cement, and carrier for vita­ 22 pp. |2| Van der Veen, W., Malingre, Th. M. & mins, drugs, biologicals, toxicants, etc. The Zwaving, J.H., 1979. Orthosiphon stamineus, een charred rice hull and ash are used for filtration of geneeskruid met een diuretische werking. Phar- impurities in water. maceutisch Weekblad (114)35:965-970. The rice bran or meal obtained in pearling and (H.J.C. Thijssen) polishing is a valuable livestock and poultry food. It consists of the pericarp, the aleurone layer, the embryo and some of the endosperm. The bran con­ Oryza sativa L. tains 14-17 % of oil. Crude rice bran oils are used for producing solidified oil, stearic and oleic acids, Sp. PI. 1:333(1753). glycerine and soap. Processed bran oil is used for GRAMINEAE cooking, antirust and anticorrosive agents, textile 2n = 24 and leather finishers, and in medicine. China, Synonyms O. glutinosa Lour. (1790), O. mon- India, Japan, Vietnam and Thailand are the large ORYZA 207 producers ofric e bran oil. Analyses of brown (and white) rice give the follow­ Rice straw isuse d for animal feed and bedding, but ing composition in gpe r 100g edibl e portion: water is inferior to other cereal straws. It is used for the 12, protein (6.7-) 7.5, fat (0.4-) 1.9, carbohydrates manufacture of straw boards, for mushroom 77.4(-80.4) , fibre (0.3-) 0.9 and ash (0.5-) 1.2. Mill­ growth medium, production of organic manure, ing and polishing results in a substantial loss of mulching ofcrop s such asonions , garlic and cucur­ protein, fat, minerals (phosphorus and potassium) bits, and now rarely for rope and roof thatch. and vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin and niacin). Par­ Production and international trade The boiling results in the retention of more minerals, yearly fluctuation in rice production resulting particularly phosphorus, and vitamins. The from government policies, environmental aberra­ extracted bran is rich in proteins and carbohy­ tions such as drought and flood, availability of drates. The husk is very rich in silica. Rice straw inputs, and other factors isreflecte d in the interna­ contains approximately (%): water 7.0,protei n 3.4, tional trade. Some exporting countries become fat 0.9, carbohydrates 47.8,fibr e 33.4an d ash 7.5. importing in other years. Others are perennial Description An annual grass, 80-130 cm in importers or exporters. height, up to 500 cm in deepwater rices. Roots Probably half the world production is consumed fibrous, arising from the base of the shoots. Stem on the farms where it is grown while only 5% or culm composed of a series of nodes and inter- enters into international trade. Approximately nodes, the number depending on cultivar and 3-4 % ofth e rice crop is required for annual plant­ growing season; each node with a single leaf, and ing. sometimes also with a tiller or adventitious roots; The 1986 and 1987 world rice area was 145 million internodes usually short at base of plant, progres­ ha with a production of 474 and 458 million t, re­ sively increasing towards top. Leaves in two spectively. Asia accounts for 90% ofth e world pro­ ranks; leaf sheaths initially enclosing each other duction and area. China, India and Indonesia are forming a pseudostem, later enclosing the inter- the largest producers. Bangladesh was one of the largest importers in 1987whil e Thailand continues to be the world's largest exporter of rice (34% of world trade) followed by the United States, Pakis­ tan, China and Burma. Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam generally import rice although Cambodia and Vietnam used to export rice. From 1980 to 1984, Indonesia had around 9.2 mil­ lion ha planted to rice with a total production of 33.7 million t/year of rough rice. Malaysia had around 68000 0h a and 1.9 million t production and the Philippines 3.4 million ha and 8.0 million t. Countries in the South-East Asian region general­ ly import rice or have a marginal surplus. World price of rice based on Thai 5% broken was US$ 290, US$ 230, and US$ 303 per tonne in 1986, 1987,an d 1988, respectively. Properties The grain is the important economic yield component of the rice plant and its endos­ perm is the final product consumed. The endos­ perm consists mainly of starch granules embedded in a proteinaceous matrix. The endosperm may be waxy (glutinous) or non-waxy (non-glutinous) depending on the content of amylose and amylo- pectin; it contains sugar, fats, crude fibre, vita­ mins, and inorganic matter. The composition of rice depends upon the method and degree ofmilling , polishing and whether or not it has been parboiled. It is also influenced to some Oryza sativa L. 1, panicle with leaf; 2, mature extent by genetic and environmental factors. spikelet. 208 A SELECTION nodes; ligule triangular, 1-1.5 cm long, often split; grain is usually about 30 days. Low temperature auricles present at base of leafblade; leafblades can delay maturity and high temperature acceler­ 30-50 cm x 1-2.5 cm, often with spiny hairs on ates it. margins. Other botanical information Around 10000 0 Inflorescence a terminal panicle, 15-40 cm long, different cultivars and selections of rice are with 50-500 spikelets. Spikelets usually single, believed to exist. The widespread dispersal of the borne on a short pedicel, containing a single bisex­ Asian cultivated forms led to the formation of 2 ual flower, with 2 small glumes, a large, ca. 8 mm major eco-geographical cultivar groups: the indi- long, boatshaped lemma and likewise palea, 6 sta­ cas which are mostly from the tropics, and the mens, a broad ovary, and 2plumos e stigmas. Fruits japonicas from temperate areas. Indica rices are (grains) varying in size, shape and colour. usually tall, leafy, high tillering, lodging easily; Growth and development Growth and devel­ they have a low response to manuring, particular­ opment depend on cultivar and environmental ly to nitrogen, and are sensitive to photoperiod; conditions. Seeds germinate in 24-48 hours after they are hardy, resistant to disease and tolerate soaking in water when non-dormant. Ten days unfavourable growing conditions; they will pro­ after germination the plant becomes independent duce fair yields under conditions of low manage­ as the seed reserve is exhausted. Tillering begins ment. Japonica rices have short stiff straw, and are thereafter although there might be a set back for less tillering, less leafy, resistant to lodging, a week if transplanting is practised. Roots can insensitive to photoperiod and are early maturing. grow under low oxygen concentrations. During The characteristics of the 2 cultivar groups have the early growth the roots are positively geotro- become less distinct because of the interbreeding phic but, by the time of ear initiation, they are programmes in recent years. growing horizontally to produce a dense surface Various schemes have been suggested in different mat. The roots are not typically aquatic as they countries for the classification of cultivars, based are much branched and have a profusion of root on morphological, physiological and agricultural hairs; later, aerenchyma develops in the cortex. characteristics. None is entirely satisfactory, as a The type of root development is largely dependent cultivar may behave very differently according to upon the nature of the soil, the method of cultiva­ the environment in which it is grown. Sometimes tion and differences between cultivars. Upland they are classified according to the conditions rice cultivars usually have a short maturation pe­ under which they are grown, namely: riod. Floating rices have a long maturation period - upland rice (sometimes called hill rice), grown of 7 months or more. In modern cultivars with an as a rainfed crop, generally low tillering with average maturation period, maximum tillering large tillers and panicles; stage is attained around 45 days after transplant­ - lowland rice (also called swamp rice), grown on ing and coincides with panicle initiation. The du­ irrigated or flooded land; ration ofth e vegetative stage greatly varies among - deep-water rice (also known as floating rice), cultivars and depends on the photoperiod sensitiv­ grown in areas of deep flooding, up to 5 m or ity of the cultivar and the season of planting. more, in which the rapid growth of the inter- In photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, panicle initia­ nodes keeps pace with the rising water. tion occurs only when daylength is less than the Rice cultivars can also be classified according to critical. Panicle initiation is delayed by long day- the size, shape and texture of the grain, or to the length and occurs several days after maximum til­ period to maturity. lering stage. Thus, the vegetative stage might O.glaberrima Steud. cultivars are grown in Africa range from 7t o more than 120days . The reproduc­ only. tive stage starts at panicle initiation and it takes Ecology Rice is the most adaptable crop in the around 35day s from panicle initiation to flowering world growing as far north as 53° N in Moho, or anthesis. Rice is mainly self-pollinating, but northern China and as far south as 35° S in New varying small amounts of cross-pollination by South Wales, Australia. The traditional cultivars wind do occur. Anthesis occurs during the day be­ are generally photoperiod sensitive, flowering tween 10.00an d 14.00hour s depending on tempera­ whenda ylength s are short; many modern cultivars ture and humidity. It takes around seven days to are photoperiod insensitive and flower at any lati­ complete the anthesis of all spikelets on a panicle tude, provided temperature is not limiting. Photo­ which starts from the top and progresses down­ period-sensitive cultivars have a critical day- wards.Th e period from flowering to ripening of the length of 12.5-14 hours. ORYZA 209

Rice yields are higher when solar radiation during are variable. Upland rice, grown as a rainfed crop, the reproductive and ripening phases is high, so requires an assured rainfall ofa t least 750m m over that generally grain yields are higher during the a period of 3-4 months and does not tolerate desic­ dry season than during the wet season. Low tem­ cation. Lowland rice tends to be concentrated in perature limits the range ofth e rice crop.Th e aver­ flat lowlands, river basins and deltas. In South- age temperature during the growing season varies East Asian countries average water requirement from 20-38 °C. Rice is most susceptible to low tem­ for irrigated rice is 1200 mm per crop or 200 mm perature at panicle initiation stage where temper­ of rainfall per month. atures below 15° C can cause spikelet sterility. Relative humidity within the crop canopy is high Low temperature can also result in poor germina­ since there is standing water in most rice crops. tion or death of seedlings, yellowing of leaves, low However, low relative humidity above in the tiller number, degeneration of spikelets, high ste­ canopy during the dry season aggravated by rility, stunting, and poor panicle exsertion caus­ strong winds can cause spikelet sterility. ing low grain yields. Low soil and floodwate r tem­ Rice is generally grown at sea-level but also in peratures also affect nutrition, growth and grain mountainous areas ofSouth-Eas t Asian countries. yield of rice. Temperatures above 21° C at flower­ A cold-tolerant cultivar can grow at 1230 m in the ing are needed for anthesis and pollination. Mountain Province of the Philippines and at 2300 Favourable soil types are fertile heavy soils. Rice m in the north-western Himalayas. Direct effect of can beplante d in dry soil or puddled soil and grown altitude is not evident. like an upland crop or in soils completely sub­ Propagation and planting Different systems of merged. The soils on which rice grows vary growing rice have evolved to suit specific environ­ greatly: texture ranges from sand to clay, organic ments and socio-economic conditions of the matter content from 1-50%, pH from 3-10, salt farmers. Rice culture can be classified according content from almost 0-1 %, and nutrient availabil­ to the water source as rainfed, floodfed or irri­ ity from acute deficiencies to surplus. Because gated. Based on land management practices, rice land management depends on soil, climate, water lands can be grouped as: lowland (wetland prepa­ supply, and socio-economic conditions of the area, ration of fields) or upland (dryland preparation of there is a considerable range in pedogenetic and fields). According to water regime, rice lands can morphological characteristics of rice-growing be classified as:(a )upland , with no standing water; soils. (b) lowland, with 5-50 cm of standing water; (c) Rice is grown primarily in lowland (submerged) deepwater, with 50-600 cm of standing water. soil and the physical properties of the soil are rela­ Accurate data on the extent of different rice cul­ tively unimportant as long as sufficient water is tures are lacking. In Asia, lowland rice culture is available. Pore spaces where retention and move­ the most predominant system. Land is either pre­ ment ofwate r and air occur are important physical pared wet or dry and water is generally held on properties. Soil pH before and after flooding of the field by bunds. Systems oflowlan d rice cultiva­ lowland fields is an important determinant of soil tion are usually traditional, based on centuries of fertility and management of rice soils. Different experience. Most rice is grown on smallholdings, regions, countries, and specific areas have soils usually of 0.4-2 ha. In Africa and Latin America, with a particular chemical composition. Flooding upland rice culture is the major system where rice ofric e soils provides a favourable environment for is grown on both level and sloping fields but not anaerobic microbes and the accompanying bio­ bunded. chemical changes. Consequently there is a lower The rice crop is always propagated by seed, which rate of decomposition of organic matter. A thin may be either broadcast or drilled direct in the surface layer generally remains oxidized and sus­ field, or the seedlings may be grown in nurseries tains aerobic microbes. However, the main bio­ and transplanted. Direct seeding is done in dry or chemical processes in flooded soil are a series of puddled soil. In puddled soil the (pre-germinated) successive oxidation-reduction reactions mediated seeds are broadcast. The water level is kept at 0-5 by different types of bacteria. Nitrogen fixation cm under tropical conditions, but higher in tem­ takes place in paddy soils by Azotobacter and blue- perate areas.Thi s type ofsowin g ispossibl e in com­ green algae. bination with the use of herbicides, and is becom­ The chief limiting factor to the growth of rice is ing an important system of rice culture in the water supply. However, the water regime in Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines. In dry soil which rice is growing and the water requirements the seeds are sown after land preparation and cov- 210 A SELECTION

ered lightly with soil by a tooth harrow. Germina­ drawn by 1- 2 buffaloes or oxen, preferably when tion occurs after heavy continuous rains. In there is 7.5-10 cm of water on the land; and har­ upland rice cultivation the land is prepared in the rowing, during which big clods ofsoi l are broken dry weather and the rice is broadcast or dibbled and puddled with water. Some important bene­ in with the advent of the rains. It may be grown fits of puddling are the apparent reduction of in rotation or intercropped with other crops such moisture loss by percolation, better weed con­ as cassava, maize, groundnuts and other pulse trol, and ease of transplanting. The low redox crops. Floating rice is cultivated in areas subject potential ofsubmerge d puddled soil helps to con­ to deep flooding and the seed is sown either dry serve water soluble nutrients, favours accumu­ or wet. lation of ammonium, increases biological nitro­ The three major methods ofraisin g seedlings, com­ gen fixation and increases availability of mon in lowland rice cultivation, are the dry bed, phosphorus, silicon, iron, and manganese. wet bed and dapog: - Dryland tillage. The land is prepared in the dry - Dry seed-bed: The nursery bed is prepared near weather and the rice issow njus t before the rains the water source before land preparation. The begin. This method makes it possible to have ini­ bed is about 1.5 m wide and the seeds are sown tial crop growth from early monsoon rains. at 1 kg per 10m 2.Th e seeds are then covered with Labour requirements for seed-bed preparation, a thin layer of soil and watered until saturation land preparation and transplanting are reduced for uniform germination. Further watering is and soil structure is better for stand establish­ applied as needed. ment ofth e following non-rice crop.Thi s method - Wet seed-bed: The raised nursery bed is made in has its disadvantages: weed control is a major the puddled or wet field, and is about 1.4 m wide. problem; percolation losses are high, making the About 400 m2 will accommodate a sack of rice, chances of drought stress higher; and fertilizer which issufficien t to plant one ha. Seeds are pre- requirements are often higher. In order to hold germinated and spread on the seed-bed which is the water on the land and maintain it at the kept constantly wet.Whe n seedlings are 2-3 cm, required depth, bunding and levelling are essen­ continuous shallow irrigation is practised. tial. The land is divided by contour bunds into Water depth is raised to 5 cm as the seedlings fields, the size and shape of which vary with the grow taller. The seedlings are ready for trans­ topography. The bunds are usually made of clay, planting 20-35 days after sowing. mud and weeds, with controlled openings for the - Dapog: Pre-germinated seeds are sown on ingress and egress of water. cement or puddled soil covered with banana Husbandry The agronomy of the rice crop is leaves or plastic sheets. Seeding density is much rather diverse. After the crop has become estab­ higher, 60k g seeds per 40m 2, which is sufficient lished, operations needing attention are weeding to plant one ha. The pre-germinated seeds are and intercultivation , application of manure and lightly pressed down and continuously watered. fertilizers, and the regulation of the water supply. The resulting mat is rolled and taken to the field Rice is mostly transplanted in puddled soil and for transplanting after 11 days. This method is weeding isno t necessary inth e first 2weeks . Weed­ used in some provinces of the Philippines. ing up to 40 days after transplanting increases grain yields. Manual weeding is common practice Although intercropping is practised in upland although a rotary weeder is also common in some rice, under lowland conditions rice generally is a areas. Chemical weed control either pre- or post- sole crop. In many parts of the tropics 2 or even emergence is also becoming popular in the tropics, 3 crops of rice can be grown per year, provided especially in areas where pre-germinated seeds are water, fertilizer and day-neutral cultivars for 1 or broadcast in puddled soil. The water level in the 2 of the crops are available. Near harvest, relay field is kept at 5-15 cm height to suppress weed planting is rarely practised. growth and to ensure water availability. Weeds Land preparation varies, even within the lowland are worse in a broadcast crop than in transplanted rainfed-rice areas: rice. Wild red rice, Oryza rufipogon Griff., is the - Wetland tillage. This method is common in most most serious weed ofric e in many countries. Other tropical Asian countries. It consists of: land serious weeds include grasses, such as barnyard soaking, in which water is absorbed until the grass, several Cyperaceae and water hyacinth, soil is saturated; ploughing, which is the initial Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. breaking and turning over of the soil, to a depth In the cultivation of lowland rice, the land is inun- of 10-20 cm, using a wooden or light iron plough ORYZA 211 dated from the time of planting until the approach elements which inhibit or stop the nutrient uptake ofharvest . The water issupplie d either by flooding of the plant can be formed in the environment of during the rainy season, by growing the crop in the root. Often an excess of harmful elements cor­ naturally swampy land or by controlled irrigation responds with a lack of other elements. The occur­ where water is guided through irrigation canals rence of physiological diseases has a negative or lifted from wells by human or animal power. effect as far as double cropping is concerned. Continuous flooding at a static 2.5-7.5 cm depth Green manure and Azolla are seldom used in the provides the potential to produce optimum rice tropics although there is a renewed interest in yields. The fields may be drained temporarily to their use. Sesbania rostrata (Brem. & Oberm.) Gil- facilitate weeding and fertilizing. At flowering the let is one ofth e promising green manure crops. The water is gradually reduced until the field is almost use of organic fertilizer is not common although dry at harvest. Generally speaking 1.5-2 m of popular in China and Vietnam and some isolated water, rainfall plus irrigation, are required to pro­ areas. duce a good crop. The period in which rice is most The degree of mechanization varies with country, sensitive for water shortage, especially important some being fully mechanized in land preparation, in upland rice cultivation, is 20 days before to 10 seeding or transplanting, fertilizer application, days after the beginning of flowering. herbicide application, harvesting, threshing and Fish often occur in paddy fields and help to supple­ drying. Hand tractors are becoming popular but ment the rice diet. In some cases they are delibera­ large deepwater rice areas in Thailand are tely introduced. Fish may be raised in bunded ploughed with large tractors. The threshing areas alternating with the paddy crops. The spe­ machines are the most popular machines in the cies most commonly used are carp (Cyprinus) and rice farms of South-East Asia. Tilapia. Modern pesticides often prove to be toxic For various reasons many rice fields are left fallow to fish in rice fields. in the dry season. In areas with suitable climatic Fertilizer application is recommended at final har­ and soil conditions for dry-season cultivation, rice rowing but farmers generally apply at later dates, may be rotated with crops such as cereals, pulses including top dressing of nitrogen or do not use and vegetables. any fertilizer at all. The amount of fertilizer used Diseases and pests The most serious diseases depends on cultivar, season, soil, and availability. ofric e are blast (Pyricularia oryzae), bacterial leaf Modern cultivars produce higher yields with blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv oryzae), and higher nitrogen levels. At high rates of nitrogen tungro (virus disease). Chemical control is expen­ the traditional cultivars become too vegetative, sive for blast and blight and hardly used in the tall, and are susceptible to lodging. Aric e crop pro­ tropics. The most important carrier of the tungro ducing about 3360 kg/ha of grain and an equal virus is Nephotettix virescens which can be con­ quantity of straw removes from the soil approxi­ trolled by insecticides. Blast disease ismor e severe mately 54k g N,2 6k g P and 46k g K. The most com­ under humid conditions. mon deficiencies in rice cultivation are nitrogen Insects cause extensive damage to the rice crop in and phosphorus, with potassium and sulphur in the field and to the grain during storage. The limited areas and sometimes silica on peaty soils. brown planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens) can Zinc deficiency occurs regularly in rice areas due cause death to rice plants by feeding intensely on to a high pH and a strong reduction of the soil. them. Different species of stem borers can cause In India, Indonesia and elsewhere, phosphates are serious damage to the rice crop; the most impor­ often limiting, and there is a significant response tant species are striped borer (Chilo suppressalis) to nitrogen only with the addition of phosphates. and yellow borer (Tryporyza incertulas). The most Higher nitrogen rates are used during the dry sea­ serious pests ofstore d rice are the rice weevil (Sito- son when solar radiation is higher and increase in philus oryzae) and the lesser grain-borer (Rhyzo- grain yields is larger. In many areas of the tropics, pertha dominica). availability of commercial inorganic fertilizer to In some countries, specific diseases and pests are the farmers is still a problem. Generally, only serious threats to rice growing: ufra in Vietnam nitrogen fertilizer is topdressed, mostly before or and Bangladesh, gall midge in India, Cambodia, at panicle initiation. Vietnam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Physiological diseases arise in the rice plant when The most effective control of most diseases and the uptake of nutrients is disturbed. Influenced by pests of rice is breeding for tolerant or resistant reduction and bad internal drainage, several toxic cultivars. 212 A SELECTION

Harvesting Grains are harvested when fully birds.I t should have aeration and fumigation facil­ matured (around 21-24% moisture) usually ities to remove the heat of respiration as well as around 30 days after flowering. Delayed harvest­ to prevent or control biological infestations. ing results in a lower percentage recovery of whole Moulds, insects, rodents and birds affect both the grains. The rice plants are cut halfway from the quantity and quality of the grains. Increase in fat base and either allowed to dry in the field or bun­ acidity during improper storage reduces the eating dled for processing in a selected area. The most quality. Temperature and humidity during storage common method of harvesting is by hand, which affect rice quality and these have to be taken into entails a lot of labour. In restricted areas a small consideration in the proper storage of rice grains. knife is used, but the common method isb y a sickle For home consumption paddy is always stored in which cuts the heads together with some of the the husk to be less susceptible to deterioration. It straw. Drying to 14% moisture isnecessar y to pre­ is then husked in small quantities to supply cur­ vent fungal and bacterial growth, to lessen the pro­ rent domestic needs. duction of heat and the decrease in dry matter Whereas milling maize or wheat breaks the ker­ caused by respiration. nels into small particles, rice milling avoids break­ Yield Grain yields in South-East Asia are gener­ age of kernels. The less broken kernels or more ally lower than in temperate areas. Average yield head rice command higher price. Percent head rice (in t/ha) in Indonesia is 3.87, Malaysia 2.66, the depends on drying process, cultivar, environment Philippines 2.49, Thailand 1.98, Vietnam 2.74, ver­ during maturity and milling machine used. There sus 6.47 t/ha in Korea for 1984. The average world are different methods ofmilling . Paddy, on milling, yield is 3.19 t/ha, higher than most South-East and gives approximately: husk 20% , whole rice 50 %, tropical Asian countries. Yields are generally broken rice 16% , bran and meal 14% . The husked higher during the dry season than during the wet or hulled rice is usually called brown rice, which season and in irrigated than in upland rice. Grain isthe n milled to remove the outer layers, including yield of upland rice is around 0.5 to 2.0t/h a in Asia the aleurone layer and the germ, after which it is but may reach 4t/h a in Latin America. Upland rice polished to produce white rice. Inevitably some of yield in Indonesia is only one third of the yield of the grains are broken during husking and milling irrigated rice. Rainfed lowland rice also yields giving rise to broken rice. During milling and higher than upland rice but may suffer drastic re­ polishing, part of the protein, fat, minerals and duction in years with drought or floods. Although vitamins are removed, decreasing the nutritional yields in the deepwater rice areas are generally value but increasing eye-appeal and storability. low, they are more stable than in upland rice areas Much of the vitamin Bl (thiamine) may be lost and of South-East Asia. this may cause beriberi in consumers. Handling after harvest Threshing, which sepa­ In Bangladesh and India, parboiling is common. rates the grain with its enclosing husks from the This involves soaking, boiling and drying the rice stalk, may be done by hand beating the rice stalk grains before milling. The nutrient value of the bundles on a stone or slatted bamboo platform, by kernels is improved with parboiling but the prac­ machine or animal trampling on the panicles, or tice is not popular in South-East Asia. by threshing machines of various sizes. Drying of Genetic resources Most national programmes grains on roads is common in tropical countries. have their own collections of rice cultivars. Indo­ Winnowing is usually done by shaking and tossing nesia has around 7500 entries, Malaysia 4550 and the paddy to and fro on a basket-work tray with Thailand 6000.Mos t ofthes e entries are also avail­ a narrow rim. The grain falls on the mat and the able at the International Rice Research Institute. husk, chaff and dust are carried away by the wind. The largest collection is found at this Institute Hand-winnowing machines are also available. with around 83000 accessions which are charac­ After winnowing the paddy is dried in the sun and terized on the basis of about 80 traits. These traits isthe n ready for hulling or transport to the mill. include not only morphological characteristics Proper drying ofth e rice grains isimportan t to pre­ but also reactions to pests, diseases, environmen­ vent germination and rapid loss of quality. Rice tal stresses, and mineral deficiencies or toxicities. grains are generally stored in sacks after drying. Other countries have only a working collection Storage losses are generally high and these can be but are starting to build up their own germplasm minimized if the storage facility is well designed. bank consisting of the native cultivars in their It should be strong and weather-tight to protect country. from inclement weather and be safe from rats and Breeding Potential rice grain yields in the trop- PACHYRHIZUS 213

ics have dramatically increased starting since the grain yield of IR22 rice. Agronomy Journal mid-sixties. They reached a plateau in the late 63:443-449. |3| Chang, T.T.,1976 .Th eorigin , evolu­ 1960s. Subsequent breeding objectives have been tion, cultivation, dissemination, and diversifica­ to increase disease andpes t resistance, early matu­ tion of Asian and African rices. Euphytica rity and tolerance to adverse environments. 25:425-441. |4|D eDatta , S.K., 1981. Principles and Improvements in biotechnology have opened new practices of rice production. John Wiley, New methods of crossing wild relatives of rice and find­ York. 618pp . |5|D e Datta, S.K., 1986. Technology ing new sources of important genes. Resistance to development and the spread of direct-seeded grassy stunt virus wasfoun d only ina wild species, flooded rice in Southeast Asia. Experimental Agri­ Oryza nivara Sharma & Shastry. Fortunately it culture 22:417-426. |6I International Rice was compatible with O.sativa. Other wild species Research Institute, 1986. World rice statistics with important resistance to diseases and environ­ 1985.IRRI , Manila, Philippines. 271 pp. !7| Juliano, mental stresses have been found. 0. rufipogon B.O., 1980. Properties of the rice caryopsis. In: Griff, is a source of cytoplasmic male sterility and Rice: production and utilization. AVI Publishing flood tolerance; 0. glaberrima isresistan t to green Company, Connecticut, pp. 403-438. |8| Ou, S.H., leafhopper; 0. barthii A. Chev. to bacterial blight; 1985. Rice diseases. 2nd ed. Commonwealth Agri­ O.punctata Kotschy exSteud. , 0. officinalis Wall., cultural Bureau, United Kingdom. 380 pp. |9|Reis - O.eichingeri Peter, O. minuta Preslt obrow n plant- sig, W.H.,Heinrichs , E.A.,Litsinger , J.A., Moody, hopper, whiteback planthopper, and green leaf- K., Fiedler, L., Mew, T.W. & Barrion, A.T., 1985. hopper; O. brachyantha A. Chev. &Roehr . to rice Illustrated guide to integrated pest management whorl maggot; and Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.) in rice in tropical Asia. IRRI, Los Banos, Laguna, Tateoka istoleran t ofsalinity . Embryo rescue and Philippines. 411 pp. |10| Vergara, B.S., 1980. Rice other methods have made wide crosses possible. plant growth and development. In: Rice: produc­ Prospects Some ofth e prospects and objectives tion and utilization. AVI Publishing Company, in rice are: Connecticut, pp. 75-86. |llj Vergara, B.S. & - Continued emphasis on stability ofyield s under Chang, T.T., 1983.Th e flowering response of the tropical conditions. rice plant to photoperiod - a review of the litera­ - Greater resistance to diseases and pests. This is ture. 4thed .IRRI ,Lo sBanos , Laguna, Philippines. more likely to befoun d inth ehardie r indica cul- 61pp . |12|Watt , B.K.& Merrill , A.L.,1963 .Compo ­ tivars. sition of foods - Raw,processed , prepared. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural - Tolerance of and adaptation to local and envi­ Research Service, Agricultural Handbook 8. |13| ronmental stresses. Yoshida, S., 1981. Fundamentals of rice crop - Better utilization of available nutrients and science. IRRI,Lo sBanos , Laguna, Philippines.26 9 greater production of endogenous available pp. nitrogen. Any new types recommended should be well (B.S. Vergara &S.K . De Datta) adapted to the local environment and methods of cultivation, but steps should be taken to improve the latter. This requires good research adjusted to Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urban practice, a well functioning extension service and diverse government measurements. Symb. Antill. 4: 311(1905) . Some of the above topics are actively being LEGUMINOSAE researched on. Rice-based cropping systems 2n = 22 including the integration of livestock and fish are Synonyms Sometimes erroneously spelled also actively pursued and likely to be an integral Pachyrrhizus. Dolichos erosus L. (1753), Pachyrhi­ part ofric e farming in the South-East Asian coun­ zus angulatus Rich, ex DC. (1825), Pachyrhizus tries. Research on saline and sodic soils, which bulbosus (L.)Kur z (1876). form a vast area for potential rice production ex­ Vernacular names Yam bean (En). Dolique pansion isreceivin g priority. bulbeux, pois batate (Fr).Indonesia : bengkuwang Literature |1|Andales , S.C., 1983.Ric e milling. (Makasar), bengkoway, besusu (Java), huwi hiris In: Rice production manual - Philippines. Revised (Sunda). Malaysia: sengkuwang, bengkuwang, edition, pp. 431-448. |2|Bhattacharya , A.K. &D e singkong. Philippines: sinkamas (Tagalog), Datta, S.K., 1971. Effects of soil temperature kamah (Sambali), kamas (Iloko). Cambodia: peek regimes on growth characteristics, nutrition and kuek, pe kuek. Laos: man phau. Thailand: man 214 A SELECTION

kaeo (central Thailand), hua pae kua (Peninsular Thailand), man laao (northern Thailand). Viet­ nam: eu san, eu dau. Origin and geographic distribution Yam bean originated in Mexico and Central America and was recorded in cultivation in pre-Columbian days throughout this region. The plant was introduced to the Philippines by the Spanish via the Aca- pulco-Manila route, and reached Amboina before the end of the 17th Century. It is now to be found in cultivation (or escaped and naturalized) in large parts of the tropics and subtropics. Uses The young crunchy tubers are sliced and eaten raw, as a component of 'rujak' (mixture of young fruits with a pungent sauce). Young tubers as well as young pods can be used as a vegetable. A highly digestible starch may be obtained from old tubers. Mature seeds and pods contain the in­ secticide rotenone and are toxic. Ground seeds are used as insecticide, piscicide, vermifuge and laxa­ tive. The entire plant can be used as fodder for cat­ tle and pigs and also as green manure. Production and international trade Few reli­ able statistics are available at present. Important production areas are South-East Asia, Mexico, Central America and Hawaii. In Mexico yam bean is produced for export (United States) and prices Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urban - 1,habit of flower­ at US$ 2.50 per kg have been reported. ing plant; 2,mature fruit; 3, tuber. Properties Per 100 g edible portion young 5 month old tubers contain approximately: water 87 (-17.5) cm x 4.2-14.1 (-20.8) cm, 3-5-veined from g, protein 1 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrates 11 g, fibre the base. 0.6 g, ash 0.6 g, vitamin C 18mg . The energy value Inflorescences many flowered pseudo-racemes, up averages 197 kj per 100 g. Mature tubers contain to 55 cm long. Flowers ca. 2 cm long, violet blue a high quality starch with a grain diameter of 8-35 or white, with glabrous wings and keel. Fruits um. oblong, flat, 6-13 cm x 0.8-1.7 cm, slightly to Per 100 g edible portion young fruits contain: deeply contracted between the seeds, glabrous to water 86 g, protein 2.6 g, fat 0.3 g, carbohydrates strigose, 8-10 seeded. Seeds square to rounded, 10g , fibre 2.9 g, ash 0.7 g, vitamin C2 7mg . Mature flat, (3-) 5.5-8 (-9)mm x (4-) 5-7.5 (-9)mm, olive seeds contain approx. 27% fatty oils, resembling green, brown to reddish brown. cotton-seed oil, and 0.3-1.0% rotenone-like sub­ Growth and development Germination takes stances. The leaves also contain some rotenone- 5-12 days depending on cultivar. Flowering like substances, but can be used as fodder. occurs 2-2.5 months after germination, but as yam Weight of 100seed s is approximately 20 g. bean is short-day sensitive, time of flowering var­ Description A strigose, herbaceous climbing or ies with daylength. The tubers are usually har­ trailing vine, 2-6 m long. Roots tuberous, turnip- vested when plants are 5-6 months old. In Mexico, shaped (cultivated) to elongated (wild), with a sin­ however, where time of harvest coincides with the gle tuber (cultivated) or with multiple tubers beginning of the seasonal dry period, in which (wild). The tubers of cultivars up to 30 cm x 25 above-ground parts of the plant wither and tuber cm, with light to dark brown skin and white, whi­ growth ceases, tubers may be left in the field until tish yellow to reddish flesh. Leaves trifoliolate, marketed. If left in the ground tubers will sprout with dentate to palmately lobed leaflets; lateral again at the beginning of the rainy season. In leaflets obliquely rhomboidal to ovate, (2.6-) regions without seasonal dry periods growth may 2.8-10.6 cm x 2.5-10.6 (-18) cm, 3-veined from the continue for several years. Plants grown for seed base; terminal leaflet ovate to reniform, 3.4-12.8 production usually have inferior tubers. PACHYRHIZUS 215

Other botanical information In West Java to correct shrinkage of the tubers. Seed crops can two different yam bean cultivars are distin­ be harvested about 10month s after sowing. guished: 'Huwi hiris', with small, sweet tubers and Yield The range ofreporte d figures for yield per­ 'Bengkuwang' with larger tubers. 'Bengkuwang' formance is considerable; 7-17 t/ha are common is also used as a green manure. Rhizobium spp. in in the Far East, optimum yield in Hawaii is2 4 t/ha, yam bean belong to the cowpea cross-inoculation 70-80 t/ha is considered optimum in Mexico. group and they form clusters of irregularly shaped Handling after harvest When marketed as a nodules on the roots. vegetable the stems are trimmed or removed entir­ Ecology Yam bean is quite tolerant of differ­ ely and often the tubers are washed. Young tubers ences in climatic conditions, but is generally asso­ tend to rot under moist conditions and to shrink ciated with regions having moderate precipitation under dry conditions, e.g. a loss of 14.5% of the and a seasonal dry period. Optimum temperature original weight after 4month s storage at 22° C has level is 21-28°C . Both tuber growth and flowering been reported. Tubers can bestore d for 2-3 months are initiated by a decreasing daylength, the criti­ at temperatures just above 0°C , or in the field. cal daylength for tuber production is 11-12 hours. Genetic resources The genus Pachyrhizus DC. A sandy loam soil providing adequate drainage is comprises five species, of which besides P. erosus, preferable as the crop does not tolerate waterlog­ also P. tuberosus (Lam.) Sprengel and P. ahipa ging. Yam beans can be grown successfully in the (Wedd.) Parodi are to be found in cultivation. The humid tropics. genus originated in the Neotropics. Live collec­ Propagation and planting Yam beans are tions of all species are present in Denmark at the mainly grown from seeds. Occasionally tubers Botanical Laboratory of the University of Copen­ from a previous crop are used, if a multituberous hagen. Alghough P. erosus is cultivated all over cultivar hasbee n grown. The crop isusuall y grown the tropics, its largest variability is found in Mex­ on beds or ridges, 75-100 cm between the ridges ico and Central America. and 20-30 cm between plants. Using this spacing Breeding Interspecific cross breeding experi­ 35-40 kg seed/ha is needed. There are no records ments have shown that all the cultivated species indicating that an increased plant population will are interfertile and several desired characteristics reduce tuber yield. When growing yam bean for have been found to be present in interspecific green manure a considerably higher density is rec­ hybrids, e.g. short, erect growth habit, insensiti- ommended. vity towards variations in daylengths, increased Husbandry Pruning of fertile shoots is general­ tolerance towards higher or lower precipitation ly practised at three-week intervals in order to rates. Other desirable characteristics, e.g. a increase tuber yield. Weeding during the first thicker peel, decreasing shrinkage, certainly can month after sowing until a good coverage is be found in either wild material or rare landraces. achieved. The recommended application of 80 N, Prospects Yam bean is a promising leguminous 40P ,0 K ,fertilize r has not proved to increase tuber tuber crop for the humid tropics. yield significantly. The crop is sometimes sup­ Literature |1| Duke, J.A., 1981. Handbook of ported by trellis, but this practice is only recom­ legumes of world economic importance. Plenum mended for seed production. Yam bean is grown Press, New York &London , pp. 182-185. |2| Pauli, intercropped with staked yard-long bean (Vigna R.E., Chen, N.J. & Fukuda, S.K., 1988. Planting unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in West Java, and with dates related to tuberous root yield, vine length, maize (Zea mays L.) in Yucatan. and quality attributes of yam bean. Horticultural Diseases and pests Amosai c virus, transmitted Science 23(2):326-329. |3j Sorensen, M., 1988. A by insects, e.g. mealy bugs (Ferrisia virgata) and taxonomie revision of the genus Pachyrhizus possibly by seed (not confirmed in growth experi­ (Fabaceae - Phaseoleae). Nordic Journal of Bota­ ments), results in small tubers and brittle stems. ny 8:167-192. |4|Zepeda , A.H., 1985.Gui a para cul­ Harvesting Young tubers for food are lifted tivar Jicama en el Bajio. SARH, Folleto para Pro- manually or mechanically when 5-6 months old, ductores 15:1-11. i.e.a t 0.2-2.0 kg/tuber. Older, larger tubers at 5-15 (W.C.H. van Hoof &M . Sorensen) kg/tuber are either used for livestock feed or for starch production. During the dry season, tubers can be left for 2-3 months in the field by withhold­ ing irrigation on irrigated fields. Prior to lifting, the field should then be irrigated again in order 216 A SELECTION

Paphiopedilum Pfitzer

Morph. Stud. Orchideenbluethe: 11(1886) . ORCHIDACEAE 2n = 26t o 44 Vernacular names Lady's slipper orchid (En). Sabot de Vénus (Fr). Indonesia: angrek kantong, angrek kantong semar, angrek plembang (Java), lau prentit, lau pipa (Kalimantan). Malaysia: bunga kasut (Peninsular Malaysia). Burma: kya- ga-mon, kun-mya-san. Cambodia: sbaèk cheng venus. Vietnam: vê hài. Origin and geographic distribution Paphiope­ dilum has a South and South-East Asian distribu­ tion: southern Himalayas and southern China, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines to Papua New Guinea. In the last 5countrie s at least 26specie s have been found. Uses Lady's slipper orchid is much-sought for collections oflivin g orchids, valued for its flowers. In the tropics it is grown outdoors, in temperate regions in greenhouses. Some species and hybrids do well as window plants. In Europe, these plants are sometimes offered locally for sale in large numbers, horticulturally propagated, since rare, wild collected species fetch as much as US$ 2000 Paphiopedilum tonsum (Reichb.f.) Stein - flower- per plant. ingplant. Description Herbs, usually terrestial. Leaves distichous, thong-shaped to strap-shaped, coria­ (Reichb.f.) Stein, P. sanderianum (Reichb.f.) Stein, ceous, light green or tessellate. Inflorescence 1 to P. lowii (Lindley) Stein and P. tonsum (Reichb.f.) many flowered, mostly hirsute; flower large, Stein. Hybrids are registered by the Royal Horti­ showy; lip directed downwards; sepals 3,th e later­ cultural Society, London and accepted new names, al two connate in a synsepalum; petals spreading together with their parentage, are published in the horizontally or deflexed, flat or twisted, sometimes Orchid Review. warty or hairy; lip saccate or slipper-shaped, Ecology Plants occur in areas with ever-wet clawed or almost sessile; claw with incurved mar­ conditions as well as distinct monsoon climates gins; pouch ovoid, opening upwards, with or with­ from sea-level to altitude 1600m i nver y open herby out lobes (auricles) at the orifice; column short and vegetation to luxurious lowland, hill and lower thick, extending over the opening of the lip; sta­ montane forest. Some require full sunlight, others mens 2;anther s nearly sessile, small; staminodium constant shade. Some grow in full soil, often (scutum) significant in taxonomy, large; stigma humus enriched, or in deep moss cushions; others 3-lobed, directed towards the opening of the lip; on rocks or on bare limestone. A few species are ovary more or less stalked and beaked, 1-locular epiphytic on major branches oftree s with the roots with 3parieta l placentae. Capsule valvate, 1-locul­ in thick humus. ar. Seeds very numerous. Propagation and planting Commercial multi­ Other botanical information Numerous plication ofplant s is by seed sown on agar medium hybrids have been made in Paphiopedilum be­ in sterile flasks. Europe and the United States tween species and hybrids. All wild species have have laboratories where flasking of a large potential to produce interesting hybrids. Among number of orchid genera, including lady's slipper the most spectacular species in South-East Asia orchids, is a commercial success. are P. rothschildianum (Reichb.f.) Stein, P.philip- Ripening of the fruit generally takes 9-10 months. pinense (Reichb.f.) Stein, P. haynaldianum For commercial multiplication, fruits are often PAPHIOPEDILUM - PENNISETUM 217

harvested from the 7th month onwards. The seeds Leipzig, pp. 54-114. >6| Stein, B., 1892. Stein's are sown on nutrient agar with chemicals stimu­ Orchideenbuch. Beschreibung, Abbildung und lating germination; contamination with bacteria Kulturanweisungen der empfehlenswertesten and fungi is avoided. Germination results in a pro- Arten. Paul Parey, Berlin. tocorm, developing into a plantlet by producing a (E.F. de Vogel) few roots and leaves. After 3-5 months the seedling is ready for 'replat- ing' to a flask with a different agar medium, which Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke stimulates development ofleave s and roots. In 3-6 months, the plantlets develop a sturdy root system Zeitschr. f. Naturw. 79:5 2(1907) . and some stout leaves. GRAMINEAE Plantlets are put in a potting medium, like fir-bark 2/i = 14 or fern-root. It takes several years before the Synonyms Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.f.) plants flower. Stapf &Hubbar d (1933). Diseases and pests Lady's slipper orchids are Vernacular names Pearl millet, bulrush millet liable to attack by fungi and bacteria, which can (En). Mil à chandelle, mil pénicillaire (Fr). damage or kill plants in less than 24hours . Insects Origin and geographic distribution Pearl mil­ like mealy-bugs, scale insects, spider mites, thrips, let originated in the African Sahel zone where centipedes and millipedes can be harmful to the interbreeding with its ancestor (P. americanum health ofth e plants. Cockroaches, slugs and snails ssp. monodii (Maire) Brunken), and with interme­ may destroy flowers. diate forms called shibras (P. americanum ssp. ste- Handling after harvest For dispatch, plants nostachyum (Klotzsch) Brunken) still occurs com­ should be wind-dry when packed. Wrapped in monly. From there it spread to East Africa, India, newspaper and tightly packed together in a card­ Spain and the United States. As a grain crop it is board box, plants can easily survive for two weeks commonly grown in the semi-arid regions of West or more. If transported by airmail, cabin condi­ Africa and the driest parts of East Africa and tions are required. Import and export of orchids is India. In the United States and Australia it is controlled by regulations of CITES (Convention grown as a fodder crop. on International Trade in Endangered Species of Uses Pearl millet is the staple food in parts of Wild Fauna and Flora) in most countries. tropical Africa and India, which are too hot, dry Prospects All species are threatened with and sandy for sorghum production. It is consumed extinction in their natural habitats because of mostly pounded, as a gruel, but is also cooked like uncontrolled collection from wild populations, for­ rice. The flour may bemad e into unleavened bread. est 'development' and activities of logging com­ In several Indian preparations parched seeds are panies. The Species Survival Commission of the used. In Africa pearl millet is also malted for the International Union for Conservation of Nature preparation ofbeer . The stalks are used for thatch­ and Natural Resources (IUCN) started a data base ing and building and as a poor quality fodder. Out­ on all living orchid collections. side India and Africa it ismostl y grown as a fodder In several European countries illegal collections crop. are confiscated and several importers have been Production and international trade Produc­ fined or still face a court case. Thousands to tens tion statistics on millet often combine data on all of thousands of certain species were imported in millet species. Estimates based on total millet pro­ Europe and America in 1986-1987, all collected duction and relative importance of pearl millet from the wild. indicate an annual production of 15millio n t from Literature |1|Birk , L.A., 1983.Th e Paphiopedi­ a planted area of 25 million ha (1983). Production lum grower's manual. Pisang Press, Santa Bar­ figures over the past 25 years show considerable bara, California, United States. 208 pp. |2| Cribb, fluctuations, but no long term trend. Quantities P.J., 1987. The genus Paphiopedilum. Kew Maga­ traded internationally are negligible. zine Monograph. 222 pp. |3|Fowlie , J.A., 1966. An Properties Average composition of the seed per annotated checklist of the species Paphiopedilum. 100 g edible portion: water 12 g, protein 10-20 g, Orchid Digest 30:307-313. |4| Karasawa, K., 1982. fat 3-5 g, carbohydrates 60-70 g, fibre 1.5-3 g, ash The genus Paphiopedilum. 255 pp. |5| Pfitzer, E., 1.5-2 g. The energy value is about 1525 kj. The 1903. Orchidaceae - Pleonandrae. Das Pflanzen­ protein is rich in tryptophane and cystine, poor in reich, Heft 12(IV .50) .Wilhel m Engelmann Verlag, lysine and methionine. Its nutritional value is 218 A SELECTION somewhat superior to rice and wheat. minate, the upper one bisexual. Lemma of the fer­ 1000see d weight is 5-12 g. tile flower oval, acuminate, 5-7-nerved and spar­ Description A robust, strongly tillering cereal, sely hairy on the margins; palea rounded at top, usually 1.5-3 m high, with lateral branching or thin and membranous; lemma and palea not clasp­ nodal tillering. Root system extremely profuse, ing the grain; lodicules absent; ovary obovate, reaching a depth of about 1.5 m, sometimes up to smooth, with 2styles , connate at the base; stamens 3.6 m; the nodes above ground level producing 3; flowers protogynous. Grain (caryopsis) globose thick, strong prop-roots. Stems slender, 1-2 cm in to subcylindrical or conical, large, 3-4 mm long, diameter, solid, often densely villous below the colour variable; hilum marked by a distinct black panicle, nodes prominent. Leaf sheath open and dot at maturity. hairy, leaf blades large, up to 1m long and 5-8 cm Growth and development Cultivars vary in wide, margins with small teeth, slightly auricled time to maturity from 55-280 days,bu t mostly from at the base; ligule short, membranous, with a 75-180 days. In short-duration cultivars, the deve­ fringe of hairs. lopmental stages (from germination to flower initi­ Panicle cylindrical, contracted, stiff and compact, ation, to flowering and to maturity) are approxi­ suggesting a spike, 15-140 cm long; cylindrical mately of equal duration. Time to flower initiation rachis bearing densely packed clusters of spike- is the main factor determining the life cycle of a lets. Spikelets usually borne in pairs and sub­ cultivar. tended by a tuft of 25-90 bristles, that are about Field establishment of pearl millet is affected by as long as the spikelets, but in some cultivars a ter­ its relatively small seed size, especially in crusting minal bristle is elongated, protruding up to 2.5 cm; soils. During early development, root growth is spikelets consisting of an outer glume, broader prominent compared with growth of above-ground than long and a longer, oval, 3-4-nerved inner parts and also at later stages roots may constitute glume, and usually two flowers, the lower one sta- 50% of total dry matter. Pearl millet produces an extensive and dense root system, which may reach a depth of 1.2-1.6m . Basal tillering occurs between 2-6 weeks after sowing, and up to 40 tillers may be produced. Til­ lering from the upper nodes ofth e stems is common and occurs in flushes during grain development under intermittent periods of drought. These sec­ ondary tillers produce 2-3 leaves and an inflores­ cence within 10-20days ;the y may contribute 15% and occasionally up to 50% of grain yield. Pearl millet cannot resume growth after severe stress, like sorghum, but by its short growing peri­ od and effective root system it is very drought eva­ sive. Its asynchronous tillering habit compensates for the effects of drought before anthesis by an increased yield from tillers. Many cultivars are sensitive to short days.I t takes 15-20 days from inflorescence differentiation to flowering. The crop isprotogynou s and cross-ferti­ lized. Heavy rainfall, low temperature and mois­ ture stress reduce seed set. The length of grain fill­ ing period varies greatly with genotype and is temperature dependent. The harvest index is 15-20, reaching 35i n improved cultivars. Other botanical information The taxonomy and nomenclature ofth e speciesha s beenver y con­ fused. At present, a large number of species for­ merly distinguished, are all included in P. america­ Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke - 1, habit of num. The names Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br, young plant; 2,inflorescence; 3, caryopsis. and P. spicatum (L.) Koern. are used by some au- PENNISETUM 219 thors for P. americanum. These names are not men­ with a brush harrow or planked. Occasionally, tra­ tioned in the synonymy, as they are controversial. ditional seed drills are used. Row-spacing varies Foxtail millet, formerly often confused with pearl between 45-60 cm. Seed rates vary with desired millet, has been placed in another genus, and is stand and soil type from 3-11 kg/ha. now called Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. In Africa pearl millet is often intercropped with Two main groups of cultivars are recognized in sorghum, cowpea or groundnuts, its place and West Africa: short duration Gero or Souna culti­ importance in the system being dependent on rain­ vars and long duration Maiwa or Sanio cultivars. fall. In India pearl millet isofte n intercropped with Gero cultivars are day-neutral. They produce less a great variety of pulses, e.g. hyacinth bean (Lab- than Maiwa cultivars, but are grown because they lab purpureus (L.) Sweet), mung bean (Vigna produce a crop when foodstocks are at their lowest radiata (L.) Wilczek), horse gram (Macrotyloma level. Certain Maiwa millets are transplanted uniflorus (Lam.) Verde), and less commonly with from seed-bed into the field and are known as castor or cotton. Dauro millet. Husbandry Because weeding of short-duration Ecology Pearl millet is characterized by the C4- cultivars in Africa coincides with land prepara­ cycle photosynthetic pathway. It is a crop of the tion and planting of later crops, labour shortages drier parts of the semi-arid tropics. Its northern often lead to a neglect of weeding. limit in West Africa is the zone with about 250 mm In India weeding is done using a bullock-drawn annual rainfall, where cultivars are grown, which blade harrow, followed by hand weeding. Usually, require only 55-65 days to mature. In the 250-400 1-2 harrowings and 1-2 hand weedings are mm rainfall zone,wher e extreme temperatures are needed. Broadcast crops are only hand weeded. It common, it is the dominant cereal, further south is grown in rotation with sorghum, cotton, ground­ it is found with sorghum. Optimum temperature nuts, other millets and occasionally rice. If the for germination is 33-35°C , below 12° C no germi­ rainfall pattern allows, it is sometimes double- nation occurs. Optimum temperature for tiller pro­ cropped with finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) duction and development is 21-24°C. For spikelet Gaertn.). initiation and development optimum temperature Under traditional, rainfed conditions the applica­ is about 25°C . Extreme high temperature before tion of manure and chemical fertilizers is limited. anthesis reduces head size and spikelet density, Vigorous early growth, promoted by nitrogen may thus reducing yield. Pearl millet is tolerant to var­ consume water required for later crop develop­ ious soil conditions, especially to light and acid ment and grain growth. Response to phosphorus soils. Its large and dense root system allows it to is not uncommon, but the requirement under grow on soils with a low nutrient status. On light rainfed conditions does not appear to be high. The soils it isles s affected by nematodes than sorghum. requirement for potassium is high. A new cultivar Soil crusting is a major factor causing poor seed­ yielding about 3.1 t/ha in the West African ling establishment. It does not tolerate waterlog­ savanna is reported to have removed per ha: N 132 ging. Once established, the crop is tolerant to sali­ kg, P206 63kg , K20 78kg , CaO 78kg . nity. Diseases and pests Rust (Puccinia penniseti), Propagation and planting Propagation is by ergot (Clavicleps microcephala), green ear (the seed, usually directly in the field. Transplanting downy mildew Sclerospora graminicola) and smut is carried out on a very limited scale in India and (Tolyposporium penicillariae) are important dis­ West Africa (Dauro millet). eases in both Asia and Africa. Sources of resis­ In Africa short-duration cultivars are sown as tance against all four have been identified and are early as possible after the onset of the rains and being incorporated in new cultivars. land preparation is limited to a light hoeing. Land The major plague in pearl millet are birds; Quelea preparation for long-duration cultivars, which are spp. in Africa and sparrows, parakeets, crows and sown later, is done more thoroughly. Pearl millet migrating rosy pastors in India. Bird scaring for ismostl y sown in pockets onhill s or ridges;i n drier several weeks before the harvest is essential. areas and light soils also in furrows. Plant density Farmers in West Africa often do not expect to har­ depends on rainfall and is proportionate to vest a larger area than they can protect from birds. 5000-20 000plants/h a in pure stands. Cultivars with long, hard bristles are less severely In India the usual method of land preparation is attacked than awnless ones. tomak e 2-3 passes with a traditional plough. With Insect pests are generally of less importance and the first rains the seed is broadcast and covered few are specific to pearl millet. They include stem 220 A SELECTION borers, midges, grasshoppers and locusts, army development of cultivars, which were rapidly worm and various Lepidoptereae. adopted by farmers. Work at the International Pearl millet is attacked by striga (Striga spp.), but Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Trop­ early cultivars tend to escape serious damage. ics is focused on the identification of stable stress Harvesting Pearl millet is harvested by hand, resistance, wide adaptability and high yield poten­ either by picking the panicles or by harvesting tial. Sources of tolerance of the major diseases whole plants. In strongly tillering cultivars, in have been identified, work on tolerance of drought which grain ripening is uneven, several pickings and on yield potential under low soil fertility are required. Threshing percentage is about 55 %. levels has produced few results so far. Yield Yields vary considerably with amount and Work on fodder millets concentrates on interspeci­ distribution of rainfall and range from 250 kg/ha fic hybrids between P. americanum and P. purpu­ in the driest areas, to 500-1500 kg/ha in the main reum Schumach. production areas. Average yields in West Africa Prospects The ability of pearl millet to yield and India are about 600 kg/ha. The best cultivars under conditions of very low rainfall, high temper­ reach up to 3000kg/h a at research centres. ature and on poor, sandy and acid soils makes it Handling after harvest After harvesting the a promising crop in marginal areas. Some testing crop is dried in the sun for a few days. In Africa has been carried out in all South-East Asian coun­ it is commonly stored on the panicle in elevated tries with variable results, but its potential under granaries, built ofmu d or plant materials and cov­ limited rainfall and poor light soils needs further ered with thatch. Pits are occasionally used. In study. India the crop is threshed soon after harvesting Literature |1| Brunken, J.,d eWet , J.M.J. &Har ­ and dried. Threshing is by beating with sticks or lan, J.R., 1977.Th e morphology and domestication treading with cattle.Th egrain s may then be stored of pearl millet. Economic Botany 31:163-174. |2| in containers and be placed in granaries or store Norman, M.J.T., Pearson, C.J. & Searle, P.G.E., rooms. Here also they are sometimes stored in pits 1984. The ecology of tropical food crops. Cam­ in the ground. Seed may be covered with sand or bridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 137-152. mixed with leaves of the neem tree (Azadirachta |3|Pearson , C.J. (Editor), 1985.Pear l millet, special indica Juss.) to reduce insect attack. Pearl millet issue. Field Crops Research 11(2, 3):lll-290. |4| grain can be stored more easily and longer than Rachie, K.O. &Majmudar , J.V., 1980.Pear l millet. maize or sorghum. Grain kept for seed can be Pennsylvania State University Press, University stored adequately at room temperature for several Park. 305pp . 5 Stoop,W .A. , 1986.Agronomi c man­ years. agement of cereal/cowpea cropping systems for Genetic resources Landraces of pearl millet major toposequence land typesi n the West African have been selected by farmers for yield and their savanna. Field Crops Research 14:301-320. adaptability to drought and low inputs. Frequent (L.P.A. Oyen) cross-pollination with wild relatives in West Africa further contributes to its diversity. Genetic variation is conserved and evaluated at the Coast­ Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. al Plains Experiment Station, Tifton (United States) and the International Crops Eesearch Beskr. Guin. PL:4 4(1827) . Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in GRAMINEAE Hyderabad (India). The International Bureau for 2» = 28,56 , 27 Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) supports a pro­ Vernacular names Elephant grass, Napier gramme, started in Burkina Faso, to improve des­ grass (En). Herbe d'éléphant (Fr). Indonesia: rum- cription and evaluation ofmateria l at the time and put gajah. Thailand: ya nepia. Vietnam: co duôi location of collection. voi. Breeding Breeding of pearl millet has started Origin and geographic distribution Of tropi­ late and traditional cultivars are still commonly cal African origin, this grass has been introduced used. Early breeding work in West Africa by the to all tropical regions of the world and is natura­ Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales lized throughout South-East Asia where the annu­ et de Cultures Vivrières produced some improved al rainfall exceeds 1000 mm and where there is no cultivars, but their adoption has been slow. Breed­ long dry season. ing work in India under the Indian Council ofAgri ­ Uses The main use of elephant grass is as a for­ cultural Research has been most successful in the age for ruminants. As a naturalized species in PENNISETUM 221 moist regions of South-East Asia, it is collected by panicle, up to 30 cm tall and 30 mm wide, not farmers by cutting the whole plant, which is including the 16-40 mm long bristles on the spike- offered to ruminants, mainly buffaloes and cattle, lets; spikelets 5-7 mm long, solitary or in clusters which are either tethered or confined in stalls. It of up to five, of which usually only one is fertile; can be used as a mulching species. the lower floret is male or void, the upper bisexual Properties The chemical composition depends and fertile, sometimes male. There is little or no on the mineral status of the soil, the plant part, seed formation. the age ofplan t material and the amount of fertiliz­ Growth and development Elephant grass is an er applied. The feeding value is influenced mainly obligate quantitative short-day plant, with a criti­ by the ration of leaf to stem and by age. Young cal photoperiod between 13an d 12hours . However leaves may have a digestibility of 70%, but this viability ofpolle n islo w and soperhap s causes fail­ value declines rapidly with age to less than 55 %. ure of seed formation. In addition, seedlings are Stems are of low digestibility, except when very weak and grow slowly, so that the grass is usually young. propagated vegetatively. Under favourable condi­ Description A tall, robust, deep-rooting, erect tions, vegetative material is fast-growing and the perennial, with short rhizomes. Stems up to 7 m plant can reach a height of several metres within tall, up to 3 cm in diameter, up to 20-noded. The two months. plant forms clumps to 1m across. Leaf-sheaths gla­ Other botanical information There are brous to short bristly; leaf-blades linear with broad numerous cultivar names in various countries and base and acute tip, up to 120 cm x 5 cm, glabrous three subspecies have been proposed in northern tohair y at the base,wit h a prominent midrib along Africa, but there has been no similar subdivision the lower surface. Inflorescence a dense spike-like for South-East Asia. Ecology Elephant grass is adapted to a moist warm environment. However it can exhibit remarkable drought-tolerance and can survive light frost. For acceptable agronomic perfor­ mance, the species requires a deep soil of at least moderate fertility, although it will survive at much reduced productivity on all kinds of soils. It does not tolerate flooding. In its naturalized state, the grass is found mainly along forest edges. Propagation and planting Vegetative propa­ gation is either by dividing clumps of roots and stubble, or by stem cuttings consisting of at least three nodes, two of which are buried. This can be done by hand or with a sugar-cane planter. Row width ranges from 50-200 cm, the greater dis­ tances being preferred in drier regions. Distance between rows varies between 50 and 100cm . Inter­ cropping with cassava and bananas in back-yards is often practised. Husbandry For high yields and persistence, ele­ phant grass planted as a crop has high require­ ments in a regular supply of moisture and a rich supply of minerals. The latter applies particularly when the crop is not grazed but is cut regularly. Mineral removal for crop dry matter production is nitrogen 10-30, phosphorus 2-3, potassium 30-50, calcium 3-6, magnesium and sulphur 2-3 kg/t. With annual yields of dry matter between 20 and 40 t/ha, very large quantities are thus extracted from the soil.I fthe y are not replenished, Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. - 1, habit of yield soon drops and weeds will invade. Although flowering plant; 2,spikelet surrounded by bristles. it isno t often grown with legumes,i t combines well 222 A SELECTION with, for instance, Centrosema pubescens Benth. Peronema canescens Jack and it can be interspaced with the shrub legume Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. Malay. Misc., imp. 1(1):46-4 7 (1820). Harvesting Elephant grass can be harvested VERBENACEAE year-round. In = unknown Yield Annual yields that can be expected in farm Synonyms Peronema heterophyllum Miq. practice may range from 2-10 t of dry matter per (1860). ha for unfertilized or slightly fertilized stands and Vernacular names Sungkai (trade name), false from 6-30(-40) t from grass well fertilized with elder (En). Indonesia: jati sabrang (general), ki nitrogen and given a basic dressing of phosphorus. sabrang (Sunda),jat i londo (Java), sungkai melaju Handling after harvest Elephant grass is (Sumatra), kurus, lurus (Kalimantan). Malaysia: usually offered fresh to animals, but it can also be sungkai, sukai, cherek. Thailand: sang kae (Pat- conserved as silage. However, preservation is tani), khoei laai (Chumphon, Ranong). often poor and losses of dry matter and crude pro­ Origin and geographic distribution Peronema tein can be very high. Best results are obtained by Jack is a monotypic genus occurring in Peninsular chopping the material, mixing it with molasses, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and the western part and by compressing and covering the material to ofJava . It is cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia and exclude air. Thailand. On Java it has possibly been introduced Genetic resources Because of clonal propaga­ from Sumatra. tion, planted stands of P.purpureum are often uni­ Uses The light, non-durable timber is locally form. However, the species contains much varia­ used for interior constructions like roof trusses tion in the extent of hairiness of stem nodes and and columns in houses, for furniture and cabinets, leaf-sheaths and of size, colour and density of the decorative veneer, and for bridges. The tree is panicle. There are also differences in stem thick­ often planted in hedges. ness, height and leaf size between forms of the In traditional medicine the bitter juice of the grass, but these are greatly influenced byth e fertil­ leaves and a decoction ofth e bark are used against ity of the soil and by the rates of fertilizers. fever. Boiled leaves are used in a poultice against Breeding P. purpureum x P. americanum (L.) ringworm, and in a mouth-wash against tooth­ Leeke hybrids have been developed in many coun­ ache. tries. They produce larger plants with more tiller­ Production and international trade The wood ing and higher total production. However, this of sungkai is mostly locally used. It can be also means that more mineral nutrients are obtained in large quantities and is regularly avail­ required. The hybrid is sterile and therefore must able. In Indonesia, export to Japan is becoming be vegetatively propagated. important. Prospects This species is widely grown in tropi­ Description An evergreen shrub or moderately cal regions, but prospects for improvement of its sized tree, up to 30 m high, diameter up to 70 cm feeding value are limited. However, with adequate and with an ovoid crown. Root system superficial, use of fertilizers, large increases in yield can be with a short tap-root. Stem not always straight, expected. An advantage of this species is its versa­ usually with small buttresses; bark dirty greyish tility. It can be grown on a large or small scale; buff, fissured and rather fibrous; twigs 4-angled, it lends itself to mechanization but is also suitable densely short-haired. Leaves opposite, imparipin- for smallholder agriculture. nate, rich purple when young; petiole and rachis Literature |1|Bodgan , A.V., 1977. Tropical pas­ winged, together 16-63 cm long; leaflets in 4-11 ture and fodder plants (grasses and legumes). pairs, lanceolate, up to 35c m x 7.5 cm, upper ones Longman, London and New York. pp. 233-243. |2| largest, sessile or short-stalked, entire or occasio­ Crowder, L.V. & Chheda, H.R., 1982. Tropical nally serrate, densely pubescent beneath. grassland husbandry. Longman, London and New Inflorescence an erect, widely branched, densely York. 562pp . short-haired terminal panicle, 25-40 cm long. (L. 't Mannetje) Flowers small, subsessile; calyx 5-fid almost half­ way down, ca. 3 mm long; corolla bilabiate, upper lip short, bifid, lower one longer, 3-fid with large median lobe of 2.5 mm; stamens 2, far exserted. Fruit a globose drupe, diameter ca. 3mm , dry, den­ sely hairy, 4-coccous. PERONEMA 223

light, but slows down later, even on fertile soils. Seedlings grow fast when fully exposed, but when shaded, even if lightly, the stems become very slender and break off easily. First flowering occurs when trees are about 4 m high. Flowering season on Java is in June/July, fruiting from August- November. On South and East Kalimantan flower­ ing season is in January/February, and fruiting from March-June/July. Other botanical information Sungkai (false elder) greatly resembles the elders of Europe and Java (Sambucus spp.). Its leaves, however, are not foetid when crushed, its flowers are not fragrant and the big panicle with small dry hairy fruits and the winged petioles are different. Ecology Sungkai is common on open land and in secondary forest, along rivers on seasonally flooded land and in clearings in the forest, but it never occurs in primary rain forest. It grows best in wet places, but can withstand dry conditions very well. On dry sites the tree may be deciduous, while in wet places it may be evergreen. Propagation and planting The seeds are dis­ persed by wind and water, and germinate soon under full light. Collected seeds do not germinate well.Th e common method ofpropagatio n isb y cut­ Peronema canescens Jack -1, leaf;2, flower; 3, fruit. tings taken from straight trees. Cuttings placed di­ rectly in the soil may develop rot, especially at the Wood characteristics Wood light brown, sap- base if thick. Application of hormones to promote wood and heartwood not differentiated, resem­ rooting results in 100% rooted cuttings of juvenile bling teak wood, with a light red tinge; volumetric material within 8days . Stem cuttings will develop mass (360-) 633(-640 ) kg/m3; moderately hard and a superficial root system similar to that of trees heavy, moderately or not durable (class III in Indo­ grown from seed. Root cuttings can also be used; nesia), not strong (class IV in Indonesia); texture they first produce a tap-root like seedlings do, with moderately fine and even; grain straight; pore no need to apply hormones, and without risk of rot. rings form dark lines or grains on longitudinal sur­ Such cuttings can be as easily uprooted as wild­ faces. ings, and may be planted as bare-rooted stock on Growth layers conspicuous on all surfaces, ring- moist sites. porous. Vessels of the pore ring medium-sized to Planting distance in Indonesia usually is 3 m x moderately small, solitary in 2-3 tangential 3 m, and it then takes 7 years to obtain a closed layers. Vessels of the late-wood medium-sized to canopy. Peronema is unsuitable for planting in moderately large, mostly solitary but also occasio­ mixtures with other species, but it may be used as nally in radial multiples of two pores, open, with first cover for planting of dipterocarp species. simple perforations. Parenchyma moderately Management Self-pruning does not occur suffi­ abundant, usually just visible without lens, but ciently. Artificial pruning is necessary. Wounds distinct with a lens, mainly vasicentric but tend­ caused by artificial pruning heal fast and seldom ing to form discontinuous and confluent layers cause rot. outwards in the ring. Rays medium-sized, hetero­ Diseases and pests Seedlings under shade are geneous, low or very low, 4 per mm, visible to the often attacked by leaf rusts. Shoot-boring insects naked eye on transverse and tangential surfaces, may deform trees, but the damage is not serious. not prominent on radial surface. The fibre length Harvesting Although the timber is regularly is 1093um . available, data on harvesting are not known. Growth and development Few viable seeds are Yield Mean annual increment was about 10 m3/ produced. First growth is reasonably rapid in full ha in a 15-year-old stand, planted at a spacing of 224 A SELECTION

3m x 1m i n Gadungan (Indonesia). Annual height in Ethiopia. In Africa parts of the plant are used increment in naturally regenerated stands in Kali­ for various medicinal purposes. mantan was about 1m for saplings and poles. Production and international trade At pre­ Handling after harvest The wood is not discol­ sent, small areas are under cultivation in Ethiopia, oured by sapwood-staining fungi. Local experi­ Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Experimental ence in Palembang indicates beneficial influence trials for introduction are being started in Indone­ of long-lasting storage in running water, which sia. would petrify the wood in 6years . The wood is lia­ Properties On a dry weight basis the pericarp blet otermit e attack but isresistan t to powder-post ofth e berries contains 25% bidesmosidic saponins beetles. The sawn timber should be seasoned care­ with an oleanolic-acid aglycon, which are mollus- fully to prevent cracking. cicidal. At concentrations well below 75 mg/kg, Prospects In Indonesia sungkai supplies from and after a certain period of exposure, fish and natural forests are becoming depleted. Plantations snails are killed. Other water animals like insect of several hundreds of ha exist in logged-over con­ larvae and tadpoles are not affected at the concen­ cession areas of East Kalimantan, and many more trations that kill fish and snails. The bark and the are planned. Prospects for planting look good, also root of endod are very poisonous for people and because sungkai is able to grow on very poor soils, animals. and even stems with small diameters can be used. Botany A lianescent shrub with branches up to More reliable information is needed on all aspects 10m long .Root s long,fleshy , almost without hairs. of its cultivation in plantations. Leaves simple, alternate, petiolate; petiole 0.5-4 Literature |1| Backer, CA. & Bakhuizen van cm long; blade ovate to elliptic, 6-15 cm x 3-10 den Brink, R.C., 1965. Flora of Java. Noordhoff, cm, glabrous to scarcely pubescent. Inflorescences Groningen, the Netherlands. Vol. 2:612. |2| Desch, densely flowered racemes, up to 40 cm long; H.E., 1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan flowers polymorphic, functionally male, female or Forest Records No 15. Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. Vol. 11:625-626. |3|Japing , H.W. & Oey Djoen Seng, 1936. Trial plantations of non- teak wood species in East Java. With survey of the literature about these species. Short Communica­ tions of the Forest Research Institute No 55, Part I-IV. Archipel Drukkerij, Buitenzorg, Neder­ landsen Indië. pp. 178-191. [Dutch, with introduc­ tion and conclusions in English.] |4| Martawidjaja, A. & Kartasujana, I., 1981. The potential use of Indonesian timbers. Forest Products Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia. Indonesian Agricul­ tural Research and Development Journal 3(4):116. (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand)

Phytolacca dodecandra L'Hér.

Stirpes novae aut minus cognitae 6: 143-144, t. 69(1791) . PHYTOLACCACEAE 2n = a variable number of chromosomes. Synonyms Phytolacca abyssinica Hoffm. (1796). Vernacular names Endod, soap berry (En). Origin and geographic distribution Endod is widespread in tropical and southern Africa, also in Madagascar. Uses Berries are a potent molluscicide, and can be used especially to control bilharzia-transmit- Phytolacca dodecandra L'Hér. - 1, flowering ting snails. They are also used as a soap substitute branch; 2,flower; 3,apex of'infructescence. PHYTOLACCA - PIPER 225 bisexual; usually with 5sepal s and without petals; Prospects The effectiveness of endod as a mol- stamens 8-20, equal to very unequal in length; car­ luscicide cannot be disputed. Utilization, howev­ pels (3-) 5 (-8), slightly connate at base. Fruit a er, might be limited, since application has to be bluntly star-shaped berry, orange to purplish-red. carried out frequently enough to ensure that Seeds sublenticular, black. treated waters remain clear of snails, which might In nature, seed distribution is effected by animals also drastically reduce the fish population. How­ that eat the fruits (birds, monkeys). Germination ever, asinfecte d snails only occur at places heavily ofth e seeds takes about 14days . In Ethiopia plants frequented by people, berry suspensions can be flower and fruit the whole year in the wild, but applied locally. As soon as the molluscicide has with a maximum in the dry season. Pollination is disappeared, fish from elsewhere will populate the effected by ants, flies and spiderwasps. In Ethio­ treated waterbody again. With a few square metres pia, three highly molluscicidal and productive cul- of cultivated endod, people can treat their snail- tivars were developed, that are now in production infested watersites themselves, and this should in eastern and southern Africa. preferably be done during the dry season. Ecology Endod occurs in Africa between lati­ Literature |1|Lemma , A., 1970. Laboratory and tudes 20° N and 30°S , usually at altitudes higher field evaluation of the molluscicidal properties of than 1000m ,wit h an annual rainfall ofaroun d 1400 Phytolacca dodecandra. Bulletin of the World mm with a distinct dry period. It occurs in a wide Health Organization 42:597-612. |2| Lugt, Ch.B., range of communities, e.g. forests, road edges, for­ 1986.Phytolacc a dodecandra berries as a means of est clearings, grasslands, particularly in places controlling bilharzia transmitting snails. 3rd ed. disturbed by people. In the shade the plant does Bulletin 312, Royal Tropical Institute, Amster­ not flower. dam. 61 pp. Agronomy Agronomy is in an experimental (Ch.B. Lugt) stage. Propagation by seed is only appropriate for selection purposes. Mass multiplication isdon e by non-woody stem cuttings. It is advantageous to use Piper nigrum L. a 50-75 mg/kg alpha-naphthalene acetic acid solu­ tion as root-promoting substance and a slightly Sp. PI. 1:2 8(1753) . acid soil medium. After 6-8 weeks rooted cuttings PlPERACEAE can be planted in the field, usually at 1-3m x 2-3 2n = 52 m distance. Precautions have to be taken against Vernacular names Black pepper (En). Poivre soilborne insect larvae; shade is necessary in the (Fr). Indonesia: lada, merica. Malaysia: lada. Phi­ first weeks. Occasional watering and weeding is lippines: malisa. Burma: ngayok-kaung. Cambo­ important until the plant has established itself. dia:mréch . Laos:phi k nooyz.Thailand : phrik thai. There is no need for fertilizers. The plant can be Vietnam: tiêu. attacked by leaf and stem borers (Gitona spp.), so Origin and geographic distribution Black or far the only serious insect pests. Berries possess white pepper is a native of the Western Ghats in the highest molluscicidal potency when they are Kerala State, India. In these mountains, the plant fully developed but still unripe. In Ethiopia they still occurs in a wild state. In India, Indonesia and can be collected from the early weeks of November Malaysia, commercial cultivation of pepper con­ until the end of May. Complete fruiting racemes stitutes a long-established tradition of small­ are collected and dried in the open under shade. holders. The pepper plant moved into South-East Per plant about 250 g, per ha about 1000 kg dry Asia as early as 100 BC, brought by Hindu colo­ fruits can be obtained per year. Dry fruits can be nists migrating from India to Indonesia. In Indone­ stored for many years without loss of activity. sia, the main areas of production are the Province While grinding the berries care should be taken of Lampung, the Island of Bangka and the Prov­ to avoid the dust because it irritates the mucous inces of East and West Kalimantan, together ac­ membranes. counting for 95% of the crop. Early in the 19th Genetic resources and breeding The world Century, the crop also spread to Sarawak, where germplasm collection covers all the highland now 95% of the Malaysian crop is produced. In areas in Africa between 20° N and 30°S . There is other countries of South-East Asia, pepper is not abundant morphological variation. In Ethiopia a grown in significant amounts. In about 1930, Japa­ collection is present at the Institute of Pathobio- nese immigrants who had travelled through South- logy in Addis Ababa. East Asia introduced the plant into Para State of 226 A SELECTION northern Brazil, where it became a major crop. region and cultivar and differ for black and white Pepper production is less important on Madagas­ pepper. With an energy content in edible portion car, Sri Lanka and in Cambodia. of 126 J per 100 g and a very small daily intake, Uses White and black pepper are the two main the nutritional value is negligible. dried commodities growers prepare from the fruits. Description A perennial woody climber, 10 m Use of the dried product as a food flavouring was long or more. In cultivation, mature plants may already known in Europe in the 12th Century. also appear as bushy columns, 3-4 mhig h and 1.25 Eighty per cent of the consumption is now concen­ m diameter on usually wooden supports. Root sys­ trated in the industrially developed countries, tem with 5-20 main roots, 4 m or more deep, and where it is mainly used for domestic culinary pur­ with feeder roots in the upper 60 cm of soil, which poses and for flavouring and preservation of pro­ form an extensive dense mat. Orthotropic stems cessed foods. There is a remarkable lack of tradi­ climbing and remaining vegetative, adhering to tion for consumption of both types of pepper in supports with short adventitious roots present on Indonesia, Malaysia and adjacent countries of the nodes, internodes 5-12 cm long and 4-6 cm di­ South-East Asia. In the last decade, however, with ameter. Plagiotropic branches generative, with­ expanding tourism and industrial development, out adventitious roots, internodes 4-6 cmlon g and the classical use as a spice in food flavouring and 1-1.5 cm diameter, producing higher-order preservation has increased gradually in Indonesia branches as well as inflorescences. Leaves alter­ and Malaysia, though most of the production is nate, simple, glabrous, coriaceous, petiolate; still exported. Its domestic consumption for food petiole 2-5 cm long; blade ovate, 8-20 cm x 4-12 flavouring is common tradition in India and Sri cm, entire, oblique to rounded at base, tip acumi­ Lanka. Pepper oil and pepper oleoresin, extract- nate, shiny dark green above, pale and densely able from peppercorns, are mainly used in conve­ glandular-dotted beneath with 5-7 veins. nience foods. Of secondary importance is the use Inflorescences appearing opposite the leaves on of preserved immature green pepper or fresh green pepper fruits. Production and international trade Between 1980 and 1987, annual world production ranged from 95000-13500 0 t. In the same period Indone­ sian production varied from 30000-38000 t per year, obtained from a planted area of 60000 ha, with a value of US$ 30-120 million, depending on price fluctuations, sometimes sharp. Annual domestic consumption, per head 19 g in 1984, can be estimated at over 3000 t. This use is expected to rise by 13% per year. Exports reached 4500 0 t in 1983,3 000 0 t as black and 1500 0 t as white pep­ per. In 1986export s were down to about 235001 . In 1987 in Malaysia, the area under pepper amounted to 7000 ha, 90% in Sarawak. Total pro­ duction varied from 25000 t in 1982 to 17000 t in 1987,an d the value from US$ 20-75 million. Domestic consumption in the entire country in 1984 amounted to 500 t or 34 g per head. This con­ sumption is expected to increase by 4% per year. Exports amounted to 2000 0 t in 1982,bu t declined to 1600 0ti n 1986. Properties Dried peppercorns contain 35-60 % starch and 3-15% fibre. Aroma and flavour depend on the composition of the steamvolatile oils. Over a hundred chemical compounds have been identified, but the major pungent principle is a mixture of piperine and several minor alka­ Piper nigrum L. - branch with leaves, a young loids. Flavour and pungency tend to vary with inflorescence, and fruiting spikes. PIPER 227 plagiotropic branches; spikes 3-15 cm long with pung, the crop grows welli nth e northern part with 50-150flowers ; flowers unisexual or bisexual (cul- over 3000 mm and in the south-eastern part with tivars usually up to 90% with bisexual flowers), sometimes less than 2000mm .A drie r period of 2-3 without perianth, stamens 2-4, stigma with 3-5 months, with a monthly rainfall of 60-80 mm, is lobes. Fruits globose drupes, 4-6 mmdiameter , ses­ not usually harmful. The crop thrives best below sile, with pulpy mesocarp, red when mature. Seeds 500m altitud e on the equator, but may grow at alti­ globose, 3-4 mm in diameter. tudes as high as 1500m .I t grows well on soils rang­ Growth and development Ripe shade-dried ing from heavy clay to light sandy clays. Soils seeds without mesocarp germinate in 2-3 weeks, should be deep, well-drained but still with ample but commercial propagation is only by cuttings. water-holding capacity to deal with water stress After planting ofcuttings , vegetative development during marked dry periods. Except on virgin soils, proceeds with the formation ofsevera l orthotropic mineral limitations are common. In brown-red shoots from axillary buds; only during active latosols, nitrogen, phosphorus and magnesium are growth may primary side-branches develop on ter­ often not present in sufficient amounts. In physi­ minal nodes. On the side-branches, a few early cally suitable red-yellow podzols, deficiencies of spikes may appear. Continuous branching gives most major and minor elements are not exceptio­ rise to the bushy habit and when vigorous growth nal, with too high acidity and excess aluminium is stimulated, regular growth of, orthotrophic at pH below 5. The most favourable soil types are stems and development of plagiotropic branches deep, well drained, brown-red latosols or andosols, allows the formation of spikes at the onset of the but the crop can grow well on deep sandy clay red- rains. yellow podzols if carefully managed and amply In South-East Asia, flowering starts in September provided with mineral nutrients. in Sarawak, followed by Bangka and Lampung, Propagation and planting Selected cultivars and usually extends over about three months. are commonly propagated by cuttings. Early in the Spikes show protogynous development from base wet season, usually pretopped pieces, 5-7 cm long, to tip. Self-pollination by wind is rare. High rela­ or terminal shoots are taken from vigorous tive humidity may extend stigma receptivity from 12-30-month-old plants. Cuttings can be placed in 8-13 days and thus benefit self-pollination. Heavy a moist medium and a shaded nursery to promote rains and storm may reduce fertilization. After fer­ rooting. After 1-2 months ample roots should have tilization, the ovary develops into a mature fruit appeared. Sometimes cuttings are directly planted in 8-9 months. Fruit development is largely acce­ in the field. Stolons should be avoided as planting lerated by well distributed rainfall and the pres­ material. ence of balanced minerals, especially potassium Land is cleared, tilled and prepared by hoe. Hard­ and magnesium. Pepper plants can produce abun­ wood supports, 3.60 m high, are placed at 2 m x dantly up to 30 years. 2m t o4 m x 4m .I n poor soils,mound s are prepared If stolons or suckers are used for planting, spike around the bases of the supports by scraping the formation will be retarded by 2 years, because of topsoil. In rich soils,plantin g isusuall y direct into delayed side-branching on the orthotropic stem. loosened topsoil. Other botanical information In Indonesia, If trees are used as support, stumps are planted at more than 5 cultivars are commercially produced. the required spacing about one year before land In Lampung, major cultivars are 'Kerenci', 'Belan- is prepared. With abundant rains, cuttings are tung' and 'Jambi'. On Bangka, the cultivars 'Lam­ transplanted to the field and usually receive tem­ pung' (wide leaf) and 'Bangka' are popular. Differ­ porary shade. One to two months later, growth ences are mainly leaf shape and size, internode becomes vigorous. length, branching habit and flowering and fruiting In Sarawak, West and East Kalimantan and on ability. In Malaysia, only the dense-branching Bangka, an intensive system of sole cropping on high-producing cultivar 'Kuching' is cultivated. dead posts and without shade prevails. It is charac­ Ecology Most suited for pepper is a wet tropical teristically associated with chemically poor soils, climate with a well distributed annual rainfall of high inputs and high productivity. In Lampung, 2000-4000 mm associated with a mean air tempera­ cultivation of pepper against living Erythrina ture of 25-30° C and a relative humidity of shade trees (up to 10 m high) predominates and is 65-95 %. In Sarawak, annual rainfall may exceed characterized by fertile soils, low inputs and low 4000 mm in a non-seasonal climate, whereas on productivity. Intercropping is rare in the last sys­ Bangka an average of 2500 mm is usual. In Lam­ tem. 228 A SELECTION

Husbandry In unshaded intensive cropping, rapid, almost uniform wilting of leaves are visible, husbandry mainly includes weeding, mounding, especially towards the end of the wet season and tying of stem shoots, pruning for regular shape, result from blocked water vessels in the stem and manuring and disease and pest control. In Sa­ increasing water stress. Infected vines die within rawak, clean-weeding is common. Regular plant­ days or weeks. Rapid dissemination in gardens is ing mounds are made to provide ample room for typical; infected gardens may be ruined within dense rooting. During times ofrapi d growth, stems weeks up to a few months. Effective control mea­ are tied to the posts weekly. Pruning aims at a max­ sures, suitable for smallholders, are not yet avail­ imum of fruiting branches. Usually three stem able. Current research aims at grafting susceptible shoots are allowed to climb up the post. When cultivars onto root stocks of resistant pepper spe­ 60-90 cm long, each isprune d back, usually to just ciessuc h as Piper colubrinum Link and at breeding below the lowest stem node without side-branch, for resistance. leaving 3-4 nodes, each with a fruiting branch. A second significant disorder in the region is a This regularly repeated process also stimulates slow wilt named 'yellow disease' occurring mainly secondary and higher-order branching. After 30 on Bangka. Symptoms include a slow wilting and months, plants are 2.5 m high, have a bushy ap­ associated yellowing and drooping of leaves. The pearance with a maximum number of main disorder was identified as a combination of poor branches and a closed canopy. The plants may now mineral nutrition and root invasion by nematodes be considered as full-grown and can start flower­ of Radopholus species. The decline may be well ing fully with the onset of the rains. controlled by supplying complete and balanced During vegetative development, vines on poor mineral nutrients at liberal dressings, and addi­ soils are enriched with complete fertilizers, tion of lime and mulch. usually containing N 12%, P205 5%, K20 17%, Other diseases and pests do occur in the region, MgO 2% and a range of minor elements. In the but can be effectively controlled by simple treat­ first and second years, each plant receives 0.5 and ments with suitable fungicides and insecticides. 1 kg, respectively, in 4 equal applications. During Harvesting In South-East Asia, harvesting is the generative phase, each vine receives dressings spread from May-June to August-September. of 1.5-2 kg, divided over 4 applications. This period coincides with dry weather and sun­ Intensive cropping in Indonesia is less elaborate shine. To obtain black pepper, entire fruit spikes than in Sarawak. Clean-weeding is usually done are picked when the fruits are full-grown but still irregularly and manuring less precisely practised. green. For white pepper, fruit spikes are collected To achieve bushy plants, stem shoots are allowed when a few fruits have turned red or yellow. Fruit to grow freely to the top of the post. Stems are then spikes are harvested by hand, using a tripod lad­ bent down and layered in a circle around the post der, in Sarawak usually 6-8 times (every 2weeks) , and their upper nodes are tied to the support. The elsewhere usually only twice or thrice. The deci­ results are lesssatisfactor y than those in Sarawak. sion to prepare black or white pepper may depend However, on Bangka, precise application of that on the expected price of the product. system gave comparable results. In Lampung, hus­ Yield Assuming uninterrupted optimal treat­ bandry operations in shaded cropping are limited ment of commercial vines without fatal diseases, to irregular weeding and annual pruning of the unshaded pepper has an economic life of 15-20 shade trees. years. This lifetime is reduced to 6-10 years with Diseases and pests The major destructive dis­ poor husbandry. Mean annual production of fresh ease ofpeppe r cultivars in Malaysia and Indonesia fruits per plant varies from (2-) 6-12 (-18) kg in is a foot-rot, caused by the soil-borne fungus Phy- Sarawak to (0.5-) 2-4 (-8) kg on Bangka and Kali­ tophthora palmivora mf 4. The fungus thrives mantan. under warm and humid conditions. It fatally For shaded vines (Lampung), the life-span may attacks vines mainly through roots, underground exceed 30 years. Assuming limited commercial stem and stem collar. The disease usually arises practices, fertile soil and absence of fatal diseases, after rains, when leaf infections of black necrotic mean annual production per plant reaches (4-) 12 spots with typical fringed margins develop on the (-20) kg offres h fruits. lower leaves as a result of soil splash-up. A few Handling after harvest Freshly picked fruit days later, affected leaves drop, thus favouring a spikes are usually taken to the farmhouse for pro­ build-up of soil inoculum. Fatal vine infection cessing. To prepare black pepper, spikes are left occurs in the wet part of the year. Symptoms of in heaps overnight for brief fermentation. Next PIPER 229 morning, the mass of spikes and fruits is usually new promising hybrids were developed, but plant­ spread out on bamboo mats or concrete floors to ing in the field was followed by death. Latest dry in the sun, raking the mass regularly. The results of hybridization, however, showed encour­ mesocarp shrinks and fruits separate from the aging prospects in terms offiel d resistance in 1987. spike. After 4-5 days, the corns are black and dry, Another line of plant improvement involved graft­ showing their typical crinkled appearance. Mois­ ing onto well-tested foot-rot resistant rootstocks. ture content usually ranges between 14-17 %. The Final results, however, showed a delayed failure dried peppercorns are bagged and stored, pending of the grafts at about 6 years of age. In Indonesia, sale. improved techniques for bud grafting of woody To prepare white pepper, the fruit spikes are stems and the development of a method for herba­ lightly crushed, put in gunny sacks and soaked for ceous budding are promising. Viable resistant bud­ 7-10 days,preferabl y in slowly running water. The dings, combined with integrated disease-control mesocarp disintegrates with retting. After soak­ measurements, might overcome this major prob­ ing, corns are trampled loose from the rest and sep­ lem in pepper cultivation. arated by washing and sieving. Cleanly washed Prospects World demand for pepper is rather corns are dried in the sun for 3-4 days, during inelastic, but is tending to increase at an average which the white to cream colour develops. The dry rate of 4-5 % per year. So production of pepper corns, usually with a moisture content of 14-17 %, offers fairly attractive prospects for smallholders are then bagged and stored. If stagnant water has as a source ofcas h income.However ,wit h the ever- to be used for processing, the dried corns assume present danger of sudden destruction of planta­ a grey colour and release a musty odour. tions by Phytophthora foot-rot, farmers in affected After preparation of fresh fruits, the weight ratio areas are tending to turn away from pepper culti­ white pepper/fresh fruits is about 33% and the vation. Only when supply of pepper runs short of ratio black pepper/fresh fruits is 26%. What pro­ world demand and prices increase to high levels portion of the crop is processed into white pepper may farmers be induced to take the risks of new in Sarawak depends on the price difference from planting, realizing that at the time of production black pepper. In Indonesia, Bangka traditionally the prices may be unattractive again. produces only white and Lampung only black pep­ The absence of a regular annual world production per. isth e principal reason that pepper prices show vio­ Genetic resources India is the primary gene lent and extreme fluctuations, leaving room for centre for black pepper, the Amazon region of Bra­ speculation by trade, usually at the expense of pro­ zil for many other Piperaceae, but Piper species ducers. Only when plant material resistant to foot- have also been found in many countries of South- rot is available will development of agronomic East Asia and South and Central America. methods for higher productivity and lower produc­ Small germplasm collections are maintained in tion costs be expedient. Danger of overproduction Sarawak and in Indonesia. In 1981, the Sarawak might effectively be overcome by judiciously gene pool included 18 cultivars of Piper nigrum, planned reduction of areas with pepper in favour 18 identified Piper species, and 98 unidentified of alternative remunerative crops. accessions. The collection is steadily being Literature |1| Anonymous, 1964-1981. Pepper. expanded. In 1985, the Indonesian gene pool Annual Reports Research Branch. Dept. of Agri­ included 40 cultivars of Piper nigrum and 7 Piper culture, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. |2| Holli- species. This collection too is being regularly day, P. & Mowat, W.P., 1963. Foot-rot of Piper expanded. nigrum L. (Phytophthora palmivora). Phytopatho- Breeding Malaysia and Indonesia have very logical Paper No 5. Commonwealth Mycological high-producing commercial cultivars and breed­ Institute, Kew, Surrey, England. 62 pp. |3; Purse- ing for better yield has low priority. All these culti­ glove, J.W., Brown, E.G., Green, C.L. & Robbins, vars are susceptible or highly susceptible to Phy- S.R.J., 1981.Spices . Vol. 1. Longman, London, pp. tophthora foot-rot disease. Development of 10-100. |4|d e Waard, P.W.F., 1964.Peppe r cultiva­ resistant plant material is urgently required and tion in Sarawak. World Crops 4:24-31. |5| de is receiving high priority. At first, breeding for re­ Waard, P.W.F., 1980. Problem areas and prospects sistance received attention in South-East Asia. of production ofpeppe r (Piper nigrum L.). Bulletin Some cultivars showed a certain degree of resis­ 8. Department of Agricultural Research, Royal tance or tolerance, but infection and spread of the Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. 28pp . |6|d e Waard, disease in gardens was only slowed down. Some P.W.F. &Zaubin , R., 1983.Callu s formation during 230 A SELECTION grafting of woody plants. A concept for the case of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.). Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture 9:9-19. |7| de Waard, P.W.F. & Zeven A.C., 1969. Pepper (Piper nigrum L.). In: Ferwerda, F.R. &Wit , F. (Editors): Outlines of pe­ rennial crop breeding in the tropics. Miscella­ neous Papers 4, Landbouwhogeschool Wage­ ningen, The Netherlands, pp. 409-426. (P.W.F, de Waard)

Pometia pinnata J.R. &G . Forst.

Char. Gen.: 110,t . 55(1776) . SAPINDACEAE 2n = unknown Vernacular names Taun, kasai, matoa (En). Indonesia: kayu sapi (Java), langsir, lengsar (Sunda), motoa, motaoa (northern Moluccas and Irian Jaya), dawan (southern Moluccas). Malay­ sia: kasai. Papua New Guinea: taun. Philippines: malagai, malùgai (Tagalog). Laos: chieng dông, kwaang. Thailand: daeng nam. Origin and geographic distribution This tree is very common and often sub-gregarious over large areas, from Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands throughout Malaysia and Melanesia to Samoa; in a few scattered places on the Asian con­ Pometia pinnata J.R. & G. Forst. - 1, branch with tinent. In New Guinea it is found in all lowland leaves and inflorescence; 2,branch with fruits. districts, as well as on New Britain, New Ireland (Bismarck Archipelago), and Bougainville Island. centre;bar k brownish grey to reddish brown, shed­ The cultivated form is common in northern Irian ding small, pock-marked, thick flakes; live bark Jaya (e.g. near Lake Sentani), New Ireland and with abundant thin red gum. Branchlets, rachis, New Britain (Rabaul). underside of leaflets, and inflorescence more or Uses The wood is suitable for indoor construc­ less glabrescent to glabrous. Leaf 24-35 cm long, tion, shipbuilding, furniture, peeled veneer, parti­ with 8-12 pairs of leaflets; leaflets oblong to cle and fibre board and as pulpwood. It requires mostly lanceolate, the first pair stipule-like; careful seasoning and selection. Heavy warping nerves 11-25 pairs, every other nerve ending in a may occur in regions with strongly alternating hu­ marginal hydathode or tooth, the intermediate midity. nerves bending upwards and without reaching the The fruit and the roasted seed are edible; the fruit more or less dentate margin. Flowers actinomor- tastes like rambutan. A decoction of the leaves or phic, unisexual, 5-merous, small and cream-white, the bark is used in a bath against fever or as a in 15-60 cm long, variable inflorescences. Fruit dressing to cure sores. ellipsoid, up to 3.5 cm x 3cm , very variable in size Forma alnifolia (Bl.) Jacobs is recommended for and colour, with pericarp 2-7 cm thick and aril- roadside planting. lode up to 0.4c mthick . Seedshal f to three-quarters Properties Fruit and wood probably contain of the size of the fruit, shiny brown. Germination saponins; in water the wood produces a slight epigeal; cotyledons slightly sagittate, first pair of foam. Wood dust may irritate nose and throat. leaves subopposite with 5serrat e leaflets. Description Large, evergreen or deciduous tree, Wood characteristics Growth rings vague to up to 47 m high, bole up to 25 m long, straight or distinct, as relatively narrow bands of denser and curved, often twisted, with a diameter at breast darker tissue or in radial direction as tangential height up to 1m ifbuttresse s are absent; buttresses bands of terminal parenchyma one-cell thick. Ves­ up to 6 m, spreading up to 3.5 m from the bole selsvisibl e without lens,fe w (0-7/mm2), evenly dis- POMETIA 231 tributed, solitary and in radial section pore multi­ On Borneo and Sumatra, it occurs occasionally in ples of 2-10 vessels, moderately large (average 150 fresh water swamp forest, otherwise common in um), lumen with white or light-brown to dark-red dryland forest. In NewGuine a it isno t seldom dom­ resin or gum,tylose s sparse or absent, perforations inant in forest partly under human influence, on simple. Parenchyma terminal in bands one-cell various soil types, preferring well drained lime­ thick, vasicentric, sometimes scanty and occasio­ stone soils (P. pinnata f. pinnata and f. repanda). nally slightly aliform, lumen with red gum, and It cannot tolerate a severely seasonal climate. sometimes to frequently with rhomboidal crystals. Propagation and planting Propagation is by Rays not visible without lens on cross-section, in­ seed. Natural regeneration from seed often has conspicuous inradia l section, fine and low, hetero­ been observed as quite abundant, e.g. at Keravat geneous, with a predominance of procumbent (Papua New Guinea) and Jayapura and Mano- cells, mainly uniseriate, but also sometimes biser- kwari (Irian Jaya), on devastated or clear-cut forest iate ones present, lumen with red gum and fre­ areas. Height growth in first years was rapid (3-5 quently with 1-3 rhomboidal crystals per cell. m/year) when fully released. Regeneration counts Fibres libriform, septate, non-siliceous. ran to more than 1000trees/ha , which is sufficient Sapwood pink or buff, average width 3 cm, not to establish pure stands or a mixture with simulta­ always distinct from the heartwood that is light neously established seedlings of other commercial to dark red, or medium dark red-brown, sometimes species like Dracontomelum dao Merr. & Rolfe. purplish. Grain straight, sometimes interlocked. Seedlings partially damaged by slash-burning can Texture fine to coarse, uneven. Slightly or silky regenerate, and on sterilized areas seedlings soon lustrous, figure on back-sawn face occasionally establish, from seeds brought in with bird drop­ ribbon or flame. Odour and taste not distinct. pings. Artificial regeneration is possible by uni­ Moderately hard and heavy (volumetric mass versal methods. 3 540-657-810 kg/m at moisture content 15%). Handling after harvest The timber is easily Fairly strong. The wood near the core is lighter worked by most machine and hand tools, but the and not as strong as the sapwood. properties may vary with site and form, boles from Growth and development Seeds germinate im­ hillside trees, although shorter, generally being mediately after maturing. Flowering periods seem better than those of the lowlands. Air seasoning to be fixed, with the fruiting season 2-5 months of small stocks may take 4-6 months, with consid­ later, varying with the region, but without appar­ erable degradation if not handled with care. Dur­ ent correlation with climatic seasons. ing seasoning, the wood tends to collapse, causing Other botanical information P. pinnata is fine cracks, and necessitating slow or mild drying extremely variable and is clearly still differentia­ at first, with sealing of ends. Preventing these ting. From the wealth of forms, 8 have been problems is easier with kiln-drying. Even with per­ selected for taxonomie recognition, leaving much fect seasoning, the timber has considerable move­ variability still without taxonomie status. They ment with wide seasonal variation in humidity, for are: f. pinnata (synonym P. coriacea Radlk., 1913); instance in the temperate zones, but less in con­ f. glabra (Bl.) Jacobs (synonym P. pinnata var. stant moist conditions.Th e timber saws and planes javanica K. &V. , 1903);f . repanda Jacobs; f. acumi­ easily, polishes well, takes paint nicely, and stains nata (Hook, f.) Jacobs (synonym P. annamica satisfactory. It takes screws well, but nailing is Gagn., 1874); f. alnifolia (Bl.) Jacobs (synonym P. sometimes difficult, though nails are held well. gracilis King, 1896); f. macrocarpa (Kurz) Jacobs Peeling properties are variable, steaming is advis­ (synonym P. macrocarpa Kurz, 1875); f. tomentosa able. Good quality stock issuitabl e for face veneer. (Bl.) Jacobs (synonym P. tomentosa T. &B. , 1866); Steam bending properties are generally good, with f. cuspidata (Bl.) Jacobs. The tree is easy to iden­ high capacity for bending. Shrinkage and density tify; the bark often resembles that of Intsia Thou., are variable, movement due to moisture changes but is distinguished by the red gum. low to medium. Most mechanical and physical pro­ Ecology Taun is typically a species of the rain perties are widely variable, requiring a high factor forest at low altitudes, generally below 500m , rar­ for safety when the timber isuse d for construction. ely to 1000 m above sea-level, and sometimes to Heartwood is fairly durable, but difficult to im­ 1700 m in some parts of northern Sumatra (Aceh). pregnate; sapwood is less durable and moderately It occurs on limestone, clayey, sandy or loamy resistant to impregnation. It is susceptible to pin­ soils. In Peninsular Malaysia it is never dominant hole borer, but not resistant to termite or marine in the forests but mainly found along the rivers. borer nor to decay by brown rot fungi. 232 A SELECTION

Prospects The still growing market for tropical Uses Traditionally, green pods as vegetable hardwoods is increasingly aware of the potential have been widely used in South-East Asia. In of Pometia J. R. &G . Forst., and is especially inter­ Papua New Guinea tubers are used in the High­ ested in supply from New Guinea and the Solomon lands, where young leaves and flowers are also Islands. eaten as a salad. In Burma also tubers are used. Literature |1| Anonymous, 1975. Pometia sp. More recently the nutritional value of dry seeds (Sapindaceae). Tropical Timber Information has been recognized: it is similar to soya beans and Centre, College of Environmental Sciences and they can be put to similar uses. Winged bean flour Forestry, State University ofNe w York, Syracuse, can be used as protein supplement in bread mak­ United States. Brief No 15. 4 pp. |2| Jacobs, M., ing. Seeds can also be utilized for making edible 1962. Pometia (Sapindaceae), a study in variabi­ oil, milk, and traditional South-East Asian delica­ lity. Reinwardtia 6:109-144. |3| Keating, W.G. & cies such as tempeh, tofu and miso. The whole Bolza, E., 1982. Characteristics, properties and plant as well as processed seeds offer excellent ani­ uses of timbers. Vol. 1. South-East Asia, northern mal feed. Australia and the Pacific. Commonwealth Scien­ Production and international trade Traditio­ tific and Industrial Research Organization. Divi­ nally, winged bean has only been grown for domes­ sion of Chemical Technology, IKATA Press, Mel­ tic consumption and local markets on a small bourne, Australia, p. 280. |4| van Royen, P., 1964. scale. National or international production data Manual of the forest trees of Papua New Guinea. are not available. Most ofth e winged bean is tradi­ Part 2- Sapindaceae. Department of Forestry, Ter­ tionally grown by smallholders, although large- ritory of Papua New Guinea, Lae. pp. 35-40. scale planting oftrellise d winged bean in Thailand (J.M. Fundter, N.R. de Graaf &J.W . Hildebrand) seems promising. Properties Seed is nutritionally the most impor­ tant product containing per 100 g edible portion Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. approximately: water 11 g, protein 33 g, fat 16 g, carbohydrates 32 g, fibre 5 g and ash 3g . The ener­ Prodr. 2:40 3(1825) . gy value averages 1697 kj per 100 g. It compares LEGUMINOSAE favourably with soya bean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) 2n = 18 The amino-acid spectrum is also similar to that of Synonyms Dolichos tetragonolobus L. (1759), soya bean although it may be a little higher in Botor tetragonolobus (L.) 0. Kuntze (1891). lysine and leucine. The sulphur-containing amino- Vernacular names Wing(ed) bean, asparagus acids methionine and cystine are the first limiting pea, goa bean (En). Pois carré, haricot ailé (Fr). amino-acids, tryptophane and valine the second. Indonesia: kecipir. Malaysia: kacang botor. Papua The oilresemble s that ofgroundnu t (Arachis hypo- New Guinea: as bin, bin. Philippines: calamismis, gaea L.). Oleic and linoleic acids make up about sigarilyas, kabey. Burma: pe-saung-ya, hto-pong, 67% of the total fatty acid component and satu­ ku-bemya. Cambodia: prâpiëy. Laos: thwàx phuu. rates make up 29%. The saturated/unsaturated Thailand: thua phu. Vietnam: dâu rông. fatty acid ratio is 1:3. The oil is reasonably stable Origin and geographic distribution East and tocopherol content is high. The oil is easily Africa, north-eastern hill tracts ofIndi a and Papua refined. Amongst minerals phosphorus and zinc New Guinea have been variously suggested as occur in favourable quantities and calcium con­ centres of origin, but Indochinese-Indonesian and tent is similar to soya bean. Thiamine and ribofla­ East African centres of origin have also been pro­ vin are present in amounts comparable with other posed. Centres of greatest diversity are located in grain legumes. Indonesian and Papua NewGuine a islands. Burma Seed weight is about 250 mg. and Papua New Guinea appear to be the foci of Tubers contain around 8-10% protein on fresh domestication of this plant. Here the crop is culti­ weight basis. However essential amino-acids vated on field scale. Before the recent recognition occur in low proportions. They are rich sources of of its potential it was grown as an horticultural carbohydrates (30%) , calcium and phosphorus. plant in East Africa, parts of India, Sri Lanka, Immature green pods contain 1-3% protein and Thailand, Indo-China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Phi­ compare favourably with other leguminous vege­ lippines and a few Pacific islands. More recently tables of the tropics. They are rich source of calci­ it has been introduced to almost all tropical areas um, iron and vitamin A. Leaves are nutritionally ofth e world as well as to some subtropical areas. significant containing 5-7% protein and high PSOPHOCARPUS 233

quantities of vitamins A and C, and minerals. gence under field conditions occurs between 5-7 Description A perennial vine, usually grown as days. The relative growth rate varies from an annual. Roots numerous, with long lateral 0.13-0.14 g/g per day and the net assimilation rate roots running horizontally at shallow depth, and from 0.09-0.11 g/dm2 per day. Temperatures somebecomin g thick and tuberous. Stems twining, around 25° Cappea r most suitable for germination 2-3 m long, ridged and glabrous. Leaves trifolio- and growth. late; leaflets generally (broadly) ovate, 8-15 cm x About 2.5 months after sowing at equatorial lati­ 4-12 cm, entire, acute, with small, 2-parted sti­ tudes plants start flowering, although some geno­ pules. types require as long as about 5months . Flowering Flowers 2-10, in axillary, 5-15 cm long racemes; time varies greatly and depends on genotype and calyx campanulate, with 5 short, rounded teeth, environment. Pod development is not affected green to dark purple; corolla mauve or white, var­ greatly by environmental conditions. Maximum ious mixtures of mauve, cream, blue and red, stan­ pod length is attained in about 20 days and pod dard 2.5-4 cmlong ;stamen s with 9filament s fused, ripening occurs around 65day s after pollination. 1 free, enclosing the pistil. The fibrous root system with large nodules (up to Pods oblong to linear, 6-40 cm x 2.5-3.5 cm, more 1.5 cm in diameter) grows in proportion to the or less square with 4 smooth to serrated wings shoots until about 3 months after planting. Then 0.3-1 cm wide, rough or smooth, yellow-green, root growth either levels off as the reproductive green or, less commonly, cream, occasionally with sinks sequester photosynthates, or accelerates in red flecks. Seed 5-21 per pod, subglobose, about those cultivars and under those conditions favour­ 0.6-1 cm long, brown, yellow, dark tan, white, uni­ ing continued vegetative growth and the initiation form or variously mottled, glabrous, with a small of tubers. In tuberous cultivars increases in root aril. dry weight continue beyond the 6th month after Growth and development Seed generally planting. Tuberization isknow n to be enhanced by requires no pretreatment for germination. Emer- pruning young shoots and flowers. By the 7th or 8th month, when the shoots senesce, tubers are ready for harvest. Other botanical information Three other spe­ cieso fth e genus Psophocarpus DC.ma yb eo f inter­ est. Psophocarpus scandens (Endl.) Verde, is widely distributed in tropical Africa. It has been sug­ gested as a cover crop and reported to be resistant to diseases which cause great damage on winged bean (e.g. Synchytriumpsophocarpi). P. palustris Desv. is naturally distributed from Senegal to Sudan. Recently, it has been introduced to many other parts of Africa and in Asia. It is a traditional food item in some tribes in Zaire.I t can be used as a cover crop as well. P. grandiflorus Wilczek is naturally distributed from Zaire to Uganda and Ethiopia. This species is possibly the closest to the winged bean. Ecology Winged bean appears to be best adapted to equatorial climates. In Papua New Gui­ nea and Burma it grows at altitudes up to 2000 m but does not tolerate night frost. Day temperatures in the region of 27° C and nights warmer than 18° C are optimal for growth and reproductive develop­ ment. The tuber initiation is favoured by cooler conditions. It requires about 1000 mm or more an­ nual rainfall but it is intolerant to waterlogging. Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. - 1, flower­ Winged bean is a quantitative short-day plant. ing branch; 2,tuber; 3,fruit; 4, seed. Flower induction requires short-day 'conditions 238 A SELECTION

borne terminally on main and lateral branches, and the node at which the first one originates is a cultivar characteristic. The first flowers open 40-70 days after sowing. Pollen is mainly shed in the morning and pollination is by wind. The suc­ cessive formation of branches and inflorescences continues through the plant's life. One plant thus bears infructescences in different stages of devel­ opment. The period from emergence to maturation varies from 140-170 days. Ripening offruit s along the raceme is uneven, the lower maturing before the upper, and in wild types the period between first and last mature fruits may be several weeks. Other botanical information Ricinus L.i s con­ sidered to be monotypic (R. communis). Previously described species have been transferred to other genera or grouped within R. communis. Some cas­ tors are large perennials, others behave as short­ lived dwarf annuals and every gradation between them can be found. Colour differences in leaves, stems and inflorescences have resulted in selec­ tion ofthes e variants ashorticultura l plants. How­ ever, attempts to classify such selections as sub­ species are botanically inaccurate. In most countries 'red' and 'white' types are distinguished based on the colour ofyoun g shoots. Within these, forms or cultivars are recognized based on seed characteristics. Ricinus communis L. - 1, branch with leaves; 2, Ecology Castor is a long-day plant but is adapt­ inflorescence; 3,infructescence; 4, seed. able to a fairly wide day-length range. It grows throughout the warm-temperate and tropical duous; petiole round, 3.5-50 cm long; blade pel­ regions. It has been commercially cultivated from tate, 10-70 cm across, membranous, palmate with 40° S to 52°N , from sea level to 2000m at the equa­ 5-11 acuminate, serrate lobes. tor, with an optimum between 300-1500 m, the Panicles erect, terminal, later somewhat lateral by limiting factor being frost. Suitable soil tempera­ overtopping, up to 40 cm long, usually glaucous, tures for germination are between 10-18°C. Cas­ with unisexual flowers, male flowers towards the tor requires average day temperatures of 20-26° C base, female ones towards the top. Flowers shortly with a minimum of 15° C and a maximum of 38°C , pedicelled in lateral cymes, 1-1.5 cm diam., with with low humidity. It prefers clear, sunny days. 3-5 acute calyx lobes; corolla absent; male flowers Temperatures of 40° C or higher at flowering are with many stamens in branched bundles; female detrimental. flowers with early caducous sepals; ovary superior In regions with average rainfall exceeding 750mm , with three 1-ovuled cells, usually soft spiny; styles sowing should be carried out on such a date that 3, red or green, 2-cleft. Fruits ellipsoid to subglo- 400-500 mm rainfall is assured for the crop to the bose, 15-25 mm long, brown, spiny or smooth. time of main flowering. Castor is tolerant to water Seeds ellipsoid, 9-17 mm long, compressed, with stress because of its deep rooting system but is a brittle, mottled, shining seedcoat and with a car­ sensitive to excess of water and humidity. uncle at the base; endosperm copious, white; coty­ Castor will grow on almost any type of soil as long ledons thin. as it is well drained, not saline and reasonably fer­ Seedling epigeal; cotyledons petioled, broadly tile. It prefers deep sandy loams with pH 5- 6.5. oblong, up to 7 cm long, flat, with entire margin; Propagation and planting Castor is propa­ first leaves opposite. gated by seed. Per hole 2-3 seeds are planted at Growth and development Seedlings emerge a depth of 3-5 cm. 10-20 days after sowing. The inflorescence is By smallholders it is intercropped with annual RICINUS 239 crops. Short-cycle cultivars may be grown in sole disease, can become locally damaging in Indone­ cropping as a second crop. sia. Of the capsule diseases Alternaria spp. and In intercropping, plant distances may be4- 5 m and Botrytis spp. are the most serious. The use of resis­ castor will receive the treatment of the main crop. tant cultivars combined with other measures may With dwarf cultivars in sole cropping planting substantially reduce the effects of diseases. may be at 1 m row distance. Closer spacing can Probably the most damaging pests are those at­ result in considerable damage to branches and tacking the inflorescence, like mirids (Helopeltis shallow lateral roots during weeding. A recom­ spp.). Peach moth (Dichocrocis punctiferalis) is a mendation for in-row spacing would be 25-30 cm most important pest in India and throughout for dwarf and 30-40 cm for larger cultivars, or South-East Asia. about 25000-30000 plants/ha for crops grown in Harvesting Harvesting is in the dry season. The the range of 750-900m m rainfall. Under irrigation whole panicle is reaped when about half of its row width may be determined by the system of fruits are mature. Harvesting is in rounds about water deliverance, and where water isno t limiting 2week s apart. 30000-40000 plants/ha is feasible, depending on When the crop is grown on a peasant scale with cultivar. manual operations only, harvesting is not labour- Husbandry When castor is sown as a cash crop demanding. Where castor seeds are merely col­ the standard of cultivation varies widely per lected from wild or volunteer plants, their harvest­ region. In dry regions where total rainfall is low, ing sometimes involves no more than collecting ridging is a most suitable method. For mechanized the scattered seeds. Under intensive cropping har­ cropping under rainfed conditions field prepara­ vesting and hulling are the most time-consuming tions start by ploughing deep enough to break up operations. However, suitable machines and culti­ any compact layers. vars have been developed which are adapted to Castor seedlings are poor competitors and weed large-scale cropping. Mechanical harvesting con­ control is essential. Two weeding rounds are nor­ sists basically of removing fruits from standing mally sufficient. Where practical a combination of plants. Commercial plantings of dwarf cultivars pre-emergence herbicide followed by handweeding are usually fully mechanized. Important problems is probably most effective. The first weeding is still remain the uneven ripening and the varying about 1.5 months after sowing. It is often combined thickness of capsule wall, both producing a large with thinning, earthing up and topping. Since the proportion of unhulled or broken seeds. young crop is very susceptible to mechanical dam­ YieldAverag e yields are between 400-1000 kg/ha age, weeding should be carried out carefully. seeds, with maximum yields of about 3000 kg/ha. Effective weed control often results in a relatively Handling after harvest The fruits of traditio­ bare soil surface thus offering little protection nal cultivars are mostly semi-shattering. After against erosion. This, combined with the low soil- harvesting, the panicles are dried and spread on binding ability of castor, makes it often necessary a floor. They lose most of their seeds in 4-6 days. to include conservation measures in the cropping Unopened fruits are threshed. After separation of system and to be careful in selecting sites for large the good seeds from the trash, the product is ready plantings of castor. for storage or for sale. Fruits of modern cultivars Castor is usually not irrigated or fertilized in pea­ are often non-shattering. Such cultivars should sant farming, although both are often beneficial only be grown if mechanical de-hullers are avail­ for yield. It has been calculated that a yield of 2 able, because traditional threshing results in large t/ha seed and 1.3 t/ha hulls removes 80 kg N, 18 proportions of damaged seeds. Castor seed cannot kg P205,32 kg K20,12 kg CaO and 10k g MgO. be stored in the open except for short periods, as Diseases and pests Few diseases are of econom­ both heat and sunlight reduce oilconten t and qual­ ic importance. Normally, serious attacks only ity. Seed should behandle d with care since the thin occur in badly-growing crops and under humid and often brittle testa is easily damaged. conditions. Genetic resources Local populations are com­ The most damaging diseases attacking seedlings monly the best resources for breeding. In the Sovi­ are various rots ('damping off caused by Fusa­ et Union (All-Union Institute of Agriculture, Len­ rium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Phytophthora). The ingrad) and in India, large collections are most common foliar disease is rust caused by available at several breeding stations. At the gene- Melampsora ricini which is now probably of world­ bank of Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) local castor is wide occurrence. Cercospora ricinella, a leaf-spot available. 240 A SELECTION

Breeding All natural forms ofcasto r are diploid, northern hemisphere mainly. In South-East Asia crossing freely and are fully fertile. Castor is nor­ the genus is restricted to northern Indo-China, mally monoecious. The frequency of natural out­ where 6 species occur in the wild, and Luzon (Phi­ crossing iscommonl y between 5-50 %,bu t in some lippines) where R. transmorrisonensis Hayata and dwarf cultivars it may be as high as 90-100 %. The R. luciae Franch. & Rochebr. ex Crepin occur. R. use of male-sterile and female-sterile lines is of multiflora Thunb. ex Murray is widely naturalized great value in breeding. Selection of strains with and also R. moschata J. Herrm. and R. chinensis only male or female flowers allowed commercial Jacq. are known to escape from cultivation. The production of specific hybrids. modern cultivated roses are grown all over the Traditional long-term selection has mostly tended world; any of these may be found in South-East to focus on problems associated with mechanical Asia, especially the perpetual flowering ones. production like annual, dwarf plant architecture, Uses Roses, by some considered as the queen of indéhiscent, thin-hulled and sparsely spiny fruits, flowers, are used as ornamentals, either as flower­ maturing synchronously. The main aims of mod­ ing shrubs or as cut flowers. Rose water and rose ern castor breeding are for high seed yield, high oil, Attar or otto of roses is extracted from flowers oil content and high ricinoleic acid content, easy ofÄ. x damascena Miller, notably from cv. Trigin- harvesting and resistance to pests. tipetala. Fruits of some species are made into mar­ Prospects As a raw material for industry, castor melade and fruit-juices. Young shoots may be oil has to compete with alternative raw materials. eaten as a vegetable. The demand depends on the price of the oil in rela­ Production and international trade In South- tion to that of alternative raw materials, the relia­ East Asia production is for the local markets only. bility of sufficient supply, and the achievements No roses from this area are offered at the major obtained in research. Both supply and price have international Dutch flower auctions, which han­ fluctuated considerably in the past. With increas­ dle 70% (US$25 0million ) of the world export. The ing industrialization, however, the demand for cas­ total world production is estimated at US$ 1 bil­ tor oil may increase in the future. lion. Literature |1| Koens, A.J. , 1950.Ricinus . In: van Botany Mostly deciduous shrubs. Stems usually Hall, C.J.J. &va n de Koppel, C. (Editors): De land­ with prickles. Leaves pinnate. Flowers terminal, bouw in de Indische Archipel. III. Van Hoeve, solitary or in thyrsi or racemes, (4-)5-merous, often 's-Gravenhage. pp. 609-620. |2| Moshkin, V.A., 1986. Castor. Russian Translation Series Vol. 43. Balkema, Rotterdam. 329 pp. |3| Seegeier, C.J.P., 1983. Oil plants in Ethiopia. Agricultural Research Reports 921. Pudoc, Wageningen, pp. 204-238. |4|Soerjono , M.Sahi d &Rachma n Sk., A., 1978. Beberapa varietas harapan tanaman jarak. Pemberitaan Lembaga Penelitian Tanaman Indus- tri (Bogor) 28:15-21. |5|Weiss , E.A., 1983. Oilseed crops. Longman, London &Ne w York. pp. 31-99. (C.J.P. Seegeler)

Rosa L.

Sp. PI. 1:49 1(1753) ;Gen . PL, ed. 5:21 7(1754) . ROSACEAE x = 7 Vernacular names Rose (En). Rose (Fr). Indo­ nesia: kembang eros,bung a eros. Malaysia: bunga ayer mawar, ros. Cambodia: kolaab. Laos: kuh- laab. Thailand: kulap. Vietnam: huong. Rosa luciae Franch. & Rochebr. ex Crepin - 1, Origin and geographic distribution The inflorescence; 2,flower halved lengthwise, in anthe- genus Rosa occurs in the temperate regions of the sis. ROSA 241 double in cultivars;diamete r 1 cmi n somewil d spe­ About 60000-80000 roses are planted per ha. cies to 15 cm in some cultivars, white, yellow and Pruning of roses grown for the production of cut in many shades ofred , pink and violet but not truly flowers is not necessary, regular harvesting is suf­ blue; hypanthium urceolate, becoming coloured ficient. Renovation of the plants is necessary after and fleshy in fruit ('hip'); stamens and carpels 7 years. Disinfection and steaming of the soil is numerous; styles protruding through the orifice of then indicated, and the use of an artificial sub­ a disc; ovules 1. Fruits achenes, enclosed in the strate (rockwool) may be considered if the soil is hips. heavily infested by nematodes. Seeds of wild species may take long to germinate Roses are prone to mildew (Peronospora sp., and are best sown when not yet completely ripened Sphaerotheca sp.). Yellow roses which have R. foe- to circumvent dormancy. Most perpetual flower­ tida Herrm. among their ancestors, often suffer ing cultivars start flowering after a vegetative pe­ from blackspot (Diplocarpon rosae). Nematodes riod of 2 months and can be continuously har­ may heavily infest long used rosebeds, cultivation vested for the whole of their economic life of ca. of Tagetes L. reduces this infection strongly. 7 years. To prevent bent-neck, roses should be cut only A conservative estimate allows 95 species in the after the flower-buds have opened. After cutting, genus, although many authors recognize many the flowers should be kept for at least 4 hours in more, mainly microspecies in section Caninae. clean water (perhaps with a bactericidal agent) Important Asiatic species belong to the sections and evaporation must be prevented. 2 Synstylae and Chinenses; both sections consist of Per year about 200cu t roses/m or 2million/h a can trailing or creeping shrubs; the styles protrude be harvested. Cut roses should be stored cooled prominently above the disc, those in Chinenses and in water until delivery. being free and those in Synstylae connate in a col­ Genetic resources and breeding Rose collec­ umn. tions exist at:Garden s ofth e Rose, St Albans, Hert­ The modern perpetual flowering roses are almost fordshire, Britain; Das Rosarium, Sangerhausen, all complex hybrids, derived from European culti- German Democratic Republic; Botanical Gardens, gens such as R. x bifera (Poir.) Pers. and Asiatic Wageningen Agricultural University, the Nether­ roses such as R. chinensis Jacq., which was known lands; and Botanic Garden of Gap-Charance, in Java in 1670, possibly introduced from Canton, France. and R. x odorata (Andr.) Sweet. The first hybrids The genetic make-up of original Bourbon roses in this line originated on Reunion (Bourbon) early consisted of old cultivated stock with a much in the 19th Century. Some500 0cultivar s are grown debated pedigree. Since then many other species nowadays. The classification of these in cultivar have been used in breeding, such as R. rugosa groups as 'Hybrid-Tee', 'Polyantha' and 'Flori- Thunb. ex Murray from Japan in shrubby culti­ bunda' is becoming outdated now by many inter­ vars. R. luciae, a creeping species from Luzon, mediate cultivars. For most modern roses a classi­ China and Japan is used now to develop perpetual fication can no longer be based on their breeding flowering groundcover cultivars. Another trend is history. Many cultivars are marketed under trade­ to bring back scent in modern roses, which almost mark names, which often differ from the cultivar all lost this asset. Miniature roses may have a names. No cultivars are known that were devel­ future for indoor decoration. oped in South-East Asia. Prospects Selection of rootstocks for tropical Ecology Roses are not well suited for tropical climates might widen the possibilities for lowland lowland climates. Optimum temperature is be­ cultivation. tween 19an d 21° C; humidit y should beabou t 70% ; Literature |1|Kalkman , C, 1973.Ros a in Male- the pH of the soil between 6an d 7.5. sia. Blumea 21:281-291. |2| Leemans, J. A., 1977. Agronomy Roses are mostly budded on root- Rootstocks for roses. Boskoop. 2nd ed. 53 pp. |3! stocks, which are species from the sections Cani­ McFarland, 1980.Moder n roses 8. Harrisburg. 580 nae (e.g. 'Laxa'), Synstylae (R. multiflora and pos­ pp. |4| Saakov, S.G., 1976. Wild- und Gartenrosen. sibly especially its var. cathayensis) and Chinenses Berlin. 432 pp. |5|Vidal , J.E., 1968.Rosa . In: Flore ('Indica Major'). The rootstock 'Pantropical' was du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam 6:136-149. developed in Nigeria for tropical conditions and (D.O. Wijnands) may prove useful also in South-East Asia. Cuttings of several cultivars can be rooted under mist. In vitro propagation is used as well. 242 A SELECTION

Bubus L.

Sp. PL 1:49 2 (1753);Gen . PL:86 4(1754) . ROSACEAE x = 7. Major species and synonyms - Rubus chrysophyllus Miq., Fl. Ned. Ind. 1,1: 380 (1855),subgenu s Malachobatus; - Rubus fraxinifolius Poiret, Lam. Enc. Meth. 6: 242(1806) ,subgenu s Idaeobatus; - Rubus megacarpus Royen, Phan. Mon. 2: 65 (1969),subgenu s Micranthobatus; - Rubus niveus Thunb., Diss.Rubo : 9,fig . 3(1813) , synonym R. lasiocarpus Smith (1815), subgenus Idaeobatus; - Rubus pectinellus Maxim., Mél. Biol. Acad. St. Pétersb. 8:37 4(1872) ,subgenu s Chamaebatus; - Rubus rosifolius Smith, PL Icon. Hact. Ined. 3: t. 60(1791) ,subgenu s Idaeobatus. Vernacular names Blackberry, raspberry (En). Muron, framboise (Fr). Indonesia: kecalingan, kupikupi, beberetean. Malaysia: lintagu, dila- palian, emperingat. Papua New Guinea: ikilimbu, tiri. Philippines: (sa) pinit. Rubus rosifolius Smith - branch with flowers and Origin and geographic distribution The large, fruits. almost cosmopolitan genus has about 50 native species in South-East Asia and Australia. end of axillary leafy branches of determinate R. rosifolius occurs over a large area from sea-level growth and terminating in a flower; flowers are to altitude 2000 m. R. fraxinifolius is also wide­ regularly 5-merous; sepals are free and persist spread from sea-level to altitude 2500m . R. chryso­ under the fruits; petals are free and usually white; phyllus occurs in Sumatra, Java and Lombok at stamens and pistils are numerous, the latter on an altitudes from 1000-3000 m, R. niveus over a wide elevated torus. Many 1-seeded more or less juicy range from 1000-3000 m. The latter species was drupes stick together to form a collective fruit; taken from India to the United States and has been they usually fall as a whole, either together with (or is) in cultivation in Florida (Mysore rasp­ the dried torus (blackberry-like) or without (the berry). R. megacarpus is only known from Mount collective fruit then hollow and raspberry-like). Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea. R. pectinellus is R. rosifolius resembles R. idaeus L., the European known from the Philippines, China and Japan, at raspberry. The fruits are rather insipid. R. fraxini­ altitudes 750-2750 m. folius is a larger plant (up to 3 m) and has rich Uses Some species provide table fruits and fruits inflorescences. The fruits are sweet. R. chrysophyl­ for jams and conserves in many temperate coun­ lus is a very large plant with up to 10 m long tries. In South-East Asia, they are only locally branches. The yellow to orange fruits are said to grown for that purpose. The fruits are also locally be delicious. R. niveus has up to 3.5 m long collected from the wild as a luxury food. The pulp branches and is pink-flowered. The fruits are dark ofsom e species (e.g.R. niveus) is considered a good red to almost black. R. megacarpus has very large local source of sugars. juicy fruits, about 5c m x 3 cm, but few in number For several common species, local medicinal uses and not very tasty. R. pectinellus is said to be one ofroot s and leaves are reported against dysentery, of the choicest species of the Philippines, it is a cough and thrush, fever, urinary troubles and ab­ creeper with wiry stems. dominal pains. Ecology Most species from tropical South-East Botany Most species are climbing or sprawling Asia grow in higher altitudes, generally above shrubs with spiny stems and leaves. Leaves are 1000 m. They are typically plants of open sunny simple or compound (palmate, pinnate or trifolio- places, sometimes in light shade. Consequently, late). Inflorescences are mostly paniculate, at the they are common in man-made habitats: roadsides, RUBUS - SACCHARUM 243 burnt grassland and shrubberies. as fuel for the generation of energy needed for Propagation Vegetative multiplication is by sugar manufacture. However, it can also serve as root suckers (stolons). raw material for fibre and particle boards, plastics, Prospects It has yet to be established whether paper and furfural. For these purposes, the fibre hybridization between R. rosifolius and R. idaeus is separated from the pith which can, in turn, be is possible, to improve juiciness and taste of the used as a feed. Filter cake, consisting of juice rather insipid fruits. R. rosifolius is sometimes impurities and lime,i smainl y used as a soil amend­ grown as an ornamental and is obviously suitable ment; sometimes waxes are extracted from the for cultivation. It might perhaps be improved. cake. Molasses, left after centrifuging the sugar Some other species (e.g. R. chrysophyllus) are also crystals, is used as a feed; converted into a protei­ interesting, but are possibly not easy to grow. nic substance, it is utilized as a fertilizer or used Literature |1| Kalkman, C, 1984. The genus for production of e.g. yeast, C02 and various acids Rubus (Rosaceae) in Malesia. 2. The subgenus like essential amino-acids for animal feeds, e.g.L(- ) Malachobatus. Blumea 29: 319-386. |2| Kalkman, lysine. However, it is mostly processed into C, 1987.Th e genus Rubus (Rosaceae) in Malesia. potable and industrial alcohols. 3. The subgenus Micranthobatus. Blumea 32: A rather new development is the direct production 323-341. |3|Zandee , M. & Kalkman, C, 1981. The of industrial ethylene, not requiring refining and genus Rubus (Rosaceae) in Malesia. 1. Subgenera crystallization. The energy crisis of the 1970s and Chamaebatus and Idaeobatus. Blumea 27:75-113 . the subsequent steep rise in oil prices pushed this (C. Kalkman) development, especially in Brazil. Production and international trade Between 1982an d 1986th e average annual world cane sugar Saccharum officinarum L. production was 62.6 million t. In the same period Indonesia produced 1.78 million t, Malaysia 8660 0 Sp. PL 1:5 4(1753) . t, the Philippines 1.91 million t, Thailand 2.46 mil­ GRAMINEAE lion t and Papua New Guinea 4000 0 t/year. 2n = 80 In 1987 the world area planted to sugar cane was Vernacular names Sugar cane (En). Canne à about 12.7 million ha. The total area in Indonesia sucre (Fr). Indonesia: tebu, tiwu. Malaysia: tebu. was 283000 ha, in the Philippines 347800 ha, in Philippines: tobu. Cambodia: âmpëu. Laos: ooyz. Malaysia 19000 ha, in Thailand 603800 ha and in Thailand: oi.Vietnam : mia. Papua New Guinea 6000 ha. Origin and geographic distribution Sugar Based on the New York prices ofUS $ 165pe r tonne cane originated in New Guinea where it has been in November 1987,th e value ofra w sugar produced known from about 6000 BC. From about 1000 BC in 1987 was US$ 294 million in Indonesia, 14 mil­ it has spread gradually through the Malay archi­ lion in Malaysia, 314 million in the Philippines, pelago. It is assumed that it then hybridized with 406 million in Thailand and 6.5 million in Papua the wild canes of India and China. It reached Ha­ New Guinea. waii between 500 and 1000 AD and the Mediterra­ The local annual consumption of cane sugar in nean between 600 and 1400AD . From there it was 1985 was 2.089 million t in Indonesia, 0.51 million brought to the Caribbean and the Americas in the t in Malaysia, 1.286 million t in the Philippines, 16th and 17th centuries. 0.69millio n t in Thailand and 0.3millio n t in Papua Currently cane is being produced in almost 70 New Guinea. countries, mainly in the tropical zone but to some The exports from Malaysia, the Philippines and extent also in subtropical areas. Thailand in 1985wer e 73130,179510 0an d 161232 0 In the South-East Asian region, the main cane t, respectively. sugar producing countries are Thailand, Malay­ The sugar production from farmers' cane was sia, the Philippines, Indonesia and Papua New 74.3% in Indonesia; in Malaysia and Papua New Guinea. Guinea all cane sugar was produced by estates. Uses The major product ofsuga r cane is sucrose, Sugar mill by-products provide a significant addi­ constituting about 10% of the crop. It is a highly tional income especially important in periods of valued food and sweetener but also serves as a pre­ low sugar prices on the world market. servative for other foods. Moreover, it provides the Properties The sugar sold on the world markets basis for various food products and beverages. is valued according to colour, size of granules, po­ The fibrous residue of cane, bagasse, ismostl y used larization, and ash and moisture contents. Most 244 A SELECTION sugar issol d as coarse or fine granulated raw sugar sheath tubular, encircling stem, leaf blade linear, with a purity of 97- 99% . 'Plantation white' sugar 70-200 cm x 3-7 cm, tapering, thick at the centre for direct consumption has a purity between 99 and and paper thin at the margins, rolling up under 99.5% , while refined sugar's purity is virtually moisture stress conditions; ligule varying in culti- 100%. vars, linear, deltoid, crescent-shaped or arcuate. Besides centrifugal sugar, various products Inflorescence a terminal panicle, 25-50 cm long; obtained by traditional processing methods can be two spikelets borne at each node of ultimate found in almost all cane growing countries. The branches, one sessile and one pedicelled; spikelets traditional cane sugar known as 'gula jawa' and with two boat-shaped glumes, surrounded by long, 'gula mangkok' in Indonesia, 'panocha' in the Phi­ silky hairs, and two flowers; lower flower sterile lippines, and 'jaggery' or 'gur' in the Indian sub­ with a single glume, upper one bisexual with a continent, has an average composition of small, thin palea, enfolded by the glume ofth e ster­ 3.5-9.5 % water, 50-85 % sucrose, 2.3-15.6 % glu­ ile flower, 2 lodicules, 3 long stamens and a pistil cose and other sugars, 2.0-3.5 % ash and some pro­ with 2 feathery, usually purplish stigmas. Grain teins and aromatic substances. (caryopsis) minute, ca. 1m m long. Description A large, perennial grass up to 6 m Growth and development Within 1-3 weeks high. Root system large, but concentrated in the the buds of planted cuttings start to germinate upper 60c m ofth e soil, adventitious. Stems robust, while set roots (primordial roots) start to grow profusely tillering at base,2- 5 cm in diameter, and from the cutting's root band. These set roots will divided into 10-40 internodes; internodes long or gradually die and be replaced by shoot roots grow­ short, swollen, spindle-shaped, conoidal, obconoi- ing from the basal part of the shoot. dal, or cylindrical. Leaves borne at nodes, alter­ After germination, secondary and subsequently nate in two rows on either side of the stem; leaf- tertiary shoots will develop. Each cane stool can consist of 1 primary, 3 secondary and 3 tertiary stalks depending on the growth conditions.Th e til­ lering period starts at about 1.5 month age and con­ tinues for 1.5-3 months, depending on the cane cultivar. Late tillers (suckers) may develop before harvest (at 8-10 months). They are thick and suc­ culent. They may especially grow where light can freely enter, e.g. in the field edges and in lodged cane. After the cane canopy has closed fewer tillers will develop and most existing cane stalks will increase further in length. Their growth isinfluence d by the production of leaves and consequently of inter- nodes. The time elapsed between the formation of subsequent leaves is known as the plastochrone. Under favourable growing conditions the plas­ tochrone is 5-7.2 days and under unfavourable conditions it is two or more weeks. The growth pe­ riod of cane in South-East Asia is 6-7 months and is related to water availability. The final stage of sugar cane development is the ripening stage, and 11-14 months after planting maximum sucrose content of the fully grown stalk will be reached. This stage is evident by reduced growth ofth e stalks and byyellowin g ofth e leaves. With increasing maturity the sucrose content rises, especially in the top part of the stalk. Where­ as in earlier stages sugar is accumulated mainly in the bottom part, the difference in sucrose con­ Saccharum officinarum L. -1, habit ofplant; 2, part tent between top and bottom part is almost nil at ofstem; 3, inflorescence. full maturity. SACCHARUM 245

Other botanical information Besides S. offici- cient natural converters of solar energy and car­ narum 4 other Saccharum species have been used bon dioxide, makes optimum use of arable land. Its for sugar production or as hybridization material photosynthetic efficiency is twenty times as high for commercial cane breeding. S. officinarum is as the average world's biomass production. known as 'noble cane' and has a high sucrose con­ However, it needs high temperatures. The opti­ tent, low fibre content, long and thick stems, and mum temperatures for germination and vegetative long and broad leaves. growth are 26-33° C and 30-33°C , respectively. - S. spontaneum L., known as 'wild cane', is used During maturation, a period with relatively low for hybridization purposes, with 2n = 54,112 or night temperatures (below 18°C ) is conducive to 118. The sucrose content is very low, the fibre the formation of a high sucrose content. content very high. The plant is early maturing, Sugar cane thrives under full sunlight where its has slender but short and hard stems, narrow leaves saturate at about 1000 foot-candles and the leaves, and is resistant to most cane diseases. It compensation point is approximately at 40 foot- occurs wild from eastern and northern Africa, candles. It is a quantitative short-day plant; a day­ through the Middle East, to India, China, time period of 12-14 hours is optimum for growth Taiwan, and Malaysia and through the Pacific and flowering. to New Guinea. An average rainfall of 1800-2500 mm/year is desir­ - S. sinense Roxb., known as 'Chinese cane', with able. Ifrainfal l isinsufficient , water should be sup­ 2n = 116 and 118. The sucrose content is medi­ plemented by irrigation. Vegetative growth is pro­ um, the fibre content high. The plant is semi- moted by a uniform and high precipitation; during early maturing, has long and slender stems, with maturation the cane requires a marked dry spell long and narrow leaves. It is thought to be a in order to reduce growth and induce sugar stor­ hybrid between S. officinarum and S. sponta­ ing. Air humidity is of little importance for cane neum and is found in India, Indo-China, south­ development. ern China and Taiwan. At high altitudes the possibility of cane growing - S. barberi Jeswiet, known as 'Indian cane', with is limited because lower temperatures, particular­ In = 82,90 and 124.Th e sucrose content is medi­ ly during night, retard growth and development um, the fibre content high. The plant is semi- but increase the sugar content. Within the region, early maturing, has slender and medium long the maximum altitudinal limit for normal cane stems, with short and narrow leaves. It origi­ growth is 600-700 m above sea-level. At higher nated in India but was distributed early and was altitudes longer growth cycles of 14-18 months the major cultivated species in America until must be adopted. the 19th Century. Sugar cane thrives on a wide variety of soil types, - S. robustum Brandes & Jeswiet ex Grassl, with but deep, friable and well-drained soils with a pH 2n = 70, 80 and 84, has a low sucrose content value of 5-8, ample nutrient and organic matter and a very high fibre content. The plant matures contents and a good water-holding capacity are early or late, and has very long and thick stems, most suitable. Some cane cultivars can stand rela­ with broad and medium leaves. It is an indige­ tively high soil salinity and an extended time of nous species in New Guinea and adjacent deep inundation, especially in flowing water. islands in Melanesia. It probably gave rise to S. Being a vegetative crop, sugar cane requires large officinarum. quantities of nitrogen, although also potassium, Cane breeding for commercial cane is carried out phosphorus, calcium and silica are needed to a in Indonesia, the Philippines and to some extent relatively high extent. Trace elements play an in Papua New Guinea. Commercial cane cultivars important role in the development of cane. Insuffi­ produced are POJ and Ps (Pasuruan), CAC and cient availability of each of these elements may Phil (Philippines) and NG (Papua New Guinea). At cause growth disorders. The related symptoms, present the major cultivars in Indonesia are Ps 56 however, may bemistake n for those ofdisease s and and two imported ones, i.e. F (Formosa) 154 and mechanical damage. M (Mauritius) 442-51, and in the Philippines Phil Propagation and planting Generally sugar 56-226, Phil 58-260 and Phil 533. In Thailand, the cane is vegetatively propagated by cuttings of major cultivars are from F, Q 83,Ragnar , Pindar mature stalks. Each cutting or 'seed set' usually and Trojan (from Australia) and H (Hawaii) has 2-3 buds. The cuttings are laid down horizon­ 38-2915. tally and covered with a thin layer of soil. Ecology Sugar cane, being one of the most effi­ There are three kinds of plant materials, i.e. top 246 A SELECTION cuttings, stem cuttings and 'rayungans'. Top cut­ Husbandry Weed control is carried out tings are 'seed sets' taken from the upper part of manually, chemically and mechanically. Where the stalks of recently harvested cane. Stem cut­ sufficient labour is available, weeding is carried tings are 'seed sets' taken from special nurseries out at 3-4 week intervals with 3-4 weedings per at about 6-8 months ofage . Also whole cane stalks season. Herbicides, applied in areas with less can be planted which are cut up in 'sets' in situ labour, are sprayed twice, at 1-2 weeks after plant­ by an ordinary cane knife. 'Rayungans' are ing and 4-6 weeks later. Chemicals commonly obtained by removing leaves and top ends of seed used are one or two of the following mixtures: cane, the buds of which are then allowed to germi­ diuron, ametryne, atrazine, paraquat + diuron, or nate on the standing cane stalk. At a certain asulam + atrazine, mixed with 2,4-D amine salt. length of the new shoots, the cane is cut into sets Other herbicides, e.g. pre-emergence ones, may and planted. These germinated sets are excellent also beused . Mechanical weed control, if economi­ planting material but vulnerable during treatment cally more justified, is conducted with tractor or and transport and very labour intensive to pro­ bullock-drawn cultivators. duce. Irrigation water, if necessary, is supplied every Real seed of sugar cane isonl y used for the purpose 2-4 weeks to the cane rows in the case of furrow of breeding new cultivars. irrigation and to the cane on flat land or small fur­ 'Seed sets' are planted in a narrow planting furrow rows in the case of sprinkler irrigation. When the which should have a good tillage.The y are covered cane grows taller more water has to be applied, but with a thin layer of soil from the interrow. These intervals between the applications need not planting furrows can be made on flat land or on always be shortened. the bottom of an irrigation/drainage furrow. In Fertilizers are given twice, the first application wet places planting is even done on the top of the during planting or one week later, the second ridge between the furrows. Alternatively, mecha­ application 4-6 weeks later. Fertilizers commonly nical planting is done and stalks are chopped up, used are urea or ammonium sulphate as N source disinfected, fertilized, planted and covered with at rates of 120-180 kg/ha, triple super phosphate soil in one go. Irrigation water is usually applied as P source at 45-180 kg/ha and muriate of potash before or immediately after planting. as Ksourc e at up to 180kg/ha . In newly established The multiplication rate of cane is about 8-10, i.e. sugar cane fields, additional application of dolo­ a one ha nursery isneede d to plant 8-10 ha of cane. mite at 1t/h a and limestone at 1-4 t/ha are carried Mostly cane is planted as sole crop. However, in out every three years. Actual application rates for areas with light soils and sufficient irrigation each fertilizer depend on physical soil conditions water, cane is intercropped with e.g. maize, and fertility. groundnuts or soya beans. In those cases the inter­ In most cane fields the cane rows are earthed up crops are planted on the ridges and the cane is 1-2 times by hand or mechanically. On the heavy planted 3-4 weeks later in the furrows. clay soils of Java this is even done more times. After levelling the land and determining the direc­ Eventually the cane stands on ridges with furrows tion of the cane rows, the land is disc ploughed to in between. This practice stimulates root growth, a depth of 30-40 cm and harrowed into a fine tilth. consolidates the cane stools and improves drain­ If required, irrigation furrows with a depth of age on the heavy clay soils.O n the lighter textured 25-30 cm and a spacing of 1.10-1.30 m are made soils it helps against early lodging of cane and can for hand cultivated cane. For mechanical cultiva­ prevent erosion (if the direction of the furrows is tions, a minimum furrow distance of 145 cm is chosen well). required (minimum wheel base of tractors). Rotation of crops, particularly in farmers' cane on In earlier irrigated rice fields in Java, the 'Rey- irrigated fields in Java, is conducted in such a way noso' system was followed for preparing the land that two consecutive cane crops (planted cane and for sugar cane growing. This highly labour inten­ first ratoon) are followed by maize, soya beans or sive system, necessary for a good aeration of the groundnuts, and later by rice. In other areas 4-7 heavy soil consists of digging 30-45 cm deep and ratoons are maintained after which the old stubble 35-45 cmwid etrenches .I n between these trenches is ploughed-up and the field replanted to cane high ridges of dug-up soil are created. again. The planting time for irrigated fields is the early Ratoon management after harvesting the previous dry season; unirrigated fields are planted at the crop consists of stubble shaving, burning the cane onset ofth e rainy season. residues and trash, trash raking, filling the gaps SACCHARUM 247

with top cuttings, off-barring, fertilizer applica­ cane through crushers or shredders and subse­ tion at 0.5-1.5 month after stubble shaving, and, quently through a 3-5 roller tandem. At each if necessary, sub-soiling the interrows. Weed con­ roller unit the crushed cane is subjected to an trol usually follows immediately after fertilizer imbibition process by addition of water or cane application. juice. Alternatively, shredded cane is passed Diseases and pests Four major sugar cane dis­ through a diffuser in which sugar is extracted eases encountered in the region are mosaic virus from the cane by osmosis and lixiviation at disease,ratoo n stunting disease caused by the bac­ increased temperatures. The eventually terium Clavibacter xyli var. xyli-,yello w spot (Cer- obtained juice which is turbid and slimy is then cospora koepkei) and rust (Puccinia melanoce- sieved through fine mesh copper or stainless phala). Growing cane cultivars resistant or steel gauze in order to remove mechanical tolerant to these diseases is considered an econom­ impurities. ic and effective control measure. Hot water treat­ - Purification of juice by precipitating non-sugar ment (at 50° C for two hours or at 52° C for 20 constituents by treatment with sulphurous acids minutes) of seed canes is a satisfactory control and phosphoric acids or surface active sub­ measure for ratoon stunting disease. If not con­ stances such as silicious earth (sulphitation pro­ trolled properly, both mosaic virus and ratoon cess). Another method is treatment with a large stunting disease may cause 10% sugar yield reduc­ excess of lime followed by heating (carbonation tion, especially in ratoons. process). The flocculated impurities are then sep­ Major pests attacking sugar cane are the stem arated from the juice during the filter process. borer Chilo sacchariphagus, the top borer Scirpo- - Crystallization of thickening juice is carried out phaga nivella var. Intacta, the woolly aphid Cerato- under vacuum in the evaporation and boiling vacuna lanigera, and the rat Ratus-ratus argenti- station. With a vacuum of 710m m Hg and a tem­ venter. Satisfactory control of the stem borer can perature of 60°C , the extraction of water pro­ be carried out by the release of the larvae parasite ceeds rapidly and sugar crystals soon begin to Diatraeophaga striatalis and the egg parasites Tri- form. chogramma spp. Partial control of the top borer is - Centrifuging is conducted in cylindrical or coni­ achieved by treating the soil and injecting the cal drums whose walls are lined with perforated cane plant whorl with carbufuran granules. The copper or stainless steel gauze. The sugar crys­ woolly aphid is controlled with insecticide tals are separated from the mother liquid at high (dimethoate and monocrotophos) fogging, or at the rotation speed (800-1400 rpm). initial infestation by releasing Encarsia flavoscu- - Packing of the sugar is done by bagging either tellum parasites. Every 5-6 years rat explosions directly from the grasshopper conveyors or after occur, mainly attacking food crops and sugar cane. passing rotating driers and cooling towers. Distribution of anti-coagulant poisoned baits Genetic resources World germplasm collec­ could control the plague in sugar cane crops. tions exist in Cannanore (Coimbatore, India) and Harvesting The harvest time of sugar cane for in Canal Point (Florida, United States). A minor most Indonesian sugar factories is between May collection from the Indonesian archipelago is pre­ and October. In the Philippines and Thailand the sent in Pasuruan (Java, Indonesia); it consists of harvesting season is from November to March/ wild canes, like Saccharum barberi, S. sinense, S. April. The cane is cut and loaded manually, hand robustum, S. spontaneum, Erianthus spp. and Mis- cut and grab loaded or loaded in bundles by chains canthus spp., and S. officinarum and hybrids; the pulled by a tractor. Mechanical harvesting by collection has been used worldwide by sugar chopper harvesters or whole-stalk harvesters has research institutes for breeding purposes. not been adopted on a wide scale as yet. Burning Breeding The main breeding objectives are to before cutting is not practised, except in several develop cane cultivars with the following charac­ areas in the Philippines. teristics: high and stable cane yield, high sucrose Yield Average sugar yields per ha in Indonesia, content, good ratooning ability, resistance to the Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand are 6.281, major diseases and pests, and tolerance to adverse 4.55 t, 5.46 t and 4.07 t, respectively. The average environmental conditions, in particular to water world sugar yield is 4.93 t/ha. stress. Furthermore, cultivars should not require Handling after harvest Production processes exact harvest scheduling and should have desir­ in sugar mills are as follows: able characteristics for local farmers, e.g. self - Extraction ofjuic e from the cane, by passing the trashing and erect stalks. 248 A SELECTION

Prospects Cane sugar underwent severe compe­ R.A., 1923.Th e cultivation of sugar cane in Java. tition from other sweeteners in the early 1980s. Norman Roger, London E.C.S. 164pp . |13|va n Dil­ Recently, however, demand for sugar as compared lewijn, C, 1952.Botan y ofsuga r cane. H. Veenman with other high fructose syrup sources is expand­ & Zonen, Wageningen. 371 pp. |14| Williams, J.R., ing.Apparentl y it isregainin g its former public ac­ Metcalfe, J.R., Mungomery, R.W. & Mathes, R., ceptance as a natural sweetener with a stable form 1967. Pests of sugar cane. Elsevier, Amsterdam. and chemical composition and without health 568pp . hazards. (T. Kuntohartono &J.P . Thijsse) Conmsumpton may rise with higher incomes, espe­ cially in developing countries with relatively high population increases and still low sugar consump­ Salacca zalacca (Gaertner) Voss tion rates. The development of sugar cane by-products offers Vilmorin's Blumengärtnerei ed. 3,1:1152 (1895). new and very promising prospects. Recently, PALMAE demand for animal feeds originating from cane and 2n = 28 sugar by-products has increased. Japan is interest­ Synonyms Salacca edulis Reinw. (1825). ed in silage from dry cane leaf tops while the EEC Vernacular names Salak palm, snake fruit countries have a significant demand for fodder (En). Indonesia and Malaysia: salak. Burma: yeast. Sugar as a primary chemical raw material yingan. Thailand: sala. can be used for the production of a wide range of Origin and geographic distribution Salak derivatives such as esters, ethers and urethanes. grows wild in south-western Java and southern These again can be used as components of synthet­ Sumatra, but its precise place of origin is not ic resins and for the production of solvents, var­ known. It is cultivated throughout Malaysia and ious acids, polysaccharides, amino-acids, antibiot­ Indonesia as far as the Moluccas, and has been ics and gases. One of the most promising introduced into New Guinea, the Philippines, developments is ethanol production, a renewable Ponope Island (formerly Ascension) and repor­ energy fuel as a substitute for dwindling fossil fuel. tedly occurs on the Fiji Islands. Literature [1| Blackburn, F., 1984. Sugar-cane. Uses Salak palm is cultivated for its fruits, the Longman, London. 414 pp. 2 Blume, H., 1985. Ge­ bulk of which are consumed fresh when fully ripe. ography of sugar cane. Verlag Dr. Albert Bartens, In Indonesia the fruits are also candied ('manisan Berlin. 371 pp. |3i Chen, J.C.P., 1985. Meade-Chen salak'), pickled ('asinan salak') and fresh unripe cane sugar handbook. John Wiley & Sons, Chi­ ones may be used in 'rujak', a spicy unripe-fruit chester. 1134 pp. |4| Clements, H.F., 1980. Sugar dish. Mature fruits may be canned. The kernels cane crop logging and crop control, principles and ('seeds') of the Javanese 'pondoh' variety are edi­ practices. Pitman Publishing Ltd., London. 520pp . ble. The palm forms an impregnable hedge and the |5| Foreign Agricultural Circular. United States very spiny leaves are also used for fences, the leaf­ Department ofAgricultur e (USDA). Sugar, molas­ lets for thatching. The bark of the petioles may be ses and honey, Fs 1-85, May 1985; Fs 1-86, May used for matting. 1986. |6| Handojo, H., Kuntohartono, T. & Moch- Production and international trade Data on tar, M., 1986.Suga r cane agriculture in Indonesia. production and cultivated area are scarce and Zucker Ind. Ill (1986)-ISSCT. pp. 47-50. |7[ Han­ variable. Production figures for Java range from dojo, H. et al., 1987. Indonesia Sugar Research 7000-50000 t in recent years, about half the crop Institute, a historical outline, July 9, 1887-1987. being produced in western Java. In Indonesia, Sidoyoso, Surabaya. 137 pp. |8| Hughes, CG., where salak isexclusivel y a smallholder crop, only Abbott, E.V. &Wismer , CA., 1964.Sugar-can e dis­ a tiny fraction of total production is exported, eases ofth e world, Vol.2 .Elsevier , Amsterdam. 354 fresh, canned or candied, mainly to or through pp. |9|Husz , G.S., 1972.Suga r cane, cultivation and Singapore. fertilization. Ruhr-Stickstoff A.G., Bochum, West Properties The flesh is exceptionally firm and Germany. 116 pp. [10| Martin, J.P., Abbott, E.V. & crisp for a tropical fruit. It is quite sweet when Hughes, CG., 1961. Sugar-cane diseases of the fully ripe, but unripe fruit is sour and astringent, world. Vol. 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 542 pp. |11| due to the presence of a little tannic acid. In many Paturau, J.M., 1982.By-product s of the cane sugar types a layer of granular-looking flesh adheres to industry, an introduction to their industrial utili­ the kernel when the fruit is ripe, a state known as zation. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 274 pp. |12| Quintus, 'masir' in Indonesia, whereas in an immature fruit SALACCA 249 each kernel lies free in a cavity in the flesh. The mens borne onth ecoroll a throat anda minute pis- unique taste is somewhat comparable to a combi­ tillode; pistillate ones with tubular corolla, yel­ nation of apple, pineapple and banana. low-green outside anddar k redinside , a trilocular Description A relatively small, usually dioe­ ovary with short trifid, red style and6 staminodes cious, very spiny, creeping and tillering palm, borne onth e corolla throat. growing in compact clumps caused by successive Fruits 15-40 per spadix, globose to ellipsoid, ca. branching at the base. Roots not extending to 5-7c m x 5cm ,taperin g towards base and rounded great depth. Stem a mostly subterranean stolon at top;epicar p (skin) comprised of numerous yel­ with only its terminal leafbearing part more low to brown, united, imbricate scales, each scale upright, reaching a length of several metres and ending in a fragile prickle. Seeds usually 3 per 10-15 cmi n diameter, often branching; new roots fruit, with 2-8 mm thick, fleshy, cream-coloured growing out of the stem immediately under the sarcotesta and a smooth, stony inner part, 23-29 crown of leaves; internodes strongly congested, mm x 15-27 mm, which isblackis h brown and tri­ leaf traces inserted almost horizontally. Leaves gonous with 2 flat surfaces and a curved one; pinnate, 3-7m long ;leaf-sheaths , petiolesan dleaf ­ endosperm homogeneous and white. lets armed with numerous, long, thin, grey to Growth anddevelopmen t Seeds taken directly blackish spines; leaflets 20-70 cm x 2-7.5 cm. from the fresh fruit readily germinate in less than Inflorescence an axillary compound spadix, a week under moist, shady conditions, even onto p stalked, at first enclosed by spathes; male inflores­ of the soil. After removal from the fruit the stones cence 50-100 cmlong , consisting of 4-12 spadices, quickly lose viability in storage, probably by irre­ each 7-15 cm x 0.7-2 cm, female one 20-30 cm versible drying-out of the embryo: 55% germina­ long, composed of 1-3 spadices, 7-10 cm long. tion was found after 1 week, 0% after 2weeks . Ger­ Flowers in pairs in axils of scales; staminate mination becomes visible by the extrusion of the flowers with reddish, tubular corolla and 6 sta- cylindrical embryo-containing plug through the germpore atth estone' s apex, aradicl e soon emerg­ ing from the tip ofth e plug. From the sides of this plug the shoot, a main root and several secondary roots will emerge. About 60-90 days after sowing the first complete leaf, bifid and some 20-30 cm long, is fully expanded, the seedling still being firmly attached to the seed. Three to four years after sowing, the palm starts flowering. Pollina­ tion isprobabl y byinsects , notably a weevil, tenta­ tively identified as Nodoceumis sp. Five to seven months after pollination fruits aremature . In prin­ ciple,th epal m flowers andfruit s continuously but most reports indicate harvest peaks around May and - a major one- December in Indonesia. This implies a top flowering period in June-July, i.e. the first half ofth e dryseason , following the small harvest peak. Thepal m canb eproductiv e for sev­ eral decades. Other botanical information Salak palm grown in northern Sumatra is ascribed to a dis­ tinct species, S. sumatrana Becc. S. zalacca, culti­ vated elsewhere in Indonesia, is subdivided into two botanic varieties, var. zalacca from Java and var. amboinensis (Becc.) Mogea from Bali and Ambon. In Indonesia at least 20 types are distin­ guished according to place of origin and cultiva­ tion, e.g.'Condet' , 'Pondoh', 'Bali', 'Suwaru'; these may obtain cultivar status as vegetative propaga­ Salacca zalacca (Gaertner) Voss - plant part with tion gains importance. male inflorescences (1),and fruits (2). Ecology Salak thrives under humid tropical 252 A SELECTION tilated situations, protected from subterranean lis (Korth.) Bl., Sh. palembanica Miq. (partly), Sh. termite attack. Its durability class is IV-III and platycarpa Heim (partly), Sh. teysmanniana Dyer its strength is classified in class III-IV in Indone­ ex Brandis, Sh. macrantha Brandis (partly), Sh. sia (classification according to Oey Djoen Seng). leprosula Miq. (partly), Sh. dasyphylla Foxw., Sh. The wood can be worked without problems and hemsleyana (King) King ex Foxw. (partly), Sh. lepi- does not split when nailed. dota (Korth.) Bl. and Sh. parvifolia Dyer. Growth and development Sh. johorensis Ecology Sh. johorensis is a tree of fertile soils flowers with long intervals of 4-5 years. Flower­ onhillsides , on welldraine d alluvium and undulat­ ing starts simultaneously with many other diptero- ing land below 600m altitude. carps during the so called 'mast' (on a massive Propagation and planting Until recently Sh. scale) flowering years. In Kalimantan flowering johorensis was not planted at all. The only method was observed in the months January and Sep­ for propagation was based upon the availability of tember. Fruits are ripe about 3-3.5 months after seeds, but without infection by suitable ectomy- flowering. The seeds usually shed off towards the corrhizal fungi, attempts to grow seedlings failed. start of the wet season. Heavy seed years occur at When planted in the open field many seedlings infrequent intervals. One large tree may produce died because of the negative impact of high soil as much as 2500 0 seeds, but many are damaged by temperature on the mycorrhizae of the seedlings. insects before maturation. Recently the wilding collection method for dipter- Seeds germinate within a few days after falling. ocarp seedlings was improved and naturally The seedlings develop a tap-root and one pair of infected seedlings could be collected and planted opposite leaves.Afte r some time they start produc­ under a vegetation producing light shade. Based ing spirally arranged leaves if growing under upon growth figures of some other Shorea species, favourable circumstances. They have to form ecto- the best planting distance is probably 4 m x 4 m, mycorrhizae, otherwise their growth will become or, when planted under a cover crop, in rows 10 stunted and eventually they willdie . The seedlings m apart with 3 m distance within the rows. Propa­ can withstand very long periods of heavy shade gation by cuttings of juvenile plant parts is also and still react vigorously when suddenly more possible. Tissue culture has not been successful so light becomes available. Most Shorea species were far. believed to grow better in shade. Recent investiga­ Management After sufficient development of tions have shown that full sunlight usually results the crowns (more than 50% crown closure), over- in a rise ofth e soil temperature near the seedlings storey light should be increased by thinning. This which leads to the inactivation of their mycorrhi- can start at about 30year s age ofth e plantation. zae.Thi s in turn leads to adeclinin g vigour or even Diseases and pests No serious diseases are death of the seedlings. Nevertheless, optimal pho­ known. The only damage encountered concerned tosynthesis may be reached well below full light some gall formation and heart rot in plants intensity. The seedlings grow according to the ar­ younger than 5years . chitectural model of Roux, consisting of an ortho- Harvesting About 40year s after planting, when tropic axis with continuous growth and of plagio- the trees have a diameter of about 40 cm, cutting tropic branches which are produced continuously, down can start. showing continuous growth as well. Leaves of Yield It isestimate d that in East Kalimantan Sh. seedlings are small but in saplings they become johorensis yields an average of 3-8 m3/ha wood per much larger, while in the adult phase they become year. One tree yields about 1.5 m3 wood. smaller again. Growth of Sh. johorensis is very Prospects Because of its good growth and its fast. At 3year s seedlings reach 5m height on aver­ good wood quality, Sh. johorensis is a promising age, if grown under Calliandra. If the shade is plantation tree. In Indonesia it receives priority. heavy, growth is very slow. In plantations trees Research is focused on a good regulation of the increase about 1m/yea r in length and about 1 cm/ light regime by cultivation and maintenance. year in diameter. First flowering starts when the Literature 111 Ashton, P.S., 1983. Dipterocarpa- crown of the trees reaches the canopy storey and ceae.In : Flora Malesiana. Vol.9(2):513 . |2| Browne, may be as soon as 10-15 years after germination F.G., 1955.Fores t trees of Sarawak and Brunei and for solitary growing specimens. their products. Government Printing Office, Other botanical information Other species of Kuching, Sarawak, p. 140. |3[ Dahms. K.G., 1982. the light red meranti group to which Sh. johorensis Asiatische, ozeanische und australische Export­ belongs are: Sh. acuminata Dyer (partly), Sh. ova- hölzer. DRW-Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 199-203. |4j STEVIA 253

Smits, W.T.M., 1986.Pedoma n sistim cabutan bibit Pure stevioside is a white powder with an intense Dipterocarpaceae. In: Priasukmana, S. & Tangke- sweet menthol-like taste and a slightly bitter after­ sik, J. (Editors): Manual for the collection of Dip- taste. It is soluble in water, solubility exceeding terocarp wildings. Edisi khusus 02. BKP-Samar- 40% at 25°C . Stevioside is insoluble in ethanol. inda. 25pp . In combination with other sweeteners like aspar­ (W.T.M. Smits) tame and cyclamate sweetness will be affected synergetically. The sweetness is about 200-300 times that of sucrose. The stem contains about Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Hemsley 0.4% stevioside, dried leaves 3-10% and 1-3% rebaudioside A. The root system and rhizome do Hook. Ic. PI. t. 2816(1906) . not contain stevioside. COMPOSITAE The interaction of stevioside with food compo­ 2n = 22 nents isno t known, but it doesno t cause browning. Synonyms Eupatorium rebaudianum Bertoni Stability at 100° C is highest in neutral solutions. (1899). Results of standard short-term tests in Japan indi­ Vernacular names Stevia (En). Indonesia: ste­ cate no significant mutagenic or genotoxic activi­ via. Thailand: ya wan. ty ofstevioside . Along-ter m rat study is under way Origin and geographic distribution Stevia in Japan to test its safety. originates from north-eastern Paraguay and Description A slender, erect, monoecious pe­ south-eastern Brazil. It is now taken into cultiva­ rennial herb, 60-80 cm high in natural stands and tion in Japan, China and Taiwan. In the early up to 120 cm under cultivation, with vigorous rhi­ 1970s stevia found its way into Indonesia. zome. Shallow rooting, with conical, little branch­ Uses A sweetener, mainly stevioside, can be ing roots. extracted from the dried leaves. In Paraguay and Leaves opposite, oval-elliptic, 3-6.5 cm x 0.8-1.9 Brazil dried leaves are used as a sweetener in tea or as a herbal remedy for diabetes. In Japan the sweetener isuse d to increase the sweetening inten­ sity of other agents like fructose or to lower the caloric value of a sweetener. It is also added to sugarless chewing gum to enhance sweetness and flavour. To lower the caloric value of sugar stevio­ side can be added to sugar cubes. Moreover, it is used in Japanese pickles, dried seafood, flavour­ ings and confectioneries. It can also serve as a fla­ vour modifier and suppressor of the pungent taste of, for instance, sodium chloride used in the prepa­ ration of soya-bean sauce. Stevioside is only per­ mitted for food processing in Paraguay, Brazil and Japan. Production and international trade Produc­ tion figures for Paraguay and Brazil are not avail­ able. In 1981 650-750 t of dried stevia leaves were used for stevioside extraction. 60% of the leaves came from Japan while 40% were imported from other Asian countries.I n 1981 about 45-531stevio ­ side was produced in Japan. Japan is up to now the only stevia processing country. In 1982th e ste­ vioside price was US$ 90000-13 0 000pe r tonne for a degree of purity of 90 %. Properties Important constituents of stevia are stevioside, steviol and rebaudioside A and B. Ste­ vioside, the main product, is a diterpene glucoside, steviol a hydrolisate of stevioside, whereas rebau­ Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Hemsley 1, branch dioside A and Bar e also glucoside compounds. with leaves; 2,flowering branch. 254 A SELECTION

cm, 3-veined, the margin dentate. Flowers her­ For vegetative propagation cuttings are used with maphrodite, aggregated in heads, with white co­ 4-5 nodes, taken from the apical part of stem and rolla, self-incompatible. Achenes sessile, crowned branches. Under constant high air humidity and by pappus, partly parthenocarp (then light col­ with the use ofgrowt h regulators to stimulate root oured). Seeds without endosperm. formation, a 100% success can be reached after Growth and development Light promotes ger­ about 17days . The cuttings are planted in nursery mination of stevia seeds. Germination takes place beds and covered with transparant plastic which under warm (optimum temperature 20°C ) and is secured on a bamboo framework. Two weeks moist conditions 2-7 days after sowing. Seedlings after planting the plastic cover can be removed. are very sensitive to high temperature and water When cuttings are made during the dry season the stress. cover should be removed gradually. At the end of Vegetative growth isslo w during the first 2weeks , the third week planting in the field can start. after that growth is accelerated during 2 months. In West Java rooted cuttings are used as planting The length of the vegetative growth period material, and planting distance in the field is 25 depends on the planting material used and the pho- cm x 25 cm, giving about 160000 plants/ha. In toperiod. Japan, spacing is 50 cm x 60 cm, giving 3300 0 Flowering under the critical photoperiod of 12 plants/ha. hours occurs 50-60 days after sowing. In case of Recently, a simple and rapid method for vegetative a ratoon crop flowering takes place within 40 days multiplication has been developed by means of in- after cutting. Long days, however, promote leaf vitro culture: the nodal segments of the stem are production resulting in a higher content of stevio- incubated on an artificial growing medium, giving side (on dry-matter basis). rise to new plants. Ecology The climate of stevia's native habitat Husbandry Little is known about cultural prac­ can be characterized as semi-humid subtropical tices to make commercial cultivation of stevia with average annual temperature of 24°C . Aver­ more efficient. Weeds can be suppressed either age annual precipitation amounts to 1400-1600 manually or chemically using pre- or post-emer­ mm. Stevia is a quantitative short-day plant. It gence herbicides. Weeding in West Java is prefera­ occurs naturally on the edges of marshes or in bly done manually to prevent possible negative grassland communities up to 700m altitude, which effects on the quality of the product if chemicals are continuously moist but not subjected to pro­ are used. This makes maintenance very labour- longed inundation. Soils have a high water table intensive. and are typically infertile acid sands or muck with Irrigation, if necessary, must be frequent and shal­ a pH of4-5 . However, stevia grows well too on less low using good-quality water with low salt concen­ acid to neutral soils with a pH of 6.5-7.5. It is tration. Surface irrigation is very suitable, espe­ sensitive to water stress and salinity. cially during the dry season. Sprinkler irrigation Under cultivation stevia grows best in areas with has recently been introduced in Indonesia. a long frost-free growing season. Growth will be Stevia responses well to farmyard or liquid orga­ retarded severely below 15°C . High light intensi­ nic manure. Nutrient uptake per tonne dry matter ties and high temperatures promote stevioside pro­ is 20-25 kg N, 2-2.5 kg P and 25-30 kg K. Applica­ duction. On Java stevia is cultivated up to 1500 m tion of fertilizers affects the leaf dry matter pro­ altitude. duction positively but not the stevioside content Propagation and planting Stevia canb e propa­ of the leaves. gated by seed, cuttings and tissue culture. Seeds Flower-heads that appear before harvest are are sown on a fine seed-bed. The beds should be removed. shaded and covered with a transparant finely per­ Diseases and pests Little is known about dis­ forated plastic sheet. Germination starts within a eases and pests. Two pathogenic fungal species week, after which the shade should bereduce d gra­ (Colletotrichum sp. and Sclerotium rolfsii) have dually to harden the seedlings. Two weeks after been isolated from a stevia stand in western Java. sowing, the plastic cover must be removed. At this In 1984 in the same area stevia was attacked by time seedlings bear two pairs of leaves and can be army worms (Heliothis spp.) destroying young transplanted individually into plastic bags and leaves and flowers. placed in the nursery. After 4 months in the nur­ Harvesting First harvest takes place 2 months sery the young plants have reached a height of 15 after planting. The second and following harvests cm and can be planted into the field. are carried out at intervals of 1month . At harvest, STYLOSANTHES 255 sterns and branches are cut at a height of at least Inglett, G.E., 1986.A revie w of various other alter­ 15c m above the ground; cutting lower gives a high native sweeteners. In: O'Brien Nabors, L., & percentage ofmortality . Harvest ispossibl e during Gelardi, R.C. (Editors): Alternative sweeteners. a period of about 5years . Marcel Dekker, New York. pp. 309-323. |4| Soe- Yield In Japan, the yield in the first year (in two jarto, D.D.,Compadre , CM., Medon, P.J., Kamath, harvests) is400-50 0 kg/ha dry leaves. Yields in the S.K. &Kinghorn , A.D., 1983. Potential sweetening second and third year vary from 1.5-2 t/ha dry agents of plant origin. II. Field search for sweet- leaves, which is equivalent to 50-75 t/ha sucrose tasting Stevia species. Economic Botany sugar. In western Java a yearly production of 3 t/ 37(l):71-79. |5| Sudarmadji, D., 1985. The observa­ ha of dry leaves is possible. tion of pest and nematode on Stevia rebaudiana Handling after harvest The leaves are separa­ Bertoni. Menara Perkebunan 53(6):225-227. |6| ted from the stems by hand and kept in plastic bags Wardojo, S., 1984. Aspek penelitian budidaya Ste­ at room temperature before drying. The method of via rebaudiana Bertoni (Compositae). Balai Pene­ drying is of great importance for the quality of the litian Perkenunan Bogor. 12pp . product. Drying can be done in the sun or, during (J. Mohede &R.T.M . van Son) the rainy season, mechanically in a ventilated desiccator. Drying in a desiccator between 70-80 °C gives a product of good quality. Stylosanthes guianensis (Aublet) Sw. For export, the product (dried leaves) should meet the following standards: moisture content not Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl. 10:30 1(1789) . higher than 10%, stevioside content (including LEGUMINOSAE rebaudioside A) not less than 11% , and impurities 2« = 20 not more than 11% . Synonyms Trifolium guianense Aublet (1775). Dried leaves can be stored in plastic bags or in air­ The name S. guianensis is sometimes erroneously tight drums. Transport to Japan takes place in spelled S. guyanensis. plastic bags. Commercial processing involves Vernacular names Stylo, Brazilian lucerne water extraction at 20°C , decolouration and puri­ (En). Luzerne du Brésil, luzerne tropicale (Fr). fication using ion-exchange resins, electrolytic Thailand: ya satailo. techniques or precipitating agents. Origin and geographic distribution The natu­ Genetic resources and breeding Due to remo­ ral distribution of stylo ranges from northern val of natural vegetation for cultivation, gene Argentina into Mexico. The variety guianensis, centres of stevia are threatened with destruction. which is of particular interest to South-East Asia, Species of the genus Stevia Cav. (about 150) are has its centre of origin in Brazil and is naturally found in tropical and subtropical America. Only distributed to Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Stevia rebaudiana is known for its sweetening pro­ Venezuela, Guyana and Central America. During perties.Germplas m collections ofthi s species exist the 20th Century it has been introduced all over in Japan, Korea and Indonesia. the tropical world and is now widely naturalized Prospects Stevioside has not yet been approved in most tropical countries. by the Food &Dru g Administration in the United Uses Stylo isuse d as a cover crop in plantations, States and by the European countries. If approved as a green manure crop and as a fallow crop in the demand for stevia may increase in the future. shifting cultivation, but it is best known as a pas­ In that case the role ofIndonesi a as supplier of ste­ ture legume for humid tropical regions. via leaves may be promising. Investigations are Properties Crude protein levels range from needed on weed control, water management, ferti­ 12-18 % ofth e dry matter. Dry matter digestibility lization and labour requirements and efficiency of of young plant material lies between 60 and 70 %, harvest. Moreover, breeding and selection for but with increasing age and lignification this may higher stevioside content and higher leaf-to-stem be reduced to below 40% . The quality of the plant ratio are desirable. material ingested by animals depends to a large Literature |1| Goenadi, D.H., 1985. Effect of extent on the ability of the animals to select, i.e. farmyard manure, NPK and liquid organic fertili­ the amount they have to choose from. zers on stevia. Menara Perkebunan 53(2):29-34.[2 | Because stylo is able to grow on low fertility soil, Higginbotham, J.D., 1982.L'éta t présent des aspar­ its phosphate concentration may range between tame, stevioside et autres édulcorants. La Sucrerie 0.06 to over 0.30 % of the dry matter. It is possible Belge Vol. 101:235-241. |3| O'Brien Nabors, L., & for stylo to grow adequately on soils with a low 256 A SELECTION phosphate availability; this causes low phosphate to orange, often with black stripes, wings and keel concentration in the herbage, in which case ani­ 3.5-5 mm long. Pod usually 1-jointed, the article mals feeding on the plant would need to be supple­ ovoid, 2-3 mm x 1.5-2.5 mm, glabrous or rarely mented with phosphate for their normal require­ with very short pubescence, indistinctly veined, ments. Stylo is not known to contain anti- with a minute beak, strongly inflexed. Seeds pale nutritional factors. Although stylo isreadil y eaten brown or purple. by cattle and sheep, its palatability is not very Growth and development Stylo plants have a high, which protects it from being overgrazed. As juvenile phase during which floral initiation will with many other tropical legumes, young growth not take place. Stylo is a copious seed producer, of stylo is less palatable than young growth of but more than 70% may be hardseeded. Hardseed- grasses. edness breaks down naturally under hot condi­ Description A perennial herb or sub-shrub, tions and can also be broken by dry or wet heat semi-erect to erect, with a strong tap-root and before sowing. small round root-nodules. Stems much branched, As a fixer of atmospheric nitrogen, stylo contrib­ herbaceous or lignified at the base, to 1 m tall, utes to increased soil fertility, although it has been indumentum varying from nearly glabrous to den­ compared unfavourably with other legumes in this sely pilose, often with bristles and viscid. Leaves respect. It nodulates freely with cowpea type Bra- trifoliolate; petiole 1-12 mm, rachis 0.5-1.5 mm dyrhizobium strains and does not require inocula­ long; stipules 2-15 mm, adnate to the petiole, teeth tion. 2-10 mm long; leaflets elliptic to lanceolate, 5-45 Other botanical information In S. guianensis mm x 2-20 mm, not more than 8time s longer than 1varietie s are distinguished by morphological and wide, indumentum varying as on stems. ecological characteristics. Only var. guianensis is Inflorescence a loosely capitate spike, terminal or important for South-East Asia and the information axillary, with more than 4 flowers. Flower sub­ given in this account refers mainly to this variety. tended by an outer bract with 3-7 mm long sheath, Another variety adapted for wet tropical regions a 2.5-5.5 mm long outer bracteole and a 2-4.5 mm is var. gracilis (Kunth) J. Vogel (syn. S. gracilis long inner bracteole; calyx tube 4-8 mm long, Kunth), but this has no agronomic value. Several lobes 3-5 mm; standard 4-8 mm x 3-5 mm, yellow cultivars of var. guianensis have been developed in Australia and to a lesser extent in Colombia (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical). The main cultivars released in Queensland, Aus­ tralia are : 'Schofield', adapted to hot moist cli­ mates; 'Cook', similar to cultivar 'Schofield', but earlier flowering, more branched and better adapted to lower temperatures; 'Endeavour', be­ tween cultivars 'Schofield' and 'Cook'; 'Graham', the earliest flowering cultivar and better adapted to subtropical conditions. Cultivars released in South America are: 'Liber- tad' in Colombia and 'Pucallpa' in Peru. Ecology Stylo is adapted to hot, moist climates, and is neither frost nor drought tolerant. It grows on all soil types, but is particularly well adapted to acid soils of low fertility with high aluminium and manganese contents. Stylo is a short-day plant with a critical photoperi- od of between 12-14 hours, depending on cultivar. However, some cultivars have been reported to require exposure to long days prior to short days before flowering is initiated. Certain cultivars will only flower sporadically at the equator because of daylength requirements. Stylosanthes guianensis (Aublet) Sw. - flowering Propagation and planting Stylo is propagated branch. by seed. Hot water treatment (10 minutes at 80°C ) SYZYGIUM 257 to break hardseededness improves germination tions. Plant collections in South America also rates. Seeding rate is 2-6 kg/ha. When sown offer scope for further cultivar development and together with grasses a good seed-bed preparation improvement. In Colombia, CIAT has selected and is desirable, but when sown into an existing pas­ released a cultivar of S. capitata J. Vogel (cv. ture little or no seed-bed preparation is necessary. Capica) with higher adaptation to acid soils and Stylo can also be grown in a pure stand as a green anthracnose than S. guianensis. manure, cover or fodder crop. It is suitable for Prospects It is unlikely that much effort will be small and large scale agriculture. put into improving the adaptation or yield of S. Husbandry Stylo can be used by continuous or guianensis, because there are other species of Sty- rotational grazing or cutting. It responds to losanthes that can take its place. improved soil fertility, particularly phosphate, but Literature 1 Burt, R.L., Cameron, D.G., can grow at very low soil fertility levels. Cameron, D.F., 't Mannetje, L. & Lenne, J., 1983. Diseases and pests Stylo is susceptible to anth- Stylosanthes. In: Burt, R.L., Rotar, P.P., Walker, racnose disease, caused by the fungi Colletotri­ J.L. & Silvey, M.W. (Editors): The role of Centro- chum gloesporioides and C. dematium, the former sema, Desmodium and Stylosanthes in improving being the more important one. The disease was tropical pastures. Westview Tropical Agriculture first reported from Brazil, but has now spread Series, No 6. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, throughout theworl d bytranspor t ofinfecte d seed. United States, pp.141-181 . |2|' tMannetje , L.,1977 . Symptoms of the infection are black lesions on the A revision of varieties of Stylosanthes guianensis leaves and stems, which eventually lead to the (Aubl.) Sw. Australian Journal of Botany 25:347- death ofth e plants. Although the fungi can be con­ 362. |3| Stace, H.M. & Edye, L.A. (Editors), 1984. trolled chemically, this isno t an economic proposi­ The Biology and Agronomy of Stylosanthes. Aca­ tion, except for valuable seed crops. The approach demic Press, Sydney, Australia. 636pp . being followed in Australia and Colombia is to (L. 't Mannetje) select resistant cultivars. It has been reported by CIAT (Colombia), that stylo would be resistant to the diseases in humid tropical regions because of Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & the presence of micro-organisms antagonistic to Perry the fungi. Harvesting Stylo is harvested by grazing ani­ Mem. Am. Acad. Arts &Sc . 18:196 (1939). mals or it ismow n for stall feeding or artificial dry­ MYRTACEAE ing. When mown, care should be taken not to cut 2n = unknown woody stems too low, otherwise regrowth will be Synonyms Caryophyllus aromaticus L. (1753), adversely affected. Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill. (1876), Eugenia ca­ Yield In pure stands stylo can produce up to 10 ryophyllus (Sprengel) Bullock &Harriso n (1958). t/ha of dry matter and its contribution in mixed Vernacular names Clove (En). Clou de girofle pastures can amount to 4-6 t/ha, depending on soil (Fr).Indonesia : cenkeh. Burma: lay-hnyin. Cambo­ fertility and moisture level. dia: khan phluu. Laos: kaanz phuu. Thailand: kan Handling after harvest Although usually con­ phlu. Vietnam: dinh huong. sumed fresh, the forage can also be artificially Origin and geographic distribution The clove dried. Hay making or ensiling are not commonly tree was first cultivated on some islands of the practised in the wet tropics. Moluccas. The species occurs wild there, as well Genetic resources Stylo is well represented in as in New Guinea; it is found in abundance as a South-East Asia and seed isbein g sold. Germplasm second-storey forest tree on the lower mountain collections are available at the Commonwealth slopes.Th e crop has a long and fascinating history Scientific and Industrial Research Organization going back to the Han Dynasty in the 3rd Century (CSIRO), Queensland, Australia and at the Centro BC; the story of its spread is full of intrigue and Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), brutality. Colombia. Early in the 17th Century, when the Dutch ousted Breeding Plant breeding programmes are in the Portuguese from the Moluccas, cultivation progress in Queensland, Australia, for anthrac- had spread to many islands. Under Dutch rule, the nose resistance. The available natural variation crop was forcibly eradicated everywhere and con­ within the species allows selection for adapted cul­ centrated on Ambon, a southern island of the tivars to a wide range of environmental condi­ group and three nearby small islands. This is the 258 A SELECTION wettest part of the Moluccas and from there the was under way in Indonesia, spurred byth e rapidly clove tree reached other parts of Asia: early in the rising demand for 'kretek' cigarettes. From 8200 19th Century the British took plants to Pinang, ha in 1951, the area rose to 80000 ha in 1971, al­ Sumatra, India and Sri Lanka. Inth e 20th Century, legedly jumping to more than 500000 ha in 1981. much material spread throughout Indonesia. Dur­ Apparently the clove tree caught the fancy of the ing expeditions in 1753,1770 and 1772,th e French small farmer in a big way. Indonesians call the had appropriated some offspring from trees that clove 'the 100000 rupee tree' and growers planted must have escaped the Dutch axe and taken them a few clove trees in the hope of just striking rich from the northern Moluccas to Mauritius. These one day. Statistics for 1985giv e a smallholder area plants gave rise to the clove populations outside of 620000 ha and 20000 ha on estates. However, Asia, in Zanzibar, Madagascar and recently also these figures may not take into account the heavy in Bahia in Brazil. losses of trees after planting. It is said that more Uses From ancient times, the clove has been than half the trees never reach bearing age.I n fact, valued as a spice by the Chinese. In the early Mid­ production picked up rather slowly, lagging dle Ages the spice became increasingly important behind the demands of the cigarette industry, esti­ in Europe and also in India, where to this day betel mated at 55000 1i n 1985. quid is fastened with a clove. In South-East Asia, Demand for all other uses worldwide has been stag­ however, the clove is hardly used to flavour food; nant for a long time at 4000-5000 t per year. The medicinal use of both the clove (the flower bud) yield of clove stems roughly equals that of clove and the mother-of-clove (the fruit) has always pre­ buds.T osom e extent stems are used as a cheap sub­ dominated. Cloves suppress toothache and halito­ stitute for buds;thi s explains why figures for clove sis;the y are also a stimulant and carminative. consumption tend to exceed clove production fig­ Now, some 90% of the cloves are used along with ures! tobacco to produce 'kretek ' cigarettes, which are Clove prices per kg stood at only 0.30 British smoked in Indonesia. It is not known where the pounds in the London market through the 1960s, habit originated. Rumphius reported it from the but suddenly leapt to 1.75 British pounds in 1969 Moluccas in the 18th Century. He also described and continued to rise to 5.50 British pounds in the curing ofclove s over small fires, Ambon appar­ 1984,a year with a poor crop in Indonesia. The next ently being too wet to rely on sun-drying. Perhaps good crop made Indonesia self-sufficient for the it was not a great step from inhaling the smoke of first time and brought the price down, but in years the fires to the smoking of tobacco mixed with with poor crops the country still depends on clove. imports from Zanzibar and Madagascar. When used as a spice, the dried clove buds are Properties The quality of the spice is deter­ added to the food as such or after grinding, or the mined by the content in the product of aromatic oleoresin is extracted to standardize the flavour steam-volatile oil, which may be as high as 21% (for use, for instance, in manufactured foods). but is more usually around 17%. Distillation of Distillation of cloves yields an oil that is used in clove buds, clove stems and leaves gives yields of the flavouring and perfume industry. Alesse r qual­ oil of 15-17 %, 6% and 2-3 %, respectively, which ity oil is distilled from the flower stalks ('clove has an eugenol content of 80-95 %. stems' in Zanzibar), a by-product of the clove har­ Description A slender, evergreen tree, up to 20 vest and from the leaves (Madagascar, Indonesia). m tall, conical when young, later becoming cylin­ The major component of the oil is the phenol euge- drical, in cultivation usually smaller and nol, formerly used to produce synthetic vanillin. branched from the base. Roots form an extensive Because of its flavour and antiseptic properties, dense mat close to the surface with some major lat­ eugenol is used in soaps, detergents, toothpaste erals, from which occasional 'sinker' roots reach and pharmaceutical products. down. Shoot growth determinate, appearing in The tree's timber is hard, heavy and durable, but, flushes, forming a dense canopy of fine twigs. with its dull greyish colour, it is not decorative. Leaves obovate-oblong to elliptic, 6-13 cm x 3-6 Production and international trade For over cm, opposite, simple, glabrous, coriaceous, shin­ a hundred years, Zanzibar was the largest produc­ ing, gland-dotted with short reddish petioles. er of cloves, with an average annual production Inflorescences terminal paniculate cymes, about 5 of 11000 t from 1960-1970, compared with 9000 t cm long, with 3-20 (-40) flowers; flower buds for Indonesia and 6000 t for Madagascar. During about 1-2 cm long, constituting the cloves just that decade, a remarkable expansion of the area before opening; flowers bisexual, hypanthium SYZYGIUM 259

order of 10k g per tree. Since the shoot-growth pattern governs flowering, it is surprising that the growth rhythm ofth e clove has hardly been studied. Even the timing of flower initiation and the process of floral differentiation are not clear. Flower initiation seems to take place only in mature shoots that have been quiescent for several months. Buds on twigs which flowered last year do not as a rule flower this year, a form of biennial bearing at the shoot level which also occurs in some mango cultivars. However, under favourable conditions some trees do show profuse return bloom on twigs which flowered the previous year. In this case the inflorescences appear a few weeks later and are small; they emerge from mixed buds which unfold a pair ofleave s before the termi­ nal inflorescence becomes visible. These mixed buds are found in lateral positions, just below the point of removal of last year's inflorescence. It remains to be shown whether these trees are indeed more regular in bearing and - if so - whether this is worthwhile, considering the cost of picking small inflorescences. The crop cycle starts with a major flush as soon as the rainy season has set in. Shortly before this flush, there is a first indication of the coming crop: Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry - 1, rather suddenly the plump, light-green, floral, ter­ branches with flower buds and flowers; 2,a clove. minal buds can be distinguished from the reddish vegetative shoot tips which will form part of the flush. After this flush matures the inflorescences fleshy, reddish; sepals 4, fleshy, triangular; petals emerge from the green terminal buds and a few 4; stamens numerous; style short; stigma 2-lobed. weeks later from the mixed axillary buds. The ex­ Fruit (called mother of cloves) a berry, ellipsoid- pansion of the inflorescences progresses slowly in obovoid, 2-2.5 cm long, dark red, usually contain­ a series of stages; it takes 6month s before the buds ing one oblongoid seed 1.5 cm long. are ready for harvest. If the tree is not harvested, Growth and development Seedlings are raised the fruit matures 3month s later. immediately after harvest because the seed loses Minor flushes of leafy shoots occur at irregular its viability within a few weeks. The young plants intervals, but in bearing trees,flushin g stops in the grow slowly and are quite delicate. Losses are high last few months before harvest. Hence the leaves until the young trees are firmly established; in par­ age and leaf fall is accelerated, leading to a low ticular, damage to the tap-root of the seedling is ratio of tops to roots. This stimulates renewed often fatal. The juvenile phase lasts about four flushing after harvest, which may be further years under favourable conditions. Clove yields encouraged by loss of branches during harvest. increase until the tree is about 20 years old and The post-harvest shoots are too young for flower goodyield s canb eproduce d until a great age. How­ induction and - apart from trees which show ever, yield fluctuates wildly, a heavy crop usually return bloom - twigs which have flowered do not being followed by 2 or 3 light and mediocre crops contribute to the next crop either. Thus the next before another bumper crop is produced. crop has to be borne on non-flowering shoots that High or low yields occur simultaneously over an emerged early in the cycle; these bear the mature entire region and there is much evidence that a buds which are receptive during the dry season well marked dry season triggers a heavy crop. Sub­ when floral induction occurs. If virtually all twigs sequent low yields cannot be due to exhaustion, bear cloves, the bumper crop is followed by crop since the tree isrelieve d of its natural task of bear­ failure, simply because there are too few mature ing a crop of fruit to maturity; in fact, the dry mat­ receptive buds on the tree. The poor crop in the ter in a heavy crop of inflorescences is only of the 260 A SELECTION third year can be attributed to the disturbed shoot with a minimum dry season (Madagascar, Suma­ growth pattern in the second year. In the off-year tra, Pinang). In such a favourable climate, the shoot growth does not suffer competition from the clove cannot compete with more reliable cash developing crop; hence flushing becomes more er­ crops and takes second place for soils and crop ratic and continues until late in the season. This care. may again result in a shortage of mature buds at The choice is linked with the use of the produce. the\ crucial time for flower initiation and hence in Cloves from wet areas are less suitable for making a disappointing crop in the third year. This cigarettes, since the smoke becomes pungent and explains the cycles of 3o r 4 years. the crackling ('kretek') sound is lacking. In Indo­ So unless return bloom offers an alternative solu­ nesia, cloves for 'kretek ' cigarettes are said to tion, only half the twigs should flower each year require three months with less than 60m m rainfall in order to produce regular crops. Increases in each, whereas for cloves to be used as spice, rain­ yield should come from a larger size ofth e inflores­ fall should not drop below 80 mm in any month. cences, which is a matter of genetic constitution, Annual rainfall should exceed 1500mm ; wet clove tree vigour, healthy foliation and timely induction areas usually receive 3000-4000 mm. With mean offlowering . Regular bearing in clove ismor e diffi­ temperatures of 21° C in July and August, Mada­ cult to achieve, since there is no fruit to assist in gascar isth e coolest clove country, reaching to the stabilizing the growth rhythm and because of Tropic of Capricorn. severe damage to the tree during harvest. In this Cloves are almost exclusively grown on islands, connection it is revealing that biennial bearing but proximity of the sea may not be so necessary has been observed in young trees, with their as it was once thought to be, nor is the crop re­ greater vitality and ease of harvesting, whereas in stricted to the lowlands. In parts of Sumatra and the 14th year after planting, bearing became trien­ Java, and in the Nilgiri Hills in southern India, nial after the first heavy crop. Perhaps it is pos­ cloves are grown successfully far from the sea and sible to suppress late flushing during the off-year at altitudes of 600-900 m. Secluded sites are pre­ by root pruning or application of growth retar­ ferred because wind causes additional stress, and dants. strong winds are not tolerated. Shade is necessary Other botanical information In the past, Syzy­ for young trees until firmly established. gium Gaertn. has frequently been united with Growth can be sustained on poor and acid soils, Eugenia L. Convincing differences in the structure but waterlogging is very harmful. Adequate depth of flowers and seeds have strengthened the argu­ of soil is essential and water-holding capacity ments for two separate genera, which means that should be in keeping with the severity of the dry the clove is assigned to Syzygium. season; ifnot , irrigation is needed. The tree populations in Zanzibar and Madagascar Propagation and planting Cloves are propa­ are rather uniform, but in Indonesia three types gated from seed. Seed from selected mother trees are distinguished: Siputih, Sikotok and Bunga is extracted from the fresh fruit and germination Lawang Kiri; the latter is thought to be identical follows in 2-6 weeks. Seedlings are raised in with the Zanzibar type. The types differ in tree shaded nursery beds and respond to care: con­ habit, leaf size, and clove size and colour, but few trolled watering, excellent drainage, adequate trees are true to type.Tree s are extremely variable spacing for sturdy growth, and timely hardening- and show all transitional forms between the types. off by reduced shading and watering. Plants Siputih produces large cloves, valued in the spice should reach a height of 30-50 cm within one year trade, but is said to be less productive than the and should be moved to the field before they get others. much older. During transplanting, speed, protec­ Ecology Notions about the ecological require­ tion of the root system and trimming of the shoots ments of the clove vary, perhaps because of an greatly increase the chance of survival. underlying dilemma: a climate with a marked dry Propagation trials in the control programme for season promotes flowering, but the tree does not 'Sumatra disease' in Indonesia have shown that cope at all well with stress. There are two ways clove can be propagated by air-layering (50% suc­ out ofthi s dilemma. The first ist o choose a climate cess) and approach grafting (more than 80% suc­ with a pronounced dry season (Zanzibar, East cess), but rooting of cuttings and propagation by Java), but to limit stress by going for deep fertile less cumbersome grafting techniques still remain soils, providing water and shade during the early too difficult for general use. Approach grafts on years. The other way is to choose a wet climate rootstocks of, for instance, Syzygium pycnanthum SYZYGIUM 261

Merr. & Perry and Psidium guajava L. were also ettsia-lïke bacteria as the cause. The bacteria live successful. in the xylem vessels and apparently spread Trees are planted in the field under temporary upwards from the roots. The symptoms are die- shade. In the dry season, young trees may need back, starting in the crown, vascular discolour­ extra water. The standard spacing is 8 m x 8 m, ation and root decay. Injections of Oxytetracyc­ but trees are often planted much closer. A range line, the most effective antibiotic treatment, delay of spacings from 6 m x 8 m to 8 m x 11m , to take the decline but cannot cure the tree. Since then, account ofdifference s in site quality, seems better; it has been found that Hindola striata and possibly the rectangular pattern facilitates intercropping H. fulva act as vectors. These tiny insects are tube- in the early years. Banana and cassava are com­ building cercopids of the family Machaerotidae, mon intercrops. Intercrops may also provide shade which complete their life cycle on the clove tree. but, near the young clove tree, shade trees such This at last opens a prospect for the control of the as species of Gliricidia Kunth, Leucaena Benth. or disease, which seems to kill every clove tree Erythrina L. are preferred, since these can be infected. An alternative means of control based on pruned to even out irradiance through the year. grafting clove on rootstocks of related species is Husbandry When the intercrop is phased out, also being pursued. husbandry is often limited to weeding once or Cryptosporella eugeniae also causes die-back. twice a year. Careful weeding limits root damage After entry, the fungus slowly moves down the but a more positive approach is to improve the top- branch; on reaching a junction, all the branches soilb ymulchin g under the trees and by cover crops above it die. This disease can be controlled by cut­ (e.g. Vigna hosei (Craib) Backer, Centrosema ting out and burning affected parts and treating pubescens Benth.). There is evidence that the equi­ the wounds with fungicidal paste. librium of top to root is quite delicate. The trees The amazing thing is that juvenile trees that suc­ recover with great difficulty from undue loss of cumb so easily to other forms of stress have a high leaves. So all efforts to keep the topsoil in good tolerance of the above three diseases. In young condition assist in preventing root stress and cloves, the roots spread very rapidly and, as the maintaining a healthy foliation. tree comes into bearing, changes in the growth Manure or fertilizers are applied to each tree rhythm ofth e roots perhaps put an end to the tree's according to age. Results of trials with nutrients resistance. were inconclusive, perhaps because it was Another serious disease in both Malaysia and attempted to relate nutrients directly to yield; it Indonesia is a fungal leaf-spot (called 'cacar daun' would be more logical to measure growth response in Indonesia) caused by a Phyllosticta species. and to interpret the yield response on the basis of Effective control with fungicides is possible but the growth reaction. In Indonesia, trees respond this is not generally done. to nitrogen and, on poor soils,t o potassium; liming Apart from stem-borers and occasional attacks by is recommended to raise the pH above 5.5. leaf-eating caterpillars, the clove is remarkably Diseases and pests In both Zanzibar and Indo­ free from insect pests. Termites may cause havoc nesia, the clove is threatened by diseases that kill in a young plantation and the fiery red tree ants the tree. Identification of the causal agents has make life difficult for the clove pickers. been difficult amidst tree decline through non-par­ Harvesting At harvest, the complete inflores­ asitic forms of stress. In Zanzibar trees suffer 'sud­ cence is picked, just before the first buds are about den death': the tree may die so fast by collapse of to open. Earlier picking reduces yield and under­ the fine roots that many leaves desiccate on the sized cloves spoil the appearance of the produce; tree. The disease has long been attributed to the late harvesting means a sharp drop in oil content fungus Valsa eugeniae, but the symptoms resemble and spice value. The right stage for harvesting those of 'Sumatra disease', suggesting a similar if lasts only a few days and a tree is picked 3-8 times not identical pathogen; the V. eugeniae infection in a season. The timely harvest of a good crop may only be secondary. demands skilled management; often a substantial 'Sumatra disease' is the main problem in Indone­ portion of a bumper crop is not harvested at all. sia, killing upt o 10% ofth e mature trees each year Pickers climb the trees equipped with baskets, in parts of Sumatra and West Java, with an esti­ ropes and crooks to pull the branches towards mated annual crop loss of US$ 25 million. A tena­ them, or they use ladders with props. An experi­ cious research effort, sponsored by the United enced picker harvests some 40 kg of green cloves Kingdom under the Colombo Plan, identified Rick- from good trees in a day. Improvements in harvest- 262 A SELECTION ing equipment based on work study are needed to are similar to the wild parent. Hence the only di­ reduce damage to the tree and to raise efficiency. rect way to widen the genetic basis ist o trace clove The harvest season shifts substantially from year populations descended from trees that escaped the to year, apparently in response to timing and se­ eradication campaign. Presumably the Zanzibar verity of the dry season. There may also be freak type is such a population and hybrids between off-season crops. In South-East Asia, the main sea­ trees from Zanzibar and Indonesia are superior to son ranges from May-June in East Java to both parents in both vigour and yield in the early November-December in Ambon and Pinang. years. Clonal propagation of selected mother trees Migrant workers follow the maturing crop may result in a break-through in productivity; through some of the major areas of production. early results in East Java show that rooted cut­ Yield Yield varies so much from tree to tree and tings exhibit the same outstanding yield features year to year that it ispracticall y impossible to give as the mother trees. normal values. It is, however, clear that yields are Prospects The world powers no longer wage low,particularl y inIndonesia . In 1985,a good year, war for the control of the clove trade. The clove 4600 0 t was produced on the smallholder area of has become very much an Indonesian crop and 62000 0ha . Even if this crop was produced by only product. Nevertheless a volatile future is to be 40% of the area (it is estimated that 55% of the expected. Whereas demand for the spice and the trees was too young and another 5% decrepit), the oil stagnates, the demand for cloves for the ciga­ yield comes to 185 kg/ha, or only 1 kg of dried rette industry still rises rapidly. On the supply cloves per bearing tree! More precise is the series side, stocks may buffer the worst yield fluctua­ of production data from a large trial in Cibinong, tions, but it is most unlikely that a balance will West Java, planted in 1956.Ove r the 10-year period be struck between the vast areas coming into bear­ 1968-1977, mean annual production was 5.7, 0.0, ing and the tree losses through diseases and other 9.7, 4.6, 0.7, 10.3, 0.0, 2.0, 6.3 and 1.3 kg per tree; forms of stress. the overall average amounted to 4.1k g per tree. If a reasonable price is maintained, there is much Handling after harvest After harvest, the scope for agronomic improvement: inflorescences are broken down into buds and - Further segregation (in respect of growing con­ 'stems' (the flower stalks); these are separated and ditions and crop care) of production for the ciga­ dried in the sun for several days. The dry weight rette industry, for use as a spice and for distilla­ of buds and stems is about equal and amounts to tion of leaf oil. Intensive husbandry may be a third of fresh weight. The dried product is sold attractive for the production of'kretek' cloves. in bags. - Control of Sumatra disease and leaf-spot. For distillation of the leaf oil, fallen leaves may - Clonal propagation of superior trees, cutting be gathered every 2-3 weeks. The yield is about out the juvenile phase. 1.5 kg of sun-dried leaves per tree each time. It is - Manipulation of the growth rhythm to reduce more common, at least in Madagascar, to cut and yield fluctuations and to extend the harvest sea­ bundle smallbranches , which are taken to the still. son. Regular pruning of closely planted hedgerows is Literature |1[ Bolt, O.F., 1950. Cultuuraa nwij ­ recommended for this manner of harvesting; the zingen voor kruidnagel (Eugenia aromatica). Pem- clove yield is then negligible. It takes about 60 kg beritaan praktek djawatan penjelidikan Perta- of prunings to produce 1k g of oil. nian No 15, Bogor. 16 pp. 2 Deinum, H., 1949. De Genetic resources The floral biology of the kruidnagel. In: van Hal, C.J.J. & van de Koppel, clove favours self-pollination, and fairly uniform C. (Editors): De landbouw in de Indische Archipel. populations developed in the areas where only a Vol. 2B. W. van Hoeve, The Hague, pp. 684-719. few trees were introduced initially. The eradica­ |3| Dufournet, R., 1968. Le giroflier et sa culture tion of the trees in nearly all the Moluccas may à Madagascar. Bulletin of Madagascar have decimated the germplasm in the cultivated 18:216-281. j4| Hunt, P., 1985. Status report on clove and widened the gap from the wild cloves. clove disease research, April 1985. Mimeograph. Wild cloves are hardier and more vigorous, but ODA Project ATA-71, Colombo Plan. 12pp . |5| Pur- they are hardly aromatic. Perhaps aromatic trees seglove, J.W., Brown, E.G., Green, C.L. &Robbins, occur only sporadically in wild populations but S.R.J., 1981.Spices . Vol. 2. Longman, London, pp. they are easy to recognize; so their seed may have 229-285. |6| Schmidt, R., 1972. A resolution of the been collected for cultivation through the ages. Eugenia-Syzygium controversy (Myrtaceae). Breeding Hybrids of wild and cultivated cloves American Journal of Botany 59:423-436. |7| Tid- TERMINALIA 263 bury, G.E., 1949.Th e clove tree. Crosby Lockwood Description Large-crowned tree, up to 50m tall. & Son, London. 212 pp. |8| de Waard, P.W.F., 1974. In swamps characterized by prominent pneumato- The development of clove buds and causes of irreg­ phores, in drier areas lacking large root systems. ular bearing of cloves (Eugenia caryophyllus Bole columnar, up to 150 (-250) cm in diameter, (Sprengel) Bullock et Horrison). Journal of Plan­ conspicuously buttressed or stilt-rooted with aer­ tation Crops 2(2):23-31. |9| Wahid, P., 1978. The ial roots forming massive mats to 6 m from the effect of climatic conditions on the fluctuation in trunk; bark scaly, brown. Twigs slender, hairy or yield of cloves. Pemberitaan Lembaga Penelitian glabrous. Leaves alternate to subopposite, scat­ Tanaman Industri, Indonesia. 30:50-62. |10| Wit, tered along the twigs; petioles 5-12 mm long, F., 1969. The clove tree Eugenia caryophyllus usually with 2 prominent glands; blade narrowly (Sprengel) Bullock &Harrison . In: Ferwerda, F.P. oblong to elliptic, 10-15 cm x 3-6 cm, rounded & Wit, F. (Editors): Outlines of perennial crop or subcordate at base, usually gradually narrowed breeding in the tropics. Miscellaneous Papers Ag­ and pointed at apex. Inflorescence a terminal or ricultural University Wageningen 4:163-174. axillary panicle with 2-6 branches. Flowers 2-5 (E.W.M. Verheij &C.H.A . Snijders) mm long, densely hairy outside, apparently mostly bisexual. Fruits usually elliptic, 9-14 mm x 5-11 mm with 2wel l developed papery wings and 3 sub­ Terminalia brassii Exell sidiary flanges or crests, crowned at apex with remains of calyx, golden yellow. J. Bot. Lond. 73:134(1935) . Wood characteristics Brown terminalia wood COMBRETACEAE is pinkish fawn to streaky grey to plain brown, In = unknown often with a yellowish tinge,fairl y hard and coarse Synonyms Terminalia kajewskii Exell (1935). grained. Gum ducts are often present. The timber Vernacular names Brown terminalia (trade is very prone to orange stain. The wood differs name), swamp oak (En). Papua New Guinea: swamp talis,mer e (New Ireland), homba (Bougain­ ville). Australia: swamp oak. Solomon Islands: dafo. Guadalcanal: nuli, aghomba. Kolombangara and Roviana: pepeo. Origin and geographic distribution Brown terminalia is known only from the Bismarck Archipelago (east New Britain, New Ireland), Bou­ gainville and the Solomon Islands east to San Cris­ tobal. It has been introduced for reafforestation throughout New Guinea and for trials in northern Australia, Solomon Islands and Fiji. Uses Brown terminalia has a major potential for reafforestation of swampy lowland tropical areas. Its timber is used for light constructions, mould­ ings, interior furnishings, veneer, plywood and package. Production and international trade In Papua New Guinea large scale production of brown ter­ minalia occurs only in the natural forests on Bou­ gainville. Present production probably exceeds 5000 0m 3/yearfo r log export, mainly to Japan. Esti­ mated resources in Bougainville ofbrow n termina­ lia are 51900 0m 3i n Tonolei, 15500 0m 3i n Wakunai and of all Terminalia species together in Manetai 22300 0 m3. The potential of the species, however, lies in its use in fast growing plantations in poorly drained lowland tropical areas. The plantations in the Gogol valley have recently been harvested for Terminalia brassii Exell 1, flowering branch; 2, the chip mill at Madang. part of infructescence. 264 A SELECTION from other species of Terminalia L. in having a few isbroadcas t thickly on a sandy seed-bed and cover­ very large vessels and exclusively uniseriate rays. ed with 2 cm of loose sandy soil. A shading of 50- Tests were conducted on green wood and wood at 75% is required. Most seed germinates within 10 12% moisture content: relative density 0.391, days but germination can continue for about 3 0.465; modulus of rupture 45.9, 71.7; modulus of weeks. Germinated seed is pricked out into bags elasticity 7800, 9280; max. cleavage strength (N/ and kept under 75% shade which is gradually mm) radial 7.73, 9.90, tangential 8.54, 8.13; hard­ reduced to 50% until seedlings are 5-7 cm tall ness (Janka N) radial 2290, 2650, tangential 2780, when it is further reduced to 20% during 2 weeks. 2870, end 3020, -. Oasic density, oven dry weight After this period further shading is not necessary. 320-384 kg/m3; air dry (12% moisture content) Seedlings or wildings are planted out into open 460-465 kg/m3. Shrinkage (green to 12% moisture fields. Perennial wet sites with adequate P levels content) 1.8 % radial, 4.2 % tangential. The log is should be selected for plantations. Seedlings are a sinker. planted at distances of 2.5-2.7 m. Growth and development Brown terminalia Some experimental plantings in the Solomons grows quickly, even in dry sites 2.5-3 m height is have shown that line-planting at standard spacing achieved in the first year after planting. A height is more favoured than close line-planting at 4.5 m growth of7 m i n 3year s has been recorded in trials, x 3m . With line-planting any cover should be poi­ and up to 8m in natural regeneration. At 6.6 years soned and girdled as soon as possible after plant­ mean height is up to 16.5 m and mean diameter is ing. Establishment using natural regeneration is 21cm , using wildings as source. Volume tables are often successful. available for New Guinea and the Solomon Management Seedlings establish rapidly, par­ Islands. At an age of 10.3-11 years height varies ticularly in swampy conditions. It is important from 25-27m ,girt h from 122-144 cm,an d diameter that open conditions are maintained for establish­ from 36-46 cm. On Fiji the tree developed aerial ment. Because ofth e light demanding nature of the roots in plantations 5-8 years old. seedlings, in most natural areas of brown termina­ In close stands, self-pruning results in straight lia regeneration is limited within the forests, unbranched boles. Mean annual increment on fer­ except if they are disturbed. Weeding is necessary tile riverine sites near Madang (Papua New Gui­ in the first year to control climbers and to control nea) is 25-35 m3/ha, in swamp forests near Lae ca. shading. In fertilized trial plots in the Sepik Valley 30 m3/ha. (Kunjingini), seedlings grew up to 4.69 cm in 4 Other botanical information Brown termina­ years. Growth stagnates on deeply leached soils lia is an isolated species in the Combretaceae, without fertilizer. Applications of NPK (17:5:22) without the normal terminalia type of branching amounted to 500 kg/ha. resulting in 'pagoda' trees. The bark comes off in Diseases and pests Ambrosia beetle has been long loose strips so that the general appearance recorded as attacking living trees in trial plots in looks like some species of Eucalyptus L'Hérit. or Fiji.Lyctus has been recorded from sapwood in nat­ Tristania R. Br. Young trees often send out stiff, ural forests in Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya. horizontal adventitious roots high above the Pinhole-borer damage has been recorded in the ground. Solomons on both living and felled trees. Young Ecology Brown terminalia is commonly gregari­ natural regeneration has also been recorded with ous in fresh water swamps and riverine alluvial unnatural twisted stems and leaves of a purplish plains and less often it occurs as scattered trees in colour. The cause is not known. When planted on dry valleys. It forms almost pure stands in associa­ well drained sites the tree is subject, particularly tion with Campnosperma Thw. in the Lulai River after 3 years growth, to valsa canker (Cryphonec- and the Empress Augusta Bay in Bougainville. tira sp.).Disease d trees are also attacked by Agri- Seedlings can withstand violent flooding and often lus viridissimus, the larva of which is an under- establish beside rivers on earth and sandy materi­ bark feeder. Roselia lignifera is a defoliator of al. They also occur on dry coraline soils. It is a pio­ brown terminalia. neer species, requiring plenty of light at time of Harvesting Trees are felled when 10-12 years establishment. old with diameter 40-50 cm. In swampy circum­ Propagation and planting Propagation is by stances extraction ofth e boles isdifficult . Because seed or by wildings. Seed weight is about 70000 of the long straight boles, 10-20 m long and seeds/kg. Seedremain s viable only for a short time. usually unbranched, dragline methods can be used Its viability may be extended by cold storage. It in extraction. THEOBROMA 265

Yield In the Solomons, the Viru trial plots (line- and its parts and the word 'cocoa' for the products plantings) produced 80-100 logs/ha; total volume of manufacture. In literature frequently only was estimated at 120-150 m3/ha and 20-year-old 'cocoa' is used for both meanings. In this account, trees had a diameter of ca. 48 cm. In the natural trivial practice to use 'cocoa' is followed. forests of Tonolei and Torokeina (Bougainville) a Origin and geographic distribution Cocoa volume of over 200 m3/ha has been recorded for was widely cultivated by the Maya-speaking peo­ brown terminalia. ples of tropical Central America before the Span­ Genetic resources Brown terminalia is widely ish Conquest ofth e 16th Century. The cocoa grown cultivated throughout Papuasia but no tree by the Mayas presumably ultimately originated orchard has yet been established as a gene pool from the wild cocoa in the forests of the Amazon despite its potential as a plantation species. Trials Basin, from the upper reaches to the delta. Wild at Kerevat could provide some protection of gene­ cocoa has also been reported in the forests of the tic variability. Guyanas and along the Orinoco. Breeding Provenance trials using seed from The disintegration of Maya civilization caused de­ Papua New Guinea and probably from the Solo­ cline in cocoa cultivation in Central America mon Islands have been conducted in Fiji and whilst markets in Europe were rapidly expanding Northern Territory, Australia. In the plantations in the 17th Century. So cocoa spread to most established in the Gogol valley (Manus Province) islands in the Caribbean and subsequently to various seed sources have been used. mainland Venezuela and Colombia. In the same Prospects Brown terminalia ispotentiall y a val­ century, the Spanish succeeded in transferring a uable, quick growing, secondary species, ideal for few live plants from the harbour of Acapulco on introduction into swampy sites throughout low­ the Pacific side of Central America to Manila in land tropical areas. The open canopy allows good the Philippines. light penetration and perhaps this species is also Quite independently, Ecuador and the Province of suitable for intercropping, at least at an early Bahia in Brazil developed major cocoa areas in the stage of growth. 19th Century. From Bahia, cocoa found its way to Literature |1| Coode, M.J.E., 1978. In: Womers- West Africa, where vast cocoa areas developed in ley, J.S. (Editor): Handbooks of the flora of Papua the 20th Century in Cameroon, Nigeria, Ghana New Guinea, Vol. 1. Melbourne University Press, and Ivory Coast. p. 65. |2|Exell ,A.W. , 1954.In : Flora Malesiana. Ser. The few cocoa seedlings that arrived in Manilla I, Vol. 4(5):554. |3|Fenton , R., Roper, R.E. & Watt, in the 17th Century became the parents of what G.R., 1977.Lowlan d tropical hardwoods. An anno­ eventually became known as Java Criollo. Cocoa tated bibliography of selected species with planta­ cultivation gradually spread southward through tion potential. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, New northern Sulawesi and some of the Moluccas to Zealand,pp .287-301 . |4|Johns , R.J., 1982. Common Java and Peninsular Malaysia and ultimately also forest trees of Papua New Guinea, p. 407 |5| Mar­ Sri Lanka in the 19th Century. Early in the 20th ten, K.D., 1980. Research report Solomon Islands. Century, a series of introductions were indepen­ Forestry Division. |6|Whitmore , T.C., 1966. Guide dently made by the British in Sri Lanka from Trini­ to the forests of the British Solomon Islands. dad, and by the Dutch in Java and the Germans Oxford University Press, p.132 . in Papua New Guinea from various parts of Latin (R.J. Johns &P . Siaguru) America. This gave rise to the cocoa industries of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. After the Sec­ ond World War, introductions from West Africa Theobroma cacao L. into Malaysia eventually provided the planting material of the present major Malaysian cocoa Sp. PI. 2:78 2(1753) . areas in Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia, recently STERCULIACEAE spreading to Indonesia. 2n = 20 Uses The main products made from cocoa beans Vernacular names Cocoa, cacao (En). are chocolate, cocoa powder and butterfat, which Cacaoyer (Fr).Indonesia : coklat. Malaysia: pokok are all used for human consumption. Butterfat is coklat. Philippines: cacao. Burma: kokoe. Cambo­ also used in cosmetics and pharmaceutical prod­ dia: kakaaw. Thailand: kho kho. Vietnam: cây ca ucts but the amount used for these purposes is in­ cao. significant in relation to that used in chocolate Note: The word 'cacao' is often used for the tree manufacture. 266 A SELECTION

Production and international trade During the 1970s, cocoa production rapidly increased in Malaysia and Indonesia. In Malaysia, production rose from 13000 t in 1974/75 to about 100000 t in 1984/85. In Indonesia, the increase was less dra­ matic, from 3000 to 2200 0 t but in coming years a significant increase in production is to be expected. In Papua New Guinea and the Philip­ pines,productio n has remained almost constant at 3000 0an d 40001, respectively. The total production of the four countries was about 8% of world cocoa production for 1984/'85. During the 1970s, the price of dry beans was US$ 2000 per tonne. In 1984/'85 the areas planted with cocoa in Malaysia and Indonesia were in the order of 11000 0an d 4000 0ha , respectively. In both coun­ tries, the cocoa area is expanding, though the areas in Papua New Guinea and the Philippines are rather constant, about 8000 0an d 1000 0ha , re­ spectively. In the last ten years, Malaysia and Indonesia have developed their processing indus­ tries, which now absorb about 2000 0 and 1200 0 t, respectively. The beans are processed partly for local consumption and partly for export of liquor (or bulk) cocoa butter and cocoa powder. The Phi­ lippines now have a processing capacity of 14000 t beans, which considerably exceeds local produc­ tion. Processing figures for Singapore reached a record of 24000 1i n 1983. Theobroma cacao L. branch with flowers and Properties In unprocessed beans with the testa fruits. removed, contents on dry-weight basis are starch 7.7%, sugars 1.8%, fat 54.0%, protein 14.8%, many flowered fascicles; flowers 5-merous, 1-1.5 theobromine 2.3% and other substances 19.4%. cmdiameter , regular, bisexual; pedicels 0.5-1.5 cm The fat content is generally lower in Criollo and long; sepals (oblong)-lanceolate, 5-8 mm x 1.5-2 Trinitario populations, about 50% , and may be as mm, white to reddish, reflexed; petals smaller than high as 57% in Amelonado and Upper Amazon sepals, with obovate base, expanding into concave populations. cup-shaped pouch, upper part spatulate, pale yel­ Description Evergreen tree,4-2 0 mhigh , in cul­ low, reflexed; androecium with 5 outer, erect, tivation usually 4-6 m.Taproo t up to 2m lon g with pointed, ciliate staminodes and 5 inner stamens a dense mat of lateral feeder roots up to 6 m long with reflexed filaments, anthers concealed in in upper 20cm ; roots possibly with mycorrhizal as­ pouches of corresponding petals; gynoecium with sociations. Stem growth sympodial, with orthotro- 5 very short styles, connate at base. Fruit subbac- pic subterminal shoots (chupons) and lateral cate, very variable in shape, from globose to cylin­ branching with successive whorls (fan or jor- drical and pointed, smooth to warty, 10-32 cm x quette) of 3-6 plagiotropic branches. Leaves thin- 6-12 cm, sometimes with 5 or 10 furrows, green, coriaceous, petiolate, spirally arranged on ortho- yellow, red or purplish, containing 20-50 seeds tropic, alternate on plagiotropic branches; petiole which are usually arranged in 5 rows; pericarp 1-10 cm long, characteristically thickened at both about 2 cm, mesocarp usually with a layer of hard ends; blade subobovate-oblong to elliptic-oblong, sclerenchyma. Seeds (beans) very variable, glo­ 15-50 cm x 4-15 cm, rounded at base, apex acumi­ bose to ellipsoid, 2-4 cm x 1-2 cm, embedded in nate, subundulate along the margin, pubescent on mucilaginous pulp. the nerves. Seedlings with epigeal germination. Inflorescences on the trunk and branches, usually Growth and development The seed in the ripe borne on small tubercles (flower-cushions) in pod remains viable for up to three weeks. There- THEOBROMA 267 fore seeds from freshly harvested pods are sown di­ ized by the variation in pod and bean morpholo­ rectly into nursery pots, in flat position under 1 gy. The frequent occurrence of red-podded trees cm of soil. Germination starts immediately, root is typical. and hypocotyl growing out first, bringing the coty­ The great cultivars of the older major cocoa grow­ ledons above ground. Subsequently, the cotyle­ ing areas (the Amelonados of West Africa, Bahia dons open, exposing the plumule and the first Brazil 'Comum' and Ecuador 'Nacional', the Trini- growth phase ends with the hardening-off of the tarios of Papua New Guinea) are gradually being first four leaves standing out horizontally at the replaced by mixtures of hybrids between local same level. Subsequently, leaves appear at about selections and some Upper Amazon parents. 6-week intervals, well spaced in a spiral arrange­ Malaysia and recently Indonesia are planting ment. Seedlings 4-6 months old are ready for their new cocoa areas mainly with their specific planting in the field. mixtures of hybrids. Depending on cultivar and ecological conditions, Ecology The following climatic conditions are the plant marks its next growth phase in about the favourable for cocoa. Rainfall of 1500-2000 mm/ second year after field planting by forming its first year with no more than three consecutive months 'jorquette'. This is the product of five axial subter­ with less than 100 mm. Temperatures between minal buds that grow out sideways simultaneous­ 30-32°C mean maximum and 18-21° C mean ly, whilst the apical bud ceases to function. The minimum. Cocoa is thus a typical crop of the tropi­ internodes between the side-shoots are reduced so cal lowlands, which can, however, be grown at much that they grow out at the same level. These higher altitudes ifothe r conditions are favourable. plagiotropic shoots are called 'fan' branches. The Large areas of South-East Asia have these favour­ upright growth habit of the stem is orthotropic, able conditions. Especially in areas without a dry their shoots are called 'chupons'. After some years, season, cocoa has shown to develop more quickly chupons may grow out from below the jorquette- than in the major production areas of West Africa joint. After growing to some length, they also jor­ where growth isstoppe d bydrough t during certain quette, giving thetre e another storey. This process months of the year. Climatic conditions should, may be repeated several times. however, be considered in relation to soil proper­ Depending on cultivar and ecology, flowering ties. Soils with a high available moisture storage starts from 2-6 years after field planting. Pollen capacity can compensate for periodic lack of rain, is carried by small flying insects, usually midges while excessive rainfall will cause fewer problems of the genus Forcipomiya. This results in 50% on well drained soils. cross-pollination. The proportion ofoutbreedin g is Cocoa requires a deep,wel ldrained , fertile soil and considerably higher when the trees carry incompa­ is more demanding of the soil than rubber and oil tibility genes. palm. Criteria for a good cocoa soil are: soil depth The fruit ripens 5-6 months after fertilization. not lesstha n 1.5 m,cla y content 30-40 %, a top-soil Other botanical information A satisfactory with content of organic carbon at least 2% , a botanical infraspecific classification cannot be cation-exchange capacity of soil 120 mmol/kg and made because of the frequent movement of plant a base saturation of 35 %. material, the outbreeding nature ofth e mating sys­ Soils meeting these requirements are the volcanic tem and the absence ofcrossin g barriers.Ther e are soils of New Britain and Bougainville Island many hybrids. Existing classifications are based where most of the cocoa of Papua New Guinea is mainly on fruit and seed characteristics. grown, the basaltic soils of the cocoa area of Thefollowin g practical classification is commonly Tawau on Sabah and the volcanic cocoa soils on used. Java. The soils of those areas differ from one - Criollo: beans white to very pale purple, plump, another in parent material and stage of weather­ 20-40 in a pod, soft husk, red and green, origin ing, but they share a deep well drained profile and Central America and from here to Colombia and a high nutrient content. The liparitic soils of Venezuela. northern Sumatra are also very suitable for cocoa. - Forastero: beans dark purple, often small and They have excellent physical properties but they flat, 30-60 in a pod, hard husk, green, origin are low in calcium, magnesium and phosphorus, Amazonia. so that good fertilizer management is needed. The - Trinitario: segregating populations from chance combination of well managed liparitic soils and crosses between representatives of Criollo and favourable climatic conditions explains the excel­ Forastero. Trinitario populations are character­ lent growth and high yields in northern Sumatra. 268 A SELECTION

In Peninsular Malaysia, cocoa was initially harvesting and spraying for pest and disease con­ planted on acid soils over igneous rock, which trol. Vertical growth is usually restricted to the proved marginal for cocoa. first jorquette. If the first jorquette is formed too Better results have been obtained on rather acid low (below a height of 1.5 m), the tree is allowed marine clays with an adequate nutrient supply but to make a second one.T o retain trees at the desired difficult drainage and water-table regimes. In height, chupons should be removed at regular Indonesia, large-scale planting of cocoa is envi­ intervals. saged in Kalimantan and Sumatra on soils derived Fertilizer is normally used on estates. Rates and from Tertiary deposits of sandstone and shales. types of fertilizer needed depend on soil fertility, Because ofth e nature ofth e parent rock and heavy age of trees, yields and shade. Lightly shaded and leaching, these soils are acid and deficient in all unshaded cocoa requires more fertilizers, espe­ major plant nutrients. Experience elsewhere has cially nitrogen, than shaded cocoa. This is related shown that cocoa grows initially well if nutrients to the fact that the larger leaf area, higher photo- accumulated by the original forest vegetation are synthetic activity and higher yield of cocoa under still present but that later growth and production high irradiance can only be maintained iftree s are are unsatisfactory. well provided with nutrients. As a general guide, Propagation and planting Cocoa is usually per ha mature cocoa needs nitrogen 50-100, phos­ planted as seedlings, which are easy and cheap to phorus 25,potassiu m 75and , ifneeded , magnesium produce. Vegetative propagation by rooted cut­ 15 kg/ha each year. The highest nitrogen rate is tings or budding is used to establish seed gardens meant for lightly shaded or unshaded cocoa. and genetically very heterogeneous types such as Detailed fertilizer recommendations are well docu­ Trinitario cocoa on Java, where budding has been mented. standard practice since the 1920s. Diseases and pests In South-East Asia, fungal Seedlings are usually raised in polythene bags in diseases are of major importance. Phytophthora a shaded nursery. results in large pod losses in West Africa. It also Young plants are planted in the field 3-4 m apart causes stem cancer in Trinitario populations, espe­ or about 1100 trees/ha at an age of 4-6 months. cially in Papua New Guinea. A fungal disease spe­ Young trees need shade to reduce irradiance, to cific to South-East Asia isvascula r streak die-back buffer the microenvironment and to promote the caused by Oncobasidium theobromae. It causes die- right shape and habit of the trees. When a closed back of branches, especially in young trees. The canopy has been formed, the need for shade is disease isfoun d in Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia reduced. Only under most favourable conditions and is widespread in Papua New Guinea. As there of soil and nutrient supply can cocoa be grown is no effective chemical control, the only control without shade. It is normally necessary to retain is to prune out the infections as soon as they are some shade to reduce moisture stress and inci­ seen. Cocoa types show a widerang e of susceptibil­ dence ofinsec t damage in order to prolong the eco­ ity. In Malaysia, Amazon hybrids are more resis­ nomic life of plantations. tant than Amelonado. Shade can be provided either by thinning forest or A variety of insect pests are important during by planting shade trees. Shade trees are common establishment, because they destroy the apical bud in South-East Asia, where mainly seedless Leu- and delay or prevent canopy formation. Especially caena leucocephala (Indonesia) and Gliricidia in Papua New Guinea, larvae of the moth Tirocola sepium (Malaysia and Indonesia) are used. Often, plagiata, the cocoa army-worm, cause extensive hedges of leguminous shrubs are used for tempora­ damage to young plants. In mature cocoa, mirids ry side-protection between rows and as a source are the major widely represented insect pest, caus­ of mulch. Cocoa is also grown as an intercrop ing severe damage to twigs, branches and young under coconuts (Peninsular Malaysia, Papua New pods. In South-East Asia, mirids ofth e genus Helo- Guinea, Mindanao). The availability oflarg e plan­ peltis are a major pest. Ants were formerly success­ tations of coconuts has largely contributed to the fully used to regulate Helopeltis. Now, chemical rapid expansion of cocoa in Malaysia. methods are usual. Husbandry Weeding isneede d during establish­ The cocoa pod-borer (Acrocercops cramerella) is ment but, once the canopy has closed, lack of light potentially the most serious insect pest of cocoa will prevent weed growth. Young trees need no in South-East Asia. The larva of this small moth pruning during the first 2-3 years. Later, low- bores into the cocoa pod and by feeding on the pla­ hanging branches should be pruned to facilitate cental tissues it reduces or prevents normal bean THEOBROMA 269 development. During most of its life, the insect is cocoas in Brazil's Amazonia and the material has protected within the pod and so is difficult to con­ been conserved at Bélem. trol. At the beginning of the 20th Century, the Amongst the major cocoa types of the Forastero cocoa pod-borer largely destroyed the cocoa group are the Amelonados. Some decades ago, cul- industry in Central and East Java. Now, the cocoa tivars of this type like 'West African Amelonado' pod-borer is present in Sabah, eastern Sarawak, in Ivory Coast, Ghana and Nigeria, 'Comum' in the whole of Sulawesi, parts of Java and Minda­ Bahia, Brazil, and 'Nacional' in Ecuador, pro­ nao. duced up to 90% of all cocoa, but now they are Harvesting Pod development from fruit setting in the decline.A wil d population ofth e Amelonado to maturity takes about 6 months. The time and type exists in the forest of the Guyanas. length of the harvest season depend on climatic A secondary centre of diversity is Central Amer­ conditions, mainly rainfall distribution. During ica, the land of the Criollos, although they can peak production, pods are harvested each week. hardly befoun d any more.Th e Centro Agronómico Pods are removed from the tree with various types Tropical de Investigación y Ensenanza (CATIE ) in of knives. Turrialba, Costa Rica, has a precious collection of Yield In South-East Asia, Amazon hybrids give Criollos from that area. The different types are initial yields ofdr y beans of 100-200 kg/ha, rapidly usually named after the country of origin. The increasing to 1000kg/h a in the 7th or 8th year. On Criollos ofVenezuela , Colombia and Java are con­ estates in South-East Asia, mean yields of mature sidered to bederive d from Central American types. cocoa are 1000-1500 kg/ha but higher yields are Trinitario populations are by definition variable no exception. in themselves. They are the offspring of chance Handling after harvest After harvesting, pods hybrids between local Criollo plantings and Foras­ open within 1-2 days and the beans are fermented tero introductions, far superior in vigour, produc­ inperforate d wooden boxes to remove the pulp and tivity and disease resistance. These populations of to develop the chocolate flavour. Forastero beans hybrid plants are again named by the country of are fermented for 4-6 days; Criollo and Trinitario origin: Trinidad, Venezuela, Ecuador. The origin for 2-4 days. Subsequently, beans are dried in the of the Trinitario population of Papua New Guinea sun or on artificial driers to a moisture content of isdifferent . It developed from a mixed bag of intro­ 6-7 %. ductions in German colonial times. Traditionally in Indonesia, beans are washed be­ The 100 clones selected from Trinidad's pre-war tween fermentation and drying to remove any rem­ Trinitario plantations, the Imperial College Selec­ nants of pulp adhering to the shell. The resulting tions, the ICS clones, are also available at the clean and attractive appearance and low propor­ ICGT, managed by the Cocoa Research Unit of the tion of shell (8-10%) have become a trade mark University of the West Indies. The ICGT also elec­ of the fine-grade Indonesian Trinitario cocoa. tronically stores passport, descriptor and evalua­ After drying, the beans are bagged. Beans can tion data, and has quarantine facilities in nearby safely be stored for two to three months. Longer Barbados, where cocoa is not grown. Germplasm storage in the tropics requires special precautions is available in the form of seeds or as budwood; if to prevent mould, insect damage and deteriora­ stored well, it remains viable for about 2 weeks. tion. During storage, the temperature may never fall below 15° C or rise above 30°C. Seeds are trans­ Genetic resources Cocoa occurs in a great vari­ ferred in the pod or packed in charcoal or well ety of forms in wild, semiwild and cultivated popu­ matured sawdust in plastic. lations. The primary centre of diversity is the area of the upper reaches of the Amazon River, the In the receiving country, a quarantine period of home of the Forastero group. Collections of semi- a few months in a screened house is necessary. cultivated material in that area were made by Budwood is wrapped in moist paper. It requires a Pound in 1938an d 1942,an d resulted in the famous period of intermediate quarantine to screen out Upper Amazona populations, including Nanay, virus-infected budsticks and thus is a tedious and Parinari and Iquitos. The wild cocoa in that area expensive material. has again been collected. Both collections are to Storage, transport and quarantine problems, be conserved in the International Cocoa Gene- accompanied by haphazard communication and bank Trinidad (ICGT). unawareness of ways and needs, resulted in a very Since 1960, the cocoa research institute of CEP- poor distribution of germplasm, especially in LAC in Bahia, Brazil, has collected many wild South-East Asia. 270 A SELECTION

Breeding Most planting material produced in difficult to control. Strict quarantine measures the cocoa world today comes from seedlings of have to be observed to prevent the insect from mixed hybrid origin. Usually the one group of par­ spreading into new areas. Much research effort is ent clones are of Upper Amazon descent and the required to find a long-term solution for this very other consists of local selections. The parents are dangerous pest. cloned and planted in biclonal or polyclonal seed Priorities for research include: gardens. Seed is usually produced by handpollina- - measures and strategy to control the cocoa pod- tion between parents belonging to the two groups. borer; Each major cocoa-producing country produces its - breeding for satisfactory pod and bean values in own hybrid mix. Since parents are not inbred, the bulk cocoa (development ofbul k cocoa with sat­ term hybrid should not be interpreted to indicate isfactory and relatively uniform bean weight, a an Fl hybrid, implying loss of productivity in the high fat content and a low shell content); next generation. - shade and nutritional requirements of cocoa in Most cocoa plantings in Malaysia were estab­ areas with inherent low soil fertility. lished with nursery plants from seedsfro m polyclo­ Literature |1| Anonymous, 1953. Handleiding nal seed gardens, producing a hybrid mix. In voor de cacaocultuur en cacaobereiding. Centrale Sabah, large areas were successfully planted with Proefstations Vereniging, Bogor. 429 pp. |2| Cua- West African Amelonado stock. Commercial trecasas, J., 1964.Caca o and its allies:a taxonomie estates in Malaysia are establishing major planta­ revision of the genus Theobroma. Contributions tions with budded plants of mixtures of clones from the United States National Herbarium selected from the mixed hybrid plantings. 35:379-614. |3| Kennedy, A.J. , 1985.Th e Internatio­ Exceptionally, Indonesia bred a synthetic variety nal Cocoa Genebank Trinidad. Cocoa Growers' on the basis of about 50highl y selected clones from Bulletin 36:5-10. |4|Toxopeus , H., 1969. Cacao. In: a large stand of Malaysian hybrid mixture. Breed­ Ferwerda, F.P. &Wit , F. (Editors): Outlines of pe­ ing objectives for South-East Asia are:vigorou s ju­ rennial crop breeding in the tropics. Miscella­ venile growth, early and precocious cropping, neous Papers Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen good pod and bean values, good bulk cocoa quali­ 4. pp. 79-109. |5|Toxopeus , H. &Wessel , P.C. (Edi­ ty, and resistance or tolerance to diseases such as tors), 1983. Cocoa research in Indonesia vascular streak die-back (VSD), Phytophthora 1900-1950. History of cocoa and cocoa research; bark cancer and pod-rot, depending on local eco­ the cocoa pod-borer moth; biological control of logy. Helopeltis; papers on the mating system, genetics Prospects In Malaysia, environmental and and breeding. Archives of Cocoa Research 2. 293 socio-economic conditions and availability of land pp. |6|Wessel , M., 1981.Nieuw e ontwikkelingen in are favourable for considerable expansion of cocoa de cacaocultuur van Maleisië en Indonesië. Land­ cultivation. In Indonesia, further development bouwkundig Tijdschrift 93: 229-333. |7| Wood, will depend on availability of new areas with suit­ G.A.R. & Lass, R.A. (Editors), 1985. Cocoa. Long­ able soils.I n both countries, but especially in Indo­ man, London. 620pp . nesia, there is considerable scope for converting (M. Wessel &H . Toxopeus) suitable land now under old rubber and oil palm to cocoa. The high early yields of Upper Amazon hybrids and high cocoa prices make this conver­ Vanilla planifolia H.C. Andrews sion attractive. In Papua New Guinea, large areas of suitable soils Bot. Repos. 8:pi . 538(1808) . are available but whether they will be planted to ORCHIDACEAE cocoa will depend on government support. In the 2n = 32 Philippines, the main limitation is the cocoa pod- Synonyms Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames borer, and real expansion of cocoa cultivation will (1924). depend on effective control of this pest. Vernacular names Vanilla (En). Vanille (Fr). There are good prospects for expansion of cocoa Indonesia: panili, anggrèk (Java, Sunda). Thai­ cultivation in South-East Asia. The cocoa pod- land: waanilaa. borer is, however, a very serious threat to cocoa Origin and geographic distribution Vanilla is in the entire region. The cocoa pod-borer is well indigenous to south-eastern Mexico, Guatemala established in the Philippines, in parts of Indone­ and other parts of Central America and the sia, Sarawak and Sabah, and the insect has proved Antilles. The important production areas are East VANILLA 271

Africa (Madagascar), the Comoro Islands, Réu­ Description A fleshy herbaceous perennial nion, Indonesia and French Oceania. In Indonesia vine, climbing up trees to a height of 10-15 m by vanilla is mainly cultivated on Java. means oflong ,whitis h adventitious roots, opposite Uses The major use of vanilla fruits (called the leaves. Stem long, cylindrical, simply or 'beans'), or of the extract derived from them, is in branched, succulent, 1-2 cm in diameter, dark the flavouring of chocolate, biscuits, confectio­ green. Leaves alternate, large, fleshy, subsessile, nery and ice-cream. The synthetic substitute vanil­ oblong-elliptic to lanceolate, 8-25 cm x 2-8 cm, lin has taken over the place of vanilla in the per­ rounded at base, acute to acuminate at top, with fume industry. The poorer qualities of vanilla are numerous parallel veins. used for aromatizing tobacco in Java. In the Uni­ Inflorescence a short axillary raceme, 5-8 cm ted States and western Europe vanilla is one of the long,usuall y 6- 15-flowered. Flowers opening from major flavourings in ice-cream and high-quality the base of the inflorescence upwards, ca. 10 cm confectionery and foodstuffs. in diameter, waxy, fragrant; sepals 3, oblong, 4-7 Production and international trade Mada­ cm x 1-1.5 cm; 2 upper petals resembling the gascar is by far the world's largest producer and sepals but slightly smaller, labellum trumpet- exporter of natural vanilla, with about 1030 t of shaped, 4-5 cm x 1.5-3 cm; column 3-5 cm long, cured beans (about 70% ) in 1983. Other countries attached to labellum, bearing at its tip 2 pollinia producing substantial quantities are Indonesia covered by a cap; stigma concave, separated from with 234 t (about 16%) , the Comoro Islands with the pollinia by a thin flaplike rostellum. Fruit a 177 t (about 13%), followed by Réunion and pendulous, narrowly cylindrical capsule, 10-25 French Polynesia with 15 t (about 1%). Total cm x 0.8-1.5 cm,obscurel y 3-angled, splitting lon­ exports were about 1450 t for 1983.Indonesi a pro­ gitudinally when ripe. Seeds numerous, globose, duces the Java vanilla. Mexican vanilla ranks as about 0.4 mm in diameter, black. first quality, Bourbon vanilla as second and Java Growth and development Only for breeding vanilla as third. The United States is the leading importer of natu­ ral vanilla with about 980 t in 1983 (about 60 %) followed, in order of importance, by France with 2601an d West Germany with 2001. In the 1960sth e market for natural vanilla was ser­ iously hit by the development of synthetic substi­ tutes. Faced with declining demand for natural va­ nilla and seeking to maintain a reasonable price level Madagascar began to regulate supplies into the export market in 1964. Since that time exports from Madagascar have remained fairly stable. Bourbon type vanilla, produced in the Indian Ocean islands, sets the price level, the other regions following the Bourbon market. Most vanilla is grown by smallholders. Properties Freshly harvested green fruits con­ tain about 80% water, which is reduced to about 20% by curing and drying. Cured fruits contain vanillin (1.5-3 %), odourless vanillic acid, a fixed oil (about 11 %), a soft resin (> 2% ) and a substan­ tial percentage of protein, sugars, cellulose and minerals. The value of the fruits is determined by their fragrance rather than by their vanillin con­ tent. Vanillin content ofcure d Indonesian vanilla is high (2.75% ) in comparison with cured vanilla from other sources:Mexica n 1.75 %, Ceylon 1.5 %, Tahiti 1.7%. Vanilla fruits from Tahiti contain heliotro- Vanilla planifolia H.C. Andrews - 1, flowering pin which gives them their distinctive flavour. plant; 2, fruit. 272 A SELECTION

purposes does it pay to follow the difficult path of 400-700 m elevation. While the fruits are ripening sowing vanilla. Fruits should be picked just before rainfall should not be too heavy. or as they split. Seeds are then washed clean and Vanilla requires a light soil with good drainage, transferred to a sterilized nutrient medium. Tem­ rich in Ca and K, with a thick surface layer of perature must be held rather high (30°C) . Under humus or mulch in which the roots can be spread, these circumstances vanilla will germinate in 1-2 with pH ranging between 6-7. Preferably the site months.Th e young seedlings should be transferred of a plantation should be slightly sloping. Partial every 2 months. After a year seedlings are trans­ shade is necessary and can be provided by shrubs ferred to soil. After another year the then 2-year- or small trees up which the vines are grown. old plants can be planted in the open air. Propagation and planting Commercial vanilla Commercial vanilla is always propagated by stem is propagated by stem cuttings. These should be cuttings. Shoots develop on the cutting 30-40 days taken from healthy, vigorous vines. It is advisable after planting. Under favourable conditions the to keep separate 'mother-vines' for propagation. growth of a vine may be 0.6-1.2 m per month. These should be prevented from flowering. If When cultivated, vanilla flowers on shoots which enough plant material is available, cuttings 1.50 hang down from the branches of a support tree. mlon g are preferred. Cuttings should betake n dur­ Under natural circumstances flowering occurs on ing the drier period ofth e year when growth of the upward climbing vines at a height of 10-15m . This mother-vines has slowed down. The leaves at the may indicate that a certain amount of vegetative base ofth e cutting should beremove d because they growth is necessary for flowering. Vanilla usually start rotting in the soil. Cuttings are planted di­ starts flowering 3-4 years after planting and rectly at the foot of a support tree at a spacing of reaches maximum production after 7-8 years. 2m x 3m , with the lower part with 3node s buried About 10year s after planting the commercial val­ in the humic layer and mulch. Because ofthei r suc­ ue of the vines will decrease and plants are culent nature, cuttings may be stored for up to 2 removed. weeks. A dry period will initiate flowering. Usually a Vanilla requires support up which to climb, plant flowers during a period of 2 months. The usually offered in the form of a tree. The ideal sup­ number of inflorescences per plant ranges from port tree is: easily propagated, strong enough to 10-20, each inflorescence containing 12-24 carry the heavy vines, well anchored in the soil flowers. In one day 1-3 flowers per inflorescence to withstand strong winds, not a quick grower to open early in the morning and close in the after­ avoid heavy pruning. Moreover, the presence of an noon. When pollination does not occur the flower adequate number of lower branches is desirable, withers and drops in 1-2 days. The fruit reaches to facilitate training the vines to hang down over its maximum length about 6 weeks after fertiliza­ them. Often legumes are used for this, e.g. Glirici- tion, and ripens 7-9 months after flowering. dia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. in Madagascar. Other botanical information Vanilla tahiten- On Bali (Indonesia) coffee is used as support. It is, sis J. Moore is cultivated on Tahiti and Hawaii. however, not advisable to use profitable crops like This species is less robust than V. planifolia and coffe, mango and avocado as support, since the has fruits that do not split open and have a lower roots of vanilla may be damaged by the operations vanillin content. to harvest these crops. Cuttings ofth e support tree Vanillapompona Schiede is indigenous to Central are planted 1 year in advance of the vanilla cut­ America, northern South America and the Lesser tings at a spacing of 1.5-2.5 m x 3 m. Vanilla can Antilles and occasionally cultivated there. It be grown up posts or trellises as well. resembles V. planifolia, but the fruits are shorter Shade should be provided in the first place by the and thicker and of inferior quality. Cultivars of V. support tree. Often other trees are planted as well planifolia are not known. to provide additional shade when needed. Light Ecology Vanilla thrives best in warm, moist cli­ should be filtered in such a way that the level of mates without pronounced dry season. Tempera­ radiation is still adequate for photosynthesis. Air tures may range between 21-32°C, with an aver­ circulation near the vines should be sufficient to age of 26°C. Rainfall is preferably up to 2000-2500 have a drying effect, thus preventing the spread mm/year and evenly distributed. A drier period of of fungal diseases. Species used as shade trees 2 months favours flowering. Such climates are include e.g. Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., Inga edulis found on tropical islands within 20° N and 20°S . Mart, and Cocos nucifera L. On Java (Indonesia) vanilla can be grown up to Husbandry New shoots of the vanilla cutting VANILLA 273 planted at the foot of each support tree are trained attacked plants should be removed and burnt. along its branches to facilitate their development Cured vanilla fruits may also be attacked by mil­ at a convenient height for pollination and harvest­ dew. ing. When shoots reach a length of about 2.5 m, Vanilla isattacke d bya number ofinsect s but none they are carefully detached from the branch so of them causes great losses. The most serious pests that they may hang down. The tip (about 10 cm) are snails (Thelidomus lima in Puerto Rico, Acha- of the vine is cut off 6-8 months before the flower­ tina fulica in Madagascar) and slugs ( Veronicalla ing season to encourage the production of inflores­ kraussii in Puerto Rico). Chickens cause much cences. New vegetative shoots on the apical part damage by scratching among the mulch and in so of the hanging vine are pruned, those on the basal doing tearing and exposing the roots. part of the hanging vine are trained along the Harvesting The fruits are hand-picked rotatio- branches of the tree. These latter ones are the nally 7-9 months after flowering. The right hanging vines for the next season. At the begin­ moment of harvesting is when they are still dark ning of the flowering season inflorescences will green, with only the tip turning yellow. Ifth e fruits emerge from the leaf axils at the apical part of the are harvested earlier the aroma develops poorly; hanging vines. After harvesting these vines are if harvested later they split and give poor quality. removed. The harvest season takes 2-3 months. In the production areas pollination is carried out Yield Yields may fluctuate from year to year. A by hand with a splinter of bamboo or other materi­ vanillery yields 2.5-4 t/ha per year of fresh fruits al. In its centre of origin vanilla is pollinated by (being 500-800 kg/ha per year of cured beans) dur­ bees (Melipona spp.) and possibly also by humming ing a crop life of about 7 years, but much lower birds. Byhand-pollinatio n the number of fruits per yields are reported. inflorescence can be regulated, and thus also per Handling after harvest The curing process plant. Only basal flowers of the inflorescence are should begin within a week after harvesting and pollinated, resulting in 4-6 fruits per raceme that consists of blanching, fermenting and drying, dur­ develop into straight beans. On average a ing which 70-80 % of the water islos t and the typi­ 4-5-year-old plant should not bear more than cal aroma develops. Good-quality cured beans 100-150 fruits to avoid unproductive years to should be dark brown, long, flexible, oily, smooth come. and aromatic. Vanilla requires not only a soil with a high humus Fruits are immersed once (occasionally twice) in content but also an adequate supply of mulch. The hot water for 30-60 seconds. The fruits are then best mulch is a mixture of grasses and legumes. stored for 24-48hour s in cloth-lined containers for Fruit-bearing vanilla should be mulched espe­ sweating and to start fermentation. Then, for a pe­ cially well. Clean-weeding of the vanillery is not riod of 3-5 days beans are exposed to the sun dur­ recommended, but rank growth of climbers and ing day-time on a scaffold and stored during the other weeds should be controlled. night. The beans are then conditioned in closed Chemical fertilizers are seldom used although ade­ containers to develop the full aroma during 2-3 quate supply will give a good crop. However, months.Th e cured beans are graded, smoothed and mulched plantings give the best quality vanilla, in straightened. Finally, they are exported in sealed particular where the aroma is concerned. tin boxes. Diseases and pests The most serious disease of In Mexico, which traditionally produces the best vanilla isroot-ro t disease.I t is caused by Fusarium vanilla, the curing process takes 5-6 months: sun- sp. The only Vanilla species resistant to this dis­ drying takes at least 2month s and then the beans ease is V. phaeantha Rochb.f. Anthracnose (Glo- are kept in boxes for about 3 months. merella vanillae) attacks all aerial parts of the Genetic resources A germplasm collection plant. This disease is to be found in all vanilla-pro­ exists at the Centro Agronómico Tropical de Inves- ducing countries, and is favoured by overshading tigación y Ensefianza (CATIE), Costa Rica. It har­ and humid circumstances. The best control is to bours about 30 accessions from various countries decrease shading. Brown spot disease (Nectria in Central America. vanillae) can attack all aerial parts of the plant. Breeding One of the main breeding objectives Old and weak plants are especially easily is to obtain resistance to root-rot disease. A pro­ attacked. Mildew (Phytophthora sp.) may attack mising species in this respect is V. phaeantha all parts of the plant. High humidity facilitates the Rchb. f. which isresistan t to root rot. At the Vanil­ spread of the disease. There is no cure for it; la Research Station of Antalaha (Madagascar) 274 A SELECTION breeding programmes carried out until 1974 were sine, voacamine, voacangine, akuammidine and not very successful. No new breeding break­ tabersonine have been isolated from various parts throughs have so far been reported. of the plant. Prospects On the world market there is an Description Shrub or small tree, 2-15 m high. increasing demand for natural flavouring sub­ Leaves sessile and even connate-perfoliolate to 50 stances. It is expected that this will favour the mm long-petiolate; blade herbaceous when fresh, demand for natural vanilla. In the present situa­ papery or chartaceous when dry, elliptic, narrowly tion supply is lagging behind demand. Therefore elliptic or narrowly obovate, 2-4 x as long as it is expected that the price will rise in the nearby wide, 8-40 cm x 2-14 cm, acuminate or acute at future. Vanilla may be a promising crop for differ­ the apex, glabrous or sometimes sparsely pubes­ ent parts of South-East Asia, especially for areas cent above, glabrous or pubescent beneath. Inflor­ with high population pressure (e.g. Bali, Indone­ escence with long peduncle and few to many sia). flowers; calyx green, nearly cylindrical, 10-20 mm Literature |1| Bouriquet, G., 1954. Le vanillier x 4-12 (-15) mm with usually obovate lobes; co­ et la vanille dans le monde. Editions Lechevalier, rolla white, creamy or sometimes yellow, tube Paris. 739 pp. |2| Bundschu, I., 1987. Das grüne 0.7-2 x as long as the calyx, 9-24 mm long, lobes Gold: Kleinbäuerliche Vanilleproduktion auf Bali 0.8-2.2 x as long as the tube, elliptic or obovate, (Indonesien). Tropenlandwirt 88:97-111. |3| 0.8-1.5 x as long as wide, 9-40 mm x 10-37 mm, Dequaire, J., 1976. L'amélioration du vanillier à rounded, truncate, or emarginate at the apex, Madagascar. Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et spreading to recurved; stamens slightly exserted de Botanique Appliquée 23:139-158. |4| Jarrett, to barely included. Fruit oftw o free, partly or com­ R.L.& Fernandez , Z.R., 1984.Shoot-ti p vanilla cul­ pletely united carpels; separate carpels subglo- ture for storage and exchange. Plant Genetic bose;fuse d carpels forming a laterally compressed, Resources Newsletter 57:25-27. |5| Purseglove, transversely elliptic fruit. Seed subellipsoid, 8-13 J.W., 1972. Tropical crops. Monocotyledons 2. mm x 4-7 mm. Longman, London, pp.403-415 . Ecology This plant is found from sea-level to (J. Straver) altitude 1000 m, in bush or light forest, often on

Voacanga grandifolia (Miq.) Rolfe

Journ. Bot. London 21: 202(1883) . APOCYNACEAE 2n = 22 Synonyms Pootia grandifolia Miq. (1857), Orchipeda grandifolia (Miq.) Miq. (1864), Voa­ canga papuana (F.v . Muell.) K. Schum. (1895). Vernacular names Indonesia: kalak kambing, kalantong (Java), mariango (Sulawesi), piko (Sumbawa). Papua New Guinea: bahira (Orok- aiva), boma latuata (near Veiya), fegha (Korafe). Philippines: abubu (Lanao),pangi , tapadak (Mara- nao). Origin and geographic distribution This spe­ cies is found in Indonesia (Java, Sumba, Flores, Sulawesi, northern Moluccas, Irian Jaya), the Phi­ lippines (Mindanao) and Papua New Guinea. Uses In Java, the young leaves are mashed and rubbed on the stomach against illness from worms and diarrhoea. In Papua New Guinea, the plant is used as a medicine for malaria. Properties Interest is mainly directed towards the alkaloids, some of which have cardiotonic or Voacanga grandifolia (Miq.) Rolfe -1, branch with oncolytic properties. Very low contents of vobtu- flowers; 2, fruit. VOACANGA - ZEA 275

heavy clay on river and creek banks. It probably maize, containing 16% moisture, yields about 64 flowers and fruits the whole year. kg pearl starch, 3k g oil, and the remainder is used Literature |1] Leeuwenberg, A.J.M. (Editor), as feed. The starch may be used as human food or 1985. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae 15. Agri­ made into sizing, laundry starch and other prod­ cultural University Wageningen Papers 85-3. 122 ucts. Dry milling produces grits, consisting of pp. coarsely ground endosperm from which most of the (A.J.M. Leeuwenberg) bran and the germ have been separated. Maize also has a great number of subsidiary uses. Mature plants are used for animal feed. Crop resi­ Zea mays L. dues such asth e stalks are used for fuel or compost. The inner husks of the ear and the fibre in the Sp. PI. 2:97 1(1753) . stems have been used for making paper. Unripe GRAMINEAE ears can be consumed as a vegetable. In = 20 Production and international trade Present Vernacular names Maize, Indian corn (En). world production is about 460millio n t grain from Corn (Am). Maïs (Fr). Indonesia and Malaysia: about 130 million ha. The major producing coun­ jagong. Philippines: mais. Cambodia: pôôt. Laos: tries are the United States with an annual produc­ khauz phôôd. Thailand: khao phot. Vietnam: bap, tion of 200millio n t, China, the second largest pro­ ngô. ducer (75 million t), Brazil (21 million t), Soviet Origin and geographic distribution Maize Union (13 million t), Mexico (13 million t) and was first cultivated by Amerindians and is thought India (7 million t). The main producing countries to have originated in Mexico and Central Amer­ in South-East Asia are Indonesia, with an annual ica. It has been grown for thousands of years and production of 5millio n t, Thailand (4millio n t) and early civilizations of the Americas depended on the Philippines (4 million t). Only a small propor­ maize cultivation. In the 16th Century it was intro­ tion ofth e total production enters world trade. The duced in South-East Asia by the Portuguese. It is United States isth e principal exporter followed by still one of the most important grain crops and is Argentina and South Africa. Other countries geographically the most widely planted cereal. It exporting maize include Thailand, Mexico, Kenya is grown from latitudes up to 50° N in Central Eur­ and Malawi. Western Europe is the largest ope, throughout the tropics, to latitudes of about importer of maize. In Indonesia and the Philip­ 45° Si n New Zealand and the South American con­ pines maize is mainly grown as a subsistence crop; tinent. at least 75% of the production is directly con­ Uses Maize kernels are used for three main pur­ sumed by the farm households, the remainder is poses: processed by animal-feed mills and maize-oil facto­ - as a staple food, particularly in the tropics; ries. Maize isles s profitable per ha than some other - as feed for livestock, particularly in the indus­ food crops and has a negative income elasticity trialized countries of the temperate zones, pro­ (decreasing demand with rising income). Cultiva­ viding over two-thirds of the total trade in feed tion of maize remains popular in areas where grains; limited water availability orrelativel y low temper­ - as a raw material for many industrial products. atures do not permit rice production, as in parts Maize grain is prepared and consumed in a multi­ of China, western Pakistan, northern India, the tude ofways . For human consumption it is usually Philippines, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Indo­ ground or pounded and the meal may be boiled, nesia. In South-East Asia it is mainly grown by roasted or fermented. The main industrial prod­ smallholders. ucts arestarch , oil,syrup ,organi c liquids and alco­ Properties The average composition per 100 g holic beverages. Most industrial products are edible portion is approximately: water 10 g, pro­ usually obtained by the wet-milling process, in tein 10 g, fat 4.5 g, carbohydrates 70 g, fibre 2 g, which the grain is steeped, after which the germ ash 2 g. The energy value averages 1525k j per 100 and bran are separated from the endosperm. The g. The protein content varies from 6-15%, of main product is starch. Oil obtained from the germ which zein predominates. Maize is deficient in is made into soap or glycerine, but can be refined tryptophane and lysine, but cultivars with higher to produce a cooking or salad oil. The residues lysine and tryptophane content have been bred, from the production of starch or oil, together with using the recessive gene Opaque-2. The starch of the bran, are used in animal feeds. 100k g of whole the endosperm usually consists of a mixture of 276 A SELECTION

about two-thirds amylopectin and one-third amy- linear-lanceolate blades, 30-150 cm x 5-15 cm, lose. The endosperm, which accounts for 80% of acuminate, with pronounced midrib; ligule about the weight ofth e kernel, ispoo r in phosphorus and 5m m long, colourless. calcium and contains most of the starch and two- Male and female inflorescences separate on the thirds ofth e protein. More than 80% of the fat and same plant; male inflorescence ('tassel') a terminal most minerals are in the embryo or germ, which panicle, up to 40 cm long, axis bearing a variable constitutes about 12% of the kernel. Yellow maize number of lateral branches, with paired spikelets, isfairl y rich in provitamin Adu e to cryptoxanthin. one sessile and the other shortly pedicelled, 8-13 Most vitamins are found in the outer layers of the mmlong ,eac h with 2glume s and 2flowers , consist­ endosperm and in the aleuron layer. Maize is ing of an oval lemma, a thin palea, 2 fleshy lodi- unsuitable to make bread as it lacks gluten. cules, and 3 stamens; female inflorescence a modi­ 1000-kernel weight is 250-300 g. fied spike, usually 1-3 per plant, developed in the Description A stout annual grass, 2-3 m high. axil of one of the largest leaves, about half way Root system consisting of adventitious roots, de­ up the stem, with paired, sessile spikelets, each veloping from the lower nodes of the stem below with 2 glumes enclosing 2 flowers, the lower of and often also just above the soil surface, usually which is sterile, only consisting of short lemma limited to the upper 75 cm of the soil, but single and palea, and the upper pistillate, with short, roots sometimes penetrating to a depth of 200 cm broad lemma and palea, and a single basal ovary and more. Stem usually simple, solid, with clearly and a long threadlike stigma ('silk'), which grows defined nodes and internodes. Leaves 12-20, borne up to 45 cm in length and emerges from the top of alternately on either side of the stem at the nodes, the inflorescence. Mature infructescence ('ear' or with overlapping sheaths, auricled above, and 'cob') enclosed by husks, usually 8-42 cm x 3-7.5 cm.Grain s or 'kernels' (caryopsis) 30-1000 per ear, usually obovate and wedge-shaped, variously col­ oured from white, through yellow, red and purple to almost black. Growth and development The coleoptile emerges from the soil usually 4-6 days after plant­ ing. The plant may sometimes have a few basal branches ('tillers') that are of value in low density stands. At a later stage some whorls of aerial roots ('brace roots') may develop from the lower nodes above the ground which partly help to anchor the plant firmly, whilst also contributing toth e uptake of water and nutrients. Flower initiation is gener­ ally 20-30 days after germination. With a four- month cultivar the tassel emerges 50-60 days after planting and the ear appears about a week later. Maize has, as compared with rice and other cere­ als, a long post-floral period of7- 8 weeks.Th e peri­ od from planting to harvesting varies considera­ bly. It may be as little as 90day s in some very early cultivars and as long as 200day s in some very late cultivars. Climatic conditions influence growth duration. Other botanical information Cultivars can be divided into groups according to the structure and shape of the grain. Six main groups are known in tropical countries: - flint maize, characterized by hard endosperm, with a little soft starch in the centre; it is usually Zea mays L. - 1, basal plant part; 2, central plant hardier with a good storability; part with female inflorescences; 3, upper plant part - dent maize, identifiable by the characteristic with male inflorescence; 4, ripe infructescence. dent of the grain, having at the sides corneous ZEA 277

endosperm, but soft white starch extending to maize are a heavy drain on soil nutrients. Maize the apex, and shrinking on drying; is often used as a pioneer crop, because of its high - sweet corn or sugar maize with grains contain­ physical and chemical demands of the soil. Maize ing a glossy endosperm with little starch, giving can be grown on soilswit h ap H from 5-8, but 5.5-7 a wrinkled appearance after drying; the grain is is optimal. It belongs to the group of crops that is usually eaten as a fresh vegetable; considered to be sensitive to salinity. Since a - soft corn or flour maize characterized by endo­ young crop leaves much of the ground uncovered, sperm consisting of soft starch; soil erosion and water losses can be severe and - popcorn with small grains, with a high propor­ attention should be paid to adequate soil and tion of very hard corneous endosperm and a lit­ water conservation measures. tle soft starch in the centre; grains exploding by Propagation and planting Maize is always heating; and planted through direct seeding. Maize should pre­ - waxy corn ofwhic h the starch is composed entir­ ferably be sown early in the season, as soon as soil ely of amylopectin and is used for the manufac­ conditions and temperature are favourable. Seeds ture of adhesives. may be planted mechanically, but in peasant culti­ A compact filling gives the endosperm a horny, vation they are usually sown by hand. This transparent appearance and improves the storabi- requires 5-10 man-days/ha. Seeds are dropped in lity of the grain, a less compact filling gives the the plough furrow or in holes made with a planting kernel a chalky, meal-like appearance. stick. Planting may be done on hills or in rows, on A great many cultivars belonging to the various flat land or onridges .Ridgin g isbes t on heavy soils grain types are grown in different parts of the to improve drainage. Distance between the rows world. Important aspects of cultivar choice by varies from 60-100 cm; crop density depends on tropical smallholders are growth duration, taste soil conditions, rainfall, method of irrigation, cul­ and cooking quality, yield stability and produc­ tivar type and cropping system. Wide spacing tion, storability and suitability for intercropping. causes more weed growth and increases the occur­ Ecology Maize with its large number of culti­ rence of erosion. A uniform stand of the crop is vars differing in maturity period has a wide range very important as tillering does not occur. Aver­ of tolerance to temperature conditions. Maize is age plant density varies from 20000-8 0 000 plants/ characterized by the C4-cycle photosynthetic ha. An average seed rate of 10-25 kg/ha is fairly pathway. It is essentially a crop of warm regions common; in Indonesia higher rates are not unusual with adequate moisture. The bulk of the crop is to ensure reasonable plant stands at harvest time. grown in tropical and subtropical regions. It is not The common depth of planting is 3-6 cm depend­ suited to semi-arid or equatorial climates. It is pre­ ing on soil conditions and temperature. Deep sow­ dominantly grown in areas with isotherms of ing is recommended on light, dry soils. On small­ 21-30°C at tasselling. The minimum temperature holdings the land is usually cultivated by hand or for germination is 10°C. For adequate growth and by animal traction. The usual depth of ploughing development the crop requires an average daily is 8-10 cm. In Indonesia ploughing is done just temperature of at least 20°C .Th e time of flowering before or at planting time. Sometimes animal ma­ is influenced by photoperiod and temperature. nure or fertilizers are applied at the time of plant­ Maize is considered to be a quantitative short-day ing. plant. It is grown mainly from 50° N to 40° S and On smallholdings maize is often intercropped with from sea-level up to about 3000 m at the equator. other crops like groundnuts, mung beans, cow- At higher latitudes it can be grown for silage. peas,soy a beans, other pulses,cassava , sweet pota­ Maize is specially sensitive to moisture stress toes or vegetables. around the time of tasselling and fertilization. It Husbandry Adequate weed control is very also needs optimum moisture conditions at the important. Maize is very sensitive to weed compe­ time of planting. In the tropics it does best with tition during the first 4-6 weeks after emergence. 600-900 mm of rain during the growing season. It should be planted as soon as possible after the The shoot/root ratio isfairl y high, rendering maize preparation of the seed-bed. Interrow cultivation sensitive to drought. may be done until the plants reach a height of Maize can be grown on a wide variety of soils, but about 1m , in order to control weeds and to break performs best on well-drained, well-aerated, deep up a crusted soil surface. Weeding by hand soils containing adequate organic matter and well requires a minimum of 25 man-days/ha. Chemical supplied with available nutrients. High yields of weed control is gradually gaining importance, 278 A SELECTION because hand weeding is time-consuming and ious problem in maize in Africa, is not of great usually carried out rather late in the growing sea­ importance in South-East Asia. son. The most widely used herbicide for post-emer­ Harvesting Maize is usually harvested by hand. gence spraying is 2,4-D. Ridging or earthing-up is Mechanical harvesting is practised in Thailand sometimes practised. Irrigation is used in low rain­ and parts of the Philippines. The stage of maturity fall areas and is particularly valuable at the time can be recognized by yellowing of the leaves, yel­ of tasselling. low dry papery husks, and hard grains with a Maize usually responds well to fertilizers, pro­ glossy surface. In the dry season maize is often left vided other growth factors are adequate. The in the field until the moisture content of the grain quantity of manure applied by smallholders is has dropped to 15-20%. In hand harvesting the usually very limited. The improved cultivars can ears should be broken off with as little attached only produce a high grain yield when supplied stalk as possible. They may be harvested with the with adequate nutrients. A maize crop of 2 t/ha husks still attached. These may beturne d back and grain and 5 t/ha stover removes about 60 kg N, 25 the ears tied together and hung up to dry. kg P206 and 85 kg K20 from the soil. Nitrogen Yield Maize yields vary greatly, from about 11/ uptake is slow during the first month after plant­ ha with smallholders to up to about 8t/ha . Average ing, but increases to a maximum during ear forma­ yields ofmaiz e in t/ha are as follows: United States tion and tasselling. Maize has a high demand for 7.0, Europe 5.3,Afric a 1.2, South America 2.0,Indo ­ nitrogen which isofte n the limiting nutrient. High nesia 1.7, the Philippines 1.0 and Thailand 2.5. nitrogen levels should be applied in 3fraction s and Handling after harvest Major problems in given at the time of planting, when the crop is most maize-producing areas are reduction of the about 50 cm tall and at the time of silking. Phos­ moisture content of the grain to 12-15%, protec­ phate is not taken up easily by maize and, more­ tion from insects and rodents, and proper storage over, many tropical soils are deficient in available after harvest. A high moisture content with high phosphate. Organic manures, improving soil struc­ temperatures can cause considerable damage, ture and supplying nutrients, are recommended making the product unsuitable for human con­ and are usually applied before ploughing. sumption. Maize for home consumption is either Maize cropping in South-East Asia ismainl y found sun-dried on the cob for several days by hanging in the following three cropping systems: (a) perma­ up tied husks or put in a well-ventilated store or nent upland cultivation, (b) wet-rice system, and crib. Shelling (the removal of grains from the cob) (c) shifting cultivation. Rotations with other is usually carried out by hand though there are rainfed crops include soya beans, groundnuts, several hand and pedal-powered mechanical other pulses and cotton. Maize is suited for off-sea­ shellers now in use. The average recovery is about son cropping in rice fields, provided drainage is ad­ 75% . The grain is dried again for a few days and equate. stored in bags, tins or baskets. The optimum mois­ Diseases and pests The most serious disease of ture content for storage is 12-13%, but often it maize in South-East Asia is downy mildew (Scle- is not below 18%. In Indonesia seed for the next rospora spp.). Severe losses are recorded annually crop is generally selected from the last harvest. in India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand. The selected ears are stored at home in the husk Maize is mainly susceptible during the first 3-4 above the fire place to prevent losses by insects. weeks after planting. Several cultural practices Crop residues are removed from the field and fur­ reduce the severity of downy mildew either by eli­ ther used as fodder, fuel, etc. minating the pathogens from a particular area, Genetic resources International institutes reducing primary inoculum, or by stimulating such as CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejo- early plant growth. Other diseases are leaf blight ramiento deMaî zy Trigo , Mexico) and IITA (Inter­ (Helminthosporium turcicum and H. maydis), rust national Institute of Tropical Agriculture, (Puccinia spp.), stalk and ear rots caused by var­ Nigeria) play a major role as conservators and sup­ ious pathogens, and maize smut (Ustilago maydis). pliers of germplasm. Both institutes frequently co­ Stem-borers, corn-ear worms and army worms are operate with national breeding programmes. among the most serious pests. The principal pests Many tropical countries maintain their own germ- of stored maize are Angoumois grain moth (Sito- plasm collections. troga cerealella), grain weevils (Oryzaephilus suri- Breeding Maize is a cross-pollinated crop with namensis, Sitophilus oryzae) and rodents. many cultivars, most of which are adapted to or The semi-parasitic weed striga (Striga spp.), a ser­ bred for particular geographical areas. Many trop- ZEA 279 ical countries have their own breeding pro­ - shortage of high quality seed; grammes producing cultivars for their special - low profit of maize cropping compared with needs.Th e extinct wild maize and the first domesti­ some other food crops. cates were pod corns and popcorns with very small These aspects are closely related with marketing, ears. In comparatively little time maize evolved prices, transport facilities, drying, storage, pro­ into a highly productive crop. Greatly increased cessing and usage. Often an efficient agency for yields became within reach through the discovery the distribution of seed is absent. Farmers should and development ofhybri d maize, created from the obtain access to improved seed, fertilizers, crop crossing of two or more inbred lines. Attempts to protection chemicals and other inputs. Cultivars improve yield of open-pollinated maize resulted in and cropping techniques that fit well into the pre­ the production of synthetic (mixture of inbred vailing cropping systems have to be developed. lines) and composite (mixture of improved selec­ Improved cultivars are not always suitable for tions) cultivars. These are usually superior to local mixed intercropping systems. Therefore local, open-pollinated cultivars, but not as produc­ research should be more closely geared to farmers' tive as the best single- and double-cross cultivars needs. adapted to a particular environment. In high-input Literature |1|Arnon , I., 1972. Crop production farming with high fertilizer use and adequate facil­ in dry regions. Vol. 2: Systematic treatment of the ities for seed production, hybrid seed is usually principal crops. Leonard Hill, London, pp. used. In low-input farming composite or synthetic 146-187. |2|Berger , J., 1962.Maiz e production and cultivars may be preferable, as they permit seed the manuring of maize. Centre d'Etude de l'Azote, to be kept from one crop to the next. The wider Geneve. Conzett und Huber, Zürich. 315pp . 3 Bro- genetic base of these cultivars provides a better tonegore, S.,Laumans , Q.J. &Va n Staveren, J.Ph., adjustment to variable growing conditions. The 1986. Palawija, food crops other than rice in East use of hybrid seed under such conditions is ham­ Java agriculture. Malang Agricultural Research pered by problems like the production and distri­ Institute for Food Crops (MARIF), Malang, Indo­ bution of high-quality seed by government agen­ nesia, pp. 19-33. |4| Gibbon, D. & Pain, A., 1985. cies or commercial seed firms, and the need for Crops of the drier regions ofth e tropics. Longman, higher inputs. In the meantime the use of compos­ London, pp. 79-83. |5| Fisher, K.S. & Palmer, ites or synthetics, which are better adapted to the A.F.E., 1984.Tropica l maize. In: Goldworthy, P.R. smallholder's needs, will be an improvement over & Fisher, N.M. (Editors): The physiology of tropi­ the existing maize cultivars. In maize breeding cal fieldcrops. John Wiley &Sons , Chichester, pp. attention is paid to grain yield, growth duration, 213-248. |6|Purseglove , J.W., 1972.Tropica l crops. resistance to diseases and pests, response to nitro­ Monocotyledons 1. Longman, London, pp. gen, tolerance to heat and drought, resistance to 300-334. |7! Williams, C.N. & Chew, W.Y., 1979. lodging, ear characteristics and protein content. Tree and field crops of the wetter regions of the Prospects The potential yield of maize is larger tropics. Longman, London, pp. 142-149. than that of either rice or wheat and it can be (A. Koopmans &H . ten Have) expected that maize will assume a proportionally larger and more important role in world food pro­ duction. Maize will remain an important cereal in South-East Asia because - it gives the highest yield per manhour of invested labour; - the husks give protection against birds and rain; - it is easy to harvest and to store and it does not shatter; - it can be harvested over a long period (first immature ears, a few weeks later mature ones); and - it can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. Yields can be improved considerably. Low yields are due to a combination of the following factors: - low adoption by farmers of available improved cultivars and advanced cropping techniques; Glossary

abaxial: on the side facing away from the axis or stem abortive: imperfectly developed accessory buds: those additional to the axillary and normal buds achene: a small dry indéhiscent one-seeded fruit that does not split open actinomorphic: radially symmetrical; applied to flowers that can be bi-sected in more than one vertical plane acuminate: ending in a narrowed, tapering point with concave sides acute: sharp; ending in a point with straight or slightly convex sides adaxial: the side or face next to the axis adnate: united with another part; with unlike parts fused, e.g. ovary and calyx tube adventitious: not in the usual place, e.g. roots on stems, or buds produced else­ where than in the axils of leaves or the extremities of stems aestivation: the arrangement of the sepals and petals in the bud ala(e): wing(s),th e lateral petal(s) of a papilionaceous flower aliform: wing-shaped allantoid: sausage-shaped allopolyploid (alloploid): a polyploid with more than two sets of chromosomes, each being derived from a different species;allotriploi d with three sets, allote- traploid with four sets, etc. alternate: leaves, etc., inserted at different levels along the stem, as distinct from opposite or whorled amphidiploid (amphiploid): a polyploid with a complete set of chromosomes from each parent, usually produced by doubling the chromosome number in the first generation hybrid anaemia: a condition in which the blood is deficient in red blood cells, in hae­ moglobin, or in total volume anatropous: a reversed ovule with the micropyle close to the hilum androecium: the male element; the stamens as a unit of the flower androgynophore: a column on which stamens and carpels are borne aneuploid: with other than the exact multiple of the haploid chromosome com­ plement annual: a plant that completes its life cycle in one year anther: the part of the stamen containing the pollen anthesis: the time the flower is expanded, or, more strictly, the time when polli­ nation takes place anthelmintic: a drug or agent that destroys or causes expulsion of intestinal worms anti-arrhythmic: tending to prevent or relieve arrhythmia i.e. an alteration in rhythm of the heartbeat either in time or force GLOSSARY 281 antibiotic: combats variously disease-causing organisms such as bacteria, vi­ ruses, protozoa, etc. anticlinal: perpendicular to the surface antiseptic: inhibits orretard s or prevents the growth and reproduction or arrests the development ofbacteri a and other micro-organisms causative of infection or other deleterious processes antitoxic: counteracting poison apetalous: without petals, or with a single perianth aphrodisiac: stimulates sexual desire or power apiculate: ending abruptly in a short point apocarpous: carpels free from each other apomixis: reproduction by seed formed without sexual fusion apothecium: an organ of fructification peculiar to lichens, usually cup-shaped or bowl-shaped appressed: lying closely and flatly pressed against arcuate: curved aril: an expansion of the funicle enveloping the seed, arising from the placenta; sometimes occurring as a pulpy covering arillode: a false aril, a coat of the seed, and not arising from the placenta aristate: awned articulate: jointed, or with places where separation takes place naturally ascites: accumulation of serous fluid in the abdomen ascocarp: the sporocarp of Ascomycetes producing asci and ascospores ascospore: a spore produced by an ascus, sometimes termed sporidium or sporule ascus, pi. asci: a large cell, usually the swollen end of a hyphal branch, in the ascocarp, in which normally eight spores are developed asexual: sexless; not involving union of gametes astringent: contracts muscle-fibres and condenses tissues attenuate: gradually tapering auricle: an ear-shaped appendage, as the base of a grass lamina auriform: ear-shaped autopolyploid (autoploid): polyploid with more than two sets of similar chromo­ somes derived from the same species awn: a bristle-like appendage, as found in the flowers of grasses axil: the upper angle between the leaf and the stem axillary: arising from the axil axis: the main or central line of development of any plant or organ baccate: berrylike ; pulpy or fleshy back sawn (flat sawn,plain sawn): applied to timber sawn approximately tangen- tially to the rings of growth basidium, pi. basidia: the spore-mother-cells of fungi, having small points from which spores are shed basifixed: attached or fixed by the base beak: a long, prominent and substantial point, applied particularly to prolonga­ tions of fruits berry: ajuic y indéhiscent fruit with the seeds immersed in pulp;usuall y several- seeded without a stony layer surrounding the seeds biennial: a plant which flowers, fruits and dies in its second year or season bifid: cleft into two parts at the tip 282 A SELECTION

bilabiate: two-lipped bilocular: with two compartments or cells biotype: a population or race in which all the individuals have the same genetic constitution bipinnate: when the primary divisions (pinnae) of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnate bisexual: having both sexes present and functional in the same flower blade: the expanded part of a leaf or petal bole:th e main trunk of a tree with a distinct stem bowing: the curvature of a piece of sawn timber in the direction of its length bract: a reduced leaf subtending a flower or flower stalk, or a part of an inflores­ cence bracteole: a secondary bract on the pedicel or close under the flower brittle heart: the defective core of a log, characterized by abnormal brittleness bulb: an underground storage organ with a much-shortened stem bearing fleshy leaf bases or scale leaves enclosing the next year's bud bulbil: an aerial bulb or bud produced in a leaf axil or replacing the flower, which, on separation, is capable of propagating the plant bulgy: swollen and curved bunch: cluster, growing together bush: a low thick shrub without a distinct trunk butt: the base of a plant from which the roots spring buttress: the knee-like growth of trunk or roots in certain trees caducous: falling off early caespitose: forming mats or spreading tufts calyx: the outer envelope of the flower, consisting of sepals, free or united campanulate: bell-shaped canaliculate: channelled, with a longitudinal groove capitate: headed, like the head ofa pin in some stigmas, or collected into compact headlike clusters as in some inflorescences capitulum: a dense inflorescence of an aggregation of usually sessile flowers, as in Compositae capsule: a dry dehiscent fruit composed of two or more carpels and either split­ ting when ripe into valves, or opening by slits or pores carina: keel, the two inner united petals of a papilionaceous flower carminative: expelling gas from the alimentary canal so as to relieve colic or griping carpel: one of the foliar units of a compound pistil or ovary; a simple pistil has only one carpel caruncle: an outgrowth of a seed near the hilum caryopsis: small one-celled dry indéhiscent fruit with thin membranous pericarp adhering closely to the seed, as is found in grasses cataphylls: scale leaves (early leaf forms) in e.g.hypogea l germinating seedlings, which appear before the eophylls catarrh: inflammation of the lining tissue of various organs, particularly of the nose, throat, and air passages, and characterized by an outpouring of mucus catkin: a close bracteate, often pendulous spike, usually with unisexual flowers cauliflorous: flowers borne on the stem from the old wood, separate from the leaves GLOSSARY 283 checks (in wood): small separations ofth e wood fibres in a longitudinal direction not penetrating as far as the opposite or adjoining side of a piece of sawn timber chromosome: a structural unit in the nucleus which carries the genes in a linear constant order; the number is typically constant in any species ciliate: with a fringe of hairs along the edge circumscissile: dehiscing as if cut circularly around clamps: small semicircular hollow protuberances, atttached laterally to the walls of two adjoining hyphal cells, and stretching over the septum between them clavate: club-shaped or thickened towards the end claw: the narrow part of a petal or sepal cleistogamous: when self-pollination occurs within the unopened flower clone: a group of plants originating by vegetative propagation from a single plant and therefore of the same genotype columella: a persistent central axis round which the carpels of some fruits are arranged column: the adnate stamens and style forming the solid central body in orchids; a tube of connate stamen filaments coma: the hairs at the end of some seeds compatibility: in botany: capable of cross or self-fertilization compound: of two or more similar parts in one organ, as in a compound leaf or compound fruit concave: hollow cone: the fruit of a pine or fir tree (gymnosperms), largely made up of imbricated scales connate: united or joined conoidal: similar in shape to a geometrical cone convulsion: uncontrolled contraction of muscles over large areas of the body, either periodic or continuous cordate: heart-shaped, as seen at the base of a deeply-notched leaf, etc. coriaceous: of leathery texture corm: a solid, short, swollen underground stem, usually erect and tunicated, of one year's duration, with that of the next year at the top or close to the old one corolla: the inner envelope of the flower of free or united petals cortex: the bark or rind cortical: relating to the cortex corymb: a flat-topped indeterminate inflorescence in which the branches or pedi­ cels start from different points, but attain approximately the same level, with the outer flowers opening first cotyledon: seed-leaf. Dicotyledons have two cotyledons in their embryos and monocotyledons have one. crenate: the margin notched with blunt or rounded teeth crenulate: crenate (scalloped), but the teeth themselves small crescent-shaped: approximately the shape of a crescent (shape of the new moon) cross-pollination: placing or depositing the pollen from one flower on the stigma of a flower of another plant culm: the stem of grasses and sedges 284 A SELECTION cultigen: a plant species or race that has arisen or is known only in cultivation cultivar (cv., cvs): an agricultural or horticultural variety that has originated and persisted under cultivation, as distinct from a botanical variety. A culti­ var name should always be written with an initial capital letter and given single quotation marks, e.g., banana 'Gros Michel'. cuneate: wedge-shaped; triangular, with the narrow end at the point of attach­ ment, as the bases ofleave s or petals cupping: the curvature of a piece of sawn timber across its width cupule: a small cup cuspidate: abruptly tipped with a sharp rigid point cyme: a determinate inflorescence, often flat-topped, in which the central flowers open first cytoplasm: the protoplasm of a cell, excluding the nucleus deciduous: shedding or prone to shedding, applied to leaves, petals, etc. decumbent: reclining or lying on the ground decurrent: extending down and adnate to the stem, as occurs in some leaves decussate (of leaves): arranged in opposite pairs on the stem, with each pair per­ pendicular to the preceeding pair deflexed (reflexed): abruptly recurved; bent downwards or backwards dehiscent: opening spontaneously when ripe, e.g., capsules, anthers deltoid: shaped like an equilateral triangle dentate: margin prominently toothed with the pointed teeth directed outwards denticulate: finely dentate depurative: removes impurities or waste materials; 'purifies' the blood dermatophyte: a fungus parasitic on the skin or skin dérivâtes determinate: when the terminal or central flower of an inflorescence opens first and the prolongation of the axis is arrested; for pulses also used to indicate bush-shaped plants with short duration flowering in one plane diadelphous: in two bundles dicotyledon: angiosperm with two cotyledons or seed-leaves digitate: a compound leaf whose leaflets diverge from the same point like the fingers of a hand dimorphic: of two forms, as may occur with branches, etc. dioecious: with unisexual flowers and with the staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants diploid: with two sets (genomes) of chromosomes, as occurs in somatic or body cells; usually written In, having twice the basic chromosome number of the haploid germ cells disk: a fleshy or elevated development of the receptacle within the calyx, or corolla or stamens, often lobed and nectiferous dissected: divided into many slender segments distal: situated farthest from the place of attachment distichous: regularly arranged in two opposite rows on either side ofth e stem diuretic: promotes flow of urine domatia: modified projections that provide shelter for other organisms dorsal: back; referring to the back or outer surface ofa part or organ dorsifixed: attached by the back, as in the case of the attachment of anthers to a filament downy: covered with very short and weak soft hairs GLOSSARY 285

drupe: a fleshy one-seeded indéhiscent fruit with the seed enclosed in a strong endocarp ecotype: individuals that are interfertile with each other and members of other ecotypes of the same species, but maintain their individuality through envi­ ronmental isolation and selection effused: expanded egg: the female gamete or germ cell elliptic: oval in outline but widest about the middle emarginate: notched at the extremity emasculate: to remove the anthers from a bud or flower before the pollen is shed embryo: the rudimentary plant still enclosed in the seed which arises from the zygote emmenagogue: substance promoting flow of menstrual discharge emollient: soothes, softens, relaxes and protects the skin endemic: confined to a region or country and not native anywhere else endocarp: the innermost layer of the pericarp or fruit wall endosperm: the starchy or oily nutritive material stored within some seeds, sometimes referred to as albumen; it is triploid, having arisen from the triple fusion of a sperm nucleus and the two polar nuclei of the embryo sac entire: an even margin without teeth, lobes, etc. eophylls: seedling leaves, as distinct from adult leaves called metaphylls epicalyx: an involucre ofbract s below the flower, resembling an extra calyx epicotyl: the young stem above the cotyledons epigeal: above ground; in epigeal germination the cotyledons are raised above the ground epiphyte: a plant that grows on another plant but without deriving nourishment from it exocarp: the outer layer of the pericarp or fruit wall expectorant: controls cough by increasing or decreasing bronchial secretions exserted: projecting beyond, as stamens from a perianth exstipulate: without stipules extra-axillary: beyond or outside the axil extrorse: an anther which dehisces outwardly towards the perianth F,, F2, etc.: symbols used to designate the first generation, second generation, etc., after across falcate: sickle-shaped fascicle: a cluster of flowers, leaves, etc., arising from the same point febrifuge: serving to reduce fever fertilization: union ofth e gametes (egg and sperm) to form a zygote fiddleback: resembling the shape of a fiddle filament: thread; the stalk supporting the anther filiform: slender; threadlike fimbriate: fringed flabellate: fanlike flaky: lamelliform, in the shape of a plate or scale flexuose: zigzag;ben t alternately in opposite directions floret: individual small flower, as in grasses and composites floss: fluffy fibrous material foliaceous: leaf-like 286 A SELECTION foliolate (2-,3-, 4- etc.): with 2-,3- ,4 - leaflets free: neither adhering nor united frond: the foliage of ferns and other cryptogams; also used for the leaves of palms fruit: the ripened ovary with adnate parts funicle (funiculus): the little cord which attaches the ovule or seed to the pla­ centa funnelform: salver-shaped fusiform: spindle-shaped; tapering at each end from a swollen middle gamopetalous: with united petals either throughout their length or at the base gamosepalous: with united sepals gene: the unit of inheritance located on the chromosome genome: a set of chromosomes as contained within the gamete and correspond­ ing to the haploid chromosome number of the species genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism comprising the sum total of its genes, both dominant and recessive; a group of organisms with the same gene­ tic makeup gibbous: more convex in one place than another glabrescent: becoming glabrous or nearly so glabrous: devoid of hairs glandular: having or bearing secreting organs or glands glaucous: pale bluish green, or with a whitish bloom which rubs off globose: spherical or nearly so glumes: the lower two sterile bracts at the base of grass spikelets glutinous: sticky gynoecium: the female part or pistil of a flower, consisting, when complete, of one or more ovaries with their styles and stigmas gynophore: a stalk supporting the gynoecium formed by elongation of the recep­ tacle haemorrhage: bleeding; an escape ofbloo d from blood-vessels halitosis: a condition ofhavin g fetid breath haploid: having a single set (genome) of chromosomes in a cell or an individual, or the reduced number (n) as in a gamete harvest index: the total harvested (used product) in relation to the total biomass of the crop hastate: with more or less triangular basal lobes diverging laterally head: a dense inflorescence of small crowded often stalkless flowers (a capitu- lum) heart wood: wood from the inner portion of a tree in which the cells are dead and no longer engaged in sap conduction and food storage herb: any vascular plant which is not woody herbaceous: not woody hermaphrodite: bisexual; in flowers, with stamens and pistil in the same flower heterogamous: with two or more kinds or forms of flowers heterogeneous: lacking in uniformity; exhibiting variability heterostylous: having styles of two or more distinct forms or of different lengths hilum: the scar left on a seed indicating its point of attachment hirsute: with rather coarse stiff hairs hoarseness: to be rough or harsh in sound GLOSSARY 287 homogeneous: uniform as to kind; showing no variability husk: the outer covering of some fruits hyaline: almost transparant hybrid: the first generation offspring of a cross between two individuals differ­ ing in one or more genes hybridization: the crossing of individuals of unlike genetic constitution hydathode: water-pore, an organ which extrudes water or other liquid hymenium: an aggregation of spore mother-cells in a continuous layer on a spo- rophore, the sporiferous part of the fructification in fungi hypanthium: the cup-like receptacle usually derived from the fusion ofth e floral envelopes and androecium on which are seemingly borne the calyx, corolla and stamens hypertrophic: morbidly enlarged hypha, pi. hyphae: element of the thallus in fungi, a cylindrical thread-like branched body developing by apical growth and usually septate hypocotyl: the young stem below the cotyledons hypogeal: below ground; in hypogeal germination the cotyledons remain below ground within the testa imbricate: overlapping like tiles; in a flower bud when one sepal or petal is wholly external and one wholly internal and the others overlapping at the edges only imparipinnate: pinnate with an odd terminal leaflet inbred line: the product of inbreeding; a line originating by self-pollination and selection incised: cut deeply incompatibility: failure to obtain fertilization and seed formation after self-polli­ nation, or within or between clones indéhiscent: not opening when ripe indeterminate: an inflorescence in which the terminal flowers are the last to open, so that the floral axis may be prolonged indefinitely by a terminal bud; in pulses also used to indicate plants with climbing stems with long-duration flowering indigenous: native to a particular area or region indumentum: a covering, as of hairs, scales, etc. inferior: beneath, lower, below; an inferior ovary is one which is below the sepals, petals and stamens inflorescence: the arrangement and mode of development of the flowers on the floral axis intercalary: growth, not apical but between the apex and the base internode: the portion of the stem between two nodes interpetiolar: of stipules placed between the petioles of opposite leaves introrse: of anthers whose line of dehiscence faces towards the centre of the flower involucre: whorls ofbract s beneath a flower or flower cluster irregular flowers: in which parts of the calyx or corolla are dissimilar in size and shape; asymmetrical or zygomorphic jaundice: yellowness of the skin, lining tissues, and secretions caused by bile pigments in the blood jugate: connected or yoked together; e.g. in leaves 1— n jugate: with 1— n pairs of leaflets 288 A SELECTION keel: see carina kernel: the nucellus of an ovule or of a seed, that is, the whole body within the coats kino: gum of various trees, resembling catechu, and used in medicine and tan­ ning as astringent labellum: lip;th e lowest petal of an orchid lacerate: torn; irregularly cleft or cut lacinate: with narrow parted lobes lamina: see blade laminate(d): consisting of plates or layers lanceolate: lance-shaped; much longer than broad, being widest at the base and tapering to the apex lateral: on or at the side leaflet: one part of a compound leaf lemma: the flowering glume ofgrasses , being the lower ofth e two bracts immedi­ ately enclosing each floret in the spikelet lenticel: lenticular corky spots on young bark, corresponding to epidermal sto- mata lenticular: shaped like a doubly convex lens leucorrhoea: a discharge of whitish mucus and pus from the female genitals liana: a woody climbing vine libriform cell:a narrow, thick-walled cell ofwood y tissue resembling bast, wood- fibre ligule: a strap-shaped organ or body; the thin membranous projection from the top of the leaf-sheath of grasses line: used in plant-breeding for a group of individuals from a common ancestry linear: long and narrow with parallel sides liquorice: black substance extracted from the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. used in medicine especially against coughs and colds lobed:o f leaves:divided , but not into separate leaflets locule: the cavity of an ovary or anther loculicidal: the cavity of a pericarp dehiscent by the back, the dorsal suture log: a section cross-cut from a tree or a branch of a tree. Round log: bark, branches and protuberances removed. Squared log: if a log has been sawn to an approximimately rectangular cross section lyrate: of a leaf with small pinnate lobes below and a larger terminal lobe mass selection: a system of breeding in which seed from individuals selected on the basis of phenotype isjoine d and used to grow the next generation medulla: the central looser portion of the flesh in certain fungi and algae meiosis: nuclear divisions in which the diploid chromosome number is reduced to half that of the parent cell to give the haploid number, as in gametes mericarp: one of the separate halves or parts of a fruit, as in Umbelliferae meristem: undifferentiated tissue of the growing point whose cells are capable ofdividin g and developing into various organs and tissues mesocarp: the middle layer of the pericarp or fruit wall which is often fleshy or succulent metaphylls: adult leaves midrib: the main vein of a leaf which is a continuation of the petiole monadelphous: of stamens which are united into one group by their filaments GLOSSARY 289 monocotyledon: angiosperms having a single cotyledon or seed-leaf monoecious: with unisexual flowers but borne on the same plant monopodial: of a primary axis which continues its original line of growth from the same apical meristem to produce successive lateral branches mucronate: ending abruptly in a short stiff point mycorrhiza: a symbiotic association of roots with a fungus which may form a layer outside the root (ectotrophic) or within the outer tissues (endotrophic) nausea: an uncomfortable feeling in and about the stomach associated with aversion to food and a need to vomit nephritis: acute or chromic inflammation of the kidney caused by infection, degenerative process, or vascular disease nerve: a strand of strengthening or conducting tissue running through a leaf, which starts from the midrib and diverges or branches throughout the blade node: the point on the stem or branch at which a leaf or branch is borne nodule: a small knot or rounded body, often in roots ofleguminou s plants, where bacteria of the genus Rhizobium are active nucellus: the nutritive tissue in an ovule nut: properly a one-seeded indéhiscent fruit with a hard dry pericarp or shell nutlet: a little nut ob:th e reverse condition (obtriangular, obcordate, etc.) oblanceolate: reverse of lanceolate oblong: longer than broad, with the sides parallel or almost so obovate: reverse of ovate obtuse: blunt or rounded at the end operculum: a lid or cover which separates by a transverse line of division opposite: of leaves and branches when two are borne at the same node on oppo­ site sides of the stem orbicular: flat with a more or less circular outline orifice: an opening by which spores, etc., escape; ostiole orthotropic: vertical growth; tendency to elongate vertically ostiole: see orifice outcross: cross-pollination, usually by natural means, with plants differing in genetic constitution oval: see ovate ovary: that part of the pistil, usually the enlarged base, which contains the ovules and eventually becomes the fruit ovate: egg-shaped; a flat surface which is scarcely twice as long as broad with the widest portion below the middle ovoid: a solid object which is egg-shaped (ovate) in section ovule: the immature seeds in the ovary before fertilization palea: the upper of the two bracts each enclosing a floret in a grass spikelet palmate: lobed or divided like the palm ofth e hand palmatifid: cut about halfway down in a palmate manner pandurate: shaped like the body of a fiddle panicle: an indeterminate branched racemose inflorescence paniculate: resembling a panicle papilionaceous flower: butterfly-like, pea-like flower, with standard, wings and keel papilose: covered with minute nipple-like protuberances 290 A SELECTION pappus: the ring ofhair s or scales round the tip of the fruit, as in Compositae parenchyma: tissue composed of more or less isodiametric cells, e.g. the pith and mesophyll parietal: when ovules are attached to the inner surface of the walls of a one- celled syncarpous ovary paripinnate: a pinnate leaf without the odd terminal leaflet partite: cleft nearly, but not quite to the base pedicel: stalk of each individual flower of an inflorescence peduncle: the stalk of an inflorescence or partial inflorescence pellucid: translucent peltate: of a leaf with the stalk attached to the under surface, not at the edge pendulous: drooping; hanging down pentaploid: having five sets of chromosomes (5n) perennial: living for many years and usually flowering each year perfect flower: a flower possessing both male and female organs perfoliate: of a sessile leaf or bract whose base completely surrounds the stem perianth: the floral leaves as a whole, including both sepals and petals if both are present pericarp: the wall of the ripened ovary or fruit wall of which the layers may be fused into one, or be more or less divisible into exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp perisperm: the nutritive tissue of some seeds derived from the nucellus persistent: remaining attached; not falling off petal: a member ofth e inner series ofperiant h segments which are often brightly coloured petaloid: petal-like petiole: the stalk of a leaf petiolule: the stalk of a leaflet phenotype: the physical or external appearance of an organism as distinguished from its genetic constitution (genotype); a group of organisms with similar physical or external make-up phyllody: transformation of flower parts into leaves phyllotaxy: the arrangement of leaves or floral parts on their axis physiological races: pathogens of the same species and variety, which are struc­ turally similar, but which differ in physiological and pathological character­ istics pileate: having the form of a cap pilose: hairy with rather long soft hairs pinna, pi. pinnae: a primary division or leaflet of a pinnate leaf pinnate: a compound leaf with the leaflets arranged along each sideo f a common rachis pinnatifid: with the margin pinnately cleft pinnatilobed: pinnately divided to about half-way to the midrib pistil: the female part of a flower (gynoecium) ofon e or more carpels, consisting, when complete, of ovary(s), style(s) and stigma(s) pistillate: a unisexual flower with pistil, but no stamens pistillode: a sterile, often reduced pistil pith: the soft core occurring in the structural centre of a log; the tissue, some­ times soft, in the centre of the stem of a non-woody dicotyledon GLOSSARY 291 placenta: the part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached placentation: the position of the placentae in the ovary plagiotropic: having the lateral branches inclined away from the vertical line plumose: featherlike with fine hairs, as on the sides of some bristles plumule: the primary bud of an embryo or germinating seed plywood: a structural material consisting of sheets of wood glued or cemented together with the grains of adjacent layers arranged at right angles or at a wide angle pneumatophores: used of air-vessels of any description; a root often functioning as a respiratory organ in a marsh plant pod: a general term for a dry dehiscent fruit pollen: spores or grains borne byth e anthers containing the male element (game- tophyte) pollination: the transfer of pollen from the dehiscing anther to the receptive stigma pollinia: regularly shaped masses of pollen formed by the cohesion of a large number of pollen grains, as in orchids polyembryony: the production oftw o or more embryos within an ovule polygamous: with unisexual and bisexual flowers in the same plant polymorphic: very variable in habit or some morphological feature; represented by two or more forms polypetalous: with a corolla of separate petals polyploid: an organism with more than two sets (genomes) of chromosomes in its somatic cells poroid: with tube-like openings, forming the hymenium in fungi prickle: a sharp relatively stout outgrowth from the outer layers primordium: a group of undifferentiated meristematic cells, usually of a grow­ ing point, capable ofdifferentiatin g into various kinds of organs or tissues procumbent: lying loosely along the surface ofth e ground propagule: a plant past that becomes detached from the rest of the plant and grows into a new plant prop-roots: aerial roots prostrate: lying flat on the ground protandrous: stamens shedding pollen before the stigma is receptive protogynous: when the stigma isreceptiv e before the pollen is shed pseudoraceme: raceme-like inflorescence but not a true raceme puberulous: minutely pubescent pubescent: covered with soft short hairs pulvinate: cushion-shaped pulvinus: a minute gland or swollen petiole base punctate: marked with dots or translucent glands pyrene: a nutlet or kernel; the stone of a drupe or similar fruit qualitative short-day plant: to flower, the plant needs short days (often with quantitative response); ifth e daylength surpasses a certain value (the critical daylength) the plant does not flower quantitative short-day plant: plant flowers sooner under short-day conditions, but short days are not absolutely necessary to flower quarter-sawn wood: timber sawn approximately at right angles to the growth rings 292 A SELECTION raceme: an unbranched elongated indeterminate inflorescence with stalked flowers opening from the base upwards racemose: raceme-like rachilla: a diminutive or secondary axis, as the stalk of the spikelet in grasses rachis: the principal axis or an inflorescence or a compound leaf radicle: the first root of an embryo or germinating seed ratoon: new shoots from perennial crops, such as sugar cane after the first crop, used for the production of the second and subsequent crops (ratoon crops) ray: the radiating branch of an umbel; the outer floret of an inflorescence of the Compositae with straplike perianth which differs from those in the centre or disk rays (in wood): ribbons of parenchymatous tissue which are seen on a cross sec­ tion of timber as lighter coloured lines radiating from the pith outwards, and extending right up to the bark receptacle: the flat, concave or convex part of the stem from which the parts of the flower arise recombination: new gene combination as a result of cross-fertilization between individuals differing in genotype recumbent: lying down recurved: bent or curved downward or backward reflexed: abruptly recurved; bent downwards or backwards regular: of a radially symmetrical flower; actinomorphic renal calculi: nodules of solid matter formed in the excretory passages of the kidneys reniform: kidney-shaped resupinate: upside down or apparently so reticulate: netted, as when the smallest veins of a leaf are connected together revolute: of leaves with the margins rolled downwards towards the midrib rhizoid: root-like rhizome: an underground stem which is distinguished from a root by the pres­ ence of nodes, buds, and leaves or scales rhomboid: quadrangular, with the lateral angles obtuse rostellum: a small beak; in orchids a projection of the upper edge of the stigma in front of the anthers rudimentary: of organs which are imperfectly developed and nonfunctional rugose: wrinkled rugulose: somewhat wrinkled ruminate: of mottled appearance, as in seeds with infolding of darker perisperm into the paler endosperm runner: a slender trailing shoot rooting at the end saccate: pouched sagittate: shaped like an arrowhead; of a leaf base with two acute straight lobes directed downwards samara: an indéhiscent winged fruit sapraemia: a toxic state in which toxic products of putrefactive bacteria are present in the blood saprophyte: a plant which derives its food from dead organic matter sapwood: the outer layers of wood adjacent to the bark which in the living tree contain living cells and reserve materials GLOSSARY 293 sarcotesta: the fleshy outer seed coat scabrid, scabrous: rough to the touch scalariform: having markings suggestive of a ladder scale: reduced leaf, usually sessile, thin and dry, and seldom green scandent: climbing sclerenchymatous tissue: composed ofthick-walle d cells season (of timber): to reduce the moisture content of timber by either air-drying (air-season) or kiln-drying (kiln-season). Timber is fully seasoned when the moisture content has dropped to the equilibrium moisture content of the am­ bient climate. seed:th e reproductive unit formed from a fertilized ovule, consisting of embryo and seed-coat, and, in some cases, also endosperm self-fertile: capable of fertilization and setting seed after self-pollination self-pollination: pollination with pollen from the same flower or from other flowers of the same plant self-sterile: failure to complete fertilization and obtain seed after self-pollination sepal: a member of the outer series of perianth segments sepaloid: sepal-like septate: divided by one or more partitions septicidal: dehiscing along the septa of the ovary septum: a partition or cross-wall sericeous: silky serrate: toothed like a saw, with regular pointed teeth pointing forwards serrulate: serrate with minute teeth sessile: without a stalk sheath: a tubular structure surrounding an organ or part, as the lower part of the leaf clasping the stem in grasses shrub: a woody plant with branches from the base and not reaching any great size silique: the pecular pod of the Cruciferae, two valves falling away from a frame, the replum, on which the seeds grow, and across which a false partition is formed simple: not compound, as in leaves with a single blade sinker roots: roots growing straight downward slash: a long cut or stroke along the stem ofa tree to reveal exudates and colours ofbar k and sapwoo d spadix: a flower spike with a fleshy or thickened axis, as in aroids and some palms spathe: a large bract enclosing a spadix, or two or more bracts enclosing a flower cluster spathulate: spoon-shaped spicate: spike-like spiciform: spike-like spicule: a fine, fleshy erect point spike: a simple indeterminate inflorescence with sessile flowers along a single axis spikelet: a small spike composed of one or more flowers within a common pair of glumes, as in grasses spine: a short stiff straight sharp-pointed hard structure 296 A SELECTION viability: ability to live, grow and develop villous: shaggy; with long weak hairs viny: trailing or climbing viscid: sticky viscous: glutinous, or very sticky warp: distortion of a piece of sawn timber usually occurring during seasoning wedge-shaped: see cuneate whorl: more than two organs ofth e same kind arising at the same level wing: see ala zygomorphic: irregular flowers divisible into equal halves in one plane only Acknowledgments

Our thanks aredu et o - theBoar d ofth e Wageningen Agricultural University for supporting the Pro- sea project; - the Netherlands Ministry of Education and Science, in particular the Direc­ tor-General Dr E.va n Spiegel, for financial support; - the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, for financial and other support; - the Netherlands Ministry ofForeig n Affairs, Directorate General of Interna­ tional Cooperation, for financial support to internationalize the project; - the coordinating institutions ofth e Prosea project for providing facilities for the Prosea staff; the Departments ofTropica l Crop Science and Plant Taxonomy ofth e Wage­ ningen Agricultural University, for providing facilities for the Prosea staff; - the Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Bogor, Indonesia, for providing facilities forth e Prosea Regional Office; - the Board of the trust 'Landbouw Export Bureau 1916/1918', for granting a subsidy for thepublication s ofth e project; - the Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (Pudoc), Wage­ ningen, the Netherlands, in particular Mr J.M. Schippers, Director, for his support, andhi sstaf f for cooperation andfo r documentation facilities; - various experts for providing vernacular names. Indonesia: Dr Soedarsono Riswan ofth e Centre for Research andDevelopmen t in Biology, Bogor. Thai­ land: Mr Chamlong Phengklai, Director Forest Herbarium of the Royal For­ est Department, Bangkok. Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam: Dr J.E . Vidal, Mr Pham Hoang Ho, Mrs Dy Phon of the Laboratoire de Phanérogamie of the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris; - Mr E.V.va n der Spek, H.V.A. Ned.B.V. ,fo r reviewing the article on sugar­ cane; - all persons, institutions, publishers and authors mentioned in the list 'Sources of illustrations', for authorization to use the mentioned illus­ trations; - the Greshoff s Rumphius Foundation, Society for Tropical Scientific Research and Rijksherbarium Foundation Professor Lam for enabling Mr P.C. vanWeize n to make a fieldtrip to Sabah, northern Borneo; - MrsS .Hunt , MrsJ . Burrough &M r N.Wrigh t for correcting the language. - This book is dedicated to Prof. Dr. H.C.D. deWi t andProf . Dr. A.J.G.H.Kos - termans, plant resources specialists 'avant la lettre'. Sources of illustrations

Illustrations are redrawn and adapted from: - Aublet, J.B.C.F., 1775. Histoire des plantes de la Guiane Française. Vol. 4, PI. 300:Stylosanthes guianensis (flowering branch). - Botany Department, University ofQueensland , St. Lucia, Australia: Eucalyp­ tus deglupta. - Botton, H., 1958.Le s plantes de couverture. Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique Appliquée 5(l-3):82, Fig. 25:Flemingia macrophylla (flower­ ing branch, fruiting branchlet). - Brown, W.H., 1954. Useful plants of the Philippines. Department of Agricul­ ture and Natural Resources. Technical Bulletin 10. Manila Bureau of Print­ ing (Reprint 1941-1943 edition). Vol. 2, p. 332, Fig. 160:Anacardium occiden­ tale (flowering branch and fruit). - Centre for Genetic Resources - The Netherlands, Wageningen: Elaeis gui- neensis. - Centre for Research and Development in Biology. Herbarium Bogoriense, Bogor, Indonesia: Auricularia fuscosuccinea; Calamus caesius; Dendrocala- musasper; Galiella javanica. - Charabot, 1908. Les productions végétales des colonies françaises, p. 228: Boehmeria nivea (flowering and fruiting stem). - Co, L.L. & Taguba, Y.B., 1984. Common medicinal plants of the Cordillera Region (Northern Luzon, Philippines). Chestcore, Baguio City, Philippines, p. 7, Fig. 3: Arcangelisia flava (woody part of vine, detail of the cross and longitudinal section of a woody vine). - Coode, M.J.E., 1978, In: Womersley, J.S. (Editor): Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea. Melbourne University Press. Vol. 1, p. 66: Terminalia brassii. - Curtis's Botanical Magazine. Vol. 101 (1875), PI. 6198: Carica pubescens; a plate made by P. Sellars for the Magazine: Paphiopedilum tonsum. - Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands: Abrus precatorius; Amaranthus tricolor; Arachis hypogaea (seeds); Cocos nucifera; Cryptocoryne ciliata; Glycine max (seeds); Kibatalia arborea; Manihot esculenta; Ricinus communis; Voacanga grandifolia. - Department of Tropical Crop Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands: Metroxylon sagu. - De Haan, I., 1939. De anatomische bouw van de theeplant I. A.T.C., p. 318: Camellia sinensis (pluckable shoot). - De Wildeman, E., 1906.Missio n Emile Laurent (1903 1904).Bruxelles . Impri­ merie F. Vanbruggenhoudt. Vol. 2, PI. 76: Coffea canephora (flowering and fruiting branch). SOURCES 299

Engler, A. &Prantl , K., 1895.Di e natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Engelmann, Leipzig. Teil 3, Abteilung 6, p. 182, Fig. 92: Camellia sinensis (flowering and fruiting branch). Flora of Taiwan. Vol. 5 (1978), p. 842, Fig. 1535: Alpinia galanga (inflores­ cence); Vol. 3(1977) ,p . 296,Fig . 593:Glycine max (habit). Flora ofWes t Tropical Africa. 2ndedition . Vol.3 (1972) ,p .462 ,Fig .447 : Penni- setum purpureum (habit, spikelet). Flora Zambesiaca. Vol. 2(1)(1963) ,p .192 ,Tab . 31: Clausena anisata (flowering branch, fruiting branch). Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Vol. 19(1981) ,p .45 ,Fig . 6: Acacia leucophloea (fruit). Foxworthy, F.W., 1932. Dipterocarpaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forest Records No 10,PI . 21: Shorea johorensis. Greshoff, M., 1894. Schetsen van nuttige Indische planten. Eerste serie, p. 99, Fig. 25:Derris elliptica (flowering branch, leaf). Grist, D.H., 1975.Rice .Longman , London,p .69 ,Fig .4.2 :Oryza sativa (panicle, mature spikelet). Hegi, G., 1918.Illustriert e Flora von Mittel-Europa. Vol. 4(1),p . 234,Fig . 780: Brassica juncea (flowering and fruiting branches, seed). Herklots, G.A.C., 1972. Vegetables in South-East Asia. Allen & Unwin, Lon­ don, p.202 ,Fig . 34:Brassica rapa cv. group Chinese Cabbage (habit). Hitchcock, A.S., 1935. Manual of the grasses of the United States. United States, Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication No 200. Gov­ ernment Printing Office, Washington D.C.p .706 ,Fig . 1582:Pennisetum ameri- canum (panicle); p. 720,Fig . 1606:Saccharum officinarum (plant). Hooker, W.J. Icônes plantarum. Vol. 29 (1909), PI. 2816: Stevia rebaudiana (flowering plant). Koorders, S.H., 1913. Exkursionsflora von Java. Band 4, Atlas, p. 141, Fig. 326: Arenga pinnata (flowering tree, fruit); p. 147, Fig. 334: Oncosperma tigil- larium (habit, base of stem, infructescence). Koorders, S.H. &Valeton , Th. Atlas der Baumarten von Java. Vol. 1(1)(1913) , Fig. 5: Acacia leucophloea (flowering branch); Vol. 2(6) (1914), Fig. 280: Pero- nema canescens (leaf, flower, fruit); Vol. 3(11) (1915), Fig. 523: Anthocephalus chinensis (flowering branch, infructescence). Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1955.Ne w and critical Malaysian plants 3. Forest Ser­ vice Indonesia. Bureau Forestry Planning, p. 23,Fig . 10: Cryptocarya massoy (fruiting branch). Kostermans, A.J.G.H. , 1959.A monograp h ofth e genus Heritiera Aiton (Ster- cul.). Reinwardtia 4(4):465-583.p . 560, Fig. 18:Heritiera simplicifolia (flower­ ing branch, fruit). Kraemer, J.H., 1944. Native woods for construction purposes on the Western Pacific Region. Revised edition, Nacdocks-P-101, Bureau of yards and docks, Department of the Navy, Washington D.C. p. 50, Fig. 1:Agathis labillardieri (branches with male and female cones, adult female cone). Kraemer, J.H., 1951. Trees of the Western Pacific Region. Tri-State Offset Company, Cincinnati 2, Ohio, United States, p. 319,Fig . 119:Octomeles suma- trana (flowering and fruiting branch). Little, E.L. & Wadsworth, F.H., 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural Handbook No 24.Fores t Service USDA. Fig. 85: 300 A SELECTION

Gliricidia sepium (leaf, flowering and fruiting branch). - Mansfeld, R. & Schultze-Motel (Editors), 1986. Verzeichnis landwirtschaft­ licher und gärtnerischer Kulturpflanzen (ohne Zierpflanzen). 2nd edition. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Band 1, p. 509, Abb. 74:Indigofera tinctoria (flower­ ing branch), Indigofera suffruticosa (fruit). - National Abaca Research Center. Visayas State College of Agriculture, Phi­ lippines: Musa textilis. - National Herbarium ofth e Netherlands, University ofLeyden : Cyperus rotun- dus (habit); Derris elliptica (fruit); Fagraea fragrans (habit); Gelidiella ace- rosa; Ipomoea aquatica (habit); Orthosiphon aristatus (habit); Quercus lineata (inflorescences, flowers, fruit); Rosa luciae (inflorescence, flower halved lengthwise); Rubus rosifolius. - Ochse, J.J., 1927. Indische Vruchten. Volkslectuur-Weltevreden, p. 95, Fig. 45: Garcinia mangostana (flowering and fruiting branch); p. 249, Fig. 120: Nephelium lappaceum (flowering and fruiting branch); p. 189,Fig . 91: Salacca zalacca (plant part with male inflorescences and fruits). - Ochse,J.J . &Bakhuize n van den Brink, R.C., 1931.Vruchte n en vruchtenteelt in Nederlandsch-Oost-Indië. p. 90, PI. 37: Averrhoa carambola (flowering branch, fruit). Ochse, J.J. &Bakhuize n van den Brink, R.C., 1931.Indisch e Groenten, p.462 , Fig. 287:Abelmoschus esculentus (apical plant part, fruit); p.80 , Fig. 47: Ceiba pentandra (fruiting branch, flowering branchlet);p .54 ,Fig . 33: Colocasia escu- lenta (habit, corm); p. 599, Fig. 365:Diplazium esculentum (habit); p. 298, Fig. 189: Gnetum gnemon (flowering and fruiting branches); p. 629, Fig. 384: Mo- rinda citrifolia (flowering branch, inflorescence-infructescence). - Oudemans, C.A.J.A., 1883.D ehandelsplanten . 48pp . + 36plates . PI. 7: Vanil- laplanifolia (flowering plant, fruit); PI. 16: Piper nigrum (habit); PI. 21: Myris- tica fragrans (habit, seed with aril, cross-section of a nutmeg); PI. 29: Theo- broma cacao (habit); PI. 32:Syzygium aromaticum (habit, clove). - Pancho, J.V., 1983. Vascular flora of Mount Makiling and vicinity (Luzon: Philippines), part 1. Kalikasan, The Philippine Journal of Biology. Supple­ ment No 1, p.282 ,Fig . 85:Arcangelisia flava (habit, staminate flower). - Plantae médicinales oder Sammlung offizineller Pflanzen mit lithographi­ schen Abbildungen von A. Henry und Beschreibungen von M.F. Weyhe, J.W. Wolter und P.W. Funke, fortgesetzt von Th.Fr.L. Nees v. Esenbeck, 1828. Band 1,Tab . 68:Alpinia galanga (rhizome). Purseglove, J.W., 1968.Tropica l crops. Dicotyledons. Longman, London. Vol. 2,p . 353,Fig . 56: Gossypium hirsutum (flowering branch, flower in longi­ tudinal section, fruit, opened fruit). Purseglove, J.W., 1972.Tropica l crops. Monocotyledons. Longman, London. Vol. 1, p. 209, Fig. 20:Pennisetum americanum (young plant, caryopsis); Vol. 1,p . 229,Fig . 21: Saccharum officinarum (portion of stem, inflorescence). - Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Botany Branch, Indooroo- pilly, Australia: Arachis hypogaea (habit, flower, fruit). Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Eichhornia crassipes. - Sargent, CS., 1892. The silva of North America. Vol. 3, Tab. 139: Leucaena leucocephala (flowering and fruiting branch). - Siemonsma, J.S., 1982.L a culture du gombo (Abelmoschus spp.), legume-fruit tropical (avec référence spéciale à la Côte d'Ivoire, p.53 ,Fig . 3:'Wes t African' SOURCES 301

okra, Abelmoschus caillei (branch with flowers and leaves, flower bud, young and mature fruit). Siemonsma, J.S., 1988. Private collection: Abelmoschus esculentus (flower bud). Sorensen, M., 1988.A taxonomi e revision ofth e genus Pachyrhizus (Fabaceae - Phaseoleae). Nordic Journal of Botany 8(2):175, Fig. 8: Pachyrhizus erosus (tuber); 8(2):176, Fig. 9:Pachyrhizus erosus (habit of flowering plant, fruits). Van den Abeele, M. &Vandenput , R., 1951. De voornaamste cultures van Bel- gisch-Congo. 2nd edition. Ministerie van Koloniën. Directie voor landbouw, veeteelt en kolonisatie, Brussel, Belgium, p.80 ,Fig .45 :Ipomoea batatas (flow­ ering branch, storage roots); p. 102, Fig. 57:Zea mays (basal plant part, male and female inflorescences, infructescence); p.363 ,Fig . 204:Hevea brasiliensis (flowering branch, fruit); p. 445, Fig. 235: Cinchona officinalis (flowering branch). Van Royen, P., 1964. Manual of the forest trees of Papua New Guinea. Part 2.Sapindaceae . Department ofForestry , Territory ofPapu a New Guinea. Lae. p. 38,Fig . 17:Pometiapinnata (flowering branch, fruiting branchlet). Verdcourt, B. &Trump , E.C., 1969. Common poisonous plants of East Africa. Collins, London, p. 32, Fig. 2:Phytolacca dodecandra. Verheij-Hayes, Mrs P. Private collection: Muntingia calabura. Western Australian Department of Agriculture, South Perth, Australia: Pso- phocarpus tetragonolobus. Woodson, R.E. &Schery , R.W., 1950.Flor a ofPanama . Annals ofth e Missouri Botanical Garden 37:265,Fig . 96: Calliandra calothyrsus. Index of scientific plant names

Page numbers printed in bold refer to main treatment.

Abelmoschus caillei (A. Chev.) Stevels 25,30 1 Amaranthus spinosus L. 35 Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench 25, 300,30 1 Amaranthus tricolor L. 34,35 ,36 ,37 ,29 8 Abelmoschus Medik. 25,27 ,30 0 Amaranthus tristis L. 34 Abelmoschus tuberculatus Pal &Sing h 26 Ambrosinia ciliata Roxb. 107 Abrus Adans. 27,2 8 Ambrosinia retrospiralis Roxb. 107 Abrus precatorius L. 27,29 8 Ambrosinia uniloculars Roxb. 107 - ssp.africanu s 27 Amomum galanga (L.) Lour. 32 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 28,299 Anacardiaceae 37 Acacia mearnsii de Wild. 28 Anacardium occidentale L. 37,29 8 Acajuba occidentalis Gaertn. 37 Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight &Am . 50 Acanthopeltis Okamura 135 Anthocephalus A. Rich. 43 Acropeltis Okamura 135 Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. 41, 44 Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach 55 Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich, ex Walp. Agathis alba (Lam.) Foxw. 31 41, 202,29 9 Agathis labillardieri Warb. 30,29 9 Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich. 41 Agathis loranthifolia Salisb. 31 Anthocephalus macrophyllus (Roxb.) Havil. 43 Agathis Salisb. 31, 32 Apocynaceae 171,172, 274, 275 Ahnfeltia spp. 135 Araceae 102,107 Aglaia odorata Lour. 78 Arachis cardenasii Krap. &Greg . (nom. ined.) 48 Albizia falcata (L.) Backer 75,100,191 Arachis chacoense Krap. &Greg . (nom. ined.) 48 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. 272 Arachis hypogaea L. 44,232 ,298 ,30 0 Allium sativum L. 130 - ssp.fastigiat a Waldron 46 Alpinia galanga (L.) Swartz 33 - ssp.hypogae a 46 Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. 32,299 ,30 0 Arachis L. 48,4 9 - var. pyramidata (BI.) K. Schum. 33 Araucariaceae 30 Alpinia L. 33 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. 49,298 ,30 0 Alpinia officinarum Hance 32,33 ,3 4 Arcangelisia lemniscata (Miers) Becc. 49 Amaranthaceae 34,3 7 Areca catechu L. 203 Amaranthus blitum L. 34,35 ,3 6 Areca tigillaria Jack 203 - cv. group Oleraceus 34,35 ,3 6 Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. 50,29 9 - var. oleraceus (L.)Hook.f . 34 Arenga saccharifera Labill. 50 Amaranthus caudatus L. 34,3 5 Argyrodendron F. Muell. 151 Amaranthus cruentus L. 34,35 ,36 ,3 7 Artocarpus J.R. &G . Forst. 250 Amaranthus dubiusC .Martiu se xThell .34,35,36,3 7 Aspleniaceae 114 Amaranthus gangeticus L. 34 Athyrium accedens (Blume) Milde 114 Amaranthus hybridus L. 34 Athyrium asperum (Blume) Milde 114 - ssp. cruentus (L.) Thell. 34 Athyrium blumei (Bergsma.) Copel. 114 Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. 34 Athyrium esculentum (Retzius) Copel. 114 Amaranthus L. 34 Athyrium Roth 116 Amaranthus lividus L. 34 Auricularia Bull, ex Jussieu 55,130 Amaranthus mangostanus L. 34 Auricularia cornea (Ehrenb. ex Fr.) Ehrenb. ex Amaranthus paniculatus L. 34 Endl. 55,5 6 INDEX SCIENTIFIC NAMES 303

Auricularia delicata (Fr.)P .Henn . 55, 56 Camellia sinensis (L.)Kuntz e 72, 298, 299 Auricularia fuscosuccinea (Mont.) Farlow 55, 56, - var.assamic a (Mast.) Pierre 72,73 ,74 , 78 298 - var. sinensis 72,73 ,74 , 78 Auricularia moelleri Lloyd 55 Camellia thea Link 72 Auricularia polytrichia (Mont.) Sacc. 55, 56 Camellia theifera Griff. 72 Auriculariaceae 55 Campnosperma brevipetiolatum Volkens 183 Averrhoa bilimbi L.5 7 Campnosperma Thw. 183, 264 Averrhoa carambola L.57 ,58 , 300 Carica candamarcensis Hook. f. 79 Averrhoa L.5 7 Carica papaya L.7 9 Azadirachta indica Juss.22 0 Carica pubescens Lenné &K . Koch 79, 298 Azolla 211 Caricaceae 79 Bambusa aspera Schultes f. 109 Caryophyllus aromaticus L.25 7 Batatas edulis (Thunb.) Choisy16 6 Cassia fistula L.28 , 30 Beaumontia Wallich 172 Cassia tora L.8 9 Beckerella Kylin 135 Cassuvium pomiferrum Lam.3 7 Beta vulgaris L.3 5 Ceiba pentandra (L.)Gaertn . 79, 300 Boehmeria nivea (L.)Gaudich . 59, 298 - var. caribaea (DC.) Bakh. 81 - var. nivea 60 - var. guineensis (Schum. & Thonn.) H.G. Baker - var.tenacissim a (Roxb.) Miq. 60 81 Boehmeria utilis Blume5 9 - var.indic a (DC.) Bakh. 81 Bombacaceae 79,8 3 - var.pentandr a 81 Bombax pentandrum L.7 9 Centrosema (DC.)Benth .25 7 Botor tetragonolobus (L.)O . Kuntze 232 Centrosema pubescens Benth. 157,222 ,26 1 Brassica campestris L.61,6 4 Ceratodictyon Zanardini 135 Brassica carinata A. Braun 61, 62 Chlorophora excelsa (Welw.) Benth. 128 Brassica chinensis L.6 4 Cinchona calisaya Wedd. 83 Brassica juncea (L.)Czern . 61, 62,64 , 299 Cinchona cordifolia Mutis 83 Brassica L. 61,67 Cinchona L.8 3 Brassica napus L. 61, 62,63 , 64 Cinchona ledgeriana Moens exTrime n 83, 84,8 7 Brassica nigra (L.)Koc h 62,6 3 Cinchona officinalis L.83 ,84 ,85 ,86 ,87 ,30 1 Brassica oleraceae L.61 , 62,63 ,64 ,6 7 Cinchona pubescens Vahl 83, 84,85,86 ,8 7 Brassica pekinensis (Lour.) Rupr. 64 Cinchona succirubra Pav.e x Klotzsch 83,8 4 Brassica rapa L. 61, 62,63 ,64,164 ,29 9 Cinnamomum massoia Schewe 106 - cv.grou p Brocoletto 65 Cinnamomum massoy Oken 106 - cv.grou p Chinese Cabbage 64,65 ,66 ,67 ,29 9 Citrus bergamia Risso &Poit . 78 - cv.grou p Fodder Turnip 65 Citrus L.8 8 - cv.grou p Leaf Turnip 65 Citrus reticulata Blanco 196 - cv.grou p Mizuna 65 Clausena abyssinica (Engl.) Engl. 88 - cv.grou p Pak Choi 64,65 ,66 ,6 7 Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook f. ex Benth. 88, 89, - cv.grou p Saishin 65 90, 299 - cv.grou p Spring Turnip Rape 65 Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr. 88, 89 - cv.grou p Taatsai 65 Clausena Burm. f. 88 - cv.grou p Vegetable Turnip 65 Clausena excavata Burm. f. 88, 89 - cv.grou p Winter Turnip Rape 65 Clausena inaequalis (DC.) Benth. 88 - cv.grou p Yellow Sarson 65 Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels 88, 89, 90 Calamus caesius Blume 67,29 8 Clausena loheri Merr. 88 Calamus trachycoleus Becc. 68,6 9 Clausena punctata (Sonn.) Rehd. et Wils.8 8 Calappa nucifera Kuntze 90 Clausena wampi (Blanco) Oliv.8 8 Calliandra Benth. 70,72 , 252 Clausena warburgii Perk. 88 Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. 69, 301 ClusiaL. 132 Calliandra confusa Sprague &Rile y 69,7 2 Cocos nana Griff. 90 Calliandra tetragona Benth. 71 Cocos nucifera L. 90,118, 272, 298 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. 89,157 - var. nana (Griff.) Nar.9 2 Camellia L. 74,78 - var. typica 92 304 A SELECTION

Coffea angustifolia Roxb. 95 Cyperus retzii Nees 109 Coffea arabica L. 95,96 ,97 ,98 ,99,101,10 2 Cyperus rotundus L. 36,108, 300 - var. arabica 96 - ssp.retzi i (Nees) Kük. 109 - var. bourbon (B.Rodr.) Choussy 96,99 - ssp.rotundu s 109 - var. typica Cramer 96,9 9 Dammara alba Lam. 31 Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehn. 95, 96, 97,98 , Datiscaceae 201 99,101, 298 Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Coffea congensis Froehn. 99,101 Heyne 109, 298 Coffea eugenioides S. Moore 101 Dendrocalamus flagellifer Munro 109 Coffea L. 95 Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro 110 - section Coffea 99 Derris cuneifolia Benth. 114 subsection Erythrocoffea 99 Derris elliptica (Sweet) Bentham 112,299 ,30 0 - section Mascarocoffea 99 Derris Lour. 113 Coffea laurentii De Wild. 95 Derris malaccensis (Benth.) Prain 114 Coffea liberica Bull ex Hiern 97,9 9 Derris montana Benth. 114 Coffea robusta Linden 95 Desmodium Desv. 85,25 7 Coffea sundana Miq. 95 Digitaria scalarum (Schweinf.) Chiov. 100 Coffea ugandae Cramer 95 Diplazium asperum Blume 114 Coffea vulgaris Moench 95 Diplazium esculentum (Retzius) Swartz 114, 115, Colocasia antiquorum Schott 102,104 300 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott 102,30 0 Diplazium polypodioides Blume 114,115 - var. antiquorum (Schott) Hubb. & Rehder 102, Diplazium proliferum (Lam.) Thouars 114,115 104 Diplazium Swartz 114 Colocasia Schott 106 Dipterocarpaceae 150,251 , 252,253 ,29 9 Combretaceae 263, 264 Dolichos erosus L. 213 Compositae 253,255 ,29 0 Dolichos tetragonolobus L. 232 Convolvulaceae 164,166 Dracontomelum dao Merr. &Rolf e 231 Convolvulus batatas L. 166 Durio zibethinus Murr. 196 Convolvulus edulis Thunb. 166 Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms 116, 210,30 0 Cookia anisum-olens Blanco 88 Eichhornia speciosa Kunth 116 Cookia wampi Blanco 88 Elaeis guineensis Jacq. 118, 298 Corallopsis spp. 135 Elaeis Jacq. 120 Crotalaria anagyroides Kunth 75 Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortes 120 Crotalaria usaramoensis Bak.f. 75 Elaeocarpaceae 187,188 Crotalaria zanzibarica Benth. 85 Eleusine coracana (L.)Gaertn . 219 Cruciferae 61, 64,67 , 293 Erianthus spp. 247 Cryptocarya aromatica (Becc.) Kosterm. 106 Erythrina fusca Lour. 191 Cryptocarya massoy (Oken) Kosterm. 106,29 9 Erythrina L. 227,26 1 Cryptocarya novo-guineensis Teschner 106 Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. 75,100 Cryptocoryne beckettii Thwaites ex Trimen 107, Eucalyptus deglupta Blume 123,29 8 108 Eucalyptus L'Hérit. 264 Cryptocoryne ciliata (Roxb.) Fischer ex Schott Eucalyptus multiflora (Rich.) A. Gray 123 107,108, 298 Eucalyptus naudiniana F. Muell. 123 Cryptocoryne Fischer ex Wydler 107 Eucalyptus schlechteri Diels 123 Cryptocoryne lingua Becc. ex Engl. 107,108 Eucheuma spp. 134 Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth 107,108 Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill. 257,26 2 Cryptocoryne roxburghii Schott 107 Eugenia caryophyllus (Sprengel) Bullock &Harri ­ Cryptocoryne spathulata Becc. ex Engl. 107 son 257, 263 Cryptocoryne versteegii Engl. 108 Eugenia L. 260,26 2 Cryptocoryne wendtii De Wit 107,108 Eupatorium rebaudianum Bertoni 253 Curcuma domestica Val. 196 Euphorbiaceae 152,175, 237 Cyperaceae 108,21 0 Fabaceae 215,30 1 Cyperus curvatus (non Vahl) Llanos 108 Fagaceae 236,23 7 Cyperus esculentus L. 108,109 Fagraea cochinchinensis A. Chev. 126 INDEX SCIENTIFIC NAMES 305

Fagraea fragrans Roxb. 126, 300 Glycine tomentosa Benth. 143 Fagraea gigantea Ridl. 126,127 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 27,28 8 Fagraea peregrina (Reinw.) Bl. 126 Gnetaceae 143 Fagraea sororia J.J. Smith 126 Gnetum acutatum Miq. 143 Fagraea Thunb. 127 Gnetum gnemon L. 143,30 0 Flammulina velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing 55 - var. gnemon 144 Flemingia congesta Roxb. ex Ait. f. 128,129 Gnetum vinosum Elmer 143 Flemingia latifolia Benth. 128 Gossypium arboreum L. 145,147,149 Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. 128, 298 Gossypium barbadense L. 147 Galiella javanica (Rehm) Nannf. &Kor f 129, 298 Gossypium herbaceum L. 147 Garcinia atroviridis Griff, ex J. Anderson 132 Gossypium hirsutum L. 145,30 0 Garcinia cowa Roxb. 132 Gossypium L. 145,147 Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz 132 Gossypium latifolium Hutch. 145 Garcinia hombroniana Pierre 130 Gossypium raimondii Ulbrich 145 Garcinia L. 50,132,133 Gossypium thurberi Todaro 149 Garcinia malaccensis Hooker f. 130 Gracilaria Grev. 134,135 Garcinia mangostana L. 130,196, 300 Gracilariaceae 134 Garcinia morella Desr. 132 Gramineae 109,206 ,217 ,220 ,243 ,27 5 Garcinia prainiana King 132 Guttiferae 130 Garcinia tinctoria (Choisy) W.F. Wight 132 Heritiera Aiton 150,29 9 Garcinia xanthochymus Hooker f. 132 Heritiera aurea Kosterm. 152 Gelidiaceae 134,135 Heritiera borneensis (Merr.) Kosterm. 151 Gelidiales 135,136 Heritiera densiflora (Pellegr.) Kosterm. 152 Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskal) Feldmann et Hamel Heritiera Dryand. 150,151 134, 300 Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham. 152 Gelidiella Feldmann &Hame l 134,135 Heritiera javanica (Bl.) Kosterm. 151 Gelidiellaceae 134,135 Heritiera littoralis Aiton 152 Gelidiopsis rigida (Vahl)Weber-va n Bosse 134 Heritiera simplicifolia (Masters) Kosterm. 150,299 Gelidiopsis Schmitz 135 Heritiera utilis (Sprague) Sprague 151,152 Gelidium Lamouroux 134,135,136 Hevea Aubl. 152,160,161 Gelidium micropterum Kützing 134 Hevea benthamiana Muell. Arg. 155 Gelidium regidum (Vahl) Greville 134 Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.L.Juss.) Muell. Gigantochloa aspera (Schultes f.) Kurz 109 Arg. 152,30 1 Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr. 111 Hevea camargoana Pires 155 Gliricidia Kunth 138,26 1 Hevea camporum Ducke 155 Gliricidia maculata (H.B.K.) Kunth ex Walp. 136, Hevea guianensis Aublet 155 138,139 Hevea microphylla Ule 155 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. 100,136, Hevea nitida Mart. ex Muell. Arg. 155 268, 272,30 0 - var. toxicodendroides (R.E. Schultes & Vinton) Glycine argyrea Tindale 143 R.E. Schultes 155 Glycine canescens F.J. Herrn. 143 Hevea pauciflora (Spruce ex Benth.) Muell. Arg. Glycine clandestina Wendl 143 155 - var. sericea Benth. 143 Hevea rigidifolia (Spruce ex Benth.) Muell. Arg. Glycine cyrtoloba Tindale 143 155 Glycine falcata Benth. 143 Hevea spruceana (Benth.) Muell. Arg 155 Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim. 139 Hibiscus esculentus L. 25 Glycine javanica L. 143 Hibiscus manihot L. var. caillei A. Chev. 25 Glycine latifolia (Benth.) Newell &Hymowit z 143 Illicium verum Hook f. 89 Glycine latrobeana (Meissn.) Benth. 143 Imperata Cyr. 72,129,137,204 Glycine max (L.) Merr. 139,232 ,298 ,29 9 Imperata cylindrica Beauv. 139 - ssp.soj a (Sieb. &Zucc. ) Ohashi 142 Indigofera anil L. 161 Glycine soja (L.) Sieb. &Zucc . 142,143 Indigofera arrecta Höchst, exA . Rich. 161,162,163 Glycine tabacina (Labill.) Benth. 142,143 Indigofera cassioides Rottier ex DC. 162 Glycine tomentella Hayata 142,143 Indigofera decora Lindl. 162 306 A SELECTION

Indigofera dosua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 162 Manihot esculenta Crantz 175, 298 Indigofera guatemalensis Moc, Sesse & Cerv. ex Manihot glaziovii Muell. Arg. 178 Backer 161 Manihot Miller 175 Indigofera hendecaphylla Jacq. 161 Manihot utilissima Pohl 175 Indigofera hirsuta L. 161,162,163 Maranta galanga L. 32,3 3 Indigofera L. 161 Massoia aromatica Becc. 106 Indigofera linnaei Ali 162 Menispermaceae 49 Indigofera spicata Forssk. 161,162,163 Metroxylon Rottb. 185 Indigofera suffruticosa Miller 161,162,163, 300 Metroxylon rumphii Mart. 180,183 - ssp. guatemalensis (Moc, Sesse & Cerv. ex Metroxylon sagu Rottboell 52,180, 298 Backer) de Kort &Thijss e 161,162 Metroxylon squarrosum Becc. 180 - ssp. suffruticosa 161,162 Mimosaceae 72 Indigofera sumatrana Gaertn. 161 Mimosa leucophloea Roxb. 28 Indigofera tinctoria L. 161,162,163, 300 Miscanthus spp. 247 Inga edulis Mart. 272 Moghania macrophylla (Willd.) Kuntze 128 Intsia Thou. 231 Morinda bracteata Roxb. 185 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. 34,164, 300 Morinda citrifolia L. 185, 201,30 0 Ipomoea batatas (L.)Lam . 166,30 1 - var. bracteata (Roxb.) Hook.f. 186 Ipomoea L. 168,169 - var. citrifolia 186 Ipomoea reptans Poir. 165 Morinda litoralis Blanco 185 Ipomoea trifida (H.B.K.) G. Don 170 Muntingia calabura L. 187, 301 Isatis tinctoria L. 161 Musa acuminata Colla 190,192 Jasminum officinale L. 78 - ssp.banksi i (F. Muell.) Simmonds 190,192 Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. 78 Musa balbisiana Colla 190,192 Kibatalia arborea (Blume) G. Don 171,29 8 Musa textilis Née 188,30 0 KibataliaG. Don 172 Musaceae 188 Kickxia arborea (Blume) Blume 171 Myristica argentea Warb. 194,196 Labiatae 205 Myristica fragrans Houtt. 192,30 0 Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet 219 Myristicaceae 192,196 Languas galanga (L.) Stuntz 32 Myrtaceae 123,257 ,26 2 Languas vulgare Koenig 32 Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild.) Merr. 128 Lansium domesticum Correa 196 Neonotonia Lackey 143 Lauraceae106 Nephelium aculeatum Leenh. 200 Leguminosae 27, 28, 44, 69, 72, 112, 128, 136, 139, Nephelium chryseum Bl. 196 161,172, 213,232 ,25 5 Nephelium cuspidatum Blume 198,20 0 Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Sing 55 Nephelium glabrum Cambess. 196 Leucaena Benth. 173,174,175,191, 261 Nephelium L. 200 Leucaena diversifolia (Schlecht.) Benth. 173,174 Nephelium lappaceum L. 196,300 Leucaena glauca (Willd.) Benth. 172 - var. lappaceum 198,20 0 Leucaena latisiliqua (L.)Gilli s 172 - var. pallens (Hiern) Leenh. 198,20 0 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) deWi t 31,43,72,75, - var. xanthioides (Radlk.)Leenh . 198,20 0 85,100,128,172,191,222, 268,30 0 Nephelium maingayi Hiern 196,20 0 - var. glabrata Rose 173 Nephelium mutabile Blume 198,20 0 - var. leucocephala 173 Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. 198, Leucaena pulverulenta (Schlecht.) Benth. 173 199, 200 Leucaena salvadorensis Hughes 175 Nephelium reticulatum Radlk. 200 Loganiaceae 126,127 Nephelium sufferrugineum Radlk. 196 Lonchocarpus spp. 114 Nephelium uncinatum Leenh. 200 Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn.f. 128 Nypa fruticans Wurmb. 183 Loranthaceae 82 Nypa Steck. 108 Macrotyloma uniflorus (Lam.) Verde. 219 Octomeles moluccana T. &B .e x Hassk. 201 Malvaceae 25,145 Octomeles sumatrana Miq. 201,29 9 Mangifera indica L. 196 Oncosperma filamentosum Blume 203 Mangostana garcinia Gaertn. 130 Oncosperma tigillarium (Jack) Ridl. 203, 299 INDEX SCIENTIFIC NAMES 307

Orchidaceae 216,217 ,27 0 Peronema canescens Jack 222, 299 Orchipeda grandifolia (Miq.) Miq. 274 Peronema heterophyllum Miq. 222 Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. 205, 300 Peronema Jack 222, 223 Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. 205 Phaseoleae 215,30 1 Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen 206 Phaseolus max L. 139 Oryza aristata Blanco 206 Pholiota nameko (T.Ito ) S. Itoh &Ima i 55 Oryza barthii A. Chev. 213 Phragmites Adans. 183 Oryza brachyantha A. Chev. &Roehr . 213 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. 183 Oryza eichingeri Peter 213 Phytolacca abyssinica Hoffm. 224 Oryza glaberrima Steud. 208,21 3 Phytolacca dodecandra L'Hér. 224, 301 Oryza glutinosa Lour. 206 Phytolaccaceae 224 Oryza minuta Presl 213 Piper colubrinum Link 228 Oryza montana Lour. 206 Piper L. 229 Oryza nivara Sharma &Shastr y 213 Piper nigrum L. 225,30 0 Oryza officinalis Wall. 213 Piperaceae 225,22 9 Oryza praecox Lour. 206 Platonia Mart. 132 Oryza punctata Kotschy ex Steud. 213 Pleonandrae 217 Oryza rufipogon Griff. 210,21 3 Pleurotus spp. 55 Oryza sativa L. 206, 299 Pometia annamica Gagn. 231 - cv. group Indica 208 Pometia coriacea Radlk. 231 - cv. group Japonica 208 Pometia gracilis King 231 Oxalidaceae 57,5 8 Pometia J. R. &G . Forst. 232 Pachyrhizus ahipa (Wedd.) Parodi 215 Pometia macrocarpa Kurz 231 Pachyrhizus angulatus Rich, ex DC. 213 Pometia pinnata J.R. &G . Forst. 230, 301 Pachyrhizus bulbosus (L.) Kurz 213 - f. acuminata (Hook, f.) Jacobs 231 Pachyrhizus DC.215 ,30 1 - f. alnifolia (Bl.)Jacob s 230, 231 Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urban 213,30 1 - f. cuspidata (Bl.)Jacob s 231 Pachyrhizus tuberosus (Lam.) Sprengel 215 - f. glabra (Bl.) Jacobs 231 Pachyrhizus spp. 114 - f. macrocarpa (Kurz) Jacobs 231 Pachyrrhizus 213 - f. pinnata 231 Palmae 50,67 ,90,118,180 , 203,24 8 - f. repanda Jacobs 231 Paphiopedilum haynaldianum (Reichb.f.) Stein - f. tomentosa (Bl.)Jacob s 231 216 - var. javanica K. &V . 231 Paphiopedilum lowii (Lindley) Stein 216 Pometia tomentosa T. &B .23 1 Paphiopedilum Pfitzer 216 Pontederia crassipes Mart. 116 Paphiopedilum philippinense (Reichb.f.) Stein 216 Pontederiaceae 116 Paphiopedilum rothschildianum (Reichb.f.) Stein Pootia grandifolia Miq. 274 216 Porphyroglossum Kützing 135 Paphiopedilum sanderianum (Reichb.f.) Stein 216 Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.) Tateoka 213 Paphiopedilum tonsum (Reichb.f.) Stein 216,29 8 Psidium guajava L. 163,26 1 Paraderris (nom. ined.) 113 Psophocarpus DC. 233 Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke 217, 222, 299, Psophocarpus grandiflorus Wilczek 233 300 Psophocarpus palustris Desv. 233,23 5 - cv. group Gero or Souna 219 Psophocarpus scandens (Endl.)Verde . 233,23 5 - cv. group Maiwa or Sanio 219 Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. 232, 301 - ssp.monodi i (Maire) Brunken 217 Pterocladia J. Agardh 134,135,136 - ssp.stenostachyu m (Klotzsch) Brunken 217 Pterocladiastrum Akatsuka 135 Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br. 218 Ptilophora Kützing 135 Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. 220,29 9 Pueraria javanica Benth. 89 Pennisetum spicatum (L.) Koern. 218 Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. 89,157 Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.f.) Stapf & Hubbard Quercus hendersoniana A. Camus 236 217 Quercus L. 237 Pentacme contorta Merr. &Rolf e 201 Quercus lineata Blume 236,30 0 Pentadesma Sabine 132 Quinaria lansium Lour. 88 308 A SELECTION

Rhodophyta 136 Sarcosoma decaryi Pat. 129 Ricinus communis L. 237, 298 Sarcosoma javanica Rehm 129 Ricinus L. 238,24 0 Sarcosoma novoguineense Ramsb. 129 Rosa bifera (Poir.) Pers. 241 Sarcosomataceae 129 Rosa chinensis Jacq. 240,24 1 Schima bancana Miq. 128 Rosa damascena Miller 240 Sesbania rostrata (Brem. &Oberm. ) Gillet 211 Rosa foetida Herrm. 241 Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. 219 Rosa L. 240 Shorea acuminata Dyer 252 - cv. group Floribunda 241 Shorea dasyphylla Foxw. 252 - cv. group Hybrid-Tee 241 Shorea hemsleyana (King) King ex Foxw. 252 - cv. group Polyantha 241 Shorea johorensis Foxw. 251,29 9 - section Caninae 241 Shorea lepidota (Korth.) Bl. 252 - section Chinensis 241 Shorea leprosula Miq. 252 - section Synstylae 241 Shorea leptoclados Sym. 251 Rosa luciae Franch. &Rochebr . ex Crepin 240, 241, Shorea macrantha Brandis 252 300 Shorea ovalis (Korth.) Bl. 252 Rosa moschata J.Herrm. 240 Shorea palembanica Miq. 252 Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murray 240, 241 Shorea parvifolia Dyer 252 - var. cathayensis 241 Shorea platycarpa Heim 252 Rosa odorata (Andr.) Sweet 241 Shorea spp. 150,251 , 252 Rosa rugosa Thunb. ex Murray 241 Shorea teysmanniana Dyer ex Brandis 252 Rosa transmorrisonensis Hayata 240 Shuteria vestita W. &A . 85 Rosaceae 240,242 ,24 3 Soja max (L.) Piper 139 Rubia tinctorium L. 185 Spinacia oleracea L. 35 Rubiaceae 41, 83,95,18 5 Sterculiaceae 150,265 ,29 9 Rubus chrysophyllus Miq. 242,24 3 Stevia Cav. 255 Rubus fraxinifolius Poiret 242 Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Hemsley 253,29 9 Rubus idaeus L. 242,24 3 Striga spp. 220, 278 Rubus L. 242 Stylosanthes capitata J. Vogel 257 - subgenus Chamaebatus 242,24 3 Stylosanthes gracilis Kunth 256 - subgenus Idaeobatus 242,243 , Stylosanthes guianensis (Aublet) Sw. 255, 298 - subgenus Malachobatus 242,24 3 - var. gracilis (Kunth) J. Vogel 256 - subgenus Micranthobatus 242, 243 - var. guianensis 255,25 6 Rubus lasiocarpus Smith 242 Stylosanthes guyanensis (Aublet) Sw. 255 Rubus megacarpus Royen 242 Stylosanthes Sw. 257 Rubus niveus Thunb. 242 Suhria J. Agardh 135 Rubus pectinellus Maxim. 242 Symplocos fasciculata Zoll. 186, 201 Rubus rosifolius Smith 242,243 ,30 0 Syzygium aromaticum (L.)Merril l &Perr y 257,300 Rutaceae 88 Syzygium Gaertn. 260,26 2 Saccharum L. 245 Syzygium pycnanthum Merr. &Perr y 260 Saccharum barberi Jeswiet 245, 247 Tagetes L. 241 Saccharum officinarum L. 243,299 ,30 0 Tamarindus indica L. 130 Saccharum robustum Brandes &Jeswie t ex Grassl Tarrietia Blume 151 245, 247 Tarrietia simplicifolia Masters 150 Saccharum sinense Roxb. 245,24 7 Tectona grandis L.f. 58 Saccharum spontaneum L. 245,24 7 Tephrosia Candida DC. 75 Salacca edulis Reinw. 248,25 1 Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker 89,113 Salacca sumatrana Becc. 249 Tephrosia spp. 114 Salacca zalacca (Gaertner) Voss 248,30 0 Terminalia brassii Exell 263,29 8 - var. amboinensis (Becc.) Mogea 249 Terminalia kajewskii Exell 263 - var. zalacca 249 Terminalia L. 263,26 4 Sambucus spp. 223 Thea sinensis L. 72 Sapindaceae 196,200 ,230 ,232 ,30 1 Theaceae 72 Sarcocephalus cadamba Kurz 41 Theobroma cacao L. 265,30 0 INDEX SCIENTIFIC NAMES 309

Theobroma L. 270 Tithonia diversifolia A. Gray 129 Trifolium guianense Aublet 255 Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum. 42,20 1 Tripsacum laxum Nash 75 Tristania R.Br. 264 Ulmaceae 50 Urtica nivea L. 59 Urticaceae 59 Valariopsis Woodson 172 Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames 270 Vanilla phaeantha Rchb.f. 273 Vanilla planifolia H.C. Andrews 270,30 0 Vanilla pompona Schiede 272 Vanilla tahitensis J. Moore 272 Verbenaceae 222 Vigna hosei (Craib) Backer 261 Vigna radiata (L.)Wilcze k 219 Vigna unguiculata (L.)Walp . 215 Voacanga grandifolia (Miq.) Rolfe 274, 298 Voacanga papuana (F.v . Muell.) K. Schum. 274 Volvaria volvacea Fries 181 Volvariella volvacea (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing 55 Wurdemannia J. Agardh 135 Xylocarpus Koen. 50 Yabatella Okamura 135 Zea mays L. 215,275,301 Zingiberaceae 32 Index of vernacular plant names

Page numbers printed in bold refer to main treatment. abu28 areng palm 50 a kawa 28 arimai 59 abubu 274 as bin 232 abacâ 188 asparagus pea 232 African obeche 42, 201 Assam tea 72 aghomba 263 awibitung 110 agotag 188 awo petung 110 agotai 188,190,192 azobé 128 ai kor 106 ba 103 ai kori 106 badubuwae 171 aiala 123 bagal tikus 88 akar saga 27 bâgo143 all85 bagóbat 50 alang-alang 129 bagoe143 alinsanay 192 bagrâs123 amamanit 123 bahira 274 amarante 34 bajetah88 amaranth 34 balak 236 ambinaton 126 balak gunung 236 ambulung 180 balangai 175 amirai 59 balangog 164 amoguid 188 balatong 139 âmpëu 243 baleh-angien 161 anacardier 37 balimbing 57 anan 126 balios 79 anau 203 balubat 37 anega103 bambu betung 110 ang chaithao 64 bangkali 43 anggrèk 270 bangkoro 185 ângkreem 27 banikag 123 angrek kantong 216 bankali 43 angrek kantong semar 216 bap 275 angrek plembang 216 barawisan 201 anibong 203 basingan 161 anibung 203 batung-China 44 anil 161 bayam 34 apa apa 128 beberetean 242 apatot185 beda-bin 116 arabica 95 beliem 201 arachide 44 belimbing buluk 57 arbre à kapock 79 belinjau 143 aren 50 belinjo 143 INDEX VERNACULAR NAMES 311

Bengal-indigo 161 calliandra 69 bengkoway 213 canne à sucre 243 bengkudu185 cao su 152 bengkuwang 213 caoutchouc 152 benua 201 capulin 187 benuang 201 carambola 57 beringan 128 carambolier 57 berkat 50 cashew 37 besusu213 cassava 175 bét 143 castor 237 betel 203 cauliflower 63 bilimbi 57 cây ca cao 265 bilinga 128 cây daolôn hôt 37 biloun 103 cay dau ma 128 bin 232 cây diên 37 binuang 201 cay duoi chon 128 black mustard 63 cay mang eut 130 black pepper 225 celery cabbage 64 black wattle 28 cendawan telinga tikus 55 blackberry 242 cenkeh 257 blimbing asem 57 cerri 187 blimbing manis 57 cha laep daeng 28 blimbing wuluk 57 chàm161 bo chét 172 chan theed 193 boho 110 chan thet 193 boma latuata 274 chaon 203 bông sê 145 chè72 boon 103 chêne 236 Brazilian lucerne 255 cherek 222 broccoli 63 chieng dông 230 brown terminalia 263 China grass 59 Brussels sprouts 63 Chinese cabbage 61, 64 buah pala 193 Chinese cane 245 buboi 79 Chinese tea 72 bülak 145 chle sao mao 196 bulio 110 chok 50 buloh beting 110 chôm chôm 196 bulohbetongllO chou de Chine 64 bulrush millet 217 chufa 108 buluh batung 110 chuôi soi 188 bunga ayer mawar 240 cinchona 83 bunga eros 240 clou de girofle 257 bunga jamban 116 clove 257 bunga kasut 216 codâùll8 bunga pala 193,194 co duôi voi 220 buringit 88 cocoa 265 cabiall2 coconut palm 90,118 cà phê 95 cocotier 90 ca torn 41 cocoyam 102 cacao 265 coffee 95 cacaoyer 265 coklat 265 café 95 colza 61 cajou 37 colza d'hiver 61 calamismis 232 colza de printemps 61

jequiritybean27 kâong 50 Jew's ear 55 kapas145 Judas ear 55 kapé 95 jumbie bean 172 kapen prey 205 k'biehs 112 kapok 79 ka-moei 59 kapokier 79 kaanz phuu 257 kapu 79 kaatoan bangkai 41 kapulasan 198 312 A SELECTION common bur-flower tree 41, 202 faai 145 common indigo 161 false elder 222 corn 275 false massoi 106 cornichonier 57 fay hua 145 coton 145 fegha 274 cotton 145 finger millet 219 couch 100 fodder rape 61 crab's eye 27 framboise 242 cu dau 214 fromager 79 cu san 214 füang 57 cucumber tree 57 fuko 30

314 A SELECTION

karai 150 khauz 206 karet 152 khauz phôôd 275 kasai 230 khê57 kasang 44 khê fàlangx 137 kasui 37 khê tau 57 kat khao 64 khê: nooyz 137 katau 43 khee phueng 88 kaukau166 kho kho 265 kausuu 152 khoai day 166 kawung 50 khoai lang 166 kayu damar putih 30 khoai mi 175 kayu kawan 123 khoai mon 103 kayu santen 171 khoei laai 222 kayu sapi 230 khoom sômz 187 kayu tammusu 126 khram 161 kayu tuba 112 khüa ngwàng 25 kayumanis 88 ki badak 126 kecalingan 242 ki ninh 83 kecipir 232 ki sabrang 222 kedelai 139 kibenteli 171 kehpuk 116 kina 83 keladi 102,166 kini:n 83 keladi bunting 116 kipasang 236 keladi China 103 kirai 180 kelantan 196 kitumbali 171 kelapa 90 ko dok kam 128 kelapa bali 118 kohlrabi 63 kelapa sawi t 118 kokoe 265 kelempayan 41 kolaab 240 kelepek 251 kom deng 32 kelui 59 koo79 kemantu hitam 88 koo somz 41 kembang 150 kopi 95 kembang eros 240 kopi Arab 25 kembang karang 134 koua touang 88 kemeling telur 116 kra thin 172 kemudu 185 kra thum 41 kenab 203 krabas145 kenuar 251 krachiap mon 25 kersen 187 krâkhôb barang 187 kersula 180 kratin 172 kerukup Siam 187 ku-bemya 232 kessi 30 kuhlaab 240 ketela pohon 175 kulap 240 kha32 kulat 251 khaam161 kulat telinga tikus 55 khae farang 137 kulitis 34 khamin khruea 49 kumis kucing 205 khamin ling 128 kun-mya-san 216 khamin naang 128 kupikupi 242 khan phluu 257 kuping lawa 55 khao 206 kuping sikus 55 khao phot 275 kurus 222 khaoi mon 103 kuutyoi 114 INDEX VERNACULAR NAMES 315 kwaang 230 ma lui 88 kya-ga-mon 216 ma phrao 90 laao cha on 203 mace 192 labnis 59 Macassar nutmeg 194 lac 44 macis 193 laclay-guinan 128 mafai cheen 88 lada 225 maha 106 lady's finger 25 mai dâm 107 lady's slipper orchids 216 maïs 275 lahung 237 maize 215,27 5 lai nam 112 makam 27 laj a 32 malagai 230 lamtoro 172 malima 150 lamtoro gung 172 malisa 225 langkauas 32 malùgai 230 langsat196 mamuang himmaphan 37 langsir 230 man daang 166 lanot 188 man kaeo 214 laos 32 man laao 214 lapia 180 man paa 126 laran 41 man phau 213 lasi 139 man sampalang 175 lau pipa 216 man thet 166 lau prentit 216 man tônz 175 lay-hnyin 257 manéngop112 leaf turnip 61 mang-khut 130 leda 123 manggis 130 lemu guru 110 mangkhud130 lengak 116 mango 196 lengkuas 32 mangosteen 130,196 lengsar 230 mangoustan 130 lepili 172 manh tong 110 leppet 72 mani 44 lesser galangal 33 Manila hemp 188 leucaena 172 manioc 175 liane reglisse 27 mantheed 166 libung 203 mariango 274 light red meranti 251 marrow stem kale 63 lingorumbolia 171 massoi 106 lintagu 242 massoia bark 106 liseron d'eau 164 mât sâm 187 litchi chevelu 196 matoa 230 lohông khvâang 237 mau41 lotong 198 maukadon 41 lûa 206 melinjo 143 lubi90 mempatar putih 150 luc-binh 116 men keo166 ludai 41 mengkudu 185 lumbia 180 mengkulang 150 lurus 222 mengkulang siku keluang 150 luzerne du Brésil 255 mengkunyit 49 luzerne tropicale 255 meninjau 143 ma fïïeang 57 meranti langgong 251 ma klam tanu 27 meranti pepijat 251 316 A SELECTION

meranti-merembung 251 nut grass 36 mere 263 nutmeg 192 merica 225 oak 236 meritam 198 oi243 mersawir 106 oil palm 118 merukuyong 251 oil-seed rape 61 mesui 106 okra 25 mi 175 old cocoyam 102 mia 243 ong90 miang 72 ooyz 243 mil à chandelle 217 opilan 28 mil pénicillaire 217 oreilles de chat 55 misoi 106 oyodjelunll2 misui 106 pace 185 mo noi 88 pacol 190,192 Moluccan sau 191 padagoji 32 mombul 112 padi 206 mongkhut130 pak choi 61,164 morinde 185 pakis angkrik 114 motaoa 230 pakisbuwall4 mother of cocoa 137 pakis ejo 114 motoa 230 pakis wilis 114 mountain papaya 79 pako 114 moutarde éthiopienne 61 pakull4 moutarde indienne 61 paku anjing 114 mréch 225 pakubenar 114 mu-erh 55 paku benter 114 mung bean 219 paku beunteur 114 muron 242 pakubuwa 114 mustard cabbage 64 paku sayur 114 myonk-ni 166 paku tanjong 114 Mysore raspberry 242 paku tanjung 114 nam meo 55 paku tjareham 114 nam moc nhi 55 pala banda 193 Napier grass 220 pala laki laki 194 Natal-indigo 161 palaw-pinan-u-pin 175 natural rubber 152 palay 206 New Guinea kauri 30 palla 32 ngayok-kaung 225 palm de sucre 50 ngiuz baanz 79 palmier à huile 118 ngô 275 palmier areng 50 ngoh196 pam namman 118 nhàu185 pamengkos 251 nho 185 pan 59 nho: ba:nz 185 pangaitan 150 nhum 203 pangi 274 nibong 203 panili 270 nibung 203 Papua nutmeg 194 nino 185 para rubber 152 niyóg 90 pasang batu 236 noble cane 245 pasang emprit 236 noix de muscade 192 patate aquatique 164 nuli 263 patate douce 166 nun 79 pattani 196 INDEX VERNACULAR NAMES 317 pe kuek 213 pras 32 pè tchay 64 pring petung 110 pe-saung-ya 232 psot trachiek kandao 55 pe-tsai 64 puar 32 peanut 44 pulasan 198,199, 200 pearl millet 217 purple nut grass 108 pechay 64 quantan 139 peek kuek 213 quick stick 137 peesae 143 quinin 83 Peking cabbage 64 quinine 83 pelang 28 quinquina 83 pengapi 139 raapzaad 61 pepeo 263 rai 61 pernambuko 145 raj 61 peryatpym 139 rambutan 196 petjai 64 ramee 59 petsai61,64 rami 59 phaai 107 ramie 59 phaawz 90 randu 79 phai tong 110 rape 61 phak bongz 164 rape seed 61 phak bung 164 raspberry 242 phak khom suan 34 rau dên 34 phak kuut 114 ràu mèo 205 phak top chawa 116 rau muong 164 phakkaat farang 64 red rice 210 phayaa mai 28 reed 183 phiafaan 88 reriang 126 phik nooyz 225 rice 206 phrik thai 225 ricin 237 phruan 196 riro 185 phti 34 riz 206 phüak103 robusta 95 phueak103 ros 240 piko 274 rosary pea 27 pilang 28 rose(s) 240 pinit 242 rotan sega 67 pisang benang 188 rotan sego 67 pisang Manila 188 rotan taman 67 pisang-utan 188 rubber 152 po pan 59 rumbia 180 po-bo 59 rumput gajah 220 pohon kapok 79 rutabaga 61 pohon rumbia 180 sa khu 180 pohon sagu 180 sa kuu 180 pois batate 213 sa mat 88 pois carré 232 sa pinit 242 pois oléagineux de Chine 139 saa72 poivre 225 sabar-bin 206 pokok cherek 88 sabot de Vénus 216 pokok coklat 265 saga 27 pokok kemantu 88 sago palm 180 pôôt275 sago tree 180 prâpiëy 232 sagoutier 180 322 A SELECTION

Research &Developmen t (PCARRD), Los Bafios, Philippines; - the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Cooperation with institutions from all over the world with expertise on South- East Asian plant resources is being initiated.

Documentation

Adocumentatio n system has been developed for information storage and retrie­ val called SAPRIS (South-East Asian Plant Resources Information System). It consists of 5dat a bases: - BASELIST: primarily a checklist ofmor e than 6200plan t species; - CATALOG: references to secondary literature; - ORGANYM: references to institutions and its research activities; - PERSONYM: references to specialists; - TEXTFILE: all Prosea publications and additional information. The main task of the network of Country Offices is to document existing infor­ mation and expertise.

Consultation

The Prosea First International Symposium (22-25 May 1989) was intended as a forum of scientists, policy-makers and donors. There: - the relevance of plant resources of South-East Asia were to be highlighted through commodity group reports, country reports and plant resources reports; - progress so far made were to be reviewed; - recommendations for the implementation phase were to be formulated.

Publication

The following publications have been prepared so far (May 1989): - Basic list of species and commodity grouping (Version 1); - A selection dealing with 86 plant resources, being a cross-section of the com­ modity groups; - Pulses, as an example of possible treatment of a commodity group.

In brief, Prosea is

- an international project focused on South-East Asia; - interdisciplinary, covering the fields of agriculture, forestry, horticulture and botany; - a research project making knowledge available for education and extension; - ecologically focused on promoting plant resources for sustainable tropical land-use systems; - committed to rural development through diversification of resources and application of farmers' knowledge. CHINA TAIWAI BURMA r LAOS •,-"--• -.^ ,;17' Luzon ; 18' 1 S 1\ ? THAILAND '• 19 u VIETNAM '• 21 20' """.. •'- . CAMBODIA 22 *!!*"*

• • 24', 23 . .• f' 2{ 15 27 /-Î 'ƒ \ i^-i

•; 33- , «•-• , .";. 1 34 2 ', 3 •' MALAYSIA 35 14 4"; BRUNEI -. \ 36 \} 5 8 ^-* b 38 "•"io- X' / ' 13 37^ 4À Borneo : ï ^ SINGAPORE \\ \ — ,_ S v 60 .•: - "•" A,' 39 •-> —-£?- Sumatra "'•• ^ i ' 0/ -.45 t. 57 *%-. 'r\42 «. 41 Mentawai •„ \ 63 3 V 46 49 58 i.. • •• .. -, Islands ^ .-j Sulawesi \„ ', -.47 48 i ' „ , 50 • -64 . 65 - 51 INDONESIA

52 /"..- 56 53 55 - - -. LesserSunda Islands ' Java 54' "" •'"•' .'- _.- f •f'-'v-.-.,''".-3.;''" '-'-..I,''f"lj;^''' 67 68 " é9 . ---.' '"" 71

70 1 .&• MAP OF SOUTH-EAST ASIA FOR PROSEA Names of countries in capital letters and islands in lower case: numbers refer to the key. Keyo f islands (/'), states (s), regions (r) and provinces (p).

MALAYSIA Northern Mindanao r 30 Morotai / 73 East Malaysia r 13-14 Palawan i 15 Nias ; 39 Johor s 12 Panay / 23 North Sulawesi p 62 Kedah s 3 Samar / 25 North Sumatra p 38 Kelantan s 6 Southern Tagalog r 20 Obi ; 75 Langkawi ; 2 Southern Mindanao r 31 Riau p 40 Melaka s 11 Sulu Archipelago / 35 Riau Archipelago / 43 Negeri Sembilan s 10 Western Mindanao r 33 Seram / 78 Pahang s 8 Siberut / 42 Peninsular Malaysia INDONESIA Simeuluë /' 37 (West Malaysia) r 1-12 Aceh p 36 Singkep /' 45 Perak s 5 Ambon / 79 South-East Sulawesi p 65 Perlis s 1 Aru Islands / 82 South Kalimantan p 59 Pinang s 4 Bali i 67 South Sulawesi p 64 -JILIPPINES Sabah s 14 Bangka / 49 South Sumatra p 48 Sarawak s 13 Belitung / 50 Sula Islands / 76 Selangor s 9 Bengkulu p 47 Sumba / 70 Terengganu s 7 Bum i 77 Sumbawa / 69 Butung / 66 Talaud Islands / 61 PHILIPPINES Central Java p 53 Tanimbar Islands / 81 Babuyan Islands / 16 Central Kalimantan p 58 Timor /' 72 Basilan / 34 Central Sulawesi p 63 West Daya Islands / 80 Bicol r 21 EastJav a p 55 West Java p 52 Bohol i 29 East Kalimantan p 60 West Kalimantan p 57 '.4 Cagayan Valley r 18 Flores ; 71 West Sumatra p 41 Cebu / 28 Halmahera ;' 74 Yogyakarta p 54 Irian Jaya p 84 Mindana Central Mindanao r 32 Jambi p 46 PAPUA NEW GUINEA Central Luzon r 19 Kai Islands / 83 f? llocos r 17 Bougainville Island /' 87 Lampung p 51 Leyte ; 26 Lingga / 44 D'Entrecasteaux Islands / 88 Masbate / 24 Lombok i 68 Louisiade Archipelago / 89 Mindoro i 22 Madura / 56 New Britain / 86 Negros / 27 Papua r 85

<4 c.-yr

Bismarck \> e Archipelago ~*V. '

New Guinea ',"L 87

'—. N,~ 86^ -'"-. 85 1 "• ». PAPUA NEW GUINEA V r .,.>-*•>•- " •' • *••-. > '"\..<^m "" C: \„ ^ '._ v r. _ 1 -- - 89

I. r '. 1986 fB