ROMA RESISTANCE DURING THE HOLOCAUST AND IN ITS AFTERMATH Collection of Working Papers Roma Resistance during the Holocaust and in its Aftermath Collection of Working Papers Evelin Verhás, Managing Editor Angéla Kóczé and Anna Lujza Szász, Editors Budapest, 2018 2018 Tom Lantos Institute All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. ISBN: 978-615-80159-7-4 Copy editor: Emma Roper-Evans Assistant language editor: Marcus Oda Designed by SzépKönyvek Printed by RContact Kft. The text does not necessarily represent in every detail the collective view of the Tom Lantos Institute. The Tom Lantos Institute (TLI) is an independent human and minority rights organization with a particular focus on Jewish, Roma and Hungarian communities and other ethnic or national, linguistic and religious minorities. As an international research, education and advocacy platform, TLI aims to bridge the gaps between research and policy, norms and practice. TLI’s Roma Rights and Citizenship Programme promotes the self-understanding of the Roma and aims at breaking down their prejudiced representation. Research projects exam- ine the nature and conditions of Roma participation in social, economic, cultural life and in public affairs, encouraging active citizenship. Research and education on Roma genocide and resistance explore the darkest period of Roma history generating understanding and reconciliation between Roma and non-Roma. Roma and Resistance during the Holocaust and in its Aftermath is a joint project with ternYpe – International Roma Youth Network and La Voix des Rroms co-financed by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance and the Stiftung “Erinnerung, Verantwor- tung und Zukunft”. The project aims to fill the gap in academic research, awareness raising in relation to the Roma Holocaust and resistance. 5 List of Contents Introduction ......................................................................................................................................7 by Angéla Kóczé and Anna Lujza Szász Between survival and noncompliance: Roma ‘acts of resistance’ in Transnistria during World War II ......................................................................................................................21 Chiriac Bogdan French Nomads’ Resistance 1939-1946 ........................................................................................57 Lise Foisneau, Valentin Merlin Research report .............................................................................................................................103 Resistance and Survival of the Roma and Sinti in Auschwitz-Birkenau Joanna Talewicz-Kwiatkowska The Roma Holocaust and Memory Games ............................................................................... 131 The clash of governmentalities and Roma activism in an imperfectly Europeanized arena Gergely Romsics Supplementary note ....................................................................................................................215 Reflections on Art, Memory, Remembrance and Resistance in the Context of the Roma Holocaust through the works of two Roma artists: Katarzyna Pollok and Károly Bari Éva Blénesi Contributors ..................................................................................................................................229 7 Introduction BY ANGÉLA KÓCZÉ AND ANNA LUJZA SZÁSZ This collection of working papers is the final product of a two-year project on the resistance of the Roma during the Holocaust and its aftermath. Even though the project has finished, ongoing research to collect testimonies by young Roma activists and researchers will con- tinue to develop a deeper understanding of the patterns and extent of the persecution and extermination of Roma within Europe. Further objectives of the project included assisting young Roma researchers and those active in their communities collecting testimonies, supporting Roma scholarship on the genocide by strengthening the Roma constituency for the remembrance of the Roma genocide, as well as mobilizing and advocating for the involvement of Roma in official Holocaust commemorations. This publication aims to raise awareness, spark public discussions and create more visibility for the resistance of the Roma during the Holocaust and its aftermath. This edited volume recapitulates only the research part of the programme, mainly consist- ing of new archival and testimonial evidence. On the one hand, it confirms earlier findings that focused on the victimization of Roma during the Holocaust and its aftermath. On the other hand, it represents a novel stage in the social process of collective trauma of Roma by making a new claim: Roma and Sinti were not simply victims of the Nazi regime. They fought and resisted, both individually and collectively, during the Holocaust and its aftermath to get official recognition, and also demanded both emotional and institutional compensation, as well as symbolic reparation. 1. Terms naming the various population groups1 Since different terms are used throughout the volume to refer to various groups, it is imper- ative to shortly discuss the use of these terms. The First World Roma Congress was held in 1971 and is mainly known for highlighting the similarities of diverse Roma communities and laying the foundation for a shared Roma identity. Under the auspices of the Congress, a 1 On the basis of the “Council of Europe Descriptive Glossary of Terms Relating to Roma Issues,” http://a. cs.coe.int/team20/cahrom/documents/Glossary%20Roma%20EN%20version%2018%20May%202012.pdf. Last accessed 21 March, 2018. 9 ANGÉLA KÓCZÉ, ANNA LUJZA SZÁSZ flag and anthem were created, 8 April was chosen as International Roma Day and the name “Roma” was defined as politically correct, whilst “Gadje” was chosen to refer to non-Roma allies showing solidarity and being and supportive towards the Roma. Although the term “Roma” is the generic term used internationally, it also denotes all groups with the same Indian origin, as well as those who refer to themselves as Roma. They constitute up to 87-88% of the Roma population and contain in itself sub-groups, such as the Kalderash, Lovari etc. The Sinti share a common Indian origin with the Roma; — the word “Sinti” comes from the word “Sind” (an ancient Indian name)—however, they speak a Germanised version of the Romani language and are found, primarily, in German-speaking countries (i.e. Germany, Austria, Switzerland). Travellers live in Great Britain and Ireland and are ethnically distinct from the Roma and Sinti. In the former, they are regarded as an ethnically distinct group, whilst in the latter they are considered as an indigenous commu- nity. The French term for Travellers – Gens du voyage – used in France as an administrative term, has been used since the 1970s to refer generically to the Roma, Sinti/Manush and Gypsies/Gitans, and other non-Roma groups with a nomadic way of life. Nomad was a cat- egory used by the French administration between 1912 and 1969 to target specific activities and lifestyles while registering anthropometrical data. Gypsies is the exonym of the Roma population among English-speaking people; however, since the term is loaded with negative connotations people tend to use the word “Roma” instead. 2. Holocaust vs genocide2 A few words need to be also said about the ongoing scholarly debate whether the terms “Holocaust” and “genocide” should refer exclusively to the Jewish victims of the Nazi regime or whether the terms can be also used to refer to the mass persecution of Roma during World War II. The concept of genocide was developed under the shadow of Auschwitz and then defined in the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948 (Convention). As a reaction to the mass murder of enemies of the Nazi regime, the Polish jurist Raphael Lemkin formulated the concept during World War II. The Convention followed Lemkin’s guidance and defined genocide as “acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group”.3 The concept was never applied until the beginning of the 1960’s when, as a result of the Eichmann trial, the experience of the persecutions of the 1940’s were given more and more attention, and the notion of genocide was used as a framework for interpretation. The persecution of 2 On the basis of Anna Lujza Szász, “Memory emancipated. Exploring the Memory of the Nazi Genocide of Roma in Hungary,” (PhD diss., ELTE, 2015), 22-27. 3 “United Nations Genocide Convention,” http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cppcg/cppcg.html, last accessed 21 March, 2018. 10 INTRODUCTION the Jews was aimed at their biological destruction and reached genocidal proportions. These experiences were described by survivors during the trial. It became a primus inter pares, an archetype of genocide.4 Guenter Lewy, in his book, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies5 denies the possibility that the Roma experienced genocide during the time of the Holocaust. Lewy states that there was no deliberate plan, “final solution”, nor were the Roma considered as a major threat to society. Hence he argues that the annihilation of Roma should not be compared to that of the Jews. Ian Hancock, in his text, Downplaying the Porrajmos:6