Traditional Culture and the Old Ritualists

TRADITIONAL CULTURE AND THE OLD RITUALISTS JOVAN E. HOWE * In Russia, the countryside is an overwhelming presence. It is not some secondary life-style, episodic, diminished or reduced to quaint happenings. It has a life of its own, unique, total and day-to-day, both material and moral. Pierre Pascal, La civilation paysanne en Russie (1937) The above was written 60 years ago. Much has changed. The majority of Russians today live in urban conditions. The village is dying. But the mass exodus from the countryside began during the lifetime of the parents of today’s young adults. With the exception of the intelligentsia and the thin stratum of skilled workers and technicians, the mass of city-dwellers carry with them the legacy of ‘peasant civilization’. This is especially true in the provinces, where ‘cities’ exist more in name than in fact. The psychological weight of the peasant legacy is evident in the popular reaction to ‘market reforms’. Pièrre Pascal was perhaps Pre-War Europe’s greatest ‘Russian expert’. For him, understanding Russia meant knowing Russian peasant civilization, which in turn meant knowing about the Old Ritualists, the cultural and spiritual vanguard of the peasantry. The importance of Old Ritualists in the preservation of Russian traditions is tacitly recognized by field workers in ethnography and folklore, since it is among Old Ritualists that peasant soci- ety and culture survive in their most complete and unspoiled forms. ‘Tacitly’, because in Soviet times it was forbidden to write about Old Ritual- ist communities. Thus, in all the numerous ethnographic studies of Siberian peasants conducted during the past three decades – the vast majority of * A cultural anthropologist specializing in peasant cultures with degrees in archaeology and Russian intellectual history, Dr. Jovan E. Howe has conducted research over many years in villages of North, West, Southwest and South Russia, searching out Old Ritualist communities in each region for special study. His publications include The Peasant Mode of Production (Tampere, 1991). 212 J.E. HOWE them Old Ritualists – the euphemism, old-timers (starozily), was substituted. But this meant that researchers had to ignore the central role of religion in the life of these communities. For instance, not a single ‘spiritual verse’ religious epic song (duchovnyj stich) or other sacred song is included in Dorofeev’s book on the song-culture of the Semejskie Old Ritualists of the Lake Baïkal region. Since these are not only the most numerous genres, but provide the models for lyric genres, the unique structure of the latter is unexplained. Dorofeev’s work was completed in 1970. It had to wait until glasnost’, nine- teen years, before it was published – and then only after the religious songs were excluded.1 Three centuries of persecution Refusal to acknowledge the contributions of Old Ritualists to Russian soci- ety and culture was not a Soviet innovation. From 1654, when Patriarch Nikon violently attacked the Lovers-of-God (Bogoljubcy) for refusing to cross themselves with three fingers instead of two, Orthodox Christians who adhered to the traditional Russian rites were persecuted by the tsarist State and Church. While persecution officially was ended by the decree on religious toleration issued in the wake of the 1905 Revolution, Old Ritualists continued to suffer many disabilities. It was only with the final removal in 1971 (1973) of the anathema proclaimed against the Russian rite by the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch and Constantinople in 1557, con- firmed by the Church Councils of 1666-67, that the new and old rituals were equated and members of the Patriarchal Church were permitted to become Old Ritualists. Persecution of the Old Ritualists continued with varying degrees of inten- sity for over 300 years, at times reaching paroxysms of savagery. Thus, during the regency of Sophia (1686-1689), the early years of Tsar Peter the Great (1689-1699) and the reign of Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855), at least 30,000 Old Ritualists were burned alive. While the majority were 1 N.I. Dorofeev, Russkie narodnye pesni Zabajkal’ja: Semejskij raspev (Moscow, 1989). TRADITIONAL CULTURE AND THE OLD RITUALISTS 213 self-immolations, many committed themselves to the flames voluntarily to escape mutilation and execution by fire at the hands of tsarist torturers. Untold thousands of Old Ritualists were executed in the aftermaths of the peasant rebellions of Stepan Razin (1671-1673) and, especially, of Emelian Pugacëv (1774-1775), himself an Old Ritualist. The last great massacre of Old Ritualists took place in 1930 at the start of Bolshevik collectivization of the peasants of Siberia: entire Old Ritualist villages in the Altai Mountains and the Far East along the Manchurian border were exterminated. Many thousands more died in concentration camps. Although persecution of the Old Ritualists was carried out in the name of the official Orthodox Church, it was the State rather than the Church that directed the persecution. From the time of the Church Councils of 1666- 1667, whose decisions were dictated by Tsar Aleksej Michailovic, the Rus- sian Orthodox Church was reduced to little more than an arm of the tsarist State. Tsar Peter-the-Great’s abolition of the patriarchy, accompanied by total subjugation of the Church to the civil authority through appointment of an Ober-Procurator (Attorney General) to oversee all of its affairs, formal- ized and regularized a relationship that already existed. End of the ‘Third Rome’ The Russian Orthodox Church had been the last major institution of soci- ety that remained relatively independent of the tsarist State. It had been a voice of conscience that would not be silenced during Ivan IV’s reign of terror in the 1570s and again, in the ‘Time of Troubles’ (Smutnye vremena) interregnum between dynasties at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the country was devastated by Polish and Swedish armies and ravaged by Cossack bands, supporting pretenders to the throne of Muscovy. After its subjugation by Tsar Aleksej Michailovic, the Church was reduced to an instrument, willing or not, of the autocrat’s will. Aleksej Michailovic had the Byzantine prayers for the Russian tsar introduced into the liturgy. In these prayers, the formula, ‘God’s Anointed’, was interpreted to mean God’s proxy, placing the ruler above the Church. The Old Ritualists interpreted the anointment of the tsar by the Patriarch in an exactly opposite manner: the tsar thereby acknowledged a Higher Law embodied in 214 J.E. HOWE the Church. They considered the demand to praise the Tsar as God’s proxy to be blasphemous. It had been the coronation of false tsars that had brought Muscovy to the brink of ruin during the Time of Troubles interregnum. Therefore, according to the view of the relationship between tsar and Church held by the Bogoljubcy, the ruler shows himself to be legitimate by submitting to the Church, upholding all its dogmas and acting in accord- ance with Christian principles. An unjust tsar, who misuses the Church, is illegitimate. In the seventeenth century, the appearance of a ruler, who betrayed the Grace of God (blagodat’) bestowed on Russia at her baptism, came to be interpreted as the sign of the coming of the antichrist, which in the St. Cyril’s Book (Kirillovskaja kniga), was predicted to occur in 1666. Their’s was the traditional view, underlying the notion of the Third Rome. The extraordinarily rapid rise of Muscovy in the fifteenth century coincided with the final decline of Constantinople, which fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. This was taken as a sign that Moscow alone had remained true to the faith, the first two Romes having fallen for betrayal.2 The Third Rome would stand until the Day of Judgement. It was the lot of Russian Orthodox Christians to bear witness for humanity, and the burden of salvation had passed to the Russian Orthodox Church and tsar. It was the responsibility of the Church and tsar to prepare their people morally and spiritually for salvation. Revolt against secularization Orthodox Russia had been saved during the Time of Troubles not by the great boyars, members of the noble and princely houses of Ancient Rus’, who had largely sold out to the Catholic king Sigismund of Poland, and like Prince Sujskij, a distant relative of the Rjurik royal house, had stopped at nothing to seize power, but by the people themselves. A national coalition uniting townsmen and peasants with the lower gentry rose up under the leadership of a butcher and Cossack prince against the boyars and foreign invaders alike. 2 The Byzantine Church and Emperor betrayed the faith by recognizing the Pope as supreme head of the Church at the Council of Florence in 1439. TRADITIONAL CULTURE AND THE OLD RITUALISTS 215 It was no accident that the movement of lower clergy and their congrega- tions to transform Muscovy into an ideal Christian community, the ultimate objective of the Bogoljubcy, began on the Middle Volga in the region of Niznij Novgorod, the same region where the popular uprising that restored the Moscow Tsardom was initiated against Polish intervention and boyar tyranny. One consequence of the manner in which the tsardom was restored was a great strengthening of the social position of the lower and middle gentry upon whose support the new Romanov dynasty depended. This in turn led during the reigns of Michail and Aleksej, the first two Romanov tsars, to a vast expansion of the bureaucracy as the gentry were recruited to manage the country. Since the treasury was empty, the gentry were rewarded with grants of land together with the peasants living on these grants. Vast territo- ries were ceded. As a concession to the gentry, the peasantry, thousands of whom during the Time of Troubles had regained relative freedom by colonizing the new southern districts, were in 1649 subjected to a form of serfdom more severe than any that had previously existed.

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