Video Game Spaces
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Video Game Spaces Image, Play, and Structure in 3D Game Worlds Michael Nitsche The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England © 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. For information about special quantity discounts, please email special_sales@mitpress .mit.edu This book was set in Bell Gothic and Garamond 3 by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nitsche, Michael, 1968– Video game spaces : image, play, and structure in 3D worlds / Michael Nitsche. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-14101-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Video games. I. Title. GV1469.3.N58 2008 794.8—dc22 2008019730 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Index Aarseth, Espen, 4, 19, 31–32, 43, 48, Alphaworlds, 18 58, 64, 180 Alternate Reality Games (ARG), Abbott, Roger, 182–183 209–212 Acousmêtre, 140–141 Altman, Robert, 141 Acoustic landmark, 131 Ambiguous space, 80–81, 86–87,163 Acoustic position, 143 America’s Army: Operations, 9–10, 200 Acrophobia, 207 American McGee’s Alice, 148–152 Acting in VR (project), 214–216 Amiga CD32 (video game console), 71 Acting, 50–51, 141, 115, 214–219 Amplitude, 135 Active Participant (player), 7, 220–225, Analytical planes 229 and narrative, 154 Active Worlds, 188 defi nition, 15–17 Adaptive audio, 135 hierarchy (player), 233 Adventure (Atari 2600 video game), immersion/ presence, 204–207 118–121 interconnecting forces, 17–18 Adventure (text adventure game), 183 Anders, Peter, 4, 18, 118 Adventures of Robin Hood, The, 89 Animation, digital, 80, 86, 115, 139, Affordances, 151–152 199, 215 afternoon: a story, 19, 54 Anti-montage, 117 Alcatraz, 118–119 Antisocial behavior, 242–243 Alexander, Christopher, 159–163, 244 Archetype (character), 54, 61, 218 Alien Trilogy (video game), 134–137 Archetype (space), 162–163 Aliens (feature fi lm), 131 Architectural promenade, 74 Alone in the Dark (video game), 70,105, Architectural theory, 159, 160 108 Architecture and fi lm, 74–77 Arena, 183–187, 218, 237 Blue Labyrinth, 118 Arnheim, Rudolf, 80 Boal, Auguste, 56, 221 Arrifl ex 35–BL, 84 Bolter, Jay, 18, 54, 74, 85, 91 Artifi cial Intelligence A.I. (feature fi lm), Bon (dance festival), 197 90, 209 Branigan, Edward, 16, 43, 82, 119 Artifi cial intelligence (AI), 7, 52, 127, Breakdown, 39, 107–108 157 Brecht, Bert, 143, 221 Aspen Movie Map, 70 Bridge Too Far, A, 165 Asteroids, 118–121 Broadband, 70 Atari 2600 (Atari VCS) (videogame Brookhaven National Laboratory, 9 console), 118 Brooks, Kevin, 48–51, 230 Atari Jaguar (videogame console), 74 Bruner, Jerome, 43–48 Augmented Reality (AR), 14 Bug (game), 11, 27–29 Axis mundi, 212 Bullet ride, 98, 123–125, 147 Axis of action, 126 Bullet-time, 91–92 Azeroth (in-game location), 11 Burch, Noel, 81 Bureaucratic Maze, 183 Bachelard, Gaston, 193 Back to the Future (feature fi lm), 12 C+ + (programming language), 26 Back to the Future (theme park Call of Duty (game series), 105, 125 attraction), 12–13 Call of Duty 2, 107 Backlighting, 89 Camera movement, 82–84 Bailey, Anthony, 199 Cameron, James, 131 Bal, Mieke, 145–146, 151–154, 220 Campbell, Joseph, 59–63 Baroque, 72 Canon XL1, 84 Barthes, Roland, 19, 31–32, 49, 54 Capture the fl ag, 184–185, 237–238 Bartle, Richard, 140, 185 Carmack, John, 35, 71 Battlestar Galactica, 84 Cartridge (game), 70 Battlezone, 51, 102–104 Casablanca, 114–116 Bazin, Andre, 81, 117, 127 Castle Wolfenstein 3D, 71, 86, Beast, The (ARG game), 209–210 102–103 Benedikt, Michael, 4, 18, 172, 192 Cave Automatic Virtual Environments Benveniste, Emile, 54–55 (CAVE), 77, 211 Berlin, Symphony of a Great City, 75 CBS, 18 Biohazard (see also Resident Evil ), 89 CD-i, 71 Black and White, 212–214 CD-ROM, 70 Blizzard, 11, 235 Champion, Erik, 206–208, 232 Blood Gulch Canyon (in-game location), Character (and cultural background), 218 218 Blowup, 38 Charbitat, 167–169, 183 Index 294 Chartres cathedral, 177 Computer Space, 19 Cheating, 64, 166 Concept art, 73 Chelovek s Kinoapparatom (see also Man Consumer hardware, 5 with a Movie Camera), 82 Continuity editing, 118–121 Chess, 18, 181 Continuous representation (interface Ching, Francis, 160–164, 182–187, design), 37–38 212 Copresence, 207 Chion, Michel, 140–143 Counterpoint (acoustic), 143 Cinema envy, 74 Counter-Strike Cinema of attractions, 72 cs_italy map, 237 Cinema verité, 84 cs_militia map, 186–187 Cinematic space gameplay, 36 difference to text-based, 6 map design, 185–187 discussion, 16–17, 79–84 player positioning, 216 single image, 79–80 Crawford, Chris, 31, 53 Cinematic visualization (in games), 74, Creatures, 222, 223 79, 122–126 Crimson Pirate, The, 89 Citizen Kane, 81 cs_italy (game level), 237 City symphony, 75 cs_militia (game level), 186–187 Civilization, 181 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 240 Civilization II, 222 Cube Club (in-game location), 119–120 Classical Hollywood style, 114–116 Curtiz, Michael, 89, 114–116 Clocktower 3, 136, 143 Cutscene, 39, 48, 70–73, 95, 103–110, Clockwork Orange, 112 135, 148–151, 194–195, 201, 212 Closed frame. See Framing, closed Cyberspace form discussion, 1, 76, 172–173, 244 Clover, Carol, 104 history, 15–18 Cognitive map perspective, 94 discussion, 161–164 religion, 192–193 fi lm, 80 Cybertown, 140 navigation, 131 and story map, 227–232 Dance Dance Revolution, 134 Colin Mcrae Rally 3, 143 Dancing (virtual), 135, 182, 197, 235 Collision, 19, 29, 193, 240 Darken, Rudolph P., 131–132, 228 Colossal Cave, 183 Day at the Ironforge Bank (aka Comic (books), 91, 198 Ironforge Bankers), A, 199–200 Common Tales, 85–86, 119–121 Davenport, Glorianna, 70, 228 Comprehensible multilayered access D-Day, 107, 165–166 (interface design), 39–40, 228 Dead-in-iraq, 10 Computer as media, 24–25, 211 Dead or Alive, 20 Index 295 De Certeau, Michel, 58 Dungeon Siege, 184 Deep focus, 81 Dynamic lighting, 89, 153 Deep space, 81–83 deLappe, Joseph, 10 Eames, Charles, 75–76 Deleuze, Gilles, 181 Eames, Ray, 75–76 Demonstration (in game), 235–237, Eastwood, Clint, 218 240 Éclair NPR, 84 Depth of fi eld, 81 Economy (in-game), 11 Der letzte Mann (aka The Last Laugh), 8-bit, 130 82–83 Elfman, Danny, 134 Deus Ex, 29, 39, 44, 51, 106, Eliade, Mircea, 191–193, 212–213 194–198 Elite, 70 Diablo, 167 Emergent play, 28–29, 195, 239 Dibbell, Julian, 194, 219, 242 Enemy Zero, 131–136 Die Brücke, 165–165 Enter the Matrix, 90 Diegetic, 73, 84–85, 118, 124, Environmental presence (presence), 205, 133–142 208–209 Die Hard, 89 Ergodic participation, 31–32, 49, 53 Digital community, 197 Eskelinen, Markku, 41, 55–56, 74, Direct manipulation, 33, 37, 80 122 DirectMusic, 135 Eternal Darkness: Sanity’s Requiem, Discourse (defi nition), 54–56 111–112 Dislocation (using sound), 131 Euclidian space, 82, 118, 230 Disneyland Paris, 14 Eve Online, 11, 242–243 DisneyQuest, 14 Everybody Comes to Rick’s, 116 Dodge, Martin, 17 Evocative narrative elements Dogmatic, 39 (defi nition), 3, 37 Dogme 95, 84, 115 Eye candy, 6, 134 Dogtown, 195 Donkey Konga, 134 F-19 Stealth Fighter, 103 DOOM, 102–103, 123–126, 182 Fabula, 48–50, 56, 112, 145, 240 DOOM 3, 132, 142, 152–153 Façade, 139 Dourish, Paul, 138, 194, 234 Familiarity (with media) (see also Dragon’s Lair, 53, 71 literacy), 94, 245 Dramatic representation (interface Fatal Frame II: The Crimson Butterfl y, 91, design), 38–40, 228–229 104, 121–126 Dreamcast (video game console), 74 Fencott, Clive, 151 Dream world (game level), 100, 147, Festen, 112 152 Fictional space/plane (see Analytical Drucker, Steven M., 92 planes) Index 296 Field, Syd, 62 Galyean, Tinsley A. III, 39, 93, 175 Fijuu, 138 Game studies, 1, 6, 15–16, 50, 54, 204. Film and architecture, 74–77 See also Games research Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (feature Game theory, 41 fi lm), 90 GameCube (video game console), 13 Final Fantasy VII, 44 Games Final Fantasy X, 73, 206, 218 and architecture, 206 Final Fantasy XI, 196 and choice, 42–48, 53, 194 Final girl, 104 and culture, 233–237 First-person point of view as garden, 172 defi nition, 93 as kitchen, 245–246 development, 102–108 for learning, 42, 216–217 in editing, 123–125 space outline, 8–20 Flat space, 80–81, 86 textual quality (vs. literary media), Flow, 204–205 24–29 Flythrough, 206 as therapy, 204 Focalization, 145–154 Games research, 2–7, 145, 245. See also Focalizer, 146–147 Game studies Fog of war, 175 Gance, Abel, 83–84, 99 Folktale, 52–53, 62 Garden of Eden, 172 Following camera Garriott, Richard, 27 defi nition, 93 Gauntlet, 184 development, 96–99 Gee, James Paul, 42 in editing, 123–125 Genette, Gérard, 56, 145, 154, 220 Foreshadowing, 105, 142, 218 Georgia Institute of Technology, 5 Foucault, Michel, 188 Gibson, James J., 151 Fourth wall (theater), 86, 151, Gibson, William, 17 209–212 Giedeon, Sigfried, 76 Framing Go (board game), 181 closed form, 82, 111 Goals (self-defi ned), 63–64, 195–198 open form 82, 111 God of War, 94, 149–152, 215 Frasca, Gonzalo, 10, 42, 57, 221 God games, 55, 100–101 Free camera, 55, 95, 103, 121 GoldenEye 007, 123 French Democracy, The, 200 Golden Gate Bridge, 161 Friday the 13th, 104 Gold mining, 63 Friedman, Ted, 222, 232 Gordon Freeman, 10, 33, 106, 216–217 Front National, 235–237 Gorky, Maxim, 75, 83 Full-motion video (FMV), 71 Graffi ti, 92, 196, 208–209 Functionality (defi nition), 157 Grand Prix Legends, 173 Furrer trick, 26–27 Grand Theft Auto II, 2 Index 297 Grand Theft Auto III, 2, 53–59, 64, Human-computer interface (HCI).