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ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER Teori dan Perkembangannya Penulis: Victor Amrizal Qurrotul Aini Editor: Qurrotul Aini Desainer Isi: Catur S. Desainer Sampul: Catur S. Jakarta, Februari 2013 ISBN: 978-602-9126-93-8 Diterbitkan: Halaman Moeka Publishing Jl. Manggis IV No. 2 Rt 07/04 Tanjungduren Selatan Grogol Petamburan, Jakarta Barat Telp. 021 5644157 halamanmoeka.blogspot.com | [email protected] i ”Kebaikan dunia dan akhirat ada dalam bersama pengetahuan, tapi keburukan dunia dan akhirat ada bersama dengan kejahilan” ii KATA PENGANTAR Segala puji bagi Allah , Pemilik segala pujian yang selalu memberikan ramat dan nikmat kepada hamba-Nya serta salam dan shalawat selalu tercurah pada Nabi Muhammad . Semoga kita tetap menjadi ummatnya hingga akhir zaman. Adapun buku Arsitektur Komputer ini adalah buku sederhana persembahan kami yang tersusun atas pengetahuan dan pengalaman selama menekuni dunia pendidikan, sebagai hasil yang relevan dalam pemahaman materi di dalam institusi perguruan tinggi. Buku ini terdiri atas 18 bab, meliputi sejarah komputer hingga teknologi MMX (MultiMedia eXtensions). Buku ini disusun untuk membantu mahasiswa, pengajar maupun praktisi untuk mendalami Arsitektur Komputer dan menjadi khazanah pengetahuan di tanah air. Penulis menyadari kekurangan konten materi maupun teknis penyajiannya. Kritik dan saran bagi penulis sangat diharapkan. Akhir kata, penulis mengucapkan terima kasih kepada seluruh pihak yang mendukung, sehingga buku ini dapat diterbitkan. Selamat membaca, semoga bermanfaat. Ciputat, September 2012 Penulis iii DAFTAR ISI MOTO ii KATA PENGANTAR iii DAFTAR ISI iv BAB 1 SEJARAH KOMPUTER 1.1 Pendahuluan 1 1.2 Generasi Alat Hitung Tradisional dan 2 Kalkulator Mekanik 1.3 Komputer Generasi Pertama (1940-1959) 8 1.4 Komputer Generasi Kedua (1959 -1964) 12 1.5 Komputer Generasi Ketiga (1964 - awal 15 80an) 1.6 Komputer Generasi Keempat (sejak tahun 17 1970 – hingga sekarang) 1.7 Komputer Generasi Masa Depan 20 BAB 2 EVOLUSI DAN KINERJA KOMPUTER 2.1 Pengertian Komputer 26 2.2 Evolusi Komputer 27 2.3 Evolusi Komputer pada Teknologi Dasar 28 2.4 Evolusi Komputer pada Prosesor Pentium 33 2.5 Evolusi pada PowerPC (PPC) 35 2.6 Kinerja Komputer 36 BAB 3 BUS SISTEM 3.1 Pendahuluan 49 3.2 Pengertian Bus Sistem 52 3.3 Operasi Bus 55 3.4 Elemen-Elemen Rancangan Bus 55 3.5 Beberapa Bus Utama dalam Sistem 60 Komputer Modern iv BAB 4 MEMORI INTERNAL 4.1 Pengertian Memori 75 4.2 Karakteristik Sistem Memori secara Umum 76 4.3 Pengertian Memori Internal 76 4.4 Karakter Memori Internal 79 4.5 Kinerja Memori 82 4.6 Tipe Fisik Memori 84 4.7 Organisasi Memori Logik Keping (Chip 92 Logic) BAB 5 MEMORI EKSTERNAL 5.1 Pendahuluan 94 5.2 Pengertian Memori Eksternal 94 5.3 Jenis-Jenis Memori Eksternal 95 BAB 6 INPUT DAN OUTPUT 6.1 Pendahuluan 124 6.2 Sistem Input/Output 126 6.3 Sistem Input dan Output Komputer 128 6.4 Tipe Interface 133 6.5 Teknik Input/Output 133 6.6 Perangkat Eksternal 142 6.7 Transfer Data 144 BAB 7 ARITMATIKA KOMPUTER 7.1 Pendahuluan 158 7.2 Unit Aritmatika dan Logika 159 7.3 Adder 159 7.4 Penjumlahan 162 7.5 Floating Point Arithmetic 172 7.6 Aritmatika Fixed-Point 179 BAB 8 PENDUKUNG SISTEM OPERASI 8.1 Pendahuluan 186 8.2 Pengertian Sistem Operasi 186 8.3 Tujuan dan Fungsi Sistem Operasi 187 8.4 Sistem Operasi sebagai Manajer Sumber 190 Daya 8.5 Jenis-Jenis Sistem Operasi 192 v 8.6 Sistem-sistem Terdahulu 193 8.7 Sistem Batch Sederhana 195 8.8 Sistem Batch Canggih 198 8.9 Penjadwalan 200 8.10 Manajemen Memori 203 BAB 9 SET INSTRUKSI ADDRESS DAN FORMAT ADDRESS 9.1 Pendahuluan 209 9.2 Set Instruksi (Address dan Format Adsress) 210 9.3 Mode-Mode Pengalamatan Pentium dan 224 PowerPC BAB 10 SET INSTRUKSI (FUNCTION) 10.1 Pendahuluan 231 10.2 Karakteristik Instruksi Mesin 232 10.3 Jenis-Jenis Operand 239 10.4 Jenis-Jenis Operasi 242 10.5 Pengertian mengenai Set Instruksi, Fungsi 252 dan Karakteristik BAB 11 STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI CPU 11.1 Pendahuluan 258 11.2 Struktur CPU 260 11.3 Sistem CPU Interkoneksi 279 11.4 Prosesor PowerPC 290 BAB 12 COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER (CISC) 12.1 Pendahuluan 303 12.2 Pengertian Complex Instruction Set 304 Computer (CISC) 12.3 Karakteristik CISC 307 12.4 Filosofi Arsitektur CISC 309 12.5 Keunggulan CISC 309 12.6 Perbedaan CISC dan RISC 310 12.7 Eksekusi Instruksi 313 vi BAB 13 REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER (RISC) 13.1 Pendahuluan 316 13.2 Karakteristik Eksekusi Instruksi 316 13.3 Pengertian RISC 319 13.4 Sejarah RISC 320 13.5 Eksekusi Instruksi 321 13.6 Beberapa Elemen Penting pada Arsitektur 325 RISC 13.7 Keunggulan dan Kelemahan RISC 328 BAB 14 PROSESOR SUPERSKALAR 14.1 Sejarah 331 14.2 Dari Skalar menjadi Superskalar 332 14.3 Pengertian Prosesor Superskalar 332 14.4 Arsitektur Superskalar 334 14.5 Implementasi Superskalar 340 BAB 15 KONTROL TERMIKROPROGRAM (MICROPROGRAMMED CONTROL) 15.1 Pendahuluan 350 15.2 Konsep Dasar 352 15.3 Keuntungan dan Kerugian 357 15.4 Pengurutan Instruksi Mikro 357 15.5 Eksekusi Instruksi Mikro 361 15.6 Aplikasi Pemrograman Mikro 369 BAB 16 ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER CYRIX 16.1 Pendahuluan 371 16.2 Sejarah AMD 372 16.3 Rancangan 373 16.4 Mikroprosesor Cyrix 6x86 378 BAB 17 ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER AMD 17.1 Sejarah AMD (Advanced Micro Device) 387 17.2 Soket Prosesor AMD 388 17.3 Prosesor AMD 408 vii BAB 18 TEKNOLOGI MMX (MULTIMEDIA EXTENSIONS) PADA INTEL PROCESSOR 18.1 Pendahuluan 460 18.2 Sejarah Multimedia 461 18.3 Pengertian Multimedia 462 18.4 Kelebihan Multimedia 464 18.5 Komponen Multimedia 464 18.6 Software Multimedia 467 18.7 Spesifikasi Komputer Multimedia Terkini 472 DAFTAR PUSTAKA 475 BIOGRAFI PENULIS 481 viii BAB 1 SEJARAH KOMPUTER 1.1 Pendahuluan Sejak dahulu kala, proses pengolahan data telah dilakukan oleh manusia secara manual. Namun, untuk mendapatkankan hasil pengolahan data dengan secepat dan seakurat mungkin, manusia berusaha untuk membuat alat-alat mekanik maupun elektronik yang bisa membantu mereka dalam penghitungan dan pengolahan data. Proses dan usaha yang panjang itulah yang menyebabkan adanya komputer yang ada pada saat ini. Proses inipun masih terus berlanjut dan memungkinkan terciptanya komputer yang jauh lebih canggih di masa datang. Saat ini komputer dan piranti pendukungnya telah masuk dalam setiap aspek kehidupan dan pekerjaan. Komputer yang ada sekarang memiliki kemampuan yang lebih dari sekedar perhitungan matematik biasa. Di antaranya adalah sistem komputer di kassa supermarket yang mampu membaca kode barang belanja, sentral telepon yang menangani jutaan panggilan dan komunikasi, jaringan komputer dan internet yang menghubungkan berbagai tempat di dunia. 1 Ide penciptaan komputer bermula dari keinginan manusia untuk menciptakan alat bantu menghitung (komputasi). Komputer canggih yang kita temui saat ini adalah suatu evolusi panjang dari penemuan-penemuan manusia sejak dahulu kala yang awalnya berupa alat mekanik maupun elektronik yang berkembang secara bertahap. Sejarah perkembangan komputer dibagi menjadi beberapa periode/ generasi: Generasi Alat Hitung Tradisional dan Kalkulator Mekanik Komputer Generasi Pertama Komputer Generasi Kedua Komputer Generasi Ketiga Komputer Generasi Keempat Komputer Generasi Kelima 1.2 Generasi Alat Hitung Tradisional dan Kalkulator Mekanik Sekitar 5000 tahun yang lalu di Asia kecil dan masih digunakan di beberapa tempat hingga saat ini, dapat dianggap sebagai awal mula alat komputasi. Alat ini memungkinkan penggunanya untuk melakukan perhitungan menggunakan biji- bijian geser yang diatur pada sebuah rak. Para pedagang di masa itu menggunakan sempoa untuk menghitung transaksi perdagangan. Seiring dengan munculnya pensil dan kertas, terutama di Eropa, abacus kehilangan popularitasnya. 2 Gambar 1.1 Alat Hitung Sempoa atau Abacus Pada tahun 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), yang pada waktu itu berumur 18 tahun, menemukan apa yang disebut sebagai kalkulator roda numerik (numerical wheel calculator) untuk membantu ayahnya melakukan perhitungan pajak. Kotak persegi kuningan ini yang dinamakan Pascaline, menggunakan delapan roda putar bergerigi untuk menjumlahkan bilangan hingga delapan digit. Alat ini merupakan alat penghitung bilangan berbasis sepuluh. Kelemahan alat ini adalah hanya terbatas untuk melakukan penjumlahan. Gambar 1.2 Alat Hitung Pascaline Tahun 1694, seorang matematikawan dan filsuf Jerman, Gottfred Wilhem von Leibniz (1646-1716) memperbaiki Pascaline dengan membuat mesin yang dapat mengalikan. Sama 3 seperti pendahulunya, alat mekanik ini bekerja dengan menggunakan roda-roda gerigi. Dengan mempelajari catatan dan gambar-gambar yang dibuat oleh Pascal, Leibniz dapat menyempurnakan alatnya. Pada tahun 1820, kalkulator mekanik mulai populer. Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar menemukan mesin yang dapat melakukan empat fungsi aritmatik dasar. Kalkulator mekanik Colmar “arithometer” mempresentasikan pendekatan yang lebih praktis dalam kalkulasi karena alat tersebut dapat melakukan penjumlahan, pengurangan, perkalian dan pembagian. Dengan kemampuannya, arithometer banyak dipergunakan hingga masa Perang Dunia I. Bersama-sama dengan Pascal dan Leibniz, Colmar membantu membangun era komputasi mekanikal. Awal mula komputer yang sebenarnya dibentuk oleh seorang profesor matematika Inggris, Charles Babbage (1791- 1871). Tahun 1812, Babbage memperhatikan kesesuaian alam antara mesin mekanik dan matematika yaitu mesin mekanik sangat baik dalam mengerjakan tugas yang sama berulangkali tanpa kesalahan; sedang matematika membutuhkan repetisi sederhana dari suatu langkah-langkah tertenu. Masalah tersebut kemudain berkembang hingga menempatkan mesin mekanik sebagai alat untuk menjawab kebutuhan mekanik.
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    Annotations of First Generation Systems Development in Sweden Janis Bubenko, Jr. Department of Computer and Systems Science, Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University, Forum 100, SE-16440, Kista, Sweden, [email protected] Abstract: This work presents episodes of first generation information systems development in Sweden using two particular computers, ALWAC IIIE, during the period 1957–1961, and Univac III during 1963–1964. The ALWAC IIIE at ADB Institute, Gothenburg, was used for technical as well as for administrative applications. Another episode concerns re- engineering of an inventory management application; it used the ALWAC IIIE for the Swedish Defence Material Administration in 1960. The next episode concerns the computer Univac III. A sales contract between Götaverken AB and Univac included a guarantee by Univac to transfer one of Götaverken’s punched card routines to a magnetic tape oriented routine on Univac III. The development work was carried out on a Univac III at Kantonalbank in Bern, Switzerland. They did the work in night shifts during a period of five months. Only one Univac III was installed in Sweden. Keywords: First generation, information system development, Alwac IIIE, Univac III, Gothenburg 1. Introduction Information systems development is today a complex activity encompassing many types of activities and involving different kinds of stakeholders. It uses many different methods, techniques, and supporting tools. The development process deals with issues of many kinds such as organisational, economic, administrative, technical, social, as well as political. During the 1950-1960 decade, called the first generation of systems development, the development process was much simpler. In the 1950s, heavy emphasis was on primarily two types of activities: programming and testing.
  • DEPARTMENT of COMPUTER SCIENCE Carneg=E-Iellon Un=Vers=Ty

    DEPARTMENT of COMPUTER SCIENCE Carneg=E-Iellon Un=Vers=Ty

    CMU-CS-84-122 Error Detection with Memory Tags Richard H. Gumpertz Computer Science Department Carnegie-Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania December, 1981 DEPARTMENT of COMPUTER SCIENCE Carneg=e-iellon Un=vers=ty CMU-CS-84-122 Error Detection with Memory Tags Richard H. Gumpertz Computer Science Department Carnegie-Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania December, 1981 Submitted to Carnegie-Mellon University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Copyright © 1981 Richard H. Gumpertz This research was sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD), ARPA Order No. 3597, monitored by the Air Force Avionics Laboratory tinder Contract F33615-78-C-1551. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the author and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the United States Government, or Carnegie-Mellon University. Richard H. Gumpertz i Error I)ctection with Memory Tags Abstract The ability to achieve and maintain system reliability is an important problem that has become more critical as the use of computers has become more common. Fundamental to improved reliability is the ability to detect errors promptly, before their effects can be propagated. This dissertation proposes methods for using storage tags to detect a broad class of hardware and software errors that might otherwise go undetected. Moreover, the suggested schemes require minimal extensions to the hardware of typical computers. In fact, it is shown that in many situations tags can be added to words of storage without using any extra bits at all.