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They do not exist. They died because they did not fit into a world whose rational- ity was beyond their comprehension, and because they could not “stop being” indigenous, nomads and barbarians, according to the classification granted to them by their conquerors (Valdés 1995:17). To the Spanish conquerors, northern New Spain represented a difficult problem in terms of domination and control. Spaniards began moving north after the conquest of the Basin of Mexico in 1521, with the aim of exploring and expanding the area of domination. Not until 1541, however, when a fierce attack occurred against the Cazcanes in the Mixtón War, did confrontations intensify, foretelling the war and bloodshed to come. Numerous battles were fought from that time until 1590–1592 to solidify the territory already in Spanish possession and to exert control over the region’s rich resources and resident population. Between 1590 and 1592, a peace agreement was signed by the indigenous and Spanish parties, and the town of San Luis de la Paz was founded in commemoration of the event. From the time of the arrival of the missionaries, whose work was not always successful, to the present, many historical accounts have been written about these

393 Martha Monzón Flores incidents. The legal status of los indígenas—the indigenous people—before the introduction of the so-called New Laws by the Spanish Crown is a common topic of discussion at conferences and scientific meetings. Despite continual confrontations between both parties and assaults and robberies in the villages, Spanish wagons and influence continued to follow the trajec- tory of the “silver route,” with subsequent loss of human life and economy. This situation is illustrated in the Map of the Villas of San Miguel and San Felipe, prepared in 1580 at the request of King Felipe II (Nieto 1995). Its painter masterfully captured the region, its inhabitants, and the social situation, as well as the geogra- phy, flora, and fauna, much of which is still recognizable today. He also presented scenes that portray the tensions in the area. Various indigenous people are shown, some individually, others strategically grouped, with their bows and arrows pointed toward the roadways, natural passes, and plains. The map also depicts friars and Spanish assassins, cattle and horses killed by arrows, the shadowy images of Spanish soldiers guarding the road, and an Indian executed by hanging. Spanish actions were dictated by current events, sometimes planned, other times unforeseen, and were not always appropriate. The Spaniards eventually pre- vailed in spite of this, largely as a result of the military pressure they were able to exert on the Indians. The latter lacked the means to obtain additional assistance, which undermined their resistance. In contrast, Spanish soldiers received continual support from the Crown. In 1561 Don Alonso de Zorita brought before King Felipe II of Spain a document in which he outlined a plan of action that could be implemented to pacify the area of conflict. Don Alonso, who held the title of lawyer (licenciado), had arrived in New Spain in 1556 following a long career as a public official, first with the High Court of Granada and later with the High Courts of Santo Domingo and Guate- mala. Upon his arrival he was appointed judge of the High Court of New Spain in Mexico City and became representative to Viceroy Don Luis de Velasco (Ahrndt 2001:18; see also Vigil 1987; Zorita 1963).1 The Crown had previously sent the viceroy its so-called New Laws, which, among other provisions, ordered a reduction in the amount of tribute or taxes, made the encomiendas (grants of Indian land and labor) nonhereditary, and prohib- ited exploitation of the Indians. These new statutes were at odds with the private interests of New Spain, especially those individuals who amassed their wealth by exploiting the Indians, such as the head encomenderos (grantees) of Martín Courts. This led to a period of transition and instability between the High Court and the viceroy (Ahrndt 2001:19). To create a more even balance among members of the High Court and to gen- erate support for approval of the laws mentioned earlier, the viceroy requested the allocation of additional judges, a petition accepted by the Crown. For this reason, Judge Zorita was sent to New Spain. From the first, he openly supported the deci- sions of the viceroyalty, and the two men later developed a strong personal friend- ship (Ahrndt 2001).

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Judge Zorita also relied on assistance from the Franciscan missionaries, with whom he shared many philosophical beliefs. Those beliefs, developed during his academic years in Salamanca, gave his character a strong humanistic aspect. This is clear in his earliest writings as a lawyer working on behalf of the poor of Granada— in particular, his offer of a dignified treaty to the indigenous people that generally coincided with the statutes set by the New Laws (Ahrndt 2001). Zorita’s ideas and actions were attacked by other members of the Royal High Court, especially the royal commissioner, Gerónimo de Valderrama. He was criti- cized as much for his unconditional support of the viceroy as for his openness regarding protection of the Indians. The situation became so tense that the judge, who was experiencing health problems, requested a return to Spain. The viceroy persuaded Zorita to remain in his position, but when the former died in 1564, Zorita was left without official protection (Ahrndt 2001:21). In 1561, five years before leaving New Spain, Zorita prepared a document in which he addressed the pacification of the Chichimeca area. The concrete actions outlined in his proposal were intended to achieve quick resolution of the armed conflict that characterized Indian-Spanish relations at the time. His proposal included these provisions: • Establish new Spanish towns in the north. • Appoint a governor and a captain in each town to maintain order. • Nominate a legal body to include mayors, managers, and justice and council officials. • Obey the High Court of Mexico. • Set aside areas for churches, monasteries, hospitals, town halls, prisons, plazas, and public spaces. • Provide financial support from the Royal Revenue Office for salaries of Span- ish officials and the civilian population. • Distribute fields and ranch land. • Bestow grants from Crown lands or mines on Spanish soldiers who protect the friars. • Settle the Indians peacefully in towns. • Keep Indian and Spanish towns separate. • Protect Indian towns from outside intruders. • Assign the Franciscan Order responsibility for converting and educating the natives. • Prohibit the establishment of an archdiocese for twenty years, and bar other religious orders from the region. • Recognize peaceful Indians as citizens of the Royal Crown of Castille, and ensure that they are not subject to the encomienda system, sold, pressed into debt or servitude, or alienated by title or any other manner. Exempt the Indians from tribute for ten years, after which time their tax should be moderate and should take into account the amount they have earned from their land.

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• Protect the rule, rents, and duties of Indian lords, caciques (leaders), and prin- cipals; prohibit wrongs against them, and give them preference in the division of lands. • Include friendly and cooperative Indians in the division of lands. • Exempt the Indians from tithes. • Implement a duty in place of the tithe, a portion of which is intended for the church. • Provide support to the church in the form of ornaments, wine, candles, and oil.

Zorita’s proposal established the offices of governor and captain, provided salaries for Spanish officials and civilians, and limited the number of friars who could work in each community. It also identified the benefits that would result from each of these points, both for the Crown and to secure the peace (Vigil 1987:220; Zorita 1963, 1971). Regrettably, Zorita’s ideas were never implemented. Further, they contributed to the military strength of opposition groups, which confederated themselves into a grand alliance. The result was a fierce battle in 1561 on the Span- ish mining frontier, initiated by the Spanish. Other battles followed, jeopardizing the economic activities of the region even before the attacks of the Chichimecas became relentless (Powell 1984:86; see also Powell 1952).2 Viceroy Don Gastón de Peralta, Marquis of Falces, in command from 1566 to 1567, tested various strategies for peace, but without positive results. Eventually, he organized a large-scale war to establish command over the territory, with the aim of breaking the indigenous groups’ military might (Powell 1984:86). Viceroy Martín Enríquez, whose command during 1568–1580 succeeded that of Peralta, continued this policy. Clashes continued, each more damaging to the opposition and the civilian population. To avoid being victims of war, people migrated to areas that offered greater security (Powell 1984:87). In time, it became evident that the decision to confront the resistance through war had led only to increased Spanish uncertainty and a lack of capacity to capital- ize on victories, spurred by an increase in Chichimeca attacks. This led to a notable decrease in the production of silver. Given that silver production sustained the economy of the entire region, the negative effects of its decline were felt quickly (Powell 1984:87). Captain Pedro de Ahumada was charged with establishing peace during this period. In a wise military move, he became more familiar with the territory and the Chichimecas’ travel routes and held a number of meetings with opposition leaders, offering them gifts in return for promises of peace. His actual intent, however, was to invade the areas controlled by the indigenous resistance (Powell 1984:94). This strategy proved beneficial to the Spaniards because one of their major obstacles to dominance was ignorance of the territory the Indians moved through so easily, especially areas of rough terrain difficult to access with Spanish horses.

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This campaign led to the decline of the indigenous alliance for two reasons. First, it enabled the Spaniards to penetrate settlements that, until now, had been dominated by the Indians. Second, as a result of meetings with indigenous leaders, the Spaniards were able to sign a peace treaty with the Tepehuanes, thus divid- ing the Native confederation. This successful military campaign gave the Spanish Crown relative control over the conflict (Powell 1984). Despite the success of the campaign, government indecision and dissent regarding the best way to bring peace to the region allowed Spanish incursions and attacks on the Natives to continue. The next three viceroys, who governed from 1585 until the end of the century, sought to further pacify the northern territory. Realizing that the existing strategies were ineffective, they began to promote changes in government policy meant to secure a long-lasting peace. Alonso Manrique de Zuñiga, Marquis of Villamanrique and the seventh viceroy, began his term of office in 1585 by ordering an end to the “war of blood and fire” and initiating a new policy with the aim of ending the conflict through negotiations between the parties (Powell 1984:93). His drastic but necessary measures were intended to halt the excessive abuse of indigenous groups by prohibiting the illegal sale of Indian slaves and the liberation of captives for the protection of religious communities. He consolidated the war administration, lowered its costs, reduced the presidio system, and relocated soldiers who caused friction on the frontier (Powell 1984). Just as the friars used goods to convert those under their protection, Zuñiga also promoted the exchange of peace for clothing, food, land, agricultural equipment, and other goods, He achieved these initiatives through negotiations with the main Chichimeca chiefs and loyal government mediators, including Rodrigo del Río, Miguel Caldera, Francisco de Urdiñola, and Gabriel Ortiz Fuenmayor (Powell 1984:196; see also Powell 1977). Viceroy Don Luis de Velasco II continued these peace initiatives through per- suasion, enticement, and conversion by offering religious gifts. He achieved these ends principally through the work of the Franciscan missionaries and the defensive colonization of the area. As the result of negotiations with Tlaxcaltecan leaders, 400 Tlaxcaltecan families were persuaded to move north and help the rebels make the transition from nomadic to sedentary life. Velasco also appointed government officials to the jurisdiction of Nueva Galicia to secure the release of Chichimecas detained by soldiers, traded as slaves, or held in the military reserves. Negotiations with the Chichimeca groups concluded in March 1591 (Powell 1984). Viceroy Velasco completed this process by signing a peace treaty and initiating various actions to fulfill the document. They included these measures: • Establish captain-protectors, headed by Miguel Caldera as chief justice and superintendent (Powell 1977), and equip Caldera with appropriate assistants. • Strengthen the bureaucratic system. • Dispense food rations and gifts of clothes, various types of implements, games, reading handbooks, and tobacco from the Royal Revenue Office.

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• Provide housing financed by the government. • Bestow ceremonial rewards on religious days. • Buy, build, or rent shops. • Give gifts from the private stores of the captain-protectors. • Appoint assistants—teachers, known as labradores—to help former soldiers cultivate the land. • Grant disposition to Christianize the Indians. • Send southern Indians from Tlaxcala to settle the frontier. Notably, these proposals closely coincided with those put forth by Judge Alonso de Zorita in 1561. This time, however, they proved effective.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS The measure of time is relative. Events that result from human action can be pro- longed or shortened depending on the circumstances. The rhythm of the calendar can seem routine, or it can disrupt us severely. The fifty years of fighting associated with the pacification process in the Chichimeca territories resulted in a long period of death and destruction for both parties. Ultimately, this translated into a relative victory for the Spaniards, but one that led to the complete destruction of several Native ethnic groups and the loss of an important part of Mexico’s historical and racial heritage. Contemporary Mexicans are generally unaware of these cultures, whose customs, languages, religions, festivals, traditions, thoughts, and dreams have been lost to time. Only cultures documented in the chronicles are still known to us today, but these accounts are strongly influenced by their authors’ western thinking. Archaeo- logical evidence also offers mute testimony of the presence of these groups at a given time or place. The period from the beginning of the Mixtón War in 1541 to its conclusion in 1592 saw fifty years of military incursions that severely undermined the indigenous population. Comparing Zorita’s proposal to the measures finally taken to end the persecution, we can see that the former contained legal policies intended to con- vince the Indians to accept their new situation. Zorita’s proposal also provided for the establishment of new towns led by authoritative Spanish bodies, consisting of a head governor followed by captains, mayors, managers, justice officials, a council, and, finally, civilians, each intended to fulfill a specific role to ensure order and justice. Zorita also proposed to keep indigenous and Spanish towns separate to avoid abuses by both parties and to maintain control over access into the towns to discourage intruders. He also provided for public and private spaces, as needed, to ensure a town’s optimum functioning. To bolster the economy, he requested the support of the Royal Revenue Office to provide reasonable salaries for officials, the extension of taxes, and the payment of tithes. Finally, he emphasized the role of

398 Pacification of the Chichimeca Region the indigenous people as citizens of the Royal Crown of Castille and granted pref- erential status to local caciques. The resolution of 1592, in contrast, created the role of captain-protectors and their respective assistants, supported by the Royal Revenue Office, to stimulate and compensate the indigenous population. The bureaucratic structure of the time was strengthened with the goal of obtaining optimum efficiency from the new settlements. Financial aid was provided for houses and shops, and instruction was given to former soldiers to help with the development of agricultural projects. In actual- ity, a paternalistic program was implemented that led to the underdevelopment that has characterized the Native population for over 500 years. Both proposals relied on missionaries to evangelize the Indian population. Zorita included only the Franciscans in his proposal and added an assurance that no archdiocese could be established for at least twenty years. Both proposals ar- ranged for the transfer of Indian allies, principally the Tlaxcaltecans, to the north to demonstrate the advantages of peaceful life to the Chichimecas. Zorita’s proposal reflected a genuine understanding of the indigenous problem and offered specific requirements and actions to secure the peace. Ultimately, the resolutions implemented in 1592 differed little from those initially proposed by Zorita (Keen cited in Zorita 1963:50). By resurrecting many of Zorita’s ideas, subsequent viceroys established a relative peace. Had Zorita’s ideas been implemented at the time of their writing in 1561—twenty years after the first uprising and around thirty years before the peace was secured—numerous battles would have been avoid- ed. Within that thirty-year period, thirty-three Spanish incursions and thirty-five attacks by the Chichimecas were recorded. Doubtless, many others are unchronicled by history.

TIMELINE OF SIXTEENTH-CENTURY EVENTS IN THE CHICHIMECA REGION, FROM 1529 TO THE SIGNING OF THE PEACE TREATY IN SAN LUIS DE LA PAZ IN 15923 1529–1536 Nuño de Guzman moves to the north and west. The province of Nueva Galicia is established. Rebels are subjected to torture and punishment, including mutilation of limbs (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1531 Uprising of Teulteco Indians as a result of the cruel treatment they received from Nuño de Guzmán and Juan de Oñate. This leads to the deaths of a large number of Spanish soldiers, although the Indians are ultimately defeated (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1537 Uprising of Guaxicar Indians against Governor Diego Pérez Torre. This bloody battle takes place in northeastern Guadalajara, with the ultimate defeat of the indigenous groups (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1538–1542 Vázquez Coronado arrives in Sinaloa, Cibola, and Quivira and begins to exterminate the Indians (Powell 1984). 1539 Rebellion of the Indians of Guaynamota and Guasamota in the mountains of Nayarit, where churches and chapels are burned. The rebellion

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expands to include the Cazcanes of Juchipila, Tlaltenango, Nochistlán, and Teocaltiche (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1541–1542 The Mixtón War. Following the previously mentioned rebellion, Captain Miguel de Ibarra tries to establish dialogue with the Indians to make a pact and appease them. The Cazcanes do not accept this effort and initi- ate a struggle against the invaders in Juchipila. Rebellions are simultane- ously carried out in Xalpa, Tlaltenango, and other places. The rebellion spreads throughout the entire region wherever the Natives are willing to rise up and fight. The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado fortifies the Spaniards, but the Cazcane, Zacateco, and Tecuexe fighters are determined and eventually force his defeat. Alvarado dies in battle. As the insurrection spreads to Michoacán and Mexico City, the Spaniards intensify the fighting, leading to the killing, punishing, mutilating, and enslaving of many Indians. In spite of their resistance and fierce battles, the Chichimecas are eventually defeated. Many choose to plunge to their deaths in ravines rather than surrender (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1542 Juchipila is founded as a result of the previously mentioned battle and surrender of the Indians (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1542–1550 Hernán Pérez de Bocanegra undertakes military incursions and establishes mills and inns at Apeseo and Acámbaro Gto (Powell 1984). 1549 The mines of Zacatecas became a focal point for the Spaniards, who implement even crueler strategies to subdue the rebel groups (Powell 1984). 1550 The discovery of gold, silver, and other minerals makes the Spaniards resolve to avoid another war like the Mixtón War (Powell 1984). 1550 Between Morcilique and the rivers of Tepezala, the Zacateco Indians attack and kill a group of Tarascan merchants bound for Zacatecas. At the same time, the Guachichiles, Guamares, and Zacatecos carry out attacks in diverse parts of Zacatecas, San Miguel, and San Felipe. Based on official documents and the opinions of chroniclers, Powell assigns the beginning of the Chichimeca War to this year and notes that this successful battle was a continuation of the Mixtón War (Powell 1984). 1551 The Guachichiles attack caravans laden with merchandise extracted from the mines of Zacatecas, killing slaves, Indians, and merchants. The Gua- mares and Copuces in Guanajuato attack cattle ranches and the town of San Miguel (Powell 1984). 1551 Sancho de Cañego, the mayor of Zacatecas, and Baltasar Temiño de Bañuelos, one of the town’s founders, retaliate against the Chichimecas who assaulted the merchant Medina (Powell 1984). 1551–1552 Expeditions are mounted by Hernán Pérez de Bocanegra and Gonzalo Hernández de Rojas as a result of battles against the Chichimecas in Zacatecas (Powell 1984). 1552 An expedition is mounted by Lic. Herrera, who confronts, captures, and hangs Chichimecas (Powell 1984). 1552–1554 Attacks intensify on caravans from Zacatecas (Powell 1984). 1553 Gonzalo Hernández de Rojas confronts Chichimeca bandits (Powell 1984). 1555–1560 The town of San Miguel suffers successive attacks (Powell 1984).

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1557 Nicolás de San Luis Montañez defeats and captures the Chichimeca leader Maxorro and undertakes battles against indigenous groups in San Miguel, San Felipe, Xichú, San Francisco, and Río Verde (Powell 1984). 1559 Otomí chiefs Juan Bautista, Valerio de la Cruz, Juan de Austria, Nicolás de San Luis, Diego Atexcoatl, Antonio Luna, and Diego de Tapia initi- ate war against the Chichimecas in San Miguel, San Felipe, Xichú, Río Verde, Nueva Galicia, Celaya, and Valle de Gueychapa (Powell 1984). 1560 Pedro de Ahumada Sámano and Jerónimo Mercado Sotomayor are re- warded for mutilating Guachichiles in such a way that they can no longer use a bow and arrow. They receive orders, authority, and the necessary equipment to capture the Guachichiles Chichimecas (Powell 1984). 1561 The Great Chichimeca uprising begins, and the Confederation of Chi- chimeca Tribes is established (Powell 1984). 1561–1562 The town and presidio of San Felipe are founded to defend against the Guachichiles (Powell 1984). 1562 Destructive Chichimeca attacks ensue from the founding of Spanish towns in locations well suited for strategic attacks (Powell 1984). 1563 Hernando Martell establishes Santa María and San Juan de los Lagos to defend against Chichimeca raids (Powell 1984). 1563–1565 Chichimecas are on the brink of war in Pénjamo, where farms are burned and many individuals are killed, including Spaniards, Indians, mulattoes, blacks, mestizos, and converted Indians (Powell 1984). 1565–1567 Captain Rodrigo del Río de la Loza undertakes a Spanish expedition with the support of Mexicans and Tarascans (Powell 1984). 1568–1569 Chichimecas attack Comanja and murder the Spaniards who lived in this mining settlement, resulting in its abandonment (Jiménez 1944). 1568–1580 The fourth viceroy of New Spain, Martín Enríquez de Almanza, attempts to pacify the Chichimecas through slavery and force (Powell 1984). 1569 Groups of Chichimecas attack settlements near Guadalajara, killing hundreds of Indians allied with the Spaniards (Jiménez 1944). 1569 The port of Robledal near Guadalajara is attacked, after which the mayor initiates persecution of the Indians (Jiménez 1944). 1570 By order of the High Court of Nueva Galicia, the town of Jerez is founded by Pedro Caldera, Pedro Carrillo, and Martín Moreno to protect the town of Zacatecas (Powell 1984). 1571 Two indigenous groups threaten the Spanish town of San Juan Bautista de Caropa and cause its abandonment (Jiménez 1944). 1573 Chichimecas attack and martyr Franciscan friars in the port of Fraile. The crucifix of one of the friars is venerated as Lord of the Conquerors (Jiménez 1944). 1574 Chichimecas attack settlements near Guadalajara, Zacatecas, San Martín, Sombrerete, and other sites in Nueva Galicia, murdering Spaniards and pacified Indians (Powell 1984). 1574 Charcas and Tepezala are founded through the efforts of Juan Bautista Orozco as part of a strategy to advance toward the Chichimeca territories. Under his command, eighty Chichimecas chiefs are captured and punished (Powell 1984).

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1575 Chichimecas attack Aguascalientes and kill nearly the entire population. Guachichiles in Saltillo rebel against Captain Francisco de Urdiñola. At- tacks by the Pames intensify in northeastern Querétaro and the Valley of Maxcala (Powell 1984). 1575 The town of León is established in the Huiascatillos Valley by Dr. Juan Bautista Orozco by order of the viceroy to pacify the rebels of nearby Comanja and Guanajuato. The city of Aguascalientes and its presidio are founded by order of Dr. Jerónimo de la Cueva. To protect itself from the Copuces, Guajabanes and its allies establish two other presidios, one north of Querétaro in Jofre and the other in Palmar de Vega (Powell 1984). 1576 Assaults and attacks result in the abandonment of mines, fields, and ranches. An uprising occurs near San Juan del Río in the province of Xilotepec (Powell 1984). 1576–1578 A presidio is founded in the Maxcala Valley in northeastern Querétaro (Powell 1984). 1577 Intense attacks occur on the fort near Pénjamo (Powell 1984). 1578 Saltillo is established to contain and attack the Guachichiles (Powell 1984). 1578–1579 Garrisons of soldiers are sent to the province of Pánuco (Powell 1984). 1578–1585 Chichimecas attack and damage the presidio of Tamaos and two other presidios in Tampico (Powell 1984). 1580 Commerce in and trafficking of enslaved Chichimecas intensifies (Powell 1984). 1580–1585 Martín Enríquez intensifies battles against the Chichimecas (Powell 1984). 1580–1585 An intensification of the Chichimeca threat results in stronger alliances among Indian tribes (Powell 1984). 1581 Priest Juan de Cuenca is assassinated in Comanja, Guanajuato (Jiménez 1944). 1581–1583 Soldiers are recruited to double the military forces against the Guachich- iles (Powell 1984). 1582 Towns to the south of Querétaro and San Juan del Río are abandoned as a result of hostilities by the Pames (Powell 1984). 1583 Rebellion of Zuaques and Ocorinis in Sinaloa results in the murder of two friars and fifteen Spaniards and the burning of the town (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1584 Chichimecas attack the convent and mines of Nahuipan, burning hacien- das and killing Spaniards (Huerta 1966). 1584 To exploit the nearby mines at Huaynamota, Spaniards settle the area without consent of the Natives. They are attacked and murdered (Huerta 1966). 1585 The viceroyalty orders the enslavement and punishment of Chichimecas, resulting in robberies and killings (Powell 1984). 1585 Chichimecas use horses in their attacks, increasing the danger on the road and to the settlements (Powell 1984). 1586 A presidio with four soldiers is established in Xichú to halt the depreda- tions of the Guachichiles Indians (Powell 1984).

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1586 Priest Espino is murdered in Arroyo de la Loza, Guanajuato (Jiménez 1944). 1586–1589 A surge in rebellions by Guachichiles and Páchos, headed by Cilavón and Zapaliname, against Saltillo, Mazapil, and Matehuala (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1588 Chichimeca attacks at Yuiririapúndaro. Despite peace pacts, conflicts continue in some places (Powell 1984). 1588–1589 Uprising in Villa de Santiago. After several confrontations, the Chichime- cas are defeated by Francisco Urdiñola (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1590 Chichimeca rebellion in Tamaulipas, and new insurrections by groups already pacified (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967). 1590 An armory is established in the royal warehouse of Zacatecas to equip soldiers against the Chichimecas (Powell 1984). 1590–1595 A presidio with six soldiers is established in Atotonilco to protect the route to Zacatecas (Powell 1984). 1591 Tlaxcaltecan Indians are transferred to the Chichimeca frontier in San Luis de la Paz, Zacatecas, Colotlán, and Saltillo to establish eight new towns. 1591–1601 Uprising of Acaxeés against church doctrine results in the destruction of churches and the deaths of five Spaniards. Attacks on the military camps of Topia and San Andrés. Demolition of Las Virgenes (Huerta 1966). 1592 San Luís Potosí is founded by F. P. Tapia, Nicolás de Arnaya, and Juan de Oñate (Jiménez 1944). 1592 A presidio is established in San Andrés in the eastern mountains to protect against Indian hostilities (Powell 1984). 1592 Rebellion of Tepecanos, Usiliques (Huicholes), and Zacatecas in San Andrés and San Luís Potosí. Mayor Miguel Caldera, engaged in exploring mines in Potosí, receives news of a Chichimeca uprising. Finally, the indigenous groups are pacified (Galaviz de Capdevielle 1967).

NOTES 1. Editors’ note: For accounts in English about Alonso de Zorita’s remarkable life and career, see Benjamin Keen’s introduction in Zorita (1963) and Vigil (1987). We have added these references to the text as warranted. 2. Editors’ note: For writings in English by Philip Powell about the Chichimec Wars, see Powell (1952, 1977). We have added these references to the text as warranted. 3. Editors’ note: This timetable of the Chichimec uprising and Spanish incursions originally appeared in the author’s manuscript as two separate lists. At the suggestion of a re- viewer, we combined them into a single list to provide a more holistic view of the conflict.

REFERENCES CITED Ahrndt, Wiebke 2001 Edición Crítica de la Relación de la Nueva España y de la Breve y Sumaria Relación Escritas por Alonso de Zorita. Coleccíón Obra Diversa. Instituto Nacional de Antro- pología e Historia (INAH), México.

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Galaviz de Capdevielle, María Elena 1967 Rebeliones Indígenas en El Norte del Reino de la Nueva España: Siglos XVI and XVII. Coleccíon Clásicos de la Reforma Agraria. Editorial Campesina, México. Huerta, María Teresa 1966 Rebeliones Indígenas en El Noreste de México en La Época Colonial. INAH, México. Jiménez, Wigberto 1944 La Colonización y Evangelización de Guanajuato en El Siglo XVI. Cuadernos Americanos 13(1), Año III. México. Nieto, Luis Felipe 1995 El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro. In Primer Coloquio Internacional, Valle de Al- lende, Chihuahua, 36–53. INAH, México. Powell, Philip W. 1952 Soldiers, Indians, and Silver. University of Calfornia Press, Berkeley. 1977 Mexico’s Miguel Caldera: Warrior and Peacemaker on North America’s First Frontier, 1548–1597. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 1984 La Guerra Chichimeca (1550–1600). Lecturas Mexicanas 52. Fondo de Cultural Económica–Secretaría de Educación Pública, México. Valdés, Carlos M. 1995 La Gente del Mezquite: Los Nómades del Noreste en La Colonia. Coleccíón Historia de los Pueblos Indígenas de México. Centro de Investigación y Estudios Superi- ores en Antropogía Social–Instituto Nacional Indigenista, México. Vigil, Ralph H. 1987 Alonso de Zorita: Royal Judge and Christian Humanist, 1512–1585. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Zorita, Alonso de 1963 Life and Labor in Ancient Mexico: The Brief and Summary Relation of the Lords of New Spain. Translated and with an introduction by Benjamin Keen. Rutgers Univer- sity Press, New Brunswick, N.J. 1971 Breve Relación de Los Señores de la Nueva España. In Colección de Documentos Para la Historia de México, comp. Joaquín Garcia Icazbalceta, 333–342. Facsimile edition of the 1877 second edition. Porrúa, México.

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