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A Brief History of Osseointegration: a Review

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A Brief History of Osseointegration: a Review IP Annals of Prosthodontics and Restorative Dentistry 2021;7(1):29–36 Content available at: https://www.ipinnovative.com/open-access-journals IP Annals of Prosthodontics and Restorative Dentistry Journal homepage: https://www.ipinnovative.com/journals/APRD Review Article A brief history of osseointegration: A review Myla Ramakrishna1,*, Sudheer Arunachalam1, Y Ramesh Babu1, Lalitha Srivalli2, L Srikanth1, Sudeepti Soni3 1Dept. of Prosthodontics, Crown and Bridge, Sree Sai Dental College & Research Institute, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, India 2National Institute for Mentally Handicapped, NIEPID, Secunderbad, Telangana, India 3Dept. of Prosthodontic, Crown and Bridge, New Horizon Dental College and Research Institute, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India ARTICLEINFO ABSTRACT Article history: Background: osseointegration of dental implants refers to direct structural and functional link between Received 11-01-2021 living bone and the surface of non-natural implants. It follows bonding up of an implant into jaw bone Accepted 22-02-2021 when bone cells fasten themselves directly onto the titanium surface.it is the most investigated area in Available online 26-02-2021 implantology in recent times. Evidence based data revels that osseointegrated implants are predictable and highly successful. This process is relatively complex and is influenced by various factors in formation of bone neighbouring implant surface. Keywords: Osseointegration © This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Implant License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and Bone reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 1. Introduction 1.1. History Missing teeth and there various attempts to replace them has An investigational work was carried out in Sweden by presented a treatment challenge throughout human history. Professor Per-Ingvar Branemark and his colleagues from Different procedures initiated have resulted with varied 1950 to 1960. It was in 1952 Dr. PerIngvar Branemark success. However with studies conducted by banemark and discovered that titanium glued well with bone; a spectacle colleagues using titanium chamber gave raise to the concept which was later termed as osseointegration. 5 In 1965, of osseointegration. Osseointegration was initially defined Dr.Branemark and his associates started clinical trials on the light microscopic level as a direct structural and with titanium dental implants with great success. Dr. functional connection between ordered living bone and Per–Ingvar Branemark, had studied the theory of tissue surface of load caring implants. 1 united prosthesis at the Laboratory of Vital Microscopy Osseointegration was first defined as a direct contact at the University of Lund, and consequently at the between living bone and the surface of a load-carrying Laboratory for Experimental Biology at the University of implant at the histological level. 2 Gothenburg. 2 In the early 1960s, Branemark and co-workers It is a process where by clinically asymptomatic rigid at the University of Goteborg started developing a unique fixation of alloplastic material is achieved and maintained in implant that for clinical function depended on direct bone bone during functional loading” − “Functional ankylosis”. 3 anchorage termed osseointegration. He discovered a strong “It is the direct anchorage of an implant by the formation and direct bone anchorage of a titanium chamber while of bone directly on the surface of animplant without any reviewing microcirculation in bone repair mechanisms. intervening layer of fibrous tissue. 4 In 1970s- there were no methods available to section intact bone to metal specimens. 2 Therefore, the histologic * Corresponding author. evidence of osseointegration remained indirect. Only E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Ramakrishna). after removal of the implant with potential simultaneous https://doi.org/10.18231/j.aprd.2021.006 2581-4796/© 2021 Innovative Publication, All rights reserved. 29 30 Ramakrishna et al. / IP Annals of Prosthodontics and Restorative Dentistry 2021;7(1):29–36 removal of some soft interfacial tissues was it possible to Histology of bone: Osseous tissue is a rigid form inspect and analyze the interface. The first investigator to of connective tissue and is normally organized into clearly demonstrate osseointegration was Schroeder from definite structures, the bones. 14 Bone consists of cells and Switzerland. 6,7 intercellular matrix of organic and inorganic substances. Schroeder 7 worked from the mid 1970s, quite The cells present are called osteocytes; they are located in independently from Branemark, with research on direct lacunae and have cell processes for nutrient diffusion within bone anchored implants. Schroeder’s team used newly small channels or canaliculi. developed techniques to cut through undecalcified bone The organic matrix component or osteoid is and implant without previous separation of the anchorage. approximately 40% by weight, and consists of Type In, for their time, excellent illustrations, a direct bone to I collagen, glycosaminoglycans, and the adhesive implant contact was proved beyond doubt (Schroeder et al. protein, osteonectin. It is referred to as osteoid before 1976, 1978, 1981). mineralization, which is primarily collagen fibers embedded In 1973-Cameron et al. had shown that bone may grow in ground substance. This ground substance is a viscous on the surface of a biocompatible material. This only gel of water and glycoprotein or protein complexes. It also happens if movement between the implant and adjacent consists of numerous organic factors (cytokines, growth bone is prevented until osteogenesis is complete. factors) that help control cell activation, matrix maturation In 1973- Cameron et al. 8 noted that no bonding occurred and mineralization. Collagenous fibers forms the major when porous vitallium staples were inserted across an protein of the organic component of the bone. unstable osteotomy site. Bone in growth therefore does The inorganic component is also approximately 40% by not occur with movement above a certain magnitude and weight and consists of hydroxyapatite, the apatite crystal of mechanical fixation then becomes necessary. calcium and phosphate. Responsible for rigidity of bone and In 1978- Other pioneering work on osseointegration was constitute about 2/3 of the bone weight. conducted at roughly the same time by the German clinical Calcium phosphate 85% scientist Schulte. 6 Calcium corbonate 10% In 1979-Brunski et al. 9 using pure-breed beagle dogs Calcium fluoride as an experimental model, compared the tissue-implant Magnesium fluoride interfaces of functional and non-functional endosseous X-ray diffraction studies shows that minerals are present implants histologically for up to one year after surgery. They in the form of crystals having an appatite pattern more noted that fibrous capsulation (non-mineralized connective specifically they are hydroxyapatites. tissue zone) occurred with the functional implants, on which 15 there were apical loads, but direct bone apposition occurred 1.3. Histological classification of bone: with the non-functional implants, on which there were no Compact bone (referred to as cortical bone) or apical loads. Spongy bone (referred to as cancellous bone). 9 In 1988- Lindquist et al. stated that the long-term The spongy and compact bone have the same types of prognosis for osseointegrated fixtures was extremely good. cells and intercellular substances but they differ from each The bone loss was less than 0.1 mm per year after the post- other in arrangements of their components and in the ratio surgical period. of marrow space to bone substance. In spongy bone the The history of the Branemark System can be categorized marrow space are relatively large and irregularly arranged into three stages: 10 and the bone substance is shaped as slender spikes and The early stage (1965-1968), trabeculae. The developmental stage (1968-1971) and, In compact bone, the space or channels are The production stage (1971-present) (Adell, et al., 1981). narrowand the bony substance is densely packed. The system in use includes surgical components and The most characteristic features of adult tissue are its drilling equipment that were established in early 1971. In lamellar structure, the fibers and calcified matrix being January 1986, the Branemark Clinic for osseointegration organized into thin layers of lamallae arranged in various implant treatment was established within the School of ways.(Figure 1) Dentistryat Goteborg University. 1.3.1. Woven Bone (Non Lamellar) 1.2. Bone Woven bone is formed rapidly approximately 30 to 50 mm / day in the vicinity of blood vessels during prenatal Osseointegration is a constant procedure representing development growth and bone healing phase. This bone process of formation and adaptation to function and repair, is thus richer in cells and shows an apparently irregular which is due to Osteoblastic and Osteoclastic activity of arrangement of collagen fibers. Moreover they have low bone, also known as coupling. 11–13 mineral content and decrease mechanical strength. Ramakrishna et al. / IP Annals of Prosthodontics and Restorative Dentistry 2021;7(1):29–36 31 D3: Thin porous cortical bone on the crest fine trabecular bone within. D4: Fine trabecular bone. D5: Immature, non-mineralized bone. Studies of the Branemark System over the last 20 years have shown a 10% higher implant failure
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