With Malice toward None: IFLA and the Cold War

Donald G. Davis, Jr. Graduate School of Library and Infor- e returned to the cellar, mation Science and Department of "Hselected one of the volumes Donald G. Davis, Jr. earned his BA in History. He may be contacted at the at random, opened it to be certain history in 1961 from the University University of Texas at Austin, that it was one of the dangerous of California, Los Angeles (UCLA); Austin, Texas 78712-1276, USA his MA in history in 1963 and his (fax: +(1-512) 4713971; e-mail MLS in 1964, both from the Univer- [email protected]). sity of California, Berkeley; and his PhD in library science in 1972 from the University of Illinois at Urbana. He received the MATS from Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary in 1996. Mr Davis has been an active participant in professional and scholarly societies since the mid-1960s. His positions have included two terms on the American Library Association's International Relations Committee and the execu- tive committees of the Associa- tion's Library History Round Table and the International Relations Round Table, as well as the IFLA Round Tables on Library History and books. He glanced at the page and of Editors of Library Journals. A reg- saw the word Communist. Then he ular participant in IFLA gatherings, ripped the back cover off. The pages he has participated in 13 of the last were thick and heavy, and while 15 annual conferences. He has been they ripped quite easily page by an adviser to several programmes page they would not come loose in sponsored by the U.S. Library of handfuls... So patiently he ripped Congress and given more than 60 the pages out, a few at a time...Hare presentations to groups of varying opened the iron door and stuffed size. Since 1977, Mr Davis has edit- the paper bundle inside. The free ed the quarterly journal, Libraries & edges caught fire and curled back Culture (formerly the Journal of in flame from the smoldering ashy Library History), published by Uni- remains of the morning's trash."1 versity of Texas Press. He has authored or co-authored several This passage from the soon to be books, and edited five volumes of blacklisted Hollywood Ten writer conference proceedings and collect- Abraham Polonsky's novel, A Sea- ed papers. In addition he has pub- son of Fear, delves into the crip- lished over 125 book chapters, arti- pling paranoia of infiltration by the cles, and reports, as well as more ideological other that seized the than 200 book reviews. His honors world as the Cold War intensified in include election to Beta Phi Mu the years following World War II. As (Golden Anniversary Award, 1999) stern-faced presidents and commis- and Phi Kappa Phi and fellowships sars confronted each other a kind of from the American Institute of Indi- bomb-shelter mentality enveloped an Studies and the Newberry citizens across the world. Naturally, Library. He has held John P. Com- as this fear and suspicion spread mons Teaching Fellowships and into many all occupations and several awards from the University discourses, librarianship was not Research Institute at the University spared; neither was the Inter- of Texas at Austin, in addition to national Federation of Library Asso- receiving the Texas Excellence in ciations (IFLA), the prime interna- Teaching Award. He is listed in the tional organization of librarianship, major biographical reference works. spared the turbulence of the Cold Mr Davis is currently Professor, War. Claiming, and for the most

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 13 Donald G. Davis, Jr.

part maintaining, a stand of neu- malice towards none, with charity tate and organize fruitful discus- trality, IFLA still suffered from the for all.'"4 With this ideal as a bea- sion of subjects of current inter- verbal darts and political skirmish- con, IFLA stepped into the Cold est in the world of librarianship. es of an international community War era. IFLA believes that the best ser- undergoing tremendous postwar vice it can perform is to bring changes and of the stifling Cold The International Federation of together periodically a world- War. Library Associations came into wide variety of authoritative being at the Fiftieth Anniversary practitioners of the arts of library From the 1917 October Revolution celebrations of the (British) Library service, to provide them with the until the demise of the totalitarian Association in Edinburgh, on 30 opportunity for comparing prac- manifestation of communism in at September 1927. The initiating tices and experiences with each the end of the 1980s, the main members included groups from the other, and on the basis of struggle engaging the political pow- United Kingdom, Germany, Switzer- informed and matured discussion ers of this 20th century has been land, France, and the United States. to make recommendations for the conflict between capitalism and By the outbreak of World War II, action.6 communism. There was a brief IFLA comprised member organiza- interlude during World War II in tions from 31 countries, including This front of professionalism which the natural enemies formed such non-European nations as Chi- remained intact for the most part. an uneasy alliance to defeat the na, Japan, Mexico, the Philippines, IFLA held conferences, committees common enemy of Axis fascism. and India. Reminiscing about the met, reports were issued and, over- Almost immediately after the War, organization, ex-President Preban all, much good and useful work was however, the primary struggle Kirkegaard stated that IFLA's accomplished. However, throughout resumed with greater energy and "establishment and its internation- the association's survival during the purpose. By the time Winston alism is the cultural effort of men Cold War not surprisingly there Churchill fired what was, in effect, and women of good will after World were disagreements among the var- the starting gun for the Cold War, War I to recreate what had been for ious factions that threatened the his Iron Curtain speech delivered hundreds of years the tradition for foundations of the Federation. on 6 March 1946, the world powers the scientific and scholarly layer of were already lined up in opposition society...after the peace, cultural The geo-political structure of the to each other2. In 1948, in London, people, who appreciated their world was transformed, in theory, IFLA President W. Munthe national situation, were open mind- when the ailing Roosevelt, addressed this new political ani- ed and could see that their nations Churchill and Stalin divided up the mosity. He stated: could not master all things and world at the Yalta Conference, and, needed cooperation and inspiration. in fact, with the surrender of Berlin The ideals we fought for seem This is the background on which and Tokyo. The Yalta Conference set farther away than ever. Shall our IFLA grew.5 the state for future disagreements most urgent concern be to pre- that led to the Cold War. Soon, pare bigger evacuation premises, After surviving the destruction of thereafter, library organizations to dig deeper anti-air raid - nay the War safely in Bern, Switzerland, from nations under the auspices of anti-atomic bombshelters in IFLA reorganized and began assist- Soviet influence began queuing up which we can bury the intellectu- ing damaged and decimated to join the ranks of IFLA. Actually, al treasures we have in our cus- libraries around the world. It is Poland and Czechoslovakia boasted tody? Shall we, the torch bearers appropriate that IFLA spent the war members from as early as 1929.7 of enlightenment, end as years headquartered in a neutral These neo-Communist organiza- gravediggers of science and land since during the Cold War, tions were joined by groups from scholarship?3 IFLA became itself a kind of orga- Yugoslavia, Rumania, the German nizational Switzerland. It ignored Democratic Republic, and Hungary. By the time Munthe voiced these the politics of its member states Gradually, the Soviet satellite sentiments, IFLA had already and allowed Britons to work with nations boasted a strong presence weathered the storms of interna- Russians to work with Germans to in the ranks of IFLA.8 By 1957, and tional depression, the rise of fas- work with Czechs - and eventually since that time, Soviet (and later cism, and the devastation of World to work with Nigerians and Cam- Russian) members have held a vice War II. Now it was preparing to bodians. As IFLA President Frank presidency on the Executive Board.9 weather another era of uneasiness Francis later said at the 1968 Frank- In 1959 the Union of Soviet Social- and calamity. In order to accom- furt conference: ist Republics Library Council joined plish their goals and to create an IFLA.10 Now the two dominant ide- international community of librari- First, IFLA is an international ologies of the world, capitalism and ans, IFLA, under the leadership of association in which all members communism, were head to head in Munthe, strove to "support all ben- have equal rights to participate in the prime international library eficial forces in shaping new modes the discussions and to influence organization. This inclusion of the of thought in accordance with Abra- the conclusions. Second, its pow- feuding superpowers and their min- ham Lincoln's famous words: 'with er stems from its ability to facili- ion nations even affected the struc-

14 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 With Malice toward None: IFLA and the Cold War ture of the IFLA governing organi- ideology, culture and science."15 At [and] shy, partly because she was zation. In a 1972 conference report that same conference an ALA repre- apprehensive that she might say Victor Britannicus asks: sentative defined the main concerns more than she should."22 of American libraries as "social Why does an Executive Board responsibility, intellectual freedom IFLA grew from the predominant opinion (added to the IFLA and the freedom to read."16 This nations of imperialism in Western Statutes) specify that of six Vice ALA representative [name?], in a Europe and North America. Just as Presidents there be a Vice Presi- none-too-stealthy example of Amer- the nation-states of the Cold War dent for North America, a Vice ican cultural imperialism, also era used the countries of the third President for the socialist coun- offered to help other libraries or developing world to further their tries of Eastern Europe, and a around the world to achieve the own game, so did the international Vice President for Western same goals.17 All was not tension cold warrior/librarians treat the Europe? Why does international however, at the 30th IFLA Confer- libraries of the third world as back- politics blow into the rules of this ence in Sofia, eleven librarians ward and in need of a caretaker. In federation of library associat- from the United States and an equal his brave and damning indictment ions?11 number from the USSR delegation of the treatment the so-called devel- met to explain and debate the oping world had received in the He then appends the territorial advantages and disadvantages of IFLA organization, Indian library question, "Why do all the associa- their library systems. Although the leader S. Ranganathan suggested tions have a voice in electing a Vice attendees of the meeting walked "the old view that 'international' in President who represents one away secure in the knowledge that IFLA is exhausted by Western region, such as North America?"12 their system was superior, Karl A. Europe and Northern America per- By this inclusion, the whole line of Baer, reporting on the gathering, sists. It may be unconscious and questioning does not seem to be commented that "this was a useful even unmeant on their part. But to one of altruism, but one of geogra- get together and follow-up in the us outsiders, it is clear as day light phy and maybe even of a group sus- future should, gradually, prove even in the tropics."23 One example of picious of infiltration by the other. more helpful."18 This early meeting this influence is the United States's This is not surprising, as John Berry led to many instances of Soviet and policies in Japan in its post- wrote after the 1985 Chicago con- American librarians working close- World War II occupation. Japan, ference: "Many Americans were ly and, for the most part, amicably Ranganathan stated, had made uneasy with the overt way 'we' pur- together. Upon visiting a smaller illustrious progress in the realm of sued political goals at IFLA. While committee conference in Moscow, librarianship on its own, but Japan's much lip service is given to the Peggy Biggs contrasted the two gov- further progress as a nation of notion that 'there are no national erning ideologies as follows: libraries was tethered by the poli- delegations to IFLA,' the reality is cies and direction of the U.S. occu- that the delegates from most In the West we tend to think in pying forces.24 Early on, before, and nations vote en bloc and there is terms of provision of materials after the war, IFLA failed to attract substantial politicking."13 Though the users want, and of making representatives from the nations of the clashes and disagreements what the reader chooses as avail- Africa, Asia, and Latin America.25 between the two primary sides able as possible. . . In Eastern This was largely due to the limited would not escalate to the severity of Europe the library has a primary "international" focus Ranganathan the conflicts in the world theater, responsibility for educating peo- mentioned and the financial strain there were conflicts nonetheless. ple and guiding users' reading. these poorer nations would feel in The word propaganda is used fre- attending meetings and the other The differences in governing quently in its original sense of to costs incurred by being part of such philosophies trickled down to the propagate, disseminate, which we an organization. The weight of differences in library philosophies. have lost sight of since World finances for the European majority Upon induction into IFLA, V. I. War II and Goebbels.19 spine of the Federation kept these Shunkow, President of the USSR's early meetings in Europe. When Library Council, explained that Reporting on a separate conference, China and India requested that the organization's library philosophy. P. Havard-Williams noted the "Rus- 1936 meeting be held in Asia, the "In our country libraries carry on a sians have a great deal to show oth- "financial structures" of the organi- work of enlightenment among the er nations in the organization of zation forced IFLA to decline.26 people, disseminate knowledge, their libraries."20 Preben Kirke- President Frank Francis even noted, help raise the qualifications and gaard stated that the Soviets were "If [IFLA] had a weakness, it was social consciousness of the Soviet "very positive and active."21 Yet, that it did not manage to project people. They participate actively in even when the global foes were get- itself as a spokesman for libraries every political, economic or cultural ting along admirably there was still in general but much more for Euro- campaign."14 At the 1971 Liverpool a tinge of the great conflict. Dis- pean libraries and European points Conference, a Soviet delegate fur- cussing Soviet librarian Margarita of view."27 As time progressed, ther explained that the mission of Rudomino, Frank Francis remem- these views of the international Soviet libraries was the "advance of bered her as "very friendly, modest, library world changed and IFLA

IFLA JOURNAL 25 (1999) 1 15 Donald G. Davis, Jr.

developed healthy programmes to lar streak of America's cultural atti- cers at work in the world to get foster and encourage librarianship tude: the job done without the help of throughout the developing nations. When LJ asked a number of U. S. the rest of us. Indeed, if our However, even by the 1985 confer- leaders what our goals [in IFLA] American ideology is eventually ence, only representatives from a were, the response was almost to win out...it must have the quarter of the nations held seats on always a version of: "We pay a active support of thousands of standing committees and 12 big share of the IFLA budget, independent private groups and nations occupied 79% of the com- don't you think we should have institutions and of millions of mittee placements.28 some voice in how it is run?"30 Americans.33

This sort of confident post-imperial- Morsch further called for librarians The literature and publications pro- ist attitude has led many of the to take an active part in fostering duced under the auspices of IFLA world's citizens to express disdain foreign librarians, because "[r]ela- present a calm, united portrait. The for "America." It has also provoked tively few of them have had the little controversies and disputes are such cultural responses, such as experience of seeing a good public quietly ignored. Most of the reports that of Ranganathan mentioned library, or a school library, or have focus on the accomplishments, and above. any conception at all the qualifica- the dry details of meetings and dis- tions required for a professional cussions. The reports note advances In 1957, as fear of the Communist librarian."34 This seemingly smug and agreements, and indubitably, menace filled U.S. society, Lucile M. attitude of national superiority was there were and are legions of valid, Morsch addressed the American not always appreciated in other helpful, and useful decisions and Library Association. Noting existing parts of the world, needless to say. discussions amongst the IFLA per- programmes dedicated to further- sonal members and committees. ing U.S. foreign policy, she stressed The first major ideological contro- The disagreements and disputes "[t]here is every reason to believe versy to spring up at an IFLA Con- leak out mostly in reports on the that initiatives on the part of the ference occurred during the 1968 various conferences published in an ALA would be welcome by the conference at Frankfurt, when Sovi- array of library journals. As I. F. Department of State in its search et troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Stone said, "[E]very people has for the best ways to carry out this Elizabeth Welsh reported the way committed its sins."29 Yet sins are part of the government's pro- this news gripped conference goers: always measured by the judge and gramme."31 This comment followed "The meetings continued after the the sins of the other are always her description of the minor role news of the invasion, but at every greater than those committed by the library profession played in the break groups gathered around tran- the self. The other is always the cultural imperialism initiated by sistor radios."35 The events of threat, never the self, especially in the federal government through Prague Spring caused "feelings of the conflict between the supporting such agencies as the Office on sympathy, of fear for the future, and ideologies of capitalist and commu- International Projects Abroad of the the instability of world relations nist nations. The Soviet menace, in American Council on Education's made it clear to everyone that we terms of IFLA, was one of propa- International Cooperation Adminis- must have communication and ganda, in both the "original sense" tration. These initiatives had fea- friendship with all countries."36 and in a post-Goebbels sense. Inter- tured many representatives in other IFLA president Sir Frank Francis nationally, their librarians present- educational fields, but only a later commented, "We were fright- ed an exquisite version of their offi- minuscule number of librarians. ened of the potentialities."37 Her- cial doctrines. This came out most She urged the American Library man Liebaers, who attempted to clearly at the conferences held Association and its members to calm Soviet and Czechoslovakian behind the fabric of the Iron Cur- take action, as did two librarians participants, spent his time "run- tain. The United States, saturated who approached the State Depart- ning back and forth between the with the doctrines of the Marshall ment to suggest a programme of hotels where the Soviet delegation Plan and fearing the threat of Com- bringing certain international and the Czechoslovak librarians munist infiltration, saw itself as the librarians to the United States for a stayed. The two groups were sad, policeman and big brother to all the year. Morsch encouraged librarians silent, and bewildered. They could other peoples of the world. Ameri- to assist the government which not make up their minds whether cans, as citizens of a democracy, "recognizes its own limitations in to stay or leave."38 Eventually, all were more vociferous about their carrying out its foreign policy, par- parties chose to stay at the Confer- beliefs and more arrogantly ticularly in the fields of cultural ence. The next IFLA conference was straightforward in their propagan- affairs."32 In a June 1956 White scheduled for Moscow, which might dizing. For example, the ALA repre- House conference, President Eisen- have caused an impasse had not the sentative generously offered to help hower, rallying the cold warriors as IFLA president responded in a all the libraries of the world "follow he had once rallied soldiers, said: diplomatic manner. "The members suit"; a "suit" tailor-made after the of the eastern bloc countries could pattern of America's own outfit. ...there will never be enough not vote against Moscow; those Library Journal reported on a simi- diplomats and information offi- from the West could not approve

16 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 With Malice toward None: IFLA and the Cold War it."39 President Francis proposed Soviet government. All of this ference, Eshelman subtly hinted that the voting on this matter be occurred too late for any group or that Soviet suppression accounted decided by the Executive Commit- nation to withdraw, so the confer- for the absence of international tee, once tempers had cooled. Thus, ence proceeded with all delegations materials, including the Wilson by an act of very political diploma- except for Israel's. IFLA's Board Library Bulletin. However, he did cy, Francis was able to keep within translated this action as "part of not let the mask of amiability drop the principles for IFLA he had stat- Soviet policy and it was therefore too far and quickly returned to an ed at the opening of the conference: difficult for the Board to interpret upbeat chronicle of the conference's that IFLA is "an organization whether entrance had been denied events. formed without consideration of to the Israeli delegate."45 political beliefs, bias or preju- More tension flared at the 1974 con- 40 dice." Other conflicts and tensions devel- ference in Washington DC. Under oped as the Moscow conference the strong influence of UNESCO, As it turned out the next conference progressed. The "theme" of the con- IFLA dropped members that were was not held in Moscow, but in ference was "Lenin and Libraries". viewed as troublesome for the Copenhagen. By this time the out- Librarians from across the world entire international community. rage that followed the oppression of spoke on Lenin's contributions to This action enraged President Czechoslovakia had slipped into library development, including Liebaers. In a speech he blasted memory. Out-going president Fran- Americans, who described the UNESCO for this action: "When we cis even praised the Lenin collections held in the United had to force resignation upon our ...firm adherence of Canada, the States. Although most of the members in South Africa and in United States of America and the speeches were laudatory and even Formosa, perhaps tomorrow in USSR during recent years propagandistic, U.S. delegate Foster Israel, UNESCO was ruining the and...these countries as well as Mohrhardt's presentation provoked very purpose it stands for."50 In dis- the European countries have "sharp commentary" on Lenin's cussing the banishment of South been a significant factor in the relationship to censorship from the Africa, Liebaers commented: 46 establishment of IFLA as a recog- Swiss delegation. Conference par- The argument that was used in nized international forum for the ticipants each received a kit of the discussions in UNESCO was discussion of matters affecting printed material, as they did at that this was not a political ques- the effectiveness of library ser- every IFLA Conference. In Moscow, tion but a humanitarian one, a 41 vices. delegates found that "no material respect for human dignity. That in the kit was produced outside the was probably true, but it opened The 1970 IFLA Conference was held USSR, a striking contrast with oth- the door to the dangers of politi- in Moscow. It is the policy of IFLA er meetings of IFLA, where much cal acts. Six months later there to hold meetings only in nations material is available from many was the question of Taiwan and that will admit all delegates. Ques- countries."47 Attempting to discover Mainland China. That was purely tioning whether the Soviet govern- why copies of Wilson Library Bul- political.51 ment would adhere to this policy, letin (which had been sent to the United States was more than Moscow several weeks earlier) were ready to withdraw from the not distributed with the kit, U.S. By questioning the exclusion of the Moscow conference. One week delegate William R. Eshelman ran nation of South Africa, Liebaers before the conference, the Israeli into an insurmountable bureaucrat- exemplified just how apolitical delegates were still without visas ic wall. He attempted to trace the IFLA hoped to remain. But with and withdrew from the conference shipment of journals through the every speech and with every com- on the same date that USSR offi- Office of Foreign Literature, then ment, the political differences were cials contacted UNESCO to inform through Pan American Airlines. apparent. Contrasting the opening them that the Israeli's passports Here he found a receiving record statements of Frederick Burkhardt, were on the way.42 Preban dated weeks before the actual con- the chairman of the U.S. National Kirkegaard remembered working ference. When confronted with the Commission on Libraries and Infor- closely with the Israelis to obtain receipt Mme Rudomino, director of mation Science, and N.M. Sikorsky, the needed visas: "The visas were the Office of Foreign Literature, of Moscow's All-Union Book Cham- denied until the day before the replied "It couldn't be," but ber, reveals some of the practical meeting was to open. Two Israelis acknowledged having received six realities coming from these diver- waited in the airport in Vienna but copies of the magazine.48 With this gent politics. Sikorsky stated that were not able to attend IFLA."43 knowledge, Eschelman asked the Many other participants in the con- readership, "Why wasn't one of In the Socialist state, the libraries' ference did not receive their visas these copies used in an extensive activity is organically bound up until days before or sometimes dur- IFLA exhibit opened with great fan- with the economic, political, and ing their trip to the conference.44 fare instead of the outdated materi- educational tasks facing their coun- IFLA President Herman Liebaers als in the case labeled 'Soviet try...The activity of Soviet libraries interpreted the tardiness of his Librarianship in the Foreign is based on clearest ideological and visa's arrival as harassment by the Press'?"49 In his report on the con- organizational principles...52

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 17 Donald G. Davis, Jr.

He emphasized that the 360,000 criticizing his own nation's govern- cism came from the home front. A libraries in the country reach ment. He "blasted" the Reagan letter sent to Library Journal "every community and family."53 administration for reducing funding declared "...both the talks by Daniel Conversely, Burkhardt said, "The for the National Archives, restrict- Boorstin and John Brademas [were] quality of library and information ing information and a "systematic totally inappropriate for this kind of services in different states [of the assault" on aid for library pro- meeting. Boorstin did not say much, U.S.] and localities is very uneven - grammes.58 The most significant but what he said clearly insulted excellent in some areas and in oth- incidents, in terms of Cold War ten- the Russians. I don't mind insulting ers extremely poor..."54 He also sion, was Librarian of Congress them in the appropriate setting, but stressed the various paths of legis- Daniel J. Boorstin's speech entitled this was not it."65 For some the lation, committees, and voting a "The Indivisible World: Libraries comments were a matter of princi- national library initiative must tra- and the Myth of Cultural ples, for others it was merely eti- verse. He summed up the U.S. situ- Exchange". In this address, Boorstin quette. ation by saying that "[i]t begins and noted: ends with the people."55 Shirley ...all librarians must be saddened In another speech at the same con- Elder, comparing these two speech- that a new Russian word recently ference, Stefan Kubow reported on es, wrote "the United States has entered our desk dictionary: the misfortune of the Polish Librar- problems the Soviets never could samizdat... The secret publication ians Association. After having suf- imagine; they are the problems of and distribution of government- fered its way through the horrors of an open society unknown to a banned literature in the U.S.S.R.... World War II, the Association final- closed one."56 The literature produced by this ly saw national library legislation system. How happy we could be pass and were able to establish a The intensity of Cold War animosi- someday to see this word disap- network of libraries. However, these ty and tension waned through the pear from our dictionaries and to advances lapsed under volatile 1970s. With the unilateral reduction learn that the word had become postwar social conditions. In 1968, in nuclear arms and America and obsolete!59 the State Library Council - subordi- the U.S. withdrawal from Viet Nam, nate to the Ministry of Culture and the superpowers became less antag- He ended with the rally, "We can Art - began to ineffectively and non- onistic. In fact, the U.S. as interna- hope and must try everywhere to chalantly manage the nation's tional public enemy became the make the world of books more libraries. Having joined the Patriot- non-Soviet aligned Iran. This devel- open - so that men and women ic Movement for National Revival opment allowed the Soviets and everywhere may breathe freely the and the Polish United Worker Party, Americans slowly, warily, to uncensored open air of ideas."60 the Association had lost autonomy progress slowly in their relations. This speech caused such an imme- and was unable to achieve much With the exception of the conflict in diate outrage that an IFLA staffer more than small victories as it Afghanistan, all ideological fronts attempted to halt the distribution of struggled on.66 This saga illustrated were relatively quiet. This all Boorstin's paper at the conference the trials a dedicated organization changed, however, with the dawn- itself.61 On the defensive, Valentina must face under the pressure of its ing of the Reagan years. With Rea- S. Lesokhina - head of the USSR government bureaucracy. gan's conservatism and comments Ministry of Culture Chief Library on outlawing the "Evil Empire", the Directorate-answered Boorstin's As the 1980s continued, Soviet Cold War escalated once again, words by turning the other cheek. Communism lost more and more though one feels not to the level it She said that she envisioned ground. Finally, the system col- was in two decades earlier. It was the IFLA Conference as a lapsed under the policies of Gor- during the Reagan years, at the place "offer[ing] a great possibility bachev and, and though the taste of 1985 IFLA Conference in Chicago, for exchange of experiences and the Cold War still lingers, the actual that the ideological conflicts within constructive discussion of pro- struggles and conflicts brought the association became most pro- gress...only an atmosphere of mutu- about by the global stand-off have nounced. al trust and good will among us, mostly evaporated. In the last who represent one of the most decade of the 20th century, the pro- At the Chicago conference, former humanitarian of professions, will fession does well to remember and ALA President E. J. Josey openly allow us to unite and solve our document the struggle and pain of protested the inclusion of South common problems".62 More official- the past half century. African delegates whose hands ly, the Soviet delegation protested were "dripping with the blood of Boorstin's "provocative" words to At the 1970 Conference for the thousands of innocent people", and the IFLA Executive Board and International Federation of Library snidely added, "We know that the referred to the remarks as an Associations held in Moscow, Hans [conference] theme of Universal "unfriendly act".63 Harold Gran- Peter Geh asked a constituent of the Availability of Information is mean- heim said that the Executive Board Soviet coalition if publications were ingless in that troubled land."57 understood the Soviet's position universally available in the Soviet Then, John Brademas of New York and "resolved to prevent such Union. The fellow replied that the University broke an IFLA taboo by actions in the future."64 More criti- universal availability of publica-

18 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 With Malice toward None: IFLA and the Cold War

tions "existed to a certain extent, 5 Carroll, Frances Laverne. "Former 30 Berry, op. cit. but some books [are available] only Presidents of IFLA 1963-1979". Inter- 31 Morsch, Lucile M. "Promoting Library for certain people."67 Twenty-one national Library Review 18 (2): 149 Interests throughout the World". ALA years later, at the 1991 IFLA Con- (1986). For the best current brief sur- Bulletin 51 (8): 581 (1957). ference again in Moscow, Geh vey of IFLA history, see Carol Henry's 32 Ibid. 33 found that "information is easily article, "International Federation of Ibid. 34 accessible now".68 Library Associations and Institutions" Ibid. in World Encyclopedia of Library and 35 Welch, op. cit. Information Services, 3rd ed., Robert 36 Ibid. Delegates at the 1991 IFLA Confer- Wedgeworth, ed. Chicago: American 37 Carroll, op. cit. ence witnessed more than just a Library Association, 1993, pp. 378-398 38 Ibid. society with more accessible infor- as well as W. Boyd Rayward's cover- 39 Welch, op. cit. mation. They witnessed the final age in "Library Associations, Interna- 40 Ibid. unravelling of the Union of Soviet tional" in Encyclopedia of Library 41 Ellsworth, Rudolph C. "IFLA - 1969 in Socialist Republics. While the con- History. New York: Garland Publish- Copenhagen". Wilson Library Bulletin ference was underway, the Commu- ing, 1994, pp. 342-347. 44 (3): 346 (1969). nist hard liners attempted to over- 6 Welch, Elizabeth. "IFLA's Internation- 42 Eshelman, William R. "Libraries as a turn Gorbachev's glasnost initia- al Importance". Wilson Library Bul- Force of Education". Wilson Library tives,69 but they failed in their letin 43 (5): 428 (1969). Bulletin 45 (3): 218 (1969). attempt. Not only did glasnost poli- 7 Vladimirov, Lev I. "The Socialist Coun- 43 Carroll, op. cit. cies close a chapter in Eurasian his- tries of Europe in IFLA" in IFLA's 44 Eshelman, op. cit. tory; it ended an epoch for IFLA, as First Fifty Years. 45 "Of Note". American Libraries 1 (11): 8 well. With the collapse of the Soviet Ibid. 1011 (1970). 9 Union and the demise of the Soviet Carroll, op cit. 46 Ibid. 10 Scott, Edith. "IFLA and FID - History 47 Bloc, IFLA was finally able to Eshelman, op. cit. and Programs". Library Quarterly 32 48 acknowledge the elephant at the Ibid. (1): 12 (1962). 49 Ibid. dinner table. This conference con- 11 Brittannicus, Victor. "International 50 Elder, Shirley. "IFLA Comes to the tinues the explication of a painful Federation of Library Associations: United States". American Libraries 6 period in human history, the later 1971 IFLA General Conference - 37th (2): 76 (1975). 70 half of the 20th century. Annual Session". Special Libraries 63 51 Ibid. (1): 44 (1972). 52 Ibid. 12 Acknowledgments Ibid. 53 Ibid. 13 Berry, John. "The U.S. at IFLA". 54 Ibid. Library Journal 110 (16): 5 (1985). 55 Ibid. The author acknowledges the influ- 14 Scott, op. cit. 56 Ibid. Eight years later at the IFLA ence of Paul Kaegbein, formerly 15 Barnett, Michael P. "IFLA in Liver- Annual Conference in Montreal in University of Cologne, who was a pool: Return of the Native". Wilson 1982 the author had his first mentor in thinking about the art of Library Bulletin 46 (5): 469 (1972). encounter with the Soviet delegation the possible within an international 16 Ibid. and was intrigued with its composi- 17 organization such as IFLA. He fur- Ibid. tion and behavior patterns that exhib- 18 ther thanks Nathaniel Feis, working Baer, Karl A. "A World-Wide Future". ited isolation. One example of an indi- Special Libraries 56 (2): 91 (1965). with the author, who prepared the vidual who fostered international rela- 19 Biggs, Penny. "Impressions of a draft of this article as a class project tions was Paul Kaegbein who served Moscow Conference". Library Associa- the IFLA Round Table on Library His- at the Graduate School of Library tion Record 86 (9): 351 (1984). tory and the Round Table on Reading and Information Science, University 20 Havard-Williams, P. "The IFLA Confer- for many years in the 1960s through of Texas at Austin. He further ence - As I Saw It". Library World 66 the 1980s and who was instrumental thanks his colleague, Bette Oliver, (1964). in providing contacts between library for her helpful suggestions for tex- 21 Carroll, op. cit. historians in the Western and Eastern tual revision. 22 Ibid. bloc countries, principally by arrang- 23 Ranganathan, S.R. "IFLA - What It ing small international conferences. Should Be and Do". Libri 5 (2): 183 57 "Sleep No More at IFLA". American References (1954). Libraries 16 (9): 610 (1985). 24 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 1 Polonsky, Abraham. A Season of Fear. 25 Gelfand, Morris A. "The Organization 59 Boorstin, Daniel J. "The Indivisible New York: Cameron Associates, 1956. of the Library Profession: 37th IFLA". World: Libraries and the Myth of Cul- 2 Brodeur, Paul. Secrets: A Writer in the Wilson Library Bulletin 46 (5): 471 tural Exchange". The Republic of Let- Cold War. Boston: Faber and Faber, (1972). ters. Washington DC: Library of Con- 1956. 26 Wieder, Joachim. op. cit. gress, 1989. 3 Wieder, Joachim. "An Outline of 27 Carroll, op. cit. 60 Ibid. IFLA's History" in IFLA's First Fifty 28 Dyer, Esther. "The Body Politic: IFLA 61 "Notes and Asides at an International Years, Willem R.H. Koops and Joachim Meets in Chicago". Wilson Library Conference". American Libraries 16 Wider, eds. Munich: Verlag Dokumen- Bulletin 60 (4): 27-28 (1985). (9): 615 (1985). tation, 1977. 29 Stone, I.F. Speech. Ford Hall Forum, 62 "Sleep No More at IFLA", op. cit. 4 Ibid, 28. National Public Radio (12 April 1983). 63 Ibid.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 19 Donald G. Davis, Jr.

64 Ibid. tion held in the great ballroom of the tory of Reading and Libraries in the 65 Berry, op. cit. Despite the slight, chill- Kremlin's Palace of Congresses on United States and Russia: Proceedings ing effect of Boorstein's address, the Wednesday night, 21 August 1991. of an International Conference, 19-21 author remembers well a bus tour of They will never forget the euphoric June 1996, Vologda, Russia". Pamela Chicago Public Library branches with celebration of unity and freedom that Spence Richards, ed. Libraries and the Soviet delegation and a very fruit- tool place. See Donald G. Davis, Jr. Culture 31 (1): 1-140 (1998). ful exchange about the nature of "Caught in the Coup: IFLA in Moscow, American and Soviet public libraries. 1991", Libraries and Culture 27 (2): 66 Ibid. 192-197 (1992). A collection of remi- This article was prepared for the interna- 67 Dyer, op. cit. niscences and memorabilia is deposit- tional conference, "Books, Libraries, 68 Ibid. For another view see Information ed in the American Library Associa- Reading and Publishing in the Cold War" in Eastern and Central Europe: Com- tion archives housed at the Library of held in Paris, 11-12 June 1998, sponsored ing in from the Cold. Washington DC: the University of Illinois at Urbana- by the IFLA Round Table on Library His- Special Libraries Association, 1991. Champaign. tory, the ENSSIB, Médiadix - University 69 Ibid. Those who were in Moscow will 70 For an adumbration of this spirit, see of Paris X, with the assistance of the always remember the general recep- the special journal issue of "The His- IFLA Section on Reading.

20 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Managing Library Staff from a Different Cultural Background: The East-West Conflict in Berlin

Claudia Lux Introduction A Short History of the A Short History of the Two Libraries which Two Libraries which Mer- Claudia Lux has been Director Gen- early ten years after the fall of Merged to Form the Cen- the Berlin Wall on 9 November ged to Form the Central eral of the Central and Regional N tral and State Library Library in Berlin since February 1989, the differences between East and State Library 1997. From 1991 until 1997 she and West in Germany have still not was Director of the Senatsbibliothek Berlin Municipal Library was Berlin, a special library for the Berlin founded as a central library for administration with a special collec- Berlin in 1901 in Berlin-Mitte, tion of city planning and community which later became part of East studies where she introduced an Berlin. In its early years it was sup- integrated library system using out- ported by the enthusiasm among sourcing. At the Staatsbibliothek some German librarians for the Berlin she worked in the department public library system of the United of East Asian Studies from 1986 States. When West Berliners were until 1991 and there received her no longer allowed to borrow from library degree after a training period the Municipal Library in East Berlin from 1984-1996. In the German following the division of the city, Library Institute Berlin she managed the local authority in West Berlin projects on financing, fees, organi- gratefully accepted an offer from zational structures and retrocata- the Americans to donate a library. loguing in libraries and published the Hence the America Memorial/ results of these projects. Ms Lux Berlin Central Library, which studied Social Science and Chinese opened in West Berlin in 1951. Cit- Studies in Berlin and Bochum in izens of East Berlin were able to Germany; in Lawrence, USA; and in borrow from the America Memori- Beijing, China. For several years al Library until the building of the before she began working in Berlin Wall in August 1961 finally libraries she worked for a private completely disappeared. After divided the city. In the following firm which conducted statistical Reunification in autumn 1990 period, the two libraries pursued research. Ms Lux was elected to Berlin's libraries were very quick to their separate paths but were still IFLA's Executive Board in August establish common associations and related to each other. In their open- 1999 during the IFLA Council and bodies between the East and the ness, their vision of modern library General Conference held in West. Many institutions which were practice, their user-oriented atti- Bangkok. Ms Lux may be contacted once duplicated in the two halves of tude, and the breadth of the ser- at Zentral- und Landesbibliothek the city were unified. However it vices they offered, they each played Berlin, Breitestrasse 36, D-10178 was only five years later, in autumn a leading role in librarianship in Berlin, Germany (fax: +(49-30) 1995, that the unification of the two their respective parts of the city and 90226494; e-mail: [email protected]). central libraries of the city came beyond. Until 1989 the two libraries about. The normal conflict which had roughly comparable figures for [Ms Lux's paper was delivered at the arises when two institutions are service levels, with 1.2 million and 65th IFLA Council and General Confer- merged - as is comonly seen today 1.3 million volumes. After the fall of ence, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-27 August in banks and businesses every- the Wall, East Berliners flooded to 1999.] where - was thus overlaid with the the America Memorial Library in East-West conflict, marking the way West Berlin, as it was only there the merger of these libraries devel- that they could find the contempo- oped and making particular rary Western literature that they demands on the management. For- wanted. Circulation at the Munici- ward-looking changes at the Cen- pal Library fell to a few hundred tral and State Library had, there- volumes per day, while the America fore, three elements to take into Memorial Library could scarcely account: 1) the history of the two keep up with demand, as users bor- libraries; 2) the East-West conflict rowed well over two million books that was generally present in and audiovisual items per year. The Berlin; and 3) new approaches to two sister organizations lost their conflict resolution. family likeness: bulk transactions

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 21 Claudia Lux

and a high number of users in West other. East Berlin staff got to know point the decision was taken to Berlin, a sharp fall in usage in East the West German book market, the merge the two libraries into one Berlin - a factual situation, but one publishing houses and the statutory foundation, and each of the lib- which reinforced the prejudices of regulations governing Western raries began working to defend its the then 150 members of staff in libraries. Relationships were open own characteristic aspects for the East and West. When the Berlin and trusting, the West helped out future and to try to convince the authorities decided to unite the two the East with donations of books, other side. institutions in October 1995, each equipment and extra money. began to work on its own ideas of Between the American Memorial Mutual Recrimation what the library service should be Library and the Berlin Municipal in order to attract for itself the Library it was also the Western The third phase of mutual recrimi- required finances and development example and Western help that nation began. Reproaches began to opportunities. A common path thus ruled. Initial plans were made for a be heard between the two libraries. became hedged with mistrust. common future of equal partner- The frank, highly critical and ship in one building. Due to retire- aggressive tone which had been ments, both institutions acquired used in discussions in the Western The East-West Conflict new leadership, from the West for half of the city for many years, as Generally Present in the America Memorial Library and including in the America Memorial Library, alienated and was rejected Berlin from the East for the Municipal Library. by colleagues from the East, who were used to resolving their differ- Since 1995 the differences in the ences in a different way. The merg- Eastern and Western outlook have Disillusion and Mistrust er into one institution led to there been increasingly discussed. Crucial being duplication at various levels to this were the feelings each side Disillusionment with each other set in the management structure and experienced in their dealings with in throughout the city. Everyone this required decisive action to be each other. After a first brief phase became conscious of the differences taken. Staff from the West were of euphoria about unification, in speech and behavior between repeatedly preferred to those from changes began to occur in the East and West. Similar concepts did the East. Each side's particular atti- course of collaborative work which not have the same meaning. The tudes hardened: thus the East led to considerable amounts of fric- new common State did not only Berlin Municipal Library concen- tion, misunderstandings and prob- meet with approval in East and trated on high-value academic col- lems. These were particularly West. Economic enterprise was lections and the Western part prevalent in institutions where col- dominant in the West, but in West regarded its increase in lending fig- leagues from East and West were Berlin in particular many people ures as the decisive criterion of united, as was the case with the were very critical of the free market quality. The situation in the East Central and State Library. One and supported social justice. How- Berlin library was worsened by the study on the "German culture ever, they seemed to agree in their fact that many who had not fitted in shock" listed five different stages of rejection of "Ossis": the business in the old DDR system, many of development in German-German world accused East Germans of whom had found a refuge in the relationships, beginning with wanting to preserve their old social library, criticized the others. The euphoria, which was quickly fol- system with its job security among same people who had once support- lowed by disillusionment and final- other things and thereby of hinder- ed the DDR party line had once ly by recriminations. After that a ing economic development, while again got hold of important func- first phase of understanding should workers accused the East Germans tions or had managed to get the begin, which accepts the fact that of being worse than Western best jobs. They had a better educa- there are mutual misunderstand- employers in concentrating on the tion, since they had been allowed to ings. By accepting this fact, this can pursuit of money with no thought study, and in the new Western State lead to a broader understanding in for the social consequences. The educational background had which different ethical systems can East Germans had no chance, become a decisive factor in filling be understood, learned and respect- whichever way you looked at it. positions. Therefore, internal rela- ed. These phases of understanding This West German superiority was tionships in the East Berlin Munici- between East and West and their unbearable for East Berliners. The pal Library were also marked by effect could clearly be recognized at situation with wages and salaries these insecurities. the Central and State Library, even also promoted differences and prej- udice. First of all the income sup- if the problems generally resulting First Phase of Understanding from the merger of two organiza- plement for West Berliners was cut. tions were overlaid or used. Then pay for East Berliners was The first phase of understanding, matched to that of West Berliners - where misapprehensions are recog- in return for longer hours of work nized, began. Many attempts were Euphoria and less holiday and Christmas made by both staff and manage- After the fall of the Wall, there was compensation, however. So negative ment to alleviate the atmosphere of mutual euphoria in visiting each differentials remained. Just at this misunderstanding. A workshop at

22 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Managing Library Staff from a Different Cultural Background which members of staff explained sions. It was therefore necessary to demanding and vocal. This behav- to each other their way of looking choose someone from outside to be ior was not acceptable to the East- at things and how it had developed in charge. ern staff who responded negatively. was poorly attended but was a In the West, mainly older clients beginning. A statement on prob- Complete neutrality. When asked to complained about the lack of a lems in the library's organization at manage two merging organizations reading room, and that they the beginning of 1997 allowed of such opposing natures, even a received a less generous and expert rather more of the unsuccessful ini- leader from outside has to demon- service than before. Staff in the tiatives and similar conceptions of strate neutrality and equal consider- West had to learn how to deal with the two organizations in the past to ation for both sides. This was diffi- this. Both sides had to cope on a be seen, having been overlaid by cult to put into practice, but had to daily basis with many new prob- current misunderstandings and be strictly adhered to. Even so there lems and challenges. prejudices. Such mutual exchanges were complaints that one side was of information slowly began to being favored. Since they came Clear decisions, anticipation of dif- bring about changes in the situa- from both sides, it seemed to bal- ficulties resulting from compromis- tion. A careful phase of preliminary ance out. es. Decisions had to be taken about understanding began, even if there common structures, a common clas- were frequent regressions to the Common long-term goal. First of all sification, cataloguing practice and third phase of recrimination. a common objective, in this case a new work processes. There was shared new building, had to be always a tension in the air as to Second Phase of Understanding adopted, giving all developments a whether an Eastern or a Western clear goal to aim for. Having one solution would be preferred. Uni- The second phase of understanding, objective for everyone meant that versal approval was always avail- in which the respective ethical sys- the staff could begin to be reorient- able for compromises which united tems are understood, learnt and ed in a new, shared, direction. aspects of both - whether these will respected, has not really come into however lead to more problems in effect yet. Nothing will just happen Short-term improvements in service the long run remains to be seen. by itself here, but mutual tolerance with mixed staffing. The next deci- must be brought into play. If unity sion was to establish common ser- Improving the information culture. is to be achieved, conscious changes vice provision in different locations An individual's access to informa- must be made to the internal situa- and hence to merge departments. tion was very dependent on whom tion of the merged organizations. This decision was very important he or she knew. Therefore a new since a careful but consistent mix- discussion culture with a clear Opportunities to Resolve ing of staff led to changes in atti- structure was introduced, which Conflict tude. included those levels which had not previously passed on information Reaching understanding of differ- received from higher up and which Elements in the merging of busi- ent points of view by working were now expected to transmit nesses from differing commercial together. While staff from the East questions and information up the cultures can act as examples for the who moved West soon adjusted to structure from below. The imple- unification of the two libraries. On new tasks and fitted in, Western col- mentation of this process must be the one hand the situation is wors- leagues did not always manage to continually monitored, or it will be ened by the fact that all differences do so. They were not as welcome as blocked by the various levels of and also the private life of all the they had hoped and had problems hierarchy. members of staff are constantly with the different way of reaching affected by the conflict between agreement. There was no overt crit- Conscious fostering of changes in East and West in Berlin. Since the icism and they only later discovered behavior to each other. After the beginning of 1997 particular mea- problems they had caused. Probably first changes were put into effect, sures related to unification have no one wanted to upset them, but changes in behavior were also been introduced which could miti- this was completely misunderstood. encouraged. Colleagues were to be gate the East-West conflict. They first had to learn that differ- treated in a friendly and equitable ences in opinion had been seen in manner. This meant that the differ- External leadership. The most the East as divisive and destructive ences in the social significance of important decision the political rather than as a natural part of life the West's critical discussions and masters made was not to appoint in a democratic society. the East's silent criticism had to be the top layer of management from tackled. A new culture of discussion either of the two institutions. No Different clientele required different was therefore introduced, which matter how honorable and earnest behavior. The introduction of a immediately reprimanded any dis- anyone's intentions were, accusa- large open access area in the East cussion that would hurt another tions of a takeover and of bias quickly attracted new readers to the person and fostered a friendlier yet would have been around for years Municipal Library. They were no open manner in dealing with each and would have skewed all discus- longer pleading and submissive, but other.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 23 Claudia Lux

Changing the nature of discussions. pate actively in the process of that people might hold very differ- The different ways of discussing changing their own library, deci- ent opinions. The important thing is and of dealing with disagreements sions in the future should be taken readiness to go along with a deci- made a new way of conducting dis- at as low a level as possible. This sion, to put it into effect and not to cussions necessary. The most will only become effective once boycott it. We are still working on important element is that a decision decisions can be accepted irrespec- developing this, but we see it as is not delayed by an exchange of tive of East and West. offering a new way of managing opinions between those who are that can guarantee that changes not directly involved in carrying it Unanimity is neither achievable come into effect. out, instead of the person responsi- nor necessary; acceptability will do. ble for implementing the decision In dealing with East and West and The Berlin Central and State receiving advice. their different socialization, it Library thus began to turn the dis- became clear that decisions in the advantages of the East-West conflict Delegating responsibility to the library could no longer expect to into a new strength and to profit shop floor. To try to keep everybody receive universal approval, for from the different capabilities of happy, for a long time even matters example after a long discussion in colleagues from East and West in of detail were referred to the top the West or surface agreement in making radical changes to the level for decision. If the differences the East out of fear of disagreement. library, its organization and its ser- between East and West are really to It was therefore important that vices. be set aside and staff are to partici- everyone understood and accepted

24 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Managing Multicultural Staff in a South African University Library

Heather M. Edwards Introduction tory legislation; there was an urgent need for positive action that would Heather M. Edwards received her outh Africa's labor history dur- result in positive change. BA from Rhodes in 1968, and her Sing the 46 years of rule by the MA with distinction from Witwater- Nationalist Party, was marred by Despite the fear of unrest and per- srand in 1985. She is Chair of GAEL- apartheid, discriminatory legisla- haps even civil war in the period IC (Gauteng and Environs Library leading up to the 1994 elections, Consortium), the largest academic South Africa was fortunate in hav- library consortium in South Africa, ing at the helm people of true with 16 members. She is Chair of stature. More goodwill emerged on the DISA (Digital Imaging South both sides - black and white - than Africa) Project Committee, a project anyone would have thought possi- initiated by the Andrew Mellon Foun- ble, given South Africa's history. dation. The Committee is digitizing There was recognition in much of South African archival material of the labor market of the need to historical and socio-political impor- employ black people in other than tance, with a view to making it low-level jobs. An early achieve- available globally on the Web. Ms ment of the Government was a new Edwards' areas of special interest Labour Relations Act in 1995, are library planning and design; and which provided legislation for deal- consortia, cooperation and resource ing with unfair labor practices. sharing, and she has served as pro- Although this Act did much to reg- fessional consultant on these top- ulate the employer/employee rela- ics. Ms Edwards is University Librar- tionship, it was felt by many that ian at the University of the Witwa- change was not occurring fast tersrand and may be contacted at tion and exploitation. There were enough. Calls came for the demog- University of Witwatersrand, Private marked disparities in employment raphy of the country to be reflected Bag X1, 2050 Wits, South Africa and income within the labor mar- in the demography of the company; (fax: +(27-11) 4031421; e-mail: ket, which created pronounced dis- counter voices argued that skills [email protected]). advantages for certain categories of cannot be developed overnight. The South African economy, in the dol- [Ms Edwards' paper was delivered at the people. With few exceptions, black 1 65th IFLA Council and General Confer- people in this country were poorly drums and not experiencing the ence, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-27 August educated in segregated schools and anticipated degree of post-apartheid 1999.] were denied the opportunities and growth, was not assisting the advantages that their white compa- process, resulting in more retrench- triots enjoyed. ments than opportunities. The Gov- ernment therefore decided to enforce change through the passing Changes since 1994 in of an act that would provide for South Africa employment equity and equal opportunity. Far-reaching changes have occurred in South Africa since 1994, when, The Employment for the first time in its history, a democratic election took place and Equity Act a black majority government was returned to power. In its election The purpose of the Employment campaign the African Nationalist Equity Act of 1998,2 is to promote Congress had promised its elec- the constitutional right of equality, torate a better deal and relief from eliminate unfair discrimination in the poverty that stalks the lives of a employment, and achieve a diverse large percentage of our population. workforce broadly representative of Expectations in the black communi- our people. Chapter 2 of the Act - ty were high and the Government Prohibition of Unfair Discrimina- needed to deliver. It was not merely tion - was promulgated on 9 August a case of repealing old discrimina- 1999, and Chapter 3 - Affirmative

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 25 Heather M. Edwards

Action - on 24 November 1999. The differences and underestimating tage, but retaining its dominant cul- latter requires every designated cultural similarities. By focusing on ture. Thirdly, a multicultural orga- employer3 to implement affirmative differences, we tend to exercise nization is one in the process of action measures through consulting "otherness". becoming, or which has become, with employees; conducting an diverse in the most visionary sense analysis of employment policies, - reflecting the contributions and practices, and procedures in order Affirmative Action Pro- interests of diverse groups in its to identify barriers affecting certain grammes mission, operations and services, people; preparing an employment and committing itself to eradicate equity plan detailing the measures all forms of social discrimination. the employer will take to employ Affirmative action programmes The majority of organizations in black people, women, and people attempt to redress the imbalances South Africa are in the middle or with disabilities; and reporting reg- of the past, but in themselves are non-discriminatory stage. ularly to the Department of Labour. not enough, perhaps because per- ceptions of culture and power linger on and impact on performance. Policy at the University A Commission for Employment More important is the actual man- Equity has been appointed, and of the Witwatersrand agement of the diversity created by non-compliance with the Act may affirmative action. Norris6 feels that result in referral to the Labour The University of the Witwater- for diversity to succeed it must Court, or the imposition of heavy srand is a multicultural organiza- form part of an organization's fines. In a complete about turn, tion. Its history of protest against strategic management process. The apartheid legislation has now been discriminatory laws and unaccept- historically white/Eurocentric male- replaced by equity legislation. able practices reflects its strong lib- dominated culture must change to eral ethic, and more recently, it has reflect South Africa's diversity. attempted to stay at the forefront of South Africans have varied feelings Total quality management must 4 progressive change. An Affirmative on employment equity. Nhlapo , a take place to address fears that Action Officer was appointed in black South African academic, won- increasing diversity may lead to a 1994, and in the same year, an ders whether racial harmony is pos- lowering of standards. Participative Affirmative Action and Equal sible in this country. He suggests management is required, and Opportunity Employment Policy that the most serious obstacle in the human resource development was issued.9 This document stated way of accommodation between becomes a key issue. A manager that while the University would black and white people is simply who is prejudiced against people continue to seek the best person for that we don't know enough about from a specific racial group is the job, efforts would be made to each other, and we don't much care! unlikely to manage those people 5 search actively for candidates from Human , also an academic, states effectively and to encourage their under-represented groups for selec- that although South Africa has strengths and talents. Thiederman7 tion and promotion. For existing undergone tremendous change in warns us to stay alert to the human staff there are programmes which the years since 1994, living in a tendency to judge harshly those give under-represented groups the country can create a combination of who are different from ourselves. opportunity to advance their skills optimism and myopia. One doesn't This is especially true when we are so that they can compete more see the larger picture, which is that uncomfortable or afraid - for exam- effectively. In the area of advance- a change in dialogue doesn't always ple, when the job market is tight, or ment, advertising is geared towards reflect a change of heart. A manag- when we feel someone is getting targeted sectors of the population in er may think he or she is commit- preferential treatment. She exhorts order to elicit applications from ted to affirmative action, but then us to see people for who they are, under-represented groups. In the explains how scarce really good not through the distorting screen of selection process, although the best candidates are, that affirmative our own fears and judgments. action employees demand very person for the job remains a basic high salaries and leave easily for principle, factors such as merit, even higher salaries, and that they Managing Multicultural potential, track record and redress require more training and are not Organizations are taken into account, with special "up to speed". Meanwhile, blacks cognizance taken of the disadvan- have a very different perspective. tages certain groups may have They experience anger and frustra- Norris8 identifies three develop- experienced in the past. In 1998 tion, and feel that nothing has mental stages in the move towards Wits revised its Mission State- changed. In 1999 Leon, the leader managing multicultural organiza- ment,10 and five of its six commit- of the opposition Democratic Party tions. The first is monocultural. ments deal with issues of tolerance, in South Africa, has stated publicly Hopefully there are not too many of equality, freedom from racism and that he regrets the Employment these left in South Africa. The sec- sexism, and cultural diversity. Equity Act as it serves only to ond is non-discriminatory, charac- divide the country along racial lines terized by a sincere desire to elimi- Wits Library has for many years once more, emphasizing cultural nate the majority's unfair advan- attempted to employ black people

26 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Managing Multicultural Staff in a South African University Library across the range of job grades. thereby placing themselves in a bet- finding the courage to steer our uni- When many so-called "advantaged" ter position for advancement, and versities in new directions with a or "historically white" university bursaries are granted for this pur- sense of urgency and expectancy. libraries in South Africa had very pose. This situation is not without He advises us to look at ourselves few people of color on their staff tension, as people obtaining profes- and answer truthfully on questions establishments and few women in sional qualifications have high of motives and values within the the top positions, we were attempt- expectations, and do not wish to context of post-apartheid society. ing to create a more diverse work- wait patiently for an appropriate Perhaps, however, in the final force. For several years we have had position in Wits Library to become instance, we should recall the words more black people on the staff than vacant. We lose promising staff in of Thiederman12 that, although cul- white. However, despite this this way, yet cannot blame them for tural diversity is a serious business, improvement in the staff profile, we moving on. They have opportunities it must not become so serious that recognize that there is still an today that their parents never had people forget to see each other as urgent need to appoint and retrain in the past. people first and foremost. We need more blacks in senior managerial to remember the need for simple positions. Our efforts in this area At Wits Library, we are conscious of respect and courtesy as we seek to have been hampered by a universi- redress, or creating equal opportu- understand the differences between ty-wide rationalization process. We nities, and of the need to ensure people. have had to become more cost- that our staff profile continues to effective in the face of declining improve in accordance with legisla- government subsidies, posts have tion. In the selection process, where References been "frozen", staff numbers have two candidates appear to be equal, declined, and there is not much the post will normally be offered to movement amongst those remain- the black candidate. Where a white 1 "Black" in South African terms ing. A high unemployment rate in candidate appears to have a slight includes Indian, Chinese and Coloured people. the country (40%) results in low job advantage but a black applicant has 2 mobility, and the Library's staff the personality and potential to suc- South Africa. Employment Equity Act, No. 55, 1998. Preamble. turnover rate is only 2-3%. This lim- ceed, we will appoint the black per- its opportunities to act vigorously in son. However, if a white candidate 3 A "designated employer" is generally the employment and promotion of is ahead of other applicants in all one who employs 50 or more employ- ees. black people. Library staff profiles respects, the job is offered to that 4 of 1989 and 1999 do however person on the basis of merit. We Nhlapo, T. "Campus Unrest: Is It Nec- essary in a Democracy?" Human reflect positive change. Senior posts need to be able to justify our choice Resource Management July 1996. (14) 10 years ago were all held by if questioned by the Equity Officer, 5 Human, L. Diversity during Transfor- whites with the exception of one the trade unions, the Library staff mation". Human Resource Manage- oriental. By 1999, this had changed generally, and the candidates them- ment March 1996. to 16 posts, held by 10 whites, 3 selves. In some instances we have 6 Norris, B. "Manage Diversity or Sink". blacks, 2 coloureds and 1 oriental. established mentoring, which has People Dynamics July 1996. Ten years ago the majority of black proved successful. Unfortunately, 7 Thiederman, S. Association Manage- staff occupied the lower grades in one or two of our staff still have dif- ment 50 (7): 28 (July 1998). the library. Now they are widely ficulty in accepting that a minority 8 Norris, B. op. cit. spread, with several in professional person in a high level job is not just 9 and managerial or supervisory window dressing or tokenism. We University of the Witwatersrand. Uni- versity Policy on Affirmative Action positions. White staff have dropped are working on this problem and Equal Opportunity Employment from 88 to 49 full-time equivalent through proving the capability and for Academic and Support Services members, while black full-time talent of such appointees. Staff. August 1994, Doc S94/174. equivalents have increased from 69 10 University of the Witwatersrand. Wits to 80. The Wits Library staff profile Today: Mission Statement, 1998. now consists of 58% blacks, 35% Conclusion 11 Fehnel, R. Quoted in Diversity and whites, 3% coloureds, 2% Asians, Quality: Academic Diversity at South and 2% orientals. Fehnel of the Ford Foundation in African Tertiary Institutions. Pavlich, South Africa,11 speaking of tertiary G. and M. Orkin, eds. Johannesburg, Black Library staff are encouraged education generally, said long-term 1993. to study and improve their skills, answers to diversity issues lie in 12 Thiederman, S. op. cit.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 27 The Growing Gap between the Information Rich and the Information Poor Both within Countries and between Countries: A Composite Policy Paper

Alfred Kagan Introduction Kagan, USA); and North-South library cooperation (Ismail Abdul- Al Kagan is the African Studies Bib- he IFLA Social Responsibilities lahi, USA). Each theme will be liographer and Professor of Library TDiscussion Group was officially addressed in turn, including con- Administration at the University of established in December 1997 to crete proposals for action. Illinois at Urbana-Champaign address the role of libraries in (UIUC). He was recently elected to The information rich and poor are represent the Social Responsibili- often defined in two separate and ties Round Table on the American distinct ways: the North vs. the Library Association Council. Mr South (rich vs. poor countries) and Kagan was a member of the ALA the gap between the elite and the International Relations Committee disadvantaged within countries. (IRC) from 1994 to 1997 and con- Our project seeks to unite these tinues on the ALA IRC Africa Sub- ideas. To a greater or larger extent committee as well as the Black Cau- all countries have information gaps. cus of ALA IRC. He is the Convener The United States and South Africa of the IFLA Social Responsibilities are examples of two countries that Discussion Group, and has previous- have extremely skewed distribution ly been Chair and Secretary of the of wealth, resulting in excellent IFLA Section on Government Infor- information services for some and mation and Official Publications. He poor or non-existent services for is currently on the Executive Com- others. Although the United States mittee of the Africana Librarians is rich, its distribution of wealth Council of the African Studies Asso- and information is becoming more ciation and chairs its Book Donation unequal. On the other hand, the Task Force. Mr Kagan also repre- great majority of South Africans are sents the University of Illinois poor, but there are now efforts to Library in the UIUC Urbana-Cham- society. It is currently affiliated with equalize the standard of living that paign Senate, and chairs a Senate the IFLA Section on Education and was constructed under apartheid. caucus of the Union of Professional Training. The group is initially con- We believe that libraries, library Employees. Mr Kagan has published centrating on the following themes: associations, and those who work in numerous African studies bibliogra- libraries have a social responsibility phies and articles, including co- – Equality of access to library col- to address these issues in whatever authoring the new Reference Guide lections and facilities, context they find themselves and in to Africa: A Bibliography of Sources – The growing gap between library all countries. We hope that the IFLA published by Scarecrow Press. He rich and poor both within and Professional Board will endorse the has travelled to about 50 countries, between countries, following recommendations and organized an IFLA seminar in Zim- – The "right to know." provide administrative and mone- babwe, and participated in various tary support for implementation. African library meetings. He teaches This policy paper was developed an annual graduate course on the from the six discussion papers pre- Bibliography of Africa, and has writ- pared for the 1998 IFLA meeting in Dennis Ocholla defines the infor- ten on "Teaching African Studies Amsterdam and the comments mation poor in five ways: 1) the Bibliography" in Africana Librarian- received at our first open meeting. economically disadvantaged popu- ship in the 21st Century: Treasuring Much of the following text is taken lations of the developing countries the Past and Building the Future: directly from the papers (see (the South); 2) rural people who are Proceedings of the 40th Anniver- http://www.ifla.org/VII/dg/srdg/pub often geographically isolated by sary Conference of the Africana s.htm). The themes of the discussion lack of communication and trans- Librarians Council. Mr Kagan may be papers were: rural library develop- portation systems; 3) those disad- contacted at the Africana Unit, 328 ment (Kalpana Dasgupta, India); lit- vantaged by cultural and social Library, University of Illinois, eracy in libraries (Josephine Ander- poverty, especially the illiterate, the Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA (fax: sen, South Africa); fees for library elderly, women, and children; 4) +(1-217) 3332214; e-mail: aka- services (Kristine Abelsnes, Nor- minorities who are discriminated [email protected]). way); human resource development against by race, creed and religion; (Dennis Ocholla, South Africa); the and 5) the physically disabled. The electronic information gap (Alfred following remarks are focused on

28 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 The Growing Gap between the Information Rich and Poor addressing the needs of these popu- empowerment of local authorities mote literacy training as a basic lation groups. to process appropriate information library service. in comprehensible formats for diverse rural populations. Fees for Library Services Rural Library Development Kristine Abelsnes quotes the Literacy in Libraries UNESCO Public Library Manifesto: "The public library shall in princi- The most extreme information gaps ple be free of charge." The public Another way to look at the growing are between illiterate and neo-liter- library must be supported by spe- information gap is to explore the ate people in rural villages and rich cific legislation and financed by extremes between illiterate and urban populations. Kalpana Das- national and local governments. highly educated people. Josephine gupta reminds us that information Libraries are an essential compo- Andersen explains that illiteracy is a prerequisite for all development nent of any long-term strategy for often results in unemployment and activities. The goals must be to see culture, information provision, liter- unemployability. She notes that that the right information reaches acy and education. Library service 36% of the citizens of her country, the right clientele in the most com- is a common good, and free access South Africa, are illiterate. The prehensible format at the right to information is the backbone of a problem is historical, and she time. For example in India, rural free and democratic society. Pub- quotes former Prime Minister Ver- libraries have helped educate peo- licly funded libraries are most of all woerd (1958-1966) who said "There ple in local history, village tradi- political instruments; they are not is no place for the Bantu in the tions, methods of cultivation, public businesses. health, and the message of the free- European community above the dom movement against British levels of certain forms of labor." In However, there is a conflict between colonialism. The diversity of the fact, the acquisition of literacy and ideals and economic realities. The rural population must be analyzed education has often been seen as a dilemma is that library fees can in order to plan appropriate library threat to those in power. This was exclude some users, but not charg- services. Interpersonal forms of just as true in the United States dur- ing fees may exclude some special communication such as informa- ing slavery days as in apartheid services that in turn may create rev- tion exchange in marketplaces, South Africa. enue for basic services. We strive water sources, and places of wor- for equal access but even small fees ship must be discovered. Illiterate people often do not have discriminate between users, access to an environment conducive decreasing library use especially It is necessary to find out how rur- for learning. Public libraries are among children and young people. al communities use information as ideal learning places and can pro- We see a trend in rich countries to an aid to the adoption of important vide the right surroundings and protect so-called basic services and innovations and new practices that conditions conductive for human charge for supplemental services. are crucial with the development development, even in rural areas However there is no consensus as to process. Before establishing without electricity. Libraries must what services are basic and what libraries the following information be involved in their communities, services are special. What is expen- should be developed: village envi- and literacy is a library responsibil- sive today may be cheap tomorrow, ronment (geography, livelihood, ity. Public libraries must promote and what seems extra today may be education, etc.); peoples' needs lifelong learning but often are not considered basic in the near future. (physical, intellectual and psycho- equipped to do so and lack librari- Furthermore once a library charges logical); availability of resources; ans with appropriate skills. Literacy for one thing, it is easier to decide infrastructure facilities; and atti- programmes can be based on Paulo to charge for something else. Some tudes of the people. It is important Freire's revolutionary Language argue that fee-based services gener- to pay special attention to women, Experience Method. Freire advo- ate revenue to subsidize basic ser- students, young adults, children, cates problem solving and dialogue vices. However experience has often and neo-literates. Rural libraries between teachers and new learners proven the reverse. When supple- can act as information and commu- to encourage critical thinking and mental services do not fully recover nity centres to improve living con- creativity. This method contrasts costs, they result in the poor subsi- ditions and the quality of life. Local with the "banking method" where dizing the rich. authorities must be empowered to teachers "deposit" information in create such institutions. the learners. Information is not free, but libraries can make it freely available to the Recommendation. IFLA should Recommendations. IFLA should community. Information is more develop a research programme on urge library and information than a commodity; wide access to rural library development in coordi- schools to promote adult basic edu- information can empower citizens nation with national library agen- cation skills as a component of and therefore be a method of cies. The focus should be on their curricula. IFLA should pro- wealth distribution. Commercial

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 29 Alfred Kagan

information providers have a social sumers, especially because the people to maintain equipment; responsibility to their communities information poor are often fragile large illiterate or semi-literate pop- and public libraries. If we abandon users who are easily discouraged by ulations; lack of foreign exchange; free-of-charge public libraries, we elitist information providers. language barriers; lack of national can expect political support for our information policies; and lack of libraries to erode and even fade Such a reorientation begins with ability to upgrade obsolete equip- away. This could lead to libraries the selection of dedicated LIS stu- ment. Let us be mildly optimistic being eventually integrated into the dents. Once enrolled, fieldwork is that solar energy, microwave and market. This would effectively end an excellent device for sensitizing satellite technologies may prove any hope of equality of access and students to work ethics and provid- useful in addressing these enor- cede information access entirely to ing a sense of belonging and mous problems. the commercial sector. responsibility. Academic perfor- mance is necessary but not suffi- Herbert Schiller has described the Recommendations. IFLA should cient for advising students on vari- phenomenal growth of corporate take a strong position against fees ous specializations. Such decisions power in the rich countries includ- for basic services broadly construed. must also take service attitude into ing the deregulation of economic IFLA should be an advocate for consideration. Continuing educa- activities, privatization of functions public libraries in their negotiations tion and informal education is a once public, and commercialization with commercial information life-long process. LIS departments of activities once social. To receive providers, and promote a price can reach out to their alumni and assistance, poor countries must con- structure based on ability to pay. provide workshops and seminars. tend with the World Bank's struc- Keeping up these contacts can pro- tural adjustment programmes that vide feedback for continuous revi- mandate privatization, currency Human Resource Devel- talization and improvement of LIS devaluation, removal of trade opment programmes. Library and informa- restrictions, cuts in subsidies, and tion schools can be catalysts in pro- severe reduction of services such as Dennis Ocholla discusses library moting information access and use health and education. And such aid and information education in by disadvantaged communities comes with Eurocentric cultural Africa and the Third World general- through their products, pro- strings attached. Corporate media ly. He compares LIS education to grammes and activities. has the power to choose what ideas the political realm, quoting Ali to present, and regulate what peo- Mazrui's insight that Africa has bor- Recommendation. IFLA should ple think and believe. rowed the wrong things from the encourage library and information West: the profit motive without science schools to adopt a socially As opposed to a "public good", entrepreneurial spirit and the responsible orientation, including transnational corporations view acquisitive appetites of capitalism the promotion of a strong service electronic information as a com- without creative risk-taking. Simi- ethic towards all population groups. modity. Microsoft dominates per- larly, LIS departments are thrilled sonal computing and tries to con- with modern information systems The Electronic Informa- trol Internet content and commerce but apathetic to their development through the arrangement of select- and maintenance. Instead of lavish- tion Gap ed icons on its desktop. Many have ly spending money on Western praised the Internet's diversity and goods and services, it is necessary The Dakar Declaration on the Inter- profound democratic effect, but to address the plight of the infor- net and the African Media (1997) commercialization runs in a mation poor. called for creating a culture of counter direction. There are also online communications and ensur- questions of language and local LIS departments are generally ing African content on the Internet. content. English is the dominant found in universities, and universi- Kagan cites the Declaration as just Internet language, and although ty graduates often dread working one example that people and insti- most countries now have at least with the poor, the illiterate, and in tutions everywhere want electronic minimum presence on the Web, the rural areas. These graduates are access to information and are work- great majority of content is still pro- alienated from the majority of the ing towards their goals. As opposed vided from Europe and North population who see universities as to every country's elites, most of the America. Furthermore, minorities ivory towers. We must provide stu- world's people must contend with within rich countries are also mar- dents with the knowledge that all the barriers associated with ginalized. For example, a recent inculcates a service culture. poverty. Regarding electronic study of United States students Libraries can help empower the access, Zulu noted the following found that 73% of white students information poor in tackling their barriers: lack of adequate electrici- had their own computers as challenges and responsibilities. ty; lack of good computer environ- opposed to 32% of black students. Graduates must understand their ments (dust, humidity, and heat); Libraries have a social responsibili- role in transforming the informa- poorly developed telecommunica- ty to try to equalize access to elec- tion poor into information con- tions infrastructures; few qualified tronic information. We will need to

30 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 The Growing Gap between the Information Rich and Poor become much more politically often do not perceive the impor- better address information gap active within our professional asso- tance of information for national issues. IFLA should compile a ciations and our societies to pro- development. Librarians must work report on how various library asso- mote universal access to informa- to change these attitudes to infor- ciations are addressing these issues. tion. mation and technology transfer.

Recommendations. IFLA should Recommendations. IFLA should Bibliography promote the development of local promote greater resource sharing content electronic resources. IFLA between the North and South, Rural Library Development should promote policies and devel- including Southern links to the Dasgupta, Kalpana. "Libraries: op programmes that equalize access information superhighway. IFLA to the Internet. Responding to Societal and Com- should research the education and munity Needs". Paper Presented at training needs of Southern coun- the seminar, "Libraries: Changing North-South Library tries in order to plan the develop- Information Concepts and Sources", Cooperation ment of appropriate information organized by the American Centre infrastructures. IFLA should urge Library, Calcutta for its 50th appropriate government agencies to Anniversary, April 1993. Ismail Abdullahi begins from the develop policies conducive to the premise that national development development of information infra- Kumar, P. S. G. "Freedom of Infor- necessitates the cooperation of all structures. mation". Presidential Address sectors of a national economy and Delivered at SL-All India Library the integration of economic, social Conference, Goa University, Goa, 5- and cultural advances. Develop- The Profession, Library 8 January 1995. ment therefore requires increased Associations, and IFLA "Role of Public Libraries as Com- access to information. The countries Structure of the North have recognized this munication Centres for Socio-Eco- and use information extensively. nomic Development". Paper Pre- The rapid growth of information The first open meeting of the Social sented for the Souvenir, Two technology is further increasing the Responsibilities Discussion Group Decades of the Foundation, of the already large gap between the was held on 16 August 1998 in Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foun- information rich and poor. There is Amsterdam. There were a number dation, Calcutta, January 1993. a lack of sufficient cooperation and of comments addressing IFLA's Vashishth, C. P., ed. Libraries as resource sharing between North structure and the need to main- Rural Community Resource Cen- and South and a lack of develop- stream the issues of social responsi- tres. Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1995. ment infrastructure in the South. bility. One speaker asserted that IFLA's Regional Sections are mar- The goals should be to remove all Literacy in Libraries barriers of library resource sharing ginalized within Division VIII (Divi- and provide equal access by any sion of Regional Activities), and not- Christie, P. and D. Butler, eds. The individual from any geographical ed that there was a proposal com- Right to Learn: The Struggle for location to the sum total of the ing for changing the structure. It Education in South Africa. Braam- world's knowledge. was noted that the Regional Section fontein: Ravan Press and Johannes- for Latin America and the burg: Sached Trust, 1985. Caribbean was holding a panel on We have recently seen a high Infolit. Annual Report. August the information gap in Amsterdam. degree of interest and activity in 1996. library development and coopera- This speaker noted that there is tion in developing countries. But probably more support than we Koch, Eddie. "Limiting Those Liquid Salman has recognized the follow- know about within IFLA. Another Assets". Leading Edge 6 (April ing problems: lack of essential participant noted that such issues 1996). are pervasive in librarianship, and infrastructures for national infor- Learn and Teach September 1994. mation systems, shortages of skilled that many of us are librarians pre- people, underutilized information cisely to address such concerns. Lunsford, Andrea A., ed. The Right services, unsatisfactory access to Another speaker lamented that to Literacy. New York: The Modern locally produced information, information gap issues are hardly Language Association of America, access to a very limited quantity of talked about in one of the rich 1990. country associations, the American foreign and international informa- Schamber, Linda. The Role of tion literature, and lack of applica- Library Association. There was con- sensus that the Discussion Group Libraries in Literacy Education. tion of new technologies. Further- Syracuse, NY: ERIC Digest, 1990. more, government monopolies have should try to mainstream social often stifled the flow of information responsibility issues within IFLA. Underwood, P. CALICO News 2 (4) due to unwise telecommunications (December 1997). policies and lack of resources. Poli- Recommendations. IFLA should re- cymakers in Africa and elsewhere evaluate its structure in order to Fees for Library Services

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 31 Alfred Kagan

ALA Goal 2000. Chicago: American News from Consumer Project on Emphasis on Africa". Paper Pre- Library Association, 1994. Technology. 3 June 1998. Electronic sented at the 2nd National Confer- file, http://www.essential.org/list- ence of African American Librari- Bakken, Frode. "The Possible Role proc/info-policy-notes/. ans, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1995. for Libraries in the Digital Future". Paper Presented at the EBLIDA Hansell, Saul. "News-Ad Issues Asali, Kamel. "Some Ideas on Coop- Conference and Workshop, "New Arise in New Media". New York eration between National Libraries Developments in Electronic Copy- Times. December 8, 1997, p. C10. in Asia and Oceania". International right", Copenhagen, 12-13 February Library Review 12(1):13(January 1998. Also online at http://www. Haywood, Trevor, Info-Rich - Info- 1980). kaapeli.fi/~eblida/copenhagen/ Poor: Access and Exchange in the bakken.htm Global Information Society. Lon- don: Bowker Saur, 1995. Begg, N. "Development of Resource Latimer, Karen. "Free To Fee: The Sharing in Pakistan". International Current Account from an Academic Hoffman, Donna L. and Thomas P. Library Review 12 (July 1980): 299. Library". Paper Presented at the Novak. "Bridging the Racial Divide 62nd IFLA General Conference, on the Internet". Science 280: 390- Bouazza, Abdelmajid. "Resource Beijing, 25-31 August 1996. 391 (17 April 1998). Sharing among Libraries in Devel- oping Countries: The Gulf between UNESCO Public Library Manifesto. Mchombu, K. J. "On the Librarian- Hope and Reality". International Paris: UNESCO, 1972. ship of Poverty." Libri 32 (3): 241- 250 (1982). Library Review 18: 373-387 (1986).

Human Resource Development Ott, Dana. "Power to the People: Bowden, R. "The Opportunities for, The Role of Electronic Media in Pro- and Problems of, Regional Co-oper- Mazrui, A. A. Cultural Forces in the moting Democracy in Africa". First ation in Library Services in Devel- World Politics. London: James Cur- Monday, Electronic file, http://www. oping Countries". Resource Sharing ry, 1990. firstmonday.dk/issues/issues3_4/ott of Libraries in Developing Coun- Mersham, G. M., R. S. Rensburg, /index. html. tries: Proceedings of the 1977 and J. C. Skinner. Public Relations, Patrikios, Helga Atkinson and Lis- IFLA/Unesco Pre-Conference Semi- Development and Social Invest- beth A. Levey. Survival Strategies nar for Librarians from Developing ment: A Southern African Perspec- in African University Libraries: Countries, Antwerp University, tive. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik Acad- New Technologies in the Service of August 30-September 4, 1977. emic, 1995. Information. Washington DC: Munich and New York: K. G. Saur, 1979. Sturges, P. and R. Neill. The Quiet American Association for the Struggle: Libraries and Information Advancement of Science, Sub-Saha- Fernandes, Tony. Global Interface for Africa. London: Mansell, 1990. ran Africa Program, 1994. Design. Boston: AP Professional, Warner, Alice Sizer. Making Money: Schiller, Herbert I. Information 1995. Fees for Library Services. New York: Inequality: The Deepening Social Neal-Schuman, 1989. Crisis in America. New York and Giplin, Robert. "Equilibrium and London: Routledge, 1996. Decline" in American Foreign Poli- cy: Theoretical Issues, G. John, ed. The Electronic Information Gap Shapiro, Andrew L. "New Voices in Ikenberry, Glenview, Illinois: Harp- Cyberspace". The Nation 266 (21) "Dakar Declaration on the Internet er-Collins, 1989. (June 8, 1998): 36-37. and the African Media". Issued by the seminar on Internet, an Oppor- Srikantaiah, Kanti and Xiaoying Joshi, Kailash and Vicki L. Sauter. tunity for Media and Democracy in Dong. "Internet and Its Impact on "The Opportunities and Constraints Africa?, Dakar, 7-10 July 1997. Developing Countries: Examples Affecting an Informatics Policy: The Dakar: Panos Institute and the Pan from China and India". 1997 IFLA India Experience". Information and African News Agency, 1997. Pam- Paper, Copenhagen, 087-CONTR-6- Management 20: 313 (1991). phlet available from Panos Institute E, booklet 0. at [email protected]. Kent, Allen. "Network Anatomy and Zulu, Saul F. C. "Africa's Survival Network Objectives" in Library Calmon Arruda, Maria da Con- Plan for Meeting the Challenges of Resource Sharing: Proceedings of ceição. "Libraries, New Technolo- Information Technology in the the 1976 Conference on Resource gies and Human Resources: the 1990s and Beyond". Libri 44 (1): 77- Sharing in Libraries, Allen Kent Challenge to the 21st Century". 94 (March 1994). and Thomas J. Galvin, eds. New 1997 IFLA Paper, Copenhagen, 073- York: Marcel Dekker, 1977. CONTR-3-E, booklet 0. North-South Library Cooperation Chun, David. "Exclusive Agree- Mall, Peter. "Should the Third ments with PC Manufacturers and Aman, Mohammed. "Transfer of World Have Information Technolo- Microsoft Regarding Operating Sys- Information Technology to Develop- gy?". IFLA Journal 9: 296-308 tem Software". Info-Policy-Notes: ing Countries with particular (1983).

32 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 The Growing Gap between the Information Rich and Porr

Parker, Thomas F. "Resource Shar- Salman, Lamia. "The Information- Zulu, Saul F. C. "Africa's Survival ing from Inside and Out: Reflec- Needs of the Developing Countries: for Meeting the Challenges of Infor- tions on the Organizational Nature Analytical Case-Studies". Unesco mation Technology in the 1990s of Library Networks". Library Journal of Information Science, and Beyond". Libri 44 (1): 77-94 Resources and Technical Services Librarianship, and Archives Admin- (1994). 19 (4): 352-353 (1975). istration 3: 241-246 (October- December 1981).

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 33 Development of Library and Information Science Periodicals in Asia, with Emphasis on South Asia: Problems and Solutions

R. N. Sharma Introduction and included 10 short articles, a few letters and notes.2 It is a well R.N. Sharma is the Director of ibraries have been part of the known fact that the field of library Libraries at West Virginia State Col- Lworld, including South Asia, for and information science is relative- lege. He is an active professional centuries. Who can forget the Uni- ly new in the modern world. The and has chaired many committees versity of Taxila and Nalanda first library school in the world, of the American Library Association, known as the Columbia School of Association of College and Rese- Library Economy, was opened by arch Libraries, and the Asian/Pacif- the late Melvil Dewey in the United ic American Librarians Association. States in 1887 at New York.3 He was He is the author/editor of 10 books, also the first editor of the Library and has written over 300 articles, Journal, which started publication editorials, interviews, reports and in 1876 by R.R. Bowker from New book reviews. He has received many York, and is still being published on honors, grants and awards including a regular basis. The growth of jour- the Humphry/OCLC/Forest Press nals in all fields of study was slow Award from the ALA in 1997 for his during the late 19th and early 20th significant achievements and contri- centuries but it picked up rapidly in butions to international librarian- the second half of the present cen- ship. Mr Sharma has been the editor tury, including the field of library of Library Times International since and information science. 1984. He led a delegation of Ameri- "Regardless of the publication med- can librarians on a fact-finding mis- ium, serials [periodicals] remain the sion to Palestine in 1997. He is list- key tool for scholarship and the pri- ed in over 20 biographical dictionar- mary source of current information ies including Outstanding People of Libraries which flourished in India and topical news in all fields of the 20th Century; Who Is Who in the during the fifth and seventh centu- endeavor."4 According to the 37th World; and International Who's Who ry AD respectively? Nalanda Uni- edition of Ulrich's International of Professionals. Mr Sharma versity Library was the largest in Periodicals Directory, about 157,173 received a BA (Honors) and an MA Asia during the seventh century serials were published in the world in History from the University of Del- and at its peak of reputation and during 1998, including 1,600 jour- hi, India; an MLS from North Texas international glory in the ninth cen- nals in the field of library and infor- State University; and his PhD from tury AD. These libraries had thou- mation science and computer appli- the State University of New York at sands of books and even hand-writ- cations.5 These figures include 110 Buffalo. Mr Sharma may be contact- ten manuscripts and other types of journals published from Asia. ed at West Virginia State College, materials for the benefit of their According to my research, Asian POB 1002, Institute, West Virginia users, including scholars from countries publish over 200 journals 25112-1002, USA (fax:+(1-304) many Asian countries. It has not in our field in English as well as in 7664103; e-mail: sharmarn@mail. been established whether or not the vernacular languages. Therefore, wvsc.edu). Asian libraries during the ancient the information contained in times had periodicals in their col- Ulrich's International Periodicals [Mr Sharma's paper was delivered at the lections. 65th IFLA Council and General Confer- Directory is not complete. Unfortu- nately, only 22 Asian titles have ence, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-27 August According to various dictionaries, a 1999.] been abstracted in Library and periodical is "a publication with a Information Science Abstracts distinctive title which appears at (LISA),6 published in the UK, and stated or regular interval..."1 The Library Literature, published in birth of the first periodical took New York, has only four titles pub- place on 5 January 1665, at Paris, lished from Asia, and two Asian France. On this historic day, the first titles published in the UK and scientific journal, entitled Journal USA.7 des Scavans, was published. It was the creation of Denys de Sallo, who Japan took the lead in Asia by pub- was a counsellor of the French lishing in 1907 the first library jour- Court of Parliament. The first issue nal, entitled Toshokan Zasshi, of this journal had only 20 pages which is still being published on a

34 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Development of Library and Information Science Periodicals in Asia regular basis. In 1912, India fol- India. The Republic of India is the including Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, lowed by publishing the first Indian largest country and occupies the Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, library journal in English, entitled major part of the South Asian Tamil, and Telugu.14 Library Miscellany. It was the region. India has the advantage brain-child of William Borden, an over other Asian countries in pub- Bangladesh is situated in the north- American librarian who was work- lishing library journals in the Eng- east corner of the South Asian sub- ing in Baroda at the time. Unfortu- lish language because it has the continent. Before becoming an nately, Library Miscellany ceased largest English-speaking population independent country in 1972, it was publication in 1920.8 In 1916 Iyyan- in the world. It publishes 57 jour- part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1972, ki Venkata Ramanayya started a nals in the field of library and infor- and part of India until 1947, when publication in Telugu, entitled mation science, a majority of them the country was divided by the Granthalaya Sarvastvamu, which in English. According to my British at the time of independence. is still published on a regular research, India is the leader in pub- Bangladesh publishes only two basis.9 lishing journals in the field but only journals in the field of library and a handful of them are known and information science. The Eastern China, known for inventing paper available outside India. Librarian is a publication of the and having a long tradition of Library Association of Bangladesh scholarship going back to 26 BC,10 There are a few other good journals and has been published on a regu- was behind in publishing library lit- published in India, including the lar basis since 1966, though issues erature. The most populous country Bulletin of ILA (Indian Library do not always appear on time. The in the modern world, China pub- Association). It was launched in last issue of this publication was a lished its first journal in librarian- 1933 when the ILA was formed, but combined volume 20-22, published ship in 1972 in the Chinese lan- it has changed its title many times. in the spring of 1998. A new jour- guage. The title of this journal is P.N. Kaula started his own journal, nal was launched earlier this year Tushu Gongzuo Tongsum (Book entitled Herald of Library Science, in 1999: Bangladesh Journal of Services Newsletter). At present, 92 in Varanasi in 1962 and it also has Library and Information Science. In journals are published in China, been published on a regular basis addition, a few newsletters in including 62 journals in library sci- for the last 37 years. Mr Kaula edits Bangla are also published in ence and 30 in information science, a few other journals, including Bangladesh, including Informatics. the majority in Chinese. In the view International Information, Com- of Cheng, "there are 12 excellent munication and Education; it is a Bhutan is a small country in the journals of library science in China. multi-disciplinary journal, pub- Himalayan region between India They are the most representative lished semi-annually, and was and Tibet. The development of core journals in library science launched in 1982. Granthalaya libraries and librarianship is still research in China."11 During the Vijnona, also published semi-annu- very limited. According to my infor- first half of the present century, ally, in Hindi, started publication in mation, no library journals are pub- about ten library journals were 1970.12 In 1998, Mr Kaula launched lished from this country. published in Asia. But during the another journal, Ranganathan second half, from 1950 to 1999, Research Bulletin: Supplement to The Maldives is the smallest coun- about 200 new journals started the Herald of Library Science. It is try in the region, south of India. It publication, including titles like the only journal in Asia that is publishes no library and informa- Herald of Library Science, Pakistan devoted exclusively to a particular tion science journals. Library Bulletin, and Eastern school of thought in the field of Librarian. Many good journals such library and information science. It Nepal is another small country, as Modern Librarian and Indian seems that it will be an "effective which divides India from China on Librarian ceased publication for medium to propagate Ran- the foothills of the Himalayas. various reasons, which will be dis- ganathan's ideology and his school There are no major publications cussed later in the article. At pre- of thought."13 Other notable Indian reported in the field of librarian- sent, Japan publishes 63 journals journals in the field are: IASLIC ship, with the exception of an annu- but only seven of them are in Eng- Bulletin (1956-), International al publication of the National Coun- lish. Library Movement (1979-), and Jour- cil for Science and Technology, nal of Library and Information Sci- which deals with libraries in the Library Journals in ence (1976-). In my view, one of the country. best Indian journals is Library Sci- South Asia ence with Slant to Documentation Pakistan was created in 1947, when and Information Science. It was the British divided India in two South Asia has a long history of started by Ranganathan in 1964, regions at the time of indepen- excellent libraries dating back to and is a publication of the Sarada dence. It is situated in the north- the fourth century BC. This area Ranganathan Endowment for west of India. Pakistan has includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Library Science in Bangalore. In "1,500 libraries and 3,000 profes- the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and addition, there are a few journals sional librarians . . . [and] six library Sri Lanka. published in regional languages, schools."15 There were no major

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 35 R. N. Sharma

library journals in Pakistan until examined a majority of South nals without looking at their quali- the Pakistan Library Association Asian and many other library jour- ty. They need to be edited properly, was founded in 1964. The Pakistan nals for this paper. From an editor's and good proofreading should be Library Bulletin, a quarterly jour- view, I must say that there are done before the final copy of any nal, started publication in Karachi many problems with Asian journals journal is approved for printing. in 1968. At present, there are 11 including South Asian journals Perhaps poor quality of the paper, journals and newsletters published which need immediate attention. poor writing and poor editing are in Pakistan, of which 10 are in Eng- the main reasons that these jour- lish and one in Urdu. It is possible A majority of library journals in nals are not subscribed to by many that there may be a few journals Asia, including South Asian coun- libraries, and as a result they have published in regional languages tries, are published quarterly, a few low circulation. Even Ulrich's Inter- such as Punjabi and Sindhi, but I semi-annually, a few yearly, and national Periodicals Directory does am not aware of them. some even published irregularly. It not give circulation figures of many is very disappointing that many journals published from South Asia Sri Lanka is an island to the south- journals do not appear on time. and other Asian countries.18 east of the southernmost point of Sometimes a few issues, or even a India in Tamil Nadu. It has a good few volumes, are combined. The Many editors have started their working network of libraries and a editors are to be blamed for this own journals in South Asia without few library schools. At present, four unprofessionalism. They should proper planning, finances, and mar- library journals are published in Sri know the importance of research keting. This has resulted in the pre- Lanka. They are Sri Lanka Library and timely information needed by mature death of many journals. A Review, published semi-annually in scholars, researchers, faculty mem- majority of the editors are part- English, and Journal of University bers, librarians, students, and other time, without any proper help, Librarians Association of Sri Lan- users. A journal is a "primary which makes it very difficult to run ka, an annual publication in Eng- means of scholarly communicat- a quality and profitable business. lish, and two other quarterlies, ion . . . [it] offers authors and read- Even many library associations which are trilingual (Sinhalese, ers some advantages over the have part-time editors for their Tamil, and English). monograph: . . . [including] inten- journals. It helps to have full-time sive study of very specific questions staff for those journals and newslet- A limited number of journals (rang- or aspects of large problems, and ters that appear monthly or more ing from one to four) are published the timely publication of intended frequently. It is important to include in various other Asian countries in communication."17 Therefore, all only the best articles on important both English and regional lan- library journals must be published topics to attract more readers and guages. They include two each in on time for the benefit of interested subscribers. It is always good to English and Indonesian from users and readers. have a few referees to read manu- Indonesia; one in English and three scripts and act on their advice. I in Malay/English from Malaysia; The invention of printing in 1440 would like to know how many four (in English) from the Philip- provided a new tool for sharing and manuscripts are rejected by editors. pines; three from Singapore; two communicating thoughts with oth- from Korea; one in English and four ers in a form which led to the birth Another problem with a few South from Taiwan (including one in Eng- of periodicals. Unfortunately, the Asian journals is that their foreign lish); two from Thailand; and four paper used by a majority of pub- subscription rates are very high, from Vietnam.16 lishers for printing library journals with the exception of a few journals is of very poor quality. It becomes and newsletters from Sri Lanka, yellow within a few years. Maybe it making it very difficult for Western Problems and Solutions is not acid-free, thus shortening the countries to subscribe to them. It life of paper. Therefore, it is very seems that editors and/or publish- It is certainly good to know that important to use an acid-free quali- ers want to become rich overnight Asia produces over 200 journals in ty paper to preserve the writings of without delivering the product on the field of library and information all scholars in every language of time and in many science which includes over 70 jour- Asia including English, and to cases without the necessary quality nals from South Asia. I have been make microfilm copies of all impor- in their publications. If the price is editor of Library Times Internation- tant library journals. right and you have a quality jour- al since 1984, and associate editor nal, you will certainly attract more of International Leads since 1996. I Many articles in South Asian Eng- subscribers, and you will make have been interested in research, lish-language journals are of very more money, if that is your motive. writing, and publishing since my poor quality. First, writers do not Otherwise, subscription figures will high school days. At present, I read make sense and write poor sen- not improve. many library journals regularly to tences. Many times there is no link enhance my knowledge, and to see between paragraphs. It seems that Excellent marketing of library jour- the quality of the library journals the editors are desperate to get arti- nals is the key to success. I have from an editor's viewpoint. I have cles and publish them in their jour- been very active in the field of

36 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Development of Library and Information Science Periodicals in Asia librarianship for over 25 years. Dur- only good comments from libraries increasingly expecting their pub- ing these years, I have not seen any and librarians. Everything is possi- lishers to exploit the many advan- letters or sample copies of journals ble in the world with hard work, tages of online distribution. Impor- from any editor or publisher from determination, and goals, and we tant research can be disseminated South Asia. I have not seen any know that the sky is the limit. faster, and relevant material can be advertisements for Asian journals found more precisely. But this will in publications of South Asia and Not all Western journals and not happen if each publisher erects North America. It is very important newsletters are of top quality, but ring fences around their own port- to have a good plan to market a many of them have succeeded folio of information."20 He added, library journal. It should be done because of their excellent services, "Clearly, there is a need for a 'one- on a regular basis by advertising in and publishing every issue on time stop shop' where all the major jour- various library journals, direct mar- with a few exceptions. There are 56 nals from whatever publishers can keting by sending sample issues to ALA-accredited library schools in be searched and accessed without prospective subscribers, distribut- Canada and the United States. I time-consuming visits to a succes- ing free copies to librarians at vari- conducted a survey of the holdings sion of different Web sites [or jour- ous regional and national confer- of Asian library journals in their nals]...[Therefore, we should] maxi- ences, calling people on the phone, libraries. Only 32 schools respond- mize the exposure of our authors' hiring firms to do marketing for ed by fax, mail, e-mail, and voice research to the global community you, and even giving discounts to mail. Ten schools do not get any of academics, researchers, and prac- various subscription agencies to library journals from Asia. The Uni- ticing professionals."21 The publish- market and sell your publication. versity of Hawaii receives 54 jour- ers of Asian, including South Asian, nals, followed by the University of library journals must work together Another problem with a few pub- Illinois at Urbana-Champaign with and include their journals on major lishers is that lost and damaged 33, and the University of Pittsburgh Web site databases. It will give copies of their journals are never with 28. Other schools subscribe to them more publicity, and their replaced free. Often even authors only a few journals. According to material will be used by many do not receive free copies of jour- deans/librarians of these schools, interested scholars, researchers, nals and/or offprints of their arti- budget is the main problem for not students, and others for their cles. ordering any journals from Asia. A needs. If no action is taken by pub- second reason is that there is no lishers and editors, they will be left Times have changed due to the interest in the faculty or students to behind in this race on the Informa- introduction of technology. Many read these journals. Another reason tion Superhighway of the 21st journals are available in full text on mentioned was the Asian languages century. various databases on the Web and with which their students are not on CD-ROM. It helps readers to do familiar.19 A few librarians and A few more observations from an research much faster. But I have yet library educators have even men- editor's point of view. As noted ear- to see a South Asian journal on any tioned poor quality of journals, and lier, many journals do not appear North American database on the others mentioned self-promotion by on time. The same is true of Web and/or on CD-ROM. A majori- one editor of an Indian library jour- abstracts and indexes. For example, ty of good South Asian and other nal. It is unfortunate that a majori- Indian Library Science Abstracts, Asian journals in the field of library ty of these schools do not offer any Guide to Indian Periodicals, and and information science should be courses in Asian librarianship, com- Index India are also published late. made available electronically as parative librarianship, or interna- All journals, abstracts and indexes soon as possible for the benefit of tional librarianship to their stu- should be published on time for the researchers and other users. It will dents. The American Library Asso- benefit of researchers. All journals help in publicity also. ciation with its 57,000 members is should also include an index for the largest and the oldest library each volume and letters to the edi- I have been an advocate of excel- association (founded in 1876) in the tor. Publishers may consider includ- lent service and quality journals. As world. It has been advocating ing a few advertisements from oth- editor of Library Times Internation- "Local Touch and Global Reach." er publishers, booksellers, vendors, al since 1984, I believe we have How can it achieve this goal when a and subscription agencies; this may succeeded because of our commit- majority of the accredited schools give their publications more visibil- ment to excellence, good marketing, in North America do not offer any ity, increase subscriptions, and and assistance from a team of 55 courses in librarianship in Asia, improve cash flow. Perhaps it is reporters. Our reporters from many where over two billion people live, time for commercial publishers to countries, including a few from and do not subscribe to Asian jour- take the responsibility and start South Asia, send in their reports on nals? publishing a few quality monthly a regular basis for every issue, our library journals and newsletters in editors and staff work very hard to Martin Richardson, Journals Direc- South Asia and other Asian coun- gather stories, and we publish each tor of Oxford University Press, is of tries. Excellent products and ser- issue on time. We have subscribers the opinion that "both authors and vices should be the main concern of in over 60 countries. We have heard readers of learned journals are all editors and publishers. It will

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 37 R. N. Sharma

not hurt the editors and publishers References Research in China." Asian Libraries 5: to take a few courses in journalism 33 (1996). and editing to enhance their knowl- 1 Singh, Sewa and Sukhbir Singh. 12 Singh, Sewa and Sukhbir Singh, op. edge. Even an internship with a "Library and Information Science cit. leading journal and/or a newspaper Periodicals in India: A Study towards 13 Satija, M.P. "Ranganathan Research Standardization." Herald of Library would help present and future edi- Bulletin". Book review in Library Science 29: 200-212 (July-October tors. There are many good books in Times International 16: 10 (July 1990). the market on publishing including 1999). a new publication, entitled Journal 2 Kaula, P.N. "Periodicals in Libraries: 14 Publishing,22 which can teach all of Peculiarities, Problems and Treat- Singh, Sewa and Sukhbir Singh, op. cit. us a few important and basic prin- ment." Herald of Library Science, 28: ciples of editing and publishing, 69-74 (January-April 1989). 15 Mahmood, Khalid. "Library and Infor- 3 which in the long run will benefit "Library School Libraries." In Ency- mation Services in Pakistan." Infor- clopedia of Library and Information everyone. mation Forum on Information and Science, Allen Kent, Harold Lancour Documentation. 22: 16 (April 1997). and Jay E. Daily, eds. New York: Mar- 16 Ulrich's International Periodicals Finally, we must keep in mind that cel Dekker, 1975. 4 Directory, op. cit. journalism in librarianship covers Ulrich's International Periodicals 17 Mahmood, op. cit. local, regional, national, and inter- Directory, 37th ed. New Providence, NJ: R.R. Bowker, 1998. national news and scholarship. 18 Ulrich's International Periodicals 5 Ibid. Journals will continue to play a Directory, op. cit. 6 Library and Information Science major role in dissemination 19 Abstracts. London: R.R. Bowker. Survey of accredited library and infor- of...information23 for a long time mation studies schools in Canada and 7 Library Literature. New York: H.W. because they are indispensable. the United States, 1998-1999. Wilson. Therefore, we editors must present 8 Singh, Sewa and Sukhbir Singh, op. 20 Oxford University Press and EBSCO our quality publications in such a cit. Partner for Electronic Access. Press manner that they will have a posi- 9 Ibid. release, March 22, 1999. tive impact on the field, and help 10 Wang, Rui and William Studwell. "A 21 Ibid. every interested individual in the Bibliographic Guide to Chinese Seri- 22 profession rather than only a few of als in Library and Information Sci- Page, Gillian, et. al. Journal Publish- us. Otherwise, we will not be suc- ence." Serials Librarian 25: 221 ing. Cambridge University Press, 1997. cessful in our efforts to improve the (1994). 23 Amarasuriya, Nimala R. "Scientific field of library and information sci- 11 Huanwei Cheng. "A Bibliometric Journals of Sri Lanka". Information ence in the third millennium. Study of Library and Information Development 7: 204 (October 1991).

38 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey: A Content Analysis of Journal Articles 1952-1994

Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvaç Yalvaç is a full-time faculty member Introduction at Istanbul University, Faculty of Let- ters, Department of Library Science, Aysel Yontar received her BA in he major purpose of this article Fen Fakültesi PTT 34459, Veznecil- Library Science from the Faculty of Tis to provide a content analysis er, Istanbul, Turkey (fax: +(90-212) Letters at Istanbul University; her of the LIS research articles 5140387; e-mail: yalvacm@ MLS from the University of Wiscon- published in the journal, Türk istanbul.edu.tr). sin; and her PhD in Library Science from the Faculty of Letters, Istanbul University. Her academic interests include reference and information services; library and information centre management; and library and information science theory and edu- cation. Her administrative and orga- nizational experience include: mem- ber of the Administrative Committee of the Turkish Librarians' Associa- tion; Head of the departments of periodicals, documents and refer- ence services at the Bosphorus Uni- versity Library; Deputy Librarian at Bosphorus University Library; and presently Head of the Department of Library Science, Istanbul University and also Chair of Documentation and Information Science at the same department. Ms Yontar is also a member of the Standing Commit- tee of the IFLA Section on Library Theory and Research. She may be contacted at Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Department of Library Science, Fen Fakültesi PTT 34459, Vezneciler, Istanbul, Turkey (fax: +(90-212) 5140387; e-mail: [email protected]).

Mesut Yalvaç received his BA, MA and PhD degrees from Istanbul Uni- versity. He was a member of the Turkish Librarians' Association Istanbul Branch's Administrative Committee from 1996 until 1998. He continues serving as a member Kütüphaneciligi (Turkish Librarian- of Istanbul University Faculty of Let- ship), between 1952 and 1994. Top- ters Administrative Committee and ical analysis of research articles and as member of its Informatics Poli- professional articles are presented. cies Consultative Committee. His Research articles are also analyzed academic interests include informa- by organizations, by research strate- tion technology; automated library gies and by methods of data collec- and information services; reference tion used. and information services; library and information centre manage- Especially within the last two ment; and systems analysis at the decades, many bibliometric studies library and information centres. Mr providing analyses of library and

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 39 Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvaç

information science research publi- ses, 110 were analyzed by organiza- Turkey, though our database cations have appeared mainly in tions, by topics, by research strate- includes only the articles of one the professional literature outside gies and by data collection methods journal. The major reason for this Turkey. Among the most-cited used. assumption is that there are two examples of these are Peritz, 1, professional journals published in Nour,2 Feehan, et. al.,3 Atkins 4 and This study is a continuation of the Turkey, excluding several newslike Järvelin and Vakkari.5,6 previous work by Ms Yontar. Both periodicals issued by either various studies taken together will give a branches of the Turkish Library Beginning in 1980, several biblio- much more representative picture Association or by some libraries. metric studies which related to the of LIS research in Turkey and this The oldest and the most widely analysis of LIS research were also is the major contribution of the pre- known journal is Türk Kütüphane- made in Turkey. Two of these ana- sent study. ciligi (TK) which is preceded by the lyzed the research methods used in Türk Kütüphaneciler Dernegi Bül- the graduate theses prepared at the The Data teni (TKDB) published between three departments of library science 1952 and 1987. Beginning in 1987, 7,8 in Turkey. A more recent article As stated before, the database of the both its title and its volume num- compared the results of main for- study consists of the journal articles bering changed. (In library opera- eign and Turkish studies on the published in a specific journal in tions, each of them would be con- content analysis of graduate Turkey over a definite period. The sidered as separate journals, but for 9 theses. However, until now, only reasons for limiting the data not the sake of this study, we preferred 10 one study analyzed the contents only to journals, but also to articles to consider the two journals as one.) of the journal Türk Kütüphaneciler in one journal, are summarized Until 1996, the editorial policy of Dernegi Bülteni (Turkish Librari- below. this quarterly journal was "to ans' Association Bulletin - later include any piece of writing related entitled Türk Kütüphaneciligi). Clearly, journals constitute one of to the profession, that is either the major sources which include research or non-research items."12 One of the common characteristics research data in the LIS field as Beginning in 1996, the editorial of all the studies made either in well as in other fields. Järvelin and policy has changed and the journal Turkey or abroad is the difference Vakkari11 indicate that "...many has become a refereed publication. not only in terms of the methods articles with characteristics of, for used, but also in the types of data example, social and humanistic The second journal, entitled and the periods covered. This is a research, are published in LIS jour- Kütüphanecilik Dergisi (KD) (Jour- general characteristic which limits nals. The most significant research, nal of Librarianship) has been pub- the comparability of various studies regardless of the LIS subfield, is lished irregularly since 1987 by the on similar subject fields. In both of published in international journals. Department of Library Science of their works referred above, Järvelin Moreover, journal articles have Istanbul University. Up to now, only and Vakkari have tried to overcome been the almost sole source of data three issues of the journal have this limitation by providing a more in recent studies on LIS research been published and presently systematic approach than other publications." preparations are underway for the researchers in analyzing the LIS lit- publication of the fourth issue. This erature. This is the main reason we But although journals are an journal aims to be a more scholarly have preferred to use their method important source of research data, one, but since only a few issues of it in the present analysis. there are also other categories of have been published, it can hardly sources, like monographic research, represent the LIS research picture The idea to analyze the LIS graduate theses, or research reports, in Turkey. Therefore, although at research literature in Turkey by etc., which provide data that may the beginning of our study we using Järvelin and Vakkari's classi- not be totally reported in journals. planned to include it in our analy- fications began in 1994 when the For this reason, we assume that sis, we later changed our view, first, IFLA Section on Library Theory journal articles will give a repre- because elimination of this journal and Research offered Ms Yontar the sentative picture, instead of a com- would not make a noteworthy effect opportunity to prepare a paper on plete picture, of LIS research in any on the results of our analysis, and the subject. At the beginning, the country, an assumption which has second, because by eliminating a author had planned to analyze all also been shared by Järvelin and negligible part of the data, we of the research materials published Vakkari. Obviously, even the level would be able to give a total profile in Turkey from the 1920s up to of representation of the journal arti- of at least one journal. 1994. However, for several reasons, cles will vary according to the books and journal articles were extent of coverage of journals. eliminated and the study was limit- Selection of the Articles ed to analyzing only the graduate With the above considerations in and the Periodization of theses produced by the three mind, the database of this study is Data departments of library science in inclusive enough to make highly Turkey between 1958 and 1994. reliable inferences about the Out of a total of 817 items pub- Out of a total of 127 graduate the- research articles published in lished in TK between 1952 and

40 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey

1994, we decided that only 644 period. The third period is also research strategy, data collection items should be included in the characterized with the enactment of method, type of analysis and type of study. Of this total, 517 were pro- a new university law (The Higher investigation. By using these classi- fessional articles and 127 were Education Law of 1981), which has fication schemes, the authors have research articles. We eliminated not brought about many changes in the analyzed the contents of interna- only the editorials, newslike Turkish higher education system. In tional LIS journals published reviews, professional news, texts of relation to our topic, one of its between 1965 and 1985. speeches delivered at professional results was the foundation of many ceremonies, etc., but also the new universities and a second In analyzing our data, we used only reprinted articles and translations. result was the introduction of mas- the topical and methodological clas- Included were only the full-length ter's programmes in between the sifications mentioned above. The professional and research articles. undergraduate and the doctoral methods used in the research arti- In determining the research articles, programmes at all universities. Nat- cles were analyzed by only the two we used the same criterion men- urally, the results of this new law variables, the research strategies tioned in Järvelin and Vakkari's would also be observed better in and the data collection methods. studies, that is, only the articles pre- the fourth period. Among other Therefore, we have excluded certain senting some new facts, concepts or major developments in this last variables, but we have not modified ideas by means of a defined goal period were the publication of a the classifications. The analysis of and method were considered second professional journal, the research articles by organiza- research articles. Meanwhile, we Kütüphanecilik Dergisi in 1987, and tions was based on Kumpulainen's had to examine almost all the arti- the adoption of a new policy by the classification.15 cles one by one, because abstracts editorial board of the journal TK to of articles began to appear irregu- publish articles through a referee- larly in TK since 1985. ing process. In a more recent study concerning content analysis of LIS research in As for the periodization of data, we The Method China, Järvelin and Vakkari's classi- used four different time divisions. fications were used with some mod- 16 The first period covers the years ifications. We did not make any We have already indicated that our modifications in the classifications 1952-1964. The second, third, and analysis is based mostly on Järvelin fourth periods cover the years 1965- mentioned for two reasons. First, and Vakkari's classifications, which our study is a continuation of the 1974, 1975-1984, and 1985-1994 are described in more detail in the respectively. We could not divide previous study of Yontar. In that authors' earlier work of 1990. In study, Järvelin and Vakkari's classi- the whole period equally, but we our opinion, the most noteworthy find the periodization quite mean- fications were used without any characteristic of these classifications modifications. Therefore, any modi- ingful, because each period repre- is that they provide a holistic as sents characteristic developments, fications made in the same classifi- well as an analytical approach to cation schemes used in the present specifically those which have direct- LIS research, a characteristic which ly influenced the growth and the study would limit the comparability is lacking in former studies and of both studies. Second, although dissemination of the research activ- which allows a more universal ities. Järvelin and Vakkari's classifica- application. tions can be modified and/or The first period represents a 13- Järvelin and Vakkari 13,14 have pro- refined, at least in principle, we year interval characterized by two vided several classification schemes believe that until such a refinement major events, namely, publication which can be grouped under three is realized, it would be better not to of the first professional journal, TK different categories. The first cate- modify them in order to also obtain (in that period entitled Türk gory includes a topical classifica- truer comparisons of similar studies Kütüphaneciler Dernegi Bülteni); tion, dividing all the LIS topics into at the international level. and the foundation of the first 11 major fields and their subfields. department of library science at The second category of classifica- Finally, in the topical classification, Ankara University in 1954. Begin- tions aims to determine the each item was classified under only ning from the second period, all the approaches used in each study in one topic. An article dealing with rest were divided into 10-year inter- terms of both the "viewpoint on more than one topic was classified vals. During the second period, two information dissemination (e.g., the only under the main topic. The other departments of library science intermediary's or end-user's view- same method was followed in the were founded, the first one at Istan- point) and the social level (e.g., indi- classification of the articles by orga- bul University in 1964, and the sec- vidual, organizational) of the object nizations and by methods. As in ond one at Hacettepe University in of study." The third category allows, Yontar's previous study, the greatest Ankara in 1973. Though the foun- in general, the analysis of methods difficulty also experienced in this dation of the latter department had used in studies of LIS research. study was to determine the research to be included in the second period, More specifically, different classifi- methods used in the research arti- its real impact on research activities cation schemes are provided to ana- cles, because in most of the articles would normally be felt in the third lyze the data with the variables the research strategies and data col-

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 41 Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvac

lection methods were not indicated topic and an increasing interest in vices" (2%). Unfortunately, there clearly enough. the latter one. In the same area, top- was only one article on "informa- ics like "circulations or interlibrary tion-seeking behavior" whereas no loans" (1%-2%), "user educa- article appeared on the topics "dis- Findings tion"(1%-3%), "other L&I service semination of information", "use of activities"(1%) and "library build- information" or on "information A total of 644 professional and ings and facilities"(1%-2%) management". research articles published in TK appeared to be the least popular. between 1952 and 1994 were The percentage of "information and Among the least popular topics included in the study. Out of this reference services" was quite mod- within the main areas were "other total 517 are professional articles est (3%-5%). Meanwhile, there was aspects of LIS" (1%), "analysis of and 127 are research articles. While a remarkable decrease in the per- LIS" (1%), "education in LIS" as in the first period, the percentage of centage of "collections" from 13% well as "methodology of LIS" (both research articles was 4.6%, in the to 5% and an increase in the share with equal percentages of 1%-3%). last period this percentage of "automation" from 1% to 9%. Interestingly enough, the topic increased to 42.7%. (See Appendix, This must be the result of a grow- "methodology of LIS" seemed to be Table 1). This is a positive trend ing trend towards newer topics in relatively popular in the last period. because it means that the journal the last period. Meanwhile, there was no article on TK represents an increasing share the topic "scientific and profession- of the research articles. However, as Among the main topics, the second al communication". the proportion of the research arti- most popular was "IS&R", though cles especially in the first two peri- its share (5%-24%) was not steady. Research Articles ods is very low, comparison of the Whereas interest in this topic Trends in the topics of research arti- professional and the research arti- declined to 5% towards the third cles indicated interesting similari- cles for these periods is less objec- period, it grew to 16.8% in the last ties with the those of the profes- tive than the comparison of the arti- period. Within the area of "IS&R", sional articles. As in the profession- cles in the last two periods. This is the articles focused mostly on clas- al articles, in research articles,too, an inevitable limitation of the study, sification, cataloguing and biblio- the most popular main area was because our database includes only graphic studies. The topic "biblio- "L&I service activities" (43%- 60%). the articles of one journal. graphic databases/bibliographies" lost in popularity with a percentage The second most popular main area decreasing from 20.1% to 5.3% was "IS&R". However, a closer The results of the analysis of arti- towards the last period. On the con- analysis of the topics within these cles are presented below. First, the trary, the topic "classification and main areas also showed some dis- professional and research articles indexing" gained popularity, with similarities of interests. are analyzed by topics. Then its share increasing from 2.1% to research articles are analyzed by 6.3% and the topic "cataloguing", organizations, by research strate- Within the area of "L&I service also, growing from 0.7% to 5.3%. gies and by data collection methods activities", the most popular topic Unfortunately, "information retrie- used. was "administration or planning" val" was the least popular topic (26%-31%). It was followed by "sev- with a share of 0.8% and it was eral interconnected activities", Topical Distribution of dealt with only in the third period. though the share of this topic decreased from 14% to 8%. The Professional and As for the trend in the other main share of "automation" (3%-10%) Research Articles areas, "library history", for exam- was high, too. In fact, this topic ple, was another popular topic, with seemed to be the second most pop- a relatively steady share between Professional Articles ular in the last period. The topics 15%-20%, though it lost in popular- "collections" and "circulation or Analysis of the articles by main ity towards the last period. Interest interlibrary loans" had equal fields and subfields is given in in topics such as "publishing" (2%- shares(6% -14%), though the inter- Table 2a and Table 2b in the Appen- 8%), "professions" (1%-5%), and est on these topics declined. The dix. As can be seen from both "other studies" (1%-4%) also share of "information and reference tables, in professional articles the declined. services" was highest (7%) in the topic "L&I service activities" was second period and after a small most popular in each period and its On the other hand, "information decline, it increased to 4% in the percentage (49%-63%) was relative- seeking" became more popular, last period. Among the least popu- ly steady. Within this area, the arti- with its share increasing from 1% lar topics were "user education" cles focused mostly on either "sev- to 6.3%. Within this area, the arti- and "library buildings and facili- eral interconnected activities" (14%- cles focused only on the topic "use ties", with equal shares of 3% only 26%) or on "administration or plan- and users of channels and sources in the third period. There was no ning" (5%-22%), though with a of information" (1%-4%) and to a article on "other L&I service activi- decreasing interest in the former lesser extent on "use of L&I ser- ties".

42 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey

As indicated above, the second the areas of "analysis of LIS" and to this table, the shares of "empiri- most popular main area was "other aspects of LIS". cal research strategy" (21%-57%) "IS&R", with the percentages of and "literature review" (14%-57%) 9%-50%. Interest in this area was Distribution of Research Articles by appear to be much higher than the highest in the second period, Type of Organizations others. However, in the last period, declined sharply in the third period use of "literature review" was high- and increased to a percentage of Analysis of the research articles by er than the use of "empirical strate- 11% in the last period. Within this organizational type was found gy". area, the topics "cataloguing" (6%- meaningful for two reasons. First, 14%), "classification and indexing" this kind of analysis can give an Of the "empirical strategy", the (1%-29%) and "bibliographic stud- idea about which types of libraries most frequent ones were the "sur- ies" (3%-7%) seemed to be most or information science organiza- vey method" (14%-31%) and the popular. However, they all lost in tions are studied most or least and "historical method" (4%-29%). Also, popularity, though the shares of also which types are not studied at there was an increasing trend "cataloguing" were still the highest all. Second, as the variable "type of towards using the survey method, (6%) in the last two periods. The organizations" was used in Yontar's while the use of the historical least popular topic was "informa- previous study, we thought that we method dropped in the last period. tion retrieval" (1%). should also use the same variable On the other hand, "experiment" in this study for a better compari- and "content or protocol analysis" Interest in the other main areas son of both studies. methods were the least frequent changed considerably. For example, ones, each with around 3%. Other though "library history" seemed to Organizational analysis of the empirical methods, like "qualitative be quite popular, its share research articles was based on method", "evaluation method", decreased from 43% to 7% towards Kumpulainen's classification, which "case or action research method" as the last period. Similar decreases of consists of 7 categories. (See Table 3 well as "citation analysis" or "other interest appeared in the areas of in the Appendix). As can be seen bibliometric method" were not used "publishing" and "professions", too. from the table, the shares of the at all. While the percentages of "publish- articles included in the categories ing" and "professions" reached 9% "organization type irrelevant" Use of the conceptual research and 5% respectively in the third (34%-50%) and "several types of strategy is also high, with total per- period, they both dropped to 1% in libraries" (20%-57%) are higher centages of 9%-21%. Of this the last period. On the contrary, than the percentages of articles in method, the proportion of "verbal though the area of "information the other categories. This means argumentation or critique" was seeking" was not dealt with in the that interest in the various opera- higher than the proportion of "con- first two periods, its share increased tions or activities carried out within cept analysis" in the last period. to 10% in the last period. In this libraries is much higher than the Also, "mathematical or logical area, the percentages of the topic interest in the changing roles of the method" (6%) was only used in the "use and users of channels and libraries or in the library systems. last period. On the other hand, "bib- sources of information" (6%-8%) The percentages in the categories liographic method"(1.4%) and "sys- was highest while the shares of "academic and/or special libraries" tem and software analysis and "use of L&I services" (1%) was low- (15%-21%) and the percentages in design" (1.4%) were those least fre- est. No research article appeared the "public library" (7%-17%) are quent. either on the topics of "dissemina- relatively high. There seems to be tion of information", "information less interest in other types of Distribution of Data Collection seeking behavior", "use of informa- libraries, as the shares of articles in Methods Used in Research Articles tion" or on "information manage- this category are rather low (3%- ment". 10%), though interest in this area Table 5 in the Appendix indicates seems to have increased to 10% in that the shares of "several methods Researchers did not deal scientifi- the last period. On the other hand, of collecting" (24%-71%) and "use cally with the areas of either "edu- the category "other organizations" of the data collected earlier" (14%- cation" or "methodology of LIS" in (1%-3%) is the least popular. Inter- 65%) are the highest, though the the first two periods. Later the per- estingly enough, there is no proportion of the latter (65%) is centage of "education" reached 3% research article in the category higher than the former in the last and that of "methodology" to 6%. "information service organiza- period. tions". In research articles, the least popu- Among the other data collection lar main area was "scientific and Distribution of Research Strategies methods used were "questionnaire professional communication" (1%) in Research Articles and interview" (6%-14%) and "his- and in this area only one article was torical source analysis" (3%-14%). published concerning "citation pat- Research strategies (methods) used Again, proportion of the former terns and structures". On the other in research articles are given in (6%) is higher than the latter (3%) hand, no article was published in Table 4 of the Appendix. According in the last period. "Content analy-

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 43 Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvac

sis" (1%) and "thinking aloud" (1%- ities between this study and According to Järvelin and Vakkari, 3%) were those least frequent and Järvelin and Vakkari's study of the decline of interest in automa- they were used mainly in later peri- 1993. tion may be explained by the inte- ods. The methods of "observation" gration of this topic into other top- and "citation analysis" were not Topical analysis of the professional ics. used at all. and research articles indicated that in both groups of articles, the most Of the main area of "IS&R", the popular main areas were the "L&I most popular topics in both group Discussion service activities" and "IS&R", of articles were "cataloguing", respectively. Similar trends of inter- "classification and indexing" and This study analyzed the articles est were also observed in graduate "bibliographic databases and bibli- published in the single most cur- theses.18 In this respect, a reverse ographies". However, while in pro- rent Turkish journal TK between trend of interest was obtained by fessional articles there was a sharp the years 1952 and 1994. Distribu- Järvelin and Vakkari's study. So, in decrease of interest in "bibliograph- tion of the articles over four differ- general, the focus of LIS research in ic databases/bibliographies" and an ent periods was given. In the classi- Turkey has not changed for almost increase of interest in the two other fication of the articles, Järvelin and 40 years. Therefore, more research topics towards the last period, in Vakkari's as well as Kumpulainen's is needed in the main area of research articles interest decreased classification schemes were used. "information storage and retrieval" in all of the three topics mentioned to realize at least a reasonable bal- above. Still, the share of "catalogu- Two main findings were obtained ance between research made in the ing" was higher than the other two from the study. One was that the two main areas mentioned. topics in research articles. Again, percentage of research articles was "information retrieval" was the rather low as compared to the per- Within the main area of "L&I ser- least popular topic in both group of centage of professional articles, vice activities", the topic "several articles. In graduate theses, "classi- since their average share amounted interconnected activities" was most fication and indexing" as well as to only 19.7% of the total data. This popular in professional articles, "bibliographic studies" seemed to percentage was much lower in the whereas "administration or plan- be most popular whereas "'cata- first two periods and was higher in ning" was most popular in research loguing" seemed to be least popular the last two periods. Although the articles, though interest in "admin- with no research on the topic increase in research articles istration or planning" seemed also "information retrieval". On the oth- towards the later periods is a posi- to increase in professional articles. er hand, Järvelin and Vakkari's tive trend in terms of the growth Again, in both group of articles, study reveals different results, as in both in the production and the dis- interest in "automation" was higher their study "information retrieval" semination of LIS research in than the interest in "reference or is the most popular topic within the Turkey, this result should be information services". This must be area "IS&R". Therefore, research approached cautiously. Because, the result of the increased trend especially in "information retrieval" though the journal TK includes towards automation of library ser- should be encouraged in Turkey. most of the LIS research articles in vices especially in the last two Turkey, the total number of decades. However, as professional As for the other main areas, though research articles published in this reference and information services "library history" seemed to be quite journal within a period of 43 years are lacking in many libraries in popular in both groups of articles, it is only 127. On the other hand, the Turkey, more research is needed in lost in popularity towards the last total number of the graduate theses this field. Among the less or the period. Interest in topics like "pub- prepared at the three departments least popular topics were "circula- lishing" and "professions" also of library science between 1958 and tion or interlibrary loans", "collec- decreased. More research is needed 1994 also amounts to only 127. 17 tions", "library buildings and facili- in all these areas. On the other Therefore, although the largest ties" and "other L&I service activi- hand, attention paid to the area of body of LIS research is represented ties" in Turkey. Similar trends in "information seeking" increased by the journal above and by the terms of both the most and the sharply, especially in research arti- graduate theses in Turkey, the least popular topics within the area cles. Within this area, the topic "use research represented by both "L&I service activities" are also and users of channels or sources of groups of materials is less than 300. mostly observed in the graduate information" was most popular and Therefore, immediate provisions theses. In Järvelin and Vakkari's "use of library and information ser- are needed to increase the produc- study of 1993, "administration and vices" was least popular. No tion and dissemination of LIS planning", "automation" and "col- research or professional article research in Turkey. lections" appear to be the most pop- appeared on the topics "dissemina- ular topics. However, contrary to tion of information", "use of infor- Another main finding is that simi- our findings, the topic "automa- mation", "information manage- larities between the results of this tion" seems to have lost in popular- ment" and "information seeking study and the former study of Yon- ity, while there is a revival of inter- behavior", except one professional tar is much higher than the similar- est in the topic "collections". article on the last topic mentioned.

44 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey

In graduate theses, while "library tions of the libraries than to the various methods of empirical strat- history" was not studied at all and functions or the roles of the differ- egy is needed and from the interna- the topic "professions" was studied ent types of libraries in society, in tional perspective use of the "quali- little, interest in "publishing" was general. Also, the proportion of the tative method" as well as evaluative high and interest in "professions" articles in the categories of "public and experimental methods should was moderate. In Järvelin and library" and "academic and/or spe- be encouraged, as these methods Vakkari's analysis, while interest in cial libraries" were higher than the seem to be among the least popular "professions" and "library history" proportion of articles in the catego- ones in Järvelin and Vakkari's seem to have increased, interest in ry "other library". Almost all of the study. "publishing" and "information articles in the category of "academ- seeking" seem to have decreased, ic and/or special libraries" deal though not much. with the academic libraries, though As for the other main strategies, this is not reflected in the table con- "conceptual strategy" is quite popu- cerning organizational analysis. lar. It is followed by "mathematical In general, research in the fields of or logical method". The least popu- information management, retrieval Meanwhile, no research article was published on "information service lar strategies were "systems analy- and use are needed in Turkey. More sis and design" and the "biblio- research on library history, profes- organizations". Trends in the gradu- ate theses were also almost similar graphic method". Different findings sions and publishing should also be are obtained by the other two stud- supported. in the organizational context. Therefore, immediate attention ies mentioned, although in interna- should be paid especially to the tional LIS research, conceptual Within the main areas, "analysis of problems of the special libraries strategy seems to be the second LIS" as well as the "education and and information centres since there most popular strategy. In research methodology of LIS" were least is a trend in the increase of the articles, however, "verbal argumen- popular in professional articles, number of these libraries in Turkey. tation" appeared to be more popu- though interest in the topic Also, research should be directed to lar than the "concept analysis" "methodology of LIS" began to other categories of libraries. method. In fact, more use should be increase. Meanwhile, interest in made of the latter method, since sci- ence works with concepts in gener- "other studies" decreased sharply As for research strategies and data al and a deeper involvement with and no professional article collection methods used in the the conceptual analysis will posi- appeared in the area of "scientific research articles, the most popular tively affect the quality of LIS and professional communication". research strategy appeared to be the research in Turkey, as elsewhere. At It was also remarkable that no "literature review". Because this the same time, the increase espe- research article appeared on the strategy was used in almost 50% of cially in the trend of automation of analysis of LIS as well as on the the research articles, developments libraries in Turkey necessitates education and methodology of LIS in LIS research can hardly be real- more use of the systems analysis until the third period. Interest in the ized unless radical measures are method. last two topics increased in research taken to change this trend. articles towards the later periods, though there exists no research arti- The second most popular strategy In terms of the data collection cle on the "analysis of LIS". Again, was the "empirical research strate- methods used, the category "use of "scientific and professional commu- gy", whereas it was the most popu- data collected earlier" was the most nication" is one of the least popular lar one in the graduate theses and popular. The proportion of the arti- areas in research articles, too and in the journal articles abroad. The cles in this category was more than no attention was paid to "other "survey method" appears to be the half of the total research articles. studies". Trends in the above-men- most popular empirical method in This is followed by the second most tioned topics are mostly similar to international LIS, as has been indi- popular category of the "several the trends in graduate theses.18 cated by the studies of Yontar and methods of collecting". Although, Though Järvelin and Vakkari's Järvelin and Vakkari. On the other the use of more than one method study also gives different trends, the hand, in research articles, the least can be regarded as a positive trend, authors draw attention to the need popular methods of the empirical the use of the first method above for "more methodological discus- strategy were the "historical has increased while the use of the sion and analysis of the discipline". method", "content or protocol second method has decreased. analysis" and "experiment". More- Clearly, much less use should be Analysis of the research articles over, "qualitative method", "evalua- made of the first method. Mean- within the organizational context tion method", "case or action while, use of the methods "ques- showed that the articles were most- research method" or "bibliometric tionnaire and/or interview" and ly concentrated in the categories of method" were not used. The other "historical source analysis" "organizational type irrelevant" and two studies mentioned before also decreased considerably towards the "several types of libraries". This reflect different findings in this last period and more attention means that more attention is paid respect. What can be argued, how- should be paid to the use of these to the various activities or opera- ever, is that in Turkey more use of methods.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 45 Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvac

As was indicated, the trends of LIS 2 Nour, M.M. "A Quantitative Analysis Revealed in Graduate Theses". Book- research as reflected in Turkish of the Research Articles Published in let 7, Division Education and research articles are more similar to Core Library Journals of 1980". Research, 61st IFLA General Confer- the trends in the graduate theses Library and Information Science ence, Istanbul, Turkey, 20-26 August and less similar to the findings of Research 7: 261-273 (1985). 1995. Jarvelin and Vakkari's study of 3 Feehan, P.E., W. L. Gragg, M.M. Haven- 9 Kurbanoglu, S. S. "Kütüphanecilik ve 1993. This result is not very sur- er, and D.D. Kester. "Library and Infor- bilgi bilim tezlerinde kullanilan bilim- prising since Turkey is a developing mation Science Research: An Analysis sel arastirma yöntemleri: Bir country, a characteristic which is of the 1984 Journal Literature". degerlendirme". (Research methods Library and Information Science also reflected in the quality of both used in library and information sci- Research 9: 173-185 (1987). ence theses: An evaluation). Türk the LIS service activities and the 4 Atkins, S.E. "Subject Trends in Library Kütüphaneciligi 10 (4): 350-359 LIS research. However, since the and Information Science Research, developments in many areas are (1996). 1975-1984". Library Trends 36: 633- 10 fast, reorganization of the structure Cakin, Y. "Türk Kütüphaneciler Derne- 658 (1988). gi Bülteni'nin icerik ve yazar yönün- and the traditions of the LIS 5 Järvelin, K. and P. Vakkari. "Content den degerlendirilmesi". (Content research is necessary in order to Analysis of Research Articles in analysis of the Turkish Librarians' find solutions to the changing prob- Library and Information Science". Association Bulletin by authorship lems of the profession in Turkey. Library and Information Science and by other characteristics). Unpub- Research 12: 395-421 (1990). lished master's thesis. Hacettepe Uni- 6 Järvelin, K. and P. Vakkari. "The Evo- versity, Ankara, 1980. Acknowledgment lution of Library and Information Sci- 11 Jäarvelin and Vakkari (1993), op. cit. ence 1965-1985: A Content Analysis of 12 Yontar, op. cit. The authors express their thanks to Journal Articles". Information Pro- 13 Järvelin and Vakkari (1990), op. cit. cessing and Management 29 (1): 129- the IFLA Section on Library and 14 144 (1993). Järvelin and Vakkari (1993), op. cit. Theory for financing the project and 15 7 Altinörs, G. "Türkiye'de kütüphaneci- Kumpulainen, S. "Library and Infor- to Maxine Rochester and Beverly mation Science Research in 1975: P.Lynch for providing the basic lit- lik bilim dali konusunda yapilmis olan docentlik, doktora ve bilim Content Analysis of Journal Articles". erature related to the topic of the Libri 41 (1): 59-76 (1991). paper. uzmanligi tezlerinde kullanilmis olan arastirma metodlari". (Research meth- 16 Huanwen, C. "A Bibliometric Study of ods used in the associate professor- Library and Information Research in References ship, doctoral and masters theses China". Division Education and made in the field of library science in Research, 62nd IFLA General Confer- 1 Peritz, B.C. "The Methods of Library Turkey) Unpublished master's thesis. ence, Beijing, China, 25-31 August Science Research: Some Results from Hacettepe University, Ankara, 1983. 1996. a Bibliometric Survey". Library 8 Yontar, A. "Main Research Trends 17 Yontar, op. cit. Research 2: 251-268 (1981). Being Investigated in Turkey as 18 Ibid.

46 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey

APPENDIX

Table 1. Distribution of Professional and Research Articles, 1952-1994

1952-1964 1965-1974 1975-1984 1985-1994

Type of article no % no % no % no % Professional 144 95.3 152 91.5 126 78.2 95 57.2 Research 7 4.6 14 8.4 35 21.7 71 42.7 Totals 151 99.9 166 99.9 161 99.9 166 99.9

Table 2a. Distribution of Professional and Research Articles By Main Topics, 1952-1994

1952-1964 1965-1974 1975-1984 1985-1994

pr pr res res pr pr res res pr pr res res pr pr res res

TOPICS no % no % no % no % no % no % no % no %

Professions 2 1.4 3 2.0 6 4.8 2 5.7 1 1.0 1 1.4

Library history 22 15.2 3 42.8 30 19.7 19 15.0 3 8.5 10 10.5 5 7.0

Publishing 5 3.5 12 7.8 1 7.1 4 3.2 3 8.5 2 2.2 1 1.4

Education 2 1.4 4 2.6 1 2.9 1 1.0 2 2.8 in LIS

Methodology 1 0.7 3 2.4 3 3.1 4 5.7

Analysis of LIS 1 0.7

Library & 70 48.6 3 42.9 81 53.2 6 42.8 80 63.5 21 60 55 57.8 42 59.1 information service activities

Information 35 24.3 1 14.3 12 7.9 7 50 6 4.8 3 8.6 16 16.8 8 11.3 storage and retrieval

Information 1 0.7 2 1.3 3 2.4 2 5.7 6 6.3 7 9.8 seeking

Scientific and 1 1.4 professional communication

Other aspects 2 1.6 of LIS

Other study 6 4.2 6 3.9 3 2.4 1 1.0

Totals 144 100 7 100 152 99. 14 99. 126 100. 35 99. 95 99. 71 99.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 47 Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvac

Table 2b.Topical Distribution of Professional and Research Articles in Detail, 1952-1994

1952-1964 1965-1974 1975-1984 1985-1994

pr pr res res pr pr res res pr pr res res pr pr res res

TOPICS no % no % no % no % no % no % no % no % The professions 2 1.4 3 2.0 6 4.8 2 5.7 1 1.0 1 1.4 Library history 22 15.2 3 42.8 30 19.7 19 15.0 3 8.5 10 10.5 5 7.0 Publishing 5 3.5 12 7.8 1 7.1 4 3.2 3 8.5 2 2.2 1 1.4 Education 2 1.4 4 2.6 1 2.9 1 1.0 2 2.8 in LIS Methodology 1 0.7 3 2.4 3 3.1 4 5.7 Analysis of LIS 1 0.7 Library and 70 48.6 3 42.9 81 53.2 6 42.8 80 63.5 21 60 55 57.8 42 59.1 information service activities Circulation or 3 2.1 1 14.3 1 0.7 3 2.4 2 5.7 2 2.2 interlibrary loans Collections 10 6.9 1 14.3 14 9.2 17 13.4 2 5.7 5 5.3 4 5.7 Information/ 7 4.9 7 4.6 1 7.1 2 1.6 1 2.9 3 3.1 3 4.2 reference services User education 1 0.7 4 3.2 1 2.9 1 1.0 Library 3 2.0 1 0.8 1 2.9 1 1.0 buildings and facilities Administration/ 7 4.9 29 19.1 4 28.6 22 17.4 9 25.7 21 22.1 22 31.0 planning Automation 2 1.3 1 7.1 3 2.4 1 2.9 9 9.5 7 9.9 study Other L&I 5 3.5 1 0.7 1 0.8 service activities Several 38 26.3 1 14.3 23 15.1 27 21.4 4 11.4 13 13.7 6 8.4 interconnected activities Information 35 24.3 1 14.3 12 7.9 7 50.1 6 4.8 3 8.6 16 16.8 8 11.3 storage & retrieval Cataloguing 3 2.1 1 0.7 2 14.4 1 0.8 2 5.7 5 5.3 4 5.7 Classification 3 2.1 1 14.3 4 2.6 4 28.6 6 6.3 1 1.4 & indexing Information 1 0.8 1 1.4 retrieval Bibliographic 29 20.1 7 4.6 1 7.1 4 3.2 1 2.9 5 5.3 2 2.8 databases/ bibliographis Other types of databases

48 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey

1952-1964 1965-1974 1975-1984 1985-1994

pr pr res res pr pr res res pr pr res res pr pr res res

Information seeking Dissemination of information Use/users of´ 2 1.3 3 2.4 2 5.7 4 4.2 6 8.4 channels/sources of information Use of L&I 2 2.2 1 1.4 services Information 1 0.7 seeking behavior Use of information Information management, IRM Scientific and professional communication Scientific and professional publishing Citation patterns 1 1.4 and structures Other aspects 1 0.7 Other aspects 2 1.6 of LIS Other study 6 4.2 6 3.9 3 2.4 1 1.0 Totals 144 100 7 100. 152 100. 14 100. 126 100. 35 100. 95 100. 71 100.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 49 Aysel Yontar and Mesut Yalvac

Table 3. Distribution of the type of organizations in research articles, 1952-1994

1952-1964 1965/1974 1975/1984 1985/1994

ORGANIZATIONS no % no % no % no % Public library 1 14.3 1 7.2 5 14.3 12 16.9 Academic and/or special libraries – 3 21.4 5 14.3 12 16.9 Information service organization – – – – Other library – – 1 2.9 7 9.9 Several types of libraries 4 57.1 3 21.4 11 31.4 14 19.7 Other organisation (no library or – – 1 2.9 1 1.4 information service organization Organization type irrelevant 2 28.6 7 50.0 12 34.2 25 35.2 Totals 7 100 14 100 35 100 71 100

Table 4. Research Strategies Used in the Research Articles, 1952-1994

1952-1964 1965-1974 1975-1984 1985-1994

STRATEGIES no % no % no % no % Empirical research strategy 4 57.2 3 21.5 19 54.3 17 23.9 Historical method 2 28.6 1 7.2 6 17.1 3 4.2 Survey method 2 28.6 2 14.3 11 31.4 12 16.9 Qualitative method Evaluation method Case or action research method Content or protocol analysis 1 2.9 2 2.8 Citation analysis Other bibliometric method Experiment 1 2.9 Other empirical method Conceptual research strategy 2 28.6 3 21.4 3 8.6 15 21.2 Verbal argumentation, critique 3 21.4 3 8.6 9 12.7 Concept analysis 2 28.6 6 8.5 Mathematical or logical method 4 5.6 System and software analysis and 1 1.4 design Literature review 1 14.2 8 57.1 13 37.1 33 46.5 Bibliographic method 1 1.4 Other method Not applicable Totals 7 100.0 14 100.0 35 100.0 71 100.0

50 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Problems of Library and Information Science Research in Turkey

Table 5. Data Collection Methods Used in the Research Articles, 1952-1994

1952-1964 1965-1974 1975-1984 1985-1994

DATA COLLECTION METHODS no % no % no % no % Questionnaire, interview 5 14.3 4 5.7 Observation Thinking aloud 1 2.9 1 1.4 Content analysis 1 1.4 Citation analysis Historical source analysis 1 14.3 2 5.7 2 2.8 Several methods of collecting 5 71.4 6 42.9 9 25.7 17 23.9 Use of data collected earlier 1 14.3 8 57.1 18 51.4 46 64.8 Other method of collecting Not applicable Totals 7 100. 14 100. 35 100. 71 100.

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 51 International Collaboration on Internet Subject Gateways

Emma Place Introduction ways and on developing standards to support this. Emma Place (formerly Emma Wors- number of libraries in Europe fold) works at the Institute for Aare involved in the develop- Learning and Research Technology ment of Internet subject gateways - Background at the University of Bristol, UK. She services that aim to help works on Internet projects such as "The Web is quickly becoming the SOSIG (the Social Science Informa- world's fastest growing repository tion Gateway) and DESIRE, a Euro- of data." pean project which has conducted (Tim Berners-Lee, W3C director and research into Internet Services. Pre- creator of the World Wide Web viously Ms Place worked for the (WWW) Department of Information Studies at the University of Sheffield and for This is a time of upheaval for the Avon County Library Service. She library profession, as the Internet has degrees in Psychology and becomes a major medium in the Librarianship. She is co-author of the information world. The Internet Internet Detective Web tutorial and offers access to myriad information The Information Gateways Hand- resources but the fact remains that book. She has written a number of it is still very hard for people to articles on Internet and electronic locate high quality information library topics. Ms Place may be con- amid the general chaos. In the past tacted at ILRT, University of Bristol, few years the issue of resource dis- 8-10 Berkeley Square, Bristol BS8 covery on the Internet has been the 1HH, UK (fax: +(44-117) 9287112; focus of much work by many differ- e-mail: [email protected]). ent communities. [Ms Place's paper was delivered at the 65th IFLA Council and General Confer- Search Engines ence, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-27 August users find high quality resources The Internet Search engines, such 1999.] on Internet. Subject gateways such as AltaVista, and Excite, rely on 1 as SOSIG (Social Science Informa- automated solutions to resource tion Gateway) have been available discovery. They send out robots or on the Internet for some years now, Web crawlers to trawl the Internet and they offer an alternative to and automatically index the files Internet search engines such as that they find. These indexes can 2 Altavista and to directories such as then be searched by keyword and 3 Yahoo. Distinctively, subject gate- return records which contain auto- ways draw upon the skills, practices matically generated descriptions of and standards of the international the resources, usually the first few library community and apply these paragraphs of the resource itself. to Internet-based information. This Search engines are good for finding article will suggest that librarians lots of information - a search often are ideally placed to play a major yields thousands of resources. How- role in building Internet resource ever, the results can be overwhelm- discovery services and that subject ing, unmanageable, full of irrele- gateways offer a means to do this. It vant references and are often too will outline some of the subject prolific to meet user needs. gateway initiatives in Europe and will describe the tools and tech- Web Directories nologies developed by the DESIRE4 project to support the development Web directories such as Yahoo and of new gateways in other countries. The Open Directory6 are, in a sense It will also discuss how IMesh,5 a the Internet equivalent of a public group for gateways from around library that is not staffed by librari- the world, aims to work on an inter- ans! They rely on human input to national strategy for subject gate- create directories on the WWW that

52 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 International Collaboration on Internet Subject Gateways list Internet resources, with each produced an online tutorial called tainable and have either been dis- one described briefly and classified "Internet Detective"8 that aims to continued or have only been able to under a subject heading. These teach the skills required to evaluate maintain very limited coverage directories aim to describe large the quality of resources on the with many broken links and out- numbers of Internet resources and Internet and this gives some insight dated descriptions. Gateways include both serious and recreation- into the sort of work that gateway require considerable staff time and al sites. staff do in evaluating and selecting investment to develop and main- Internet resources. tain. Only organizations that devel- op a long-term strategy for their The Open Directory is a remarkable gateways can provide a service that project, since, in a sense, the gener- Classification of Internet Resources is sustainable. al public are invited to build their Classification schemes are used by own library on the Internet - select- gateways to set up the browsing ing, classifying and "cataloguing" option for users. Many gateways European Gateway resources. The Open Directory has use traditional library classification Initiatives a volunteer work force of Editors schemes such as Dewey Decimal (currently over 6,000 of them), who classification or Universal Decimal spend time adding resources and A number of Internet subject gate- classification. A report on the use of resource-descriptions to the directo- ways have been developed in classification schemes in Internet ry (currently over 100,000!). Both Europe and a significant communi- services has been produced by the Yahoo and The Open Directory aim ty of libraries involved in gateways DESIRE project, which describes to be the biggest Internet directo- is developing. this usage in more detail.9 ries, with a high level of coverage and popular appeal as high priori- United Kingdom - The Resource ties. Standard Metadata Formats Discovery Network Standard metadata formats are In the UK a number of subject gate- Internet Subject Gateways used when describing an Internet ways are being funded by the UK Subject gateways offer an alterna- resource in a database record. government's Higher Education tive to the Internet search engines These formats support effective Funding Council and are organized and Web directories. What is the information retrieval from the data- under the Resource Discovery Net- definition of a subject gateway? In bases, but also ensure that gateways work (RDN).12 All the UK gateways some sense they are the Internet can interoperate with each other are based in universities and equivalent of an academic or spe- and, potentially, with other databas- involve input from librarians and cial library. Subject gateways are es such as library OPACS. These information professionals: Internet-based services designed to standards also give the option of – BIOME - Health and Life Sci- help users locate high quality infor- converting and mapping one for- ences mation that is available on the mat to another, which could be – EMC - Engineering, Mathematics Internet. They are typically, data- important as Web metadata stan- and Computing bases of detailed metadata (or cata- dards develop and change. In 1997 – Humbul - Humanities logue) records which describe Inter- DESIRE produced a comprehensive – PSIgate - Physical Sciences net resources and offer a hyperlink review of metadata formats.10 In – SOSIG - Social Sciences, Busi- to the resources. Users can chose to the UK, UKOLN (The UK Office of ness and Law either search the database by key- Library Networking) has a Metada- word, or to browse the resources ta Group that conducts ongoing The Netherlands - DutchESS under subject headings. Subject research into metadata formats, gateways are characterized by two especially in relation to library cat- The National Library of the Nether- key factors: aloguing formats such as MARC. lands (Koninklijke Bibliotheek) has Their Web site offers software tools built a subject gateway in coopera- – They are selective, pointing only for handling metadata and informa- tion with seven university libraries to Internet resources that meet tion on mapping between metadata called DutchESS (Dutch Electronic with quality selection criteria formats.11 Subject Service)13 - a national gate- – They are built by subject and way, covering all subjects. information specialists - often librarians. Strategy and Sustainability Finland - The Finnish Virtual It should be noted that the gate- Quality Selection Procedures Library Project ways described in this article are all Formal quality selection criteria are large-scale projects with significant In Finland the government's Min- used to guide collection develop- funding behind them. Many small- istry of Education has funded the ment within the gateways. Exam- scale and/or volunteer-effort gate- large-scale development of national ples of the selection policies of gate- ways have emerged on the Internet, subject gateways. The Finnish Virtu- ways have been collected by the but with the explosion of the num- al Library project14 was launched in DESIRE project.7 DESIRE has also ber of sites these have not been sus- 1995 and involves collaborative

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 53 Emma Place

work between eight university for the National Libraries of better coverage can be developed. libraries. Europe". At the time of writing, Many of the gateways described 17 European national libraries have above benefit from the input of a signed up for the DESIRE work- distributed team of librarians. A Sweden - EELS shop, and together we hope to DESIRE report "Distributed and EELS 15 covers the broad subject make some important steps Part-Automated Cataloguing"17 area of Electronic Engineering. It is towards building a European net- describes the different models a cooperative project of the six work of gateways. being used by existing gateways. Swedish University of Technology The ROADS software supports dis- Libraries. tributed cataloguing by providing a As the Internet continues to expand Web interface to the database. so quickly it is clear that no single Denmark (and other Nordic Coun- Records can be added, deleted or gateway or country can hope to cat- tries) - NOVAGate edited remotely. All this work can alogue all the Internet resources be done via the Web - the teams can NOVAGate covers forestry, veteri- available. A distributed model is work from their own offices using nary, agricultural, food and environ- required, where each country takes their own workstations and fit this mental sciences and is produced by responsibility for describing the "Internet librarianship" in along- the libraries of the NOVA Universi- high quality resources available on side their usual work in the library. ty in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, its national network. Imagine the Norway and Sweden. scenario where librarians from every country work at building a Distributed Databases gateway to the best of their nation- The DESIRE Project al Internet resources. Imagine then, The technologies also exist to sup- that it is possible to cross-search port cross-searching of distributed DESIRE is an international project any combination of these gateways databases. Interoperability has been funded by the European Union. The - to find high quality Internet the focus of much research by project aims to facilitate use of the resources from around the world. In DESIRE and ROADS and other World Wide Web among Europe's fact, the technologies and standards communities. If different databases research community and one of the already exist to make this vision a of metadata records can be cross- ways it is doing this is by develop- reality. What still requires a lot of searched this offers the potential for ing and promoting the Internet sub- work is the development of the different communities to work at ject gateways model. SOSIG, human networks that can maxi- describing different sections of the DutchESS and EELS are all part- mize the potential of these stan- Internet and for end-users to cross- ners in the DESIRE project and dards and technologies - and the search all these collections simulta- have been working with other gate- library community is perfectly neously. On a national level both ways (including the Finnish Virtual placed to take up this challenge! the UK gateways and the Finnish Libraries project and NOVAGate). Building an international network Virtual Library project are working of gateways takes time, but the on cross-searching distributed gate- DESIRE Workshop for Europe's library community has both the way databases. The end-user National Libraries expertise and the commitment to remains blissfully unaware of the develop these valuable Internet complex organization behind their There is considerable scope for the search tools. search - from their point of view library community to be involved they are making a single search in Internet subject gateways. As Distributed Teams of Librarians from a single Web page and get a illustrated in the gateways describ- single page of results. ed above, many libraries in many Subject gateways provide a success- countries are already seeing work ful model for involving the library on gateways as an important part of community in Internet resource dis- SOSIG and Biz/ed have already their remit. Once a country has a covery. Existing gateways have implemented cross-searching into gateway structure in place, librari- invested effort in developing sys- their working services. When users ans from across that country can tems that support the work of dis- search SOSIG they are, in fact, also work collaboratively to build the tributed teams, so that librarians cross-searching the Biz/ed database collection. The subject gateways can work on a gateway from any- - results from the two databases are model offers strategic and standard- where in the world as long as they returned on the same page. The ized methods for doing this. have access to a networked PC and technologies used to achieve this DESIRE aims to support the devel- a Web browser. Distributed Internet are described in a paper published opment of new gateways in Europe, cataloguing means that libraries in Dlib magazine.18 Databases especially large-scale national gate- can contribute to a shared service, located in different countries can ways. In September 1999 there was rather than having to each build a also be cross-searched simultane- a DESIRE workshop for the nation- local service. This is an efficient ously - DutchESS (in the Nether- al libraries of Europe:16 "Building way of working - it avoids duplicat- lands) has been working closely National and Large-scale Internet ed effort and collaboration means with SOSIG (in the UK) to set up a Information Gateways: A Workshop large-scale gateways with much cross-search mechanism, so that

54 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 International Collaboration on Internet Subject Gateways both the collections can be accessed described above use ROADS, iMesh Web site.21 An IMesh discus- simultaneously by users from both notably SOSIG and the Finnish Vir- sion list exists and those interested countries (and indeed elsewhere!). tual Library project. The ROADS in international collaboration This is pioneering work and when open-source software toolkit is amongst subject gateways are invit- it is in place, it is hoped the same being produced by a consortium of ed to join. The list provides an open mechanism will be used by other developers with expertise in net- forum for exchanging ideas and gateways to set up similar systems. work-based resource identification, technology for promoting the sub- Demonstrations of the cross-search- indexing and cataloguing. This has ject gateway movement. ing work being done by DESIRE resulted in a standards-based and ROADS is available on the approach to software development, DESIRE Web site. 19 making it compatible with current Future and Conclusions and developing indexing and cata- Tools for Building Large-Scale loguing requirements. In addition, In many ways the Internet is still a Internet Subject Gateways there is ample documentation and bit of a building site! Many things online support for people interested are still under construction, includ- DESIRE is developing tools and in using the software for either ing the basic architecture of the methods for the development of experimental purposes or service Web. The World Wide Web Consor- large-scale Internet subject gate- provision. tium22 is still working on building a ways. It is also working with both structure that can support resource library and Internet standards orga- discovery on the Internet. They nizations to develop standard prac- IMesh: The International have recently released the Resource tices for developing gateways, to Gateway Community Description Framework (RDF) ensure that they are interoperable model and syntax specification, and can work together to form which aims to provide a basic infra- large-scale, collaborative services. IMesh is a collaborative network, involving key players in the world's structure on the Web to support the subject gateway community (not transfer and processing of metada- The DESIRE Gateways Handbook. only those in Europe). It is likely ta. This marks a new age on the In October 1999 DESIRE published that IMesh will be the key player in Web as in effect, it allows anyone to the Information Gateways Hand- future gateway developments inter- "catalogue" a Web resource in a book - a guide for libraries interest- nationally. machine understandable way. Dif- ed in setting up large-scale subject ferent people will want to use RDF gateways of their own. The Hand- IMesh was formed as a result of a in different ways - it is simply the book is made freely available on meeting at the Second European structure within which different the WWW and describes all the Conference on Research and people can work. Gateways are methods and tools required to set Advanced Technology for Digital working with the W3C to see how up a large-scale Internet subject Libraries, held in Crete in Septem- RDF can support these high quality gateway. It draws upon over three ber 1998, attended by 25 delegates metadata collections. Potentially, years of research into subject gate- from 15 countries. One of the main librarians could forge the same role ways and includes case studies and aims of IMesh is to explore the for themselves on the Internet that examples from many of the gate- potential for collaborative develop- they have had traditionally - as ways described earlier in this arti- ment of gateways internationally. It third party information providers cle. It is hoped that the Handbook would require significant invest- that end-users can learn to trust will assist other countries to set up ment of effort and resources for a and rely on when searching for their own national gateway initia- single country to attempt to create a information. tives so that more libraries and gateway that pointed to the best of more librarians can begin to play a the Internet from all countries, in Although the structure for the Inter- role in Internet resource discovery. all languages in all subject areas. net library is not yet complete, it The IMesh group is looking at ways does not mean that librarians have ROADS. ROADS20 is an open- in which the effort can be shared to wait to start building their Inter- source set of software tools which through international collaborative net collections. The human net- enable the set up and maintenance agreements. Many of the technolo- works required to effectively cata- of Web-based subject gateways. It gies required for cross-searching logue the Internet will take many was developed as part of the UK's different gateways and for remote years to build. Libraries can work Electronic Libraries Programme but cataloguing into gateways already on creating metadata records for is now freely available for anyone exist. What is lacking is the strate- Internet resources and on finding to use. The software includes the gic organization between gateways their place in the metadata commu- database technology required to set and IMesh aims to address this. In nity. They can also start becoming up a gateway, the administration June 1999 the first IMesh workshop familiar with the new metadata and centre required to facilitate remote was held in Warwick in the UK and Internet cataloguing standards so cataloguing via the WWW and was attended by gateway providers all the records are compatible. everything else needed to run a from around the world. A report of Although this paper was presented gateway. Many of the gateways the meeting is available on the to the open meeting of the IFLA

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 55 Emma Place

Section on Information Technology, 6 The Open Directory Project; http:// 15 EELS; http://www.ub2.lu.se/eel/eel- in many ways the technologies are dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/WWW/ home.html the least of our worries - it is the Directories/Open_Directory_Project/ 16 Building National and Large-scale human factor that now requires sig- 7 Selection Criteria: Examples; http:// Internet Information Gateways: A nificant development. www.desire.org/results/discovery/cat/ Workshop for the National Libraries selectex_des.htm of Europe (DESIRE);http://www. In this article I have described ser- 8 Internet Detective; http://www.sosig. desire.org/html/subjectgateways/work vices that already involve input ac.uk/desire/internet?detective.html shops/workshop1.html 9 17 from large numbers of libraries and The Role of Classification Schemes in Distributed and Part-Automated Cata- librarians. Perhaps the IFLA com- Internet Resource Description and loguing (DESIRE); http://www.sosig. Discovery; http://www.desire.org/ ac.uk/desire/cat/cataloguing.html munity can help us to take this results/discovery/cat/class_des. 18 Cross-Searching Subject Gateways: work forward and to promote Inter- htm The Query Routing and Forward net Librarianship as an important 10 A Review of Metadata: a Survey of Knowledge Approach (D-Lib Maga- new role for the profession. Current Resource Description For- zine, January 1998); http://www.dlib. mats; http://www.desire.org/results/ org/dlib/january98/01kirriemuir.html discovery/cat/meta_des.htm 19 DESIRE Cross-searching Demonstra- References 11 UKOLN Metadata Web Page; http:// tor; http://www.desire.org/ROADS/ www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/ cgi-bin/search.pl 1 SOSIG (The Social Science Informa- 12 RDN, the Resource Discovery Net- 20 ROADS; http://www.ilrt.bris.ac.uk/ tion Gateway); http://www.sosig. work; http://www.rdn.ac.uk/ roads/ ac.uk/ 13 DutchESS (Dutch Electronic Subject 21 IMesh: International Collaboration on 2 AltaVista; http://www.altavista.com/ Service); http://www.konbib.nl/dutch- Internet Subject Gateways;http:// 3 Yahoo; http://www.yahoo.com/ ess/ www.desire.org/html/subjectgate- 4 DESIRE; http://www.desire.org/ 14 The Finnish Virtual Library Project; ways/community/imesh/ 5 IMesh; http://www.desire.org/html/ http://www.uku.fi/kirjasto/virtuaa- 22 W3C (World Wide Web Consortium); subjectgateways/community/imesh/ likirjasto/ http://www.w3.org/

56 IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 Kolumnentitel

IFLA JOURNAL 26 (2000) 1 57