J Am Board Fam Pract: first published as 10.3122/15572625-13-5-353 on 1 September 2000. Downloaded from CLINICAL REVIEW Pica: Common but Commonly Missed

Edward A. Rose, MD, John H. Porcerelli, PhD, and Anne Victoria Neale, PhD

Background: Pica is the compulsive eating of nonnutritive substances and can have serious medical implications. Although it has been described since antiquity, there has been no single agreed-upon ex­ planation of the cause of such behavior. Methods: Databases from MEDLINE and PSYCH-Lit were searched from 1964 to the present to find relevant sources of information using the key words "pica," "obsessive-compulsive disorder," "iron­ deficiency anemia," and "nutrition." Results and Conclusions: Pica is observed most commonly in areas of low socioeconomic status and is more common in women (especially pregnant women) and in children. To our knowledge, the preva­ lence of pica is not known. Numerous complications of the disorder have been described, including iron-deficiency anemia, lead poisoning, and helminthic infestations. Pica is probably a behavior pattern driven by multiple factors. Some recent evidence supports including pica with the obsessive-compulsive spectrum of disorders. Many different treatment regimens have been described, with variable re­ sponses. It is important to be aware of this common, but commonly missed, condition. (J Am Board Fam Pract 2000;13:353-8.)

One of the many unsolved mysteries in medicine is sanctioned practice, and severe enough to warrant the teleologic or physiologic basis of pica, the com­ clinical attention. The DSM-IV manual states that pulsive eating of nonfood substances. Many com­ the condition is frequently associated with mental mon problems encountered in daily practice can be retardation, but it has been seen in all ages and both copyright. caused by pica. Our purpose is to draw the atten­ sexes, and particularly in young children and preg­ tion of primary care physicians to the manifesta­ nant women. 1 tions, potential screening methods, and potential Other authors describe variations on these treatment approaches for this eating disorder. themes. Parry-Jones and Parry-Jones2 note that there are several references throughout history sug­ Methods gesting that pica can also include the compulsive We searched MEDLINE and PSYCH-Lit from eating of food substances, essentially normal food

1964 to the present to find relevant sources of in abnormal quantities, blurring the distinction http://www.jabfm.org/ information, using the key words "pica," "obses­ with such food cravings as those associated with 2 sive-compulsive disorder," "iron-deficiency ane­ premenstrual syndrome or pregnancy. As this sug­ mia," and "nutrition." gestion implies, it can be misleading to classify all pica as abnormal. In addition, pica might represent 2 Pica a symptom complex rather than a disease. Pica is most frequently observed in pregnant The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Dis­ on 28 September 2021 by guest. Protected order: DSM - IV1 defines pica as "the persistent women, patients of lower socioeconomic status, 3 eating of nonnutritive substances for a period of at and children. It is also found in some cases of least one month, without an association with an iron-deficiency anemia as well as in deficiencies of 4 aversion to food." The behavior must be develop­ other nutrients such as zinc. In some cultures pica mentally inappropriate and not part of a culturally is considered normal and even therapeutic,2 falling outside of the DSM-IV definition of a disorder. 1 The types of substances ingested are listed in Table Submitted, revised, 16 February 2000. 1. The eating patterns are referred to as "-phagias," From the Department of Family Medicine (EAR, JHP, such as pagophagia for ice eaters, geophagia for AVN), Wayne State University, Detroit. Address reprint requests to Edward A. Rose, MD, 15400 W. McNichols Dr., clay eaters, and amylophagia for starch eaters. In­ Second Floor, Detroit, MI 48235. terestingly, the range of reported items of con-

Pica 353 J Am Board Fam Pract: first published as 10.3122/15572625-13-5-353 on 1 September 2000. Downloaded from Table 1. Substances Described as Objects of Pica.

Nonfood Food Food-Nonfood"

Ashes Metal Carrots Baking soda Balloons Newsprint Celery Chewing gum Burnt matches Pain chips Croutons Coca leaf Chalk Paper Licorice Coffee grounds Cigarette butts Plant leaves Life Savers candy Oyster shells Clay Pencil erasers Milk Tomato seeds Cloth Plastic Parsley Crayons Powder, baby Detergent Powder puffs Dirt Sand Feces Soap Fuzz Starch Grass String, thread Ice from freezer, ice cubes Toilet tissue Insects Twigs Lavatory fresheners

Adapted from Lacey4 and Edwards et a\.6 *Items that can be either food or nonfood in different situations. sumption has not changed much during the past 4 Pica has frequently been described as a symptom centuries.2 of iron deficiency, although it occurs often in those who have normal hemoglobin levels. I - 4,s,9 In the

History late 1960s, articles in medical journals documented copyright. The term pica comes from the Latin word meaning the association between ice eating and anemia and magpie, presumably named after this bird's peculiar its subsequent relief with iron treatment, although eating behaviors. The magpie shows an indiscrim­ whether pica caused the anemia or the anemia inate preference for foods and nonfoods. Pica of caused pica remained unclear.2 Ice eating in partic­ dirt and clay was known to the Greeks and the ular seems most closely tied to iron deficiency and Romans and was recorded in a 13th century Latin seems to be most consistently amenable to iron work. Pica was first addressed in a medical book in therapy. The other forms of pica, however, have

1563, where geophagia was described in pregnant been much more inconsistent in their response to http://www.jabfm.org/ women and in children.2 iron or any other mineral therapy. Pica behavior still occurs almost ritualistically in some modem cultures. Geophagia has been de­ scribed as a common act during the 1800s in the Prevalence southern United States, primarily among slaves, There have been few epidemiologic studies detail­

and is still an accepted behavior in many cultures. It ing the prevalence of pica. Estimates have varied on 28 September 2021 by guest. Protected has been practiced as part of religious ceremonies, widely within a particular population, depending magical beliefs, and attempts at healing.2 Clay in­ on the criteria used.l,s Pica behavior is more com­ gestion has been used for medicinal purposes by mon in low socioeconomic and underdeveloped many cultures, possibly to affect the microorgan­ areas.2,4,S,9 Edwards et al3 studied pica in 553 ur­ isms in the gut or to help relieve intestinal spasms. ban, pregnant, otherwise healthy African-American During the 1950s and 1960s, geophagia was so women. She found that there was no reported common in the south that one could purchase small geophagia in the sample studied, but that pagopha­ brown bags of clay outside bus stops. As members gia occurred in 8.1 % of respondents who also had of the southern population moved north, it was not low ferritin levels and mean corpuscular volumes. A uncommon to have special local clays mailed from similar rate of pica was found in a study of 321 5 7 family members back home. - pregnant Saudi Arabian women in 1995, with 8.8%

354 JABFP September-October 2000 Vol. 13 No.5 J Am Board Fam Pract: first published as 10.3122/15572625-13-5-353 on 1 September 2000. Downloaded from of women reporting pica, particularly geophagia viating stress. In addition, many pregnant women and pagophagia.1O in that study stated that eating freezer frost or ice helped during stressful times. Addiction or addictive behavior has also been Etiology suggested as one possible explanation for pica be­ The cause of pica behavior has eluded researchers havior in some patients. The evidence to support for centuries. Sayetta8 describes several theoretical this view is that pica often persists after the physi­ approaches that attempt to explain the etiology ologic cause is alleviated.2 If iron deficiency leads to from nutritional, sensory, physiologic, neuropsy­ pica, the pica behavior should cease once iron is chiatric, cultural, or psychosocial perspectives. Nu­ replaced. Cessation of pica behavior with iron re­ tritional theories are most commonly cited, which placement does not happen often, however. attribute pica to specific deficiencies of minerals, Whether continued pica behavior constitutes an such as iron and zinc. Many studies describe pa­ addiction or simply a learned pattern of behavior13 tients with low iron or zinc levels whose pica be­ is unclear. havior diminishes with iron or zinc replacement, Recenciy, there has been some evidence that pica although the empiric evidence for zinc is less con­ is a part of the obsessive-compulsive disorder vincing than it is for iron. It is postulated that the (OCD) spectrum of diseases,4 which would lend red clay in southern United States is used because support to neuropsychiatric theories. Case reports of its high iron content, although clay has been describe patients with severe mental retardation shown to be an iron chelator and can aggravate the and OCD patterns,14 as well as patients of normal 15 15 problem. intelligence with OCD. ,16 Stein et al describe 5 The sensory and physiologic theories center on patients who were examined at outpatient anxiety the finding that many patients with pica say that disorder and OCD clinics. These patients de­ they just enjoy the taste, texture, or smell of the scribed their pica behavior as one of the ritualistic item they are eating. Geophagia has been used to behaviors they were compelled to carry out, and alleviate nausea by some patients and can give a that eating the substance led to relief of tension or copyright. sense of fullness to patients who are trying to lose anxiety. Patients were treated with traditional ther­ weight. A neuropsychiatric theory is supported by apy for OCD, which consisted primarily of psycho­ evidence that certain brain lesions in laboratory therapy, although the effect on pica was variable. animals have been associated with abnormal eating Four of the five cases responded to selective sero­ behaviors, and it is postulated that pica might be tonin reuptake inhibitors. Neurobiologic testing associated with certain patterns of brain disorder in results (decreased serotonin metabolite concentra­ humans.s tion in cerebral spinal fluid and frontal lobe hypo­

Iron deficiency and pica have been reported in activity on SPECT [single photon emission com­ http://www.jabfm.org/ II 12 association with celiac disease in childhood. • puted tomography]) for 2 of the patients were more Santos and Werlinll describe 4 patients who each consistent with problems with impulse control, part complained of vague abdominal symptoms of inter­ of the spectrum of disorders in the OCD category. mittent pain and loose stools. All patients required These case reports lend support to the concept biopsy to confirm the diagnosis of celiac disease. that, in some patients, pica might be a manifesta­

The gastrointestinal symptoms, pica symptoms, tion ofOCD. on 28 September 2021 by guest. Protected and anemia all resolved with institution of a gluten­ free diet. The authors believed that, in these cases, Complications the pica was secondary to the iron deficiency, and The effects of pica have been classified into five the anemia was due to malabsorption. Cases such as groups:4 (1) inherent toxicity, including direct toxic these lend support to the theory that pica results effects of substances such as lead or other heavy from a low iron state. metals; (2) obstruction, such as may be seen in Psychosocial theories surrounding pica have de­ trichophagia (hair eating); (3) excessive calorie in­ 3 scribed an association with family stress. ,8 Ed­ take, generally related to amylophagia (starch eat­ wards et al 3 found that pagophagia was associated ing); (4) nutritional deprivation, such as eating clay with a smaller social support network, and they instead of nutritive foods; and (5) other, such as hypothesized the behavior to be a method of alle- parasitic infections and dental injury (Table 2).

Pica .355 J Am Board Fam Pract: first published as 10.3122/15572625-13-5-353 on 1 September 2000. Downloaded from Table 2. Potential Complications of Pica. lated to unintentionally eating lead-based paint

Type of Complication Specific Examples chips or the soil surrounding a home painted with lead-based paint. 19 Helminthic infection, causing Inherent toxicity Metabolic abnormalities, such eosinophilia and gastrointestinal symptoms, has as heavy metal poisoning, hypokalemia or been described as well. In fact, in a study of}amai­ hyperkalemia, iron and zinc can children with pica, worm infestation was found deficiency, other vitamin . in more than 70%.20 deficiency Obstruction Gastric or intestinal Intestinal obstruction can be caused by pica, obstruction from bezoar, either as a result of numerous parasites9 or more foreign body, feces, or 21 parasites, with subsequent commonly trichobezoars. Patients with tricho­ perforation, peritonitis, and bezoars are typically women younger than 30 years, death most of whom do not have a psychiatric disorder. A Excessive caloric intake Starch eating, excessive cravings for food items summary of several clinical studies of pica is dis­ Nutritional deprivation Failure to thrive, achlorhydria played in Table 3. Other Dental injury, parasitic infestations DiagnOSiS Adapted from Sayena.8 Discovery of pica behavior in a particular patient can be difficult. In the absence of complications that might signal such eating patterns, diagnosis Other metabolic abnormalities associated with depends on self-reporting. Patients are likely to pica include zinc deficiency, as described above.2 underreport pica behavior because of embarrass­ Hyperkalemia was noted in a renal failure patient ment or because they are not aware that such be­ who ate sandstoneY Ergun et aIlS explored the havior might be worth reporting. More often, the possibility of a relation between geophagia and diagnosis is made when the patient has complica­ liver damage, because early reports of a pica syn­ tions, such as anemia, lead poisoning, intestinal drome included hepatosplenomegaly. Of the 38 obstructions, or other metabolic conditions.s Even copyright. patients with pica in the Ergun et al report, none in patients who have these complications, the diag­ had liver abnormalities. In children, a common nosis could easily be missed without a high degree problem associated with pica is lead poisoning re- of suspicion. In a study of 38 cases of pica, certain

Table 3. Summaries of Clinical Studies on Pica.

Author Number Study Sample Findings http://www.jabfm.org/ al-Kanhal & Banilo 321 Pregnant women 8.8% with pica, mostly pagophagia Danford et aF2 66 (6 with pica) Mentally retarded adults Low iron and zinc levels in patients Edwards et all 553 unselected patients Pregnant, urban, African- 8.1 % with pagophagia. Lower iron American women levels. Birth outcomes not different except babies had small head circumference

Ergun et aIl8 38 Patients with pica Mean hematocrit 25%, low iron on 28 September 2021 by guest. Protected levels. No evidence of liver damage Robinson et al20 158 (108 with pica) Children in Jamaica 46% with poor nutritional status, 70% with intestinal parasites, 35% severely anemic Smulian et aI2l 125 Pregnant, rural women 14.4% reported pica, more than 50% practiced pica before pregnancy. No increase in anemia. No differences in age, race Stein et aIlS 5 Outpatients at anxiety and 3 had OCD, 2 had impulse control OCD clinics disorder

OCD = obsessive-compulsive disorder.

356 JABFP September-October 2000 Vol. 13 No.5 J Am Board Fam Pract: first published as 10.3122/15572625-13-5-353 on 1 September 2000. Downloaded from Table 4. Contrast Between Obsessive-Compulsive and Impulse Control Disorders.

Disorder Characteristic Behavior Neurobiology Response to SSRI

Obsessive-compulsive Harm avoidance Serotonergic Gradual disorder hypersensitivity Impulse control Risk seeking Serotonergic Rapid disorder hyposensitivity

Adapted from Stein et aJ.l5 SSRI = selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor.

clinical findings were frequent, such as anemia, symptoms is advised. Similarly, patients with pica splenomegaly, spoon nail, and growth retarda­ should be assessed for DSM-IV OCD and impulse tion. IS Physicians should give patients suspected of control symptomatology (fable 4). OCD is char­ pica behavior a thorough physical examination, acterized as obsessive risk avoidance, with ritualistic looking for the above findings, and should obtain behaviors aimed at avoiding injury or illness. Im­ blood tests, such as complete blood count, periph­ pulse control disorders are typified as increased eral smear for eosinophilia,I9 iron level, ferritin risk-seeking behaviors, with increasing tensions be­ level, lead level, electrolytes, and liver function fore the behavior and relief of tension and gratifi­ tests. Abdominal radiographs might be necessary to cation after the behavior. I5 evaluate for intestinal obstructions from either bezoars or parasites. Stool samples can be used to Treatment rule out ova and parasites. S Even armed with all Physicians must be prepared for cases of pica in these tests, the diagnosis of pica requires that the their daily practice. Education about nutrition, patient (or parent of the patient) admit to the be­ along with iron therapy or transfusions, might be havior, because all these clinical findings are non­ the first wave of intervention. Psychological coun­ copyright. specific. seling or behavior therapy can also be useful ad­ As described, recent reports have suggested a juncts. Behavioral interventions, such as reinforce­ relation between pica and the spectrum of ment for eating from a plate or punishment for OCDS.4,15 In adult and child patients with OCD engaging in pica, have been effective in children symptomatology or features, it is likely that the with developmental disabilities.25 Parents can be compulsive eating of nonfood substances will be instructed to provide closer supervision of children secretive and thus difficult to elicit as part of a during play and to child-proof their homes (eg, dietary history. Physicians must ask directly about remove lead-based paints) and play environments

the ingestion of nonfood substances that are com­ http://www.jabfm.org/ (eg, remove sand boxes that contain animal feces). mon to pica. Although pica in adults and children tends to remit \\'hen evaluating children, parents should be with time, physicians should treat the condition interviewed about dietary habits and pica behav­ when it occurs and causes complications. Appropri­ iors. An open discussion with the child about fa­ ate treatment first involves screening for comorbid vorite foods, followed by specific questions about conditions and complications, then possibly using a ingestion of nonfood substances, might aid in the combination of psychotherapy and selective sero­ on 28 September 2021 by guest. Protected diagnosis. If pica is suspected, but parents are un­ tonin-reuptake inhibitors. Not all forms of pica are aware of such behaviors, the physician can ask them dangerous, and some might not require interven­ to keep an observational log of the child's solitary tion. A high index of suspicion is required to make outdoor play. This log can reveal possible pica the diagnosis. Severe or recalcitrant cases could behaviors as well as give the physician some idea of require referral to a mental health specialist. the degree of parental involvement with the child. It might also help to rule out a pattern of neglect that has been speculated by some investigators to Conclusions be associated with pica in children.24 Review of the literature on pica confirms just how If OCD (or impulse control) symptoms occur in little is known about this common but commonly an adult or child patient, an assessment of pica missed condition. Its cause is related to many fac-

Pica 357

." J Am Board Fam Pract: first published as 10.3122/15572625-13-5-353 on 1 September 2000. Downloaded from tors, and there are questions about whether pica is 11. Santos JA, Wedin SL. Celiac disease in childhood a cause of or an effect of metabolic or behavioral presenting with pica: case report. Wis Med J 1996; states. Accurate diagnosis is hindered by the need 95:581-2. for self-reporting on the part of the patient and for 12. Korman SH. Pica as a presenting symptom in child­ hood celiac disease. Am J Clin N utr 1990;51: 13 9- a high index of suspicion on the part of the clini­ 41. cian. No specific screening tests for pica exist, but 13. Mitchell D, Winter W, Morisaki CM. Conditioned accurate and timely diagnosis can help to avoid taste aversions accompanied by geophagia: evidence some of the many nutritional and psychological for the occurrence of "psychological" factors in the complications. Finally, when pica is diagnosed, etiology of pica. Psychosom Med 1977;39:401-12. there are no proven treatments. Although selective 14. Luiselli JK. Pica as obsessive-compulsive disorder. J serotonin-reuptake inhibitors can be helpful in Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1996;27:195-6. some cases, diagnosis and treatment must be indi­ 15. Stein DJ, Bouwer C, van Heerden B. Pica and the vidualized, and the practicing physician will most obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. S Afr Med J 1996;86(12 Suppl):1586-8, 1591-2. likely need to rely on help from mental health professionals. 16. Zeitlin SB, Polivy J. Coprophagia as a manifestation of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a case report. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1995;26:57-63. References 17. Griffith JP, Bhanot VK. Geophagia in a chronic 1. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disor­ hemodialysis patient. W V Med J 1994;90: 106-7. ders: DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychi­ 18. Ergun Y, Paydas S, Seyrek N, Seyrek E. Is there any atric Press, 1994. relationship between pica and liver failure? Br J Clin 2. Parry-Jones B, Parry-Jones WL. Pica: symptom or Pract 1993;47:147-9. eating disorder? A historical assessment. Br J Psychi­ atry 1992;160:341-54. 19. Waller BR 3rd, Pendergrass LB. Index of suspicion. Case 3. Strangulated hernia of the small intestine. 3. Edwards CH,Johnson AA, Knight EM, et al. Pica in Pediatr Rev 1995;16:433, 435-6. an urban environment. J Nutr 1994;124(6 Suppl): 9545-62S. 20. Robinson BA, Tolan W, Golding-Beecher O. Child­ 4. Lacey EP. Broadening the perspective of pica: liter­ hood pica. Some aspects of the clinical profile in copyright. ature review. Public Health Rep 1990;105:29-35. Manchester, Jamaica. West Indian Med J 1990;39: 20-6. 5. Edwards C, McSwain H, Haire B. Odd dietary prac­ tices of women. J Am Dietetic Assoc 1954;105:29- 21. Mekisic A, Farmer E. Trichobezoars. Aust N Z 35. J Surg 1994;64:281-3. 6. Edwards C, McDonald S, Mitchell J. Clay- and 22. Danford DE, Smith JC Jr, Huber AM. Pica and cornstarch-eating women. J Am Dietetic Assoc 1959; mineral status in the mentally retarded. Am J Clin 35:810-5. Nutr 1982;35:958-67. 7. Edwards C, McDonald S, Mitchell JR, et al. Effect of 23. SmulianJC, Motiwala S, Sigman RK. Pica in a rural

clay and cornstarch intake on women and their in­ obstetric population. South Med J 1995;88:1236- http://www.jabfm.org/ fants. J Am Dietetic Assoc 1964;44:109-15. 40. 8. Sayetta RB. Pica: an overview. Am Fam Physician 24. Singhi S, Singhi P, Adwani GB. Role of psychosocial 1986;33:181-5. stress in the cause of pica. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1981; 9. Castiglia PT. Pica. J Pediatr Health Care 1993;7: 20:783-5. 174-5. 25. Fisher WW, Piazza CC, Bowman LG, Kurtz PF, 10. al-Kanhal MA, Bani IA. Food habits during preg­ Sherer MR, Lachman SR. A preliminary evaluation

nancy among Saudi women. Int J Vitam Nutr Res of empirically derived consequences for the treat­ on 28 September 2021 by guest. Protected 1995;65:206-10. ment of pica. J Appl Behav Anal 1994;27:447-57.

358 JABFP September-October 2000 Vol. 13 No.5 ------