hief ller Narration and 1. IN N Re Descripti.on in tJI"'- ew all'ty Fort Manon Art ------Joyce M. Szabo

The Anne S.K. Brown Military collection contained in the ored pencil, and eleven in pencil, ink, crayon and colored John Hay Library at Brown University offers a diverse pencil. Two of the drawings depict groups of military fig­ sample of military and naval uniforms from around the ures in uniforms, thus explaining Anne Brown's interest in world. Amassed over a forty-year period by Anne Brown the small volume. (1906-1985) of Providence, the collection covers the The following ink inscription is on the inside front eras from 1500 to 1918. Thousands of books, albums, cover: "Drawings by Indians on the Reservation in S1. scrapbooks, sketchbooks, prints , drawings and water­ Augustine, Florida - March 1877. " This inscription bol­ colors, as well as some five thousand miniature lead sol­ sters the visual information provided by the drawings. diers, comprise the collection. S1. Augustine was in the midst of an artistic explosion in In 1947, Brown added a colorful book of drawings March of 1877. The old seventeenth-century Spanish to her already significant holdings. The commercial draw­ fort of San Marcos , called Fort Marion during the nine­ ing book , eight -and -a-half by eleven inches, contains teenth century, was used as a prison for Plains captives four drawings in lead pencil, one with both lead and col- brought to S1. Augustine at the end of the Southern

50 AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZI NE Plains wars. Many of the younger prisoners created inches, appear in an autograph book filled with draw­ drawings in commercial drawing books and sold those ings by twenty different artists from the Fort Marion drawings to visiting tourists or dignitaries. Some draw­ group and now contained in the Richard H. Pratt Papers ings were sent home to Indian Territory to the friends and at Yale University (Fig. 1).1 The sixteen drawings from the families from whom the prisoners were separated. Other Brown book add significantly to history's view of Chief books were given as gifts by Lt. Richard H. Pratt, the Killer, the artist. They help identify forty-four total draw­ army officer in charge of Fort Marion, to government ings as Chief Killer's." While Karen Petersen, with good officials and leaders who might be of future benefit to cause, referred to Chief Killer as a minor artist in her 1971 the Indians. The final page of the book has a drawing depicting four mounted Plains warriors, each with shield and lance, 1 Contained withinthe Richard H. PrattpapersintheWestern Americana collections of Yale University,the book of drawings is rare in many with a handwritten pencil notation - "Chief Killer" - in senses. It is tiny, measuring only six-and-three-quarter inchesby four the upper left corner. This inscription is the signature of inches. The majority of drawings fromFort Marion arefoundin drawing the Fort Marion artist who created the drawings in the booksof the samesize as the onein the Browncollection. Theselarg­ er, standard-size drawingbookswererequisitioned by Prattearlyinthe book. A Southern warrior, Chief Killer fought Fort Marion confinement. However, the most intriguingdifferenceof during the late pre-reservation years and was one of the this Prattbook is that it includes work by many artists.At Fort Marion, seventy-two Southern Plains warriors and chiefs sent to two or occasionally three artistsfrequently workedon separate pages within the same book and many books exist that are the work of only Florida. He remained a prisoner of war from the spring one artist. of 1875 until his release in April 1878. Upon his return to 2 A sixteen-page book of Fort Marion drawings was sold through the Cheyenne and Reservation in Indian MorningStarGalleryin Santa Fe in 1990. The authorexamined those drawings prior to their sale and has subsequentlyworked with nine­ Territory, Chief Killer held various jobs including those of teen images from that book that are now in private collections. On police officer, butcher and teamster in repeated attempts the basis of stylisticcharacteristics, the author has attributed them to to fight the poverty of reservation life (Petersen 1971:234; Chief Killer. Oestreicher 1981:164-165). In a case of historical irony,the former captive sent his daughter to his old jailor Richard Pratt for education at Carlisle Institute in 1887 (Oestreicher 1981:253-254). In 1899, at the Cheyenne and Arapaho Agency, Elbridge Ayer Burbank painted the aging Chief Killer 's portrait, the dignity of the man who had fought bravely, been exiled and had experienced recurring poverty etched in the sitter's face (Fig. 2). The former prisoner of war died in 1922. Chief Killer was twenty-six or twenty-seven when he was exiled to Fort Marion due to his involvement in one of the most notorious episodes of the Southern Plains wars. As a member of a small war party led by the Southern Cheyenne Medicine Water, also a Fort Marion prisoner and the artist's stepfather, Chief Killer took part in the attack on the John German family in present-day Kansas in October 1874 (Meredith 1927; Berthrong 1963:392-400; Powell 1981 :867-891). The parents and an older daughter were killed and four younger sisters, rang­ ing in ages from five to eighteen, were taken by the war party. The girls' abduction was a major impetus for increased military activity by the federal government in attempts to guarantee their safe return. Medicine Water and his warriors ultimately set the girls free, the youngest two in November of 1874, and the older sisters in March of 1875 (Meredith 1927; Miles 1897:167-168). Subse­ 2 quently, eight members of the war party, including Chief Killer, Medicine Water and Medicine Water's wife Buffalo 1. "Meeting a Friend" by Chief Killer, c. 1878. Pencil, crayon and Calf, were sent to prison in Florida (Pratt 1964:138-144). watercolor on paper. 4" high (10 cm); 6%"wide (17 ern), Courtesy Richard H. Pratt Papers, Western Americana Collections, The drawing book from the Brown collection is an impor­ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, YaleUniversity, New tant addition to the corpus of Fort Marion art. Prior to Haven, Connecticut. the examination of this book, only two Chief Killer draw­ 2. "Chief Chief·Killer, Southern Cheyenne" by Elbridge Ayer Burbank, 1899.Oil on canvas. 13" high (33 cm); 9" wide (23 cm). ings were known to be housed in public collec­ Photograph courtesy Butler Institute of American Art, tions. Those two drawings, approximately four by six Youngstown, Ohio.

SPRING 1994 51 study of Fort Marion art (1971 :xvii) , he now joins the Five remaining scenes in the Chief Killer drawing ranks of major artists from the Florida period. book, one pencil sketch and four crayon and ink images, offer a radically different approach to the act of represen­ Chief Killer, The Artist tation. A sketch and two of the images are of military Chief Killer's style is one of firmly outlined forms filled with posts (Fig. 5) while another drawing records trains pass­ a variety of colors (Fig. 7). Humans appear with rounded ing through a city (Fig. 9). The final image is a detailed foreheads, long noses with slight upturns, curving nos­ panoramic view of the city of St. Augustine (Fig. 6). Given trils and prominent, often pointed chins . Forearms and the location of the artist at the time he rendered this view hands, if rendered at all, are cursory. Long-legged but and the inclusion of various scenes of the Plains as well otherwise well-proportioned horses appear in profile with as of Florida, the train scene must represent a portion of angular backs and large hoofs. It is, however, Chief Killer's the journey which the Fort Marion-bound prisoners took use of color and pattern which is the most distinctive char­ through many cities on their way from Indian Territory dur­ acteristic of his finished works . The artist applied color ing the spring of 1875. lightly in some areas while coloring with greater pressure in others to increase intensity, thus broadening the range of hues. He experimented with textural variations; mottled or spotted horses or the fur of animal quivers , for exam­ ple, appear against other solidly colored areas. The vibrant patterns of textiles play against horse ornaments and the detailed beadwork of clothing. The majority of Chief Killer's drawings from the Brown book have counterparts among the works of other Fort Marion artists. Two of the scenes depict buffalo hunts, rendered only in pencil, while two others illustrate detailed courting scenes. A single sketch of the Sun Dance - nineteen warriors included from a foreshort­ ened rear view within the lodge - suggests the ritual aspects of Plains life. Five of the sixteen images depict groups of Plains warriors on horseback , parallel lines of men walking between mounted leaders or standing war­ riors holding their horses near lodges. The importance of people and what they carry or wear is the visual focus of each of these drawings. Chief Killer carefully detailed blankets with bead- 3 ed strips, breastplates, shields, war bon- nets, German silver hair plates, saddle blankets, quivers and lances. Indeed, the details of clothing and paraphernalia con­ - trast strongly with the generic faces, most without eyes, of the figures who wear or carry these objects. r One drawing seems to diverge con­ ceptually from Chief Killer's other work. Three rows of government soldiers move above two cryptic buildings, probably a fort (Fig. 4). While the specific subject matter dif­ fers, Chief Killer's interests are similar to those of his other drawings. Clothing and arms of the soldiers and officers are careful­ ly detailed, the color scheme limited by the reality of army attire. The artist did not aban­ don his color sense; the horses appear as - vibrant variations of red-orange, rose, yellow and green. The addition of the outlined and crosshatched buildings in the lower pictorial .. • • space , however, signals a new concern in 4 the artist's work.

52 AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZI NE The episodes taking place on the Plains, the court­ Florida drawings are suggestions of events, not fully ing scenes and standing or mounted warriors appear detailed illustrations of them. against the blank background of the drawing page (Figs. Within Fort Marion, the Southern Plains artists cre­ 1,7). No further identification of setting or environment is ated drawings for various reasons. The fact that many offered since the location is understood to be Indian drawing books were sold to people who knew little, if Territory. These drawings tell or suggest a story in which anything, about actual life on the Plains makes it likely the participants who are portrayed serve as the central that the kinds of partial messages relayed through the focus. Warrior society members appear in societal regalia image portion of traditional Plains , and by and Medicine Lodge participants stand at a specific extension through the majority of the Chief Killer draw­ moment in the ceremony. Other images of men and ings under examination, would be lost on the new audi­ women on horseback or engaged in social meetings or ence. If more complex episodes were the subject of illus­ the columns of cavalry moving across the page suggest tration for the Fort Marion artist, these would not be clear actions to the viewer. Yet, like drawings created by Plains to the purchaser. Perhaps in partial compensation for artists prior to the Fort Marion confinement, these images this, many Fort Marion drawings have handwritten cap­ suggest a story, but one that cannot be adequately recon­ tions, most recorded either by Pratt or by the fort inter­ structed from the drawings alone. Men on the Plains cre­ preter, George Fox. Such legends communicated the ated drawings on paper as part of the recognition and cel­ basic message of the drawing in the event that the visu­ ebration of heroic deeds. Drawings were part of a more al image did not do so. Chief Killer 's drawings from the comprehensive cultural setting. The images did not have Brown collection, however, carry no such written mes ­ to relay the entire account of various battles, for warriors sages. Most offer only a partial suggestion of the people themselves recounted the events verbally. Similarly, most and the actions they record.

3. Detail of Fig. 5. Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. Records ofNew Experiences 4. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Pencil, ink, crayon, colored pencil, paper. 8Y2" (19 cm); 11" (28 cm). Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown The journey drawings from the Brown book (Figs. 5,6,8,9) Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Provl­ differ in style as well as focus from the vast majority of dence, Rhode Island. Plains art, both art produced on the Plains and at Fort 5. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Pencil, ink, crayon, colored pencil, paper. 8Y2" (19 cm); 11"(28 ern), Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown Marion . The Fort Marion-bound prisoners began their Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Provi· unified journey to Florida from where they were dence, Rhode Island. confined in the guardhouse, the ice house and surround­ ing tents. Subsequently,the Florida-bound prisoners were loaded into wagons to travel to the train depot at Fort Leavenworth and , from there, to Florida via wagons, trains and ships. In one of the drawings, a scene which certainly attracted Anne Brown's attention, there is a fort with military personnel on the parade ground, the offi­ cers' presence made clear through Chief Killer 's atten­ tion to different style uniforms and headgear (Fig. 5). Here the artist has so carefully detailed the fort that it can be identified as Fort Sill although no caption accompanies the drawing . Comparison to existing drawings and pho­ tographs of Fort Sill from the second half of the nineteenth century confirms the parallels (Nye 1969; Griswold 1958). Chief Killer's spatial orientation is precise; he has rendered the north portion of the fort and its locale to the right of the drawing with west at the top of the page . Medicine Bluff Creek traverses the lower right and bottom / section of the drawing, with the fort and parade ground ~-I located in relation to that creek as they were in actuality. The hospital, separated from the remainder of barracks and officers' quarters, is in the upper right region of the base ; and the aforementioned guardhouse is rendered in the upper left corner of the drawing just south of the 5 cavalry barracks. Chief Killer differentiated the com­ manding officer's quarters , too, with the columned porch of the prominent house appearing to the left of the parade ground (Fig. 3). The ice house and surrounding tents

SPRING 1994 53 appear in the bottom of the drawing. This topographical­ ly detailed drawing recorded a place Chief Killer had observed nearly two years before the drawing was made. This record of Fort Sill is one of four drawings that relay information which Chief Killer's other drawings do not. The remaining three images - one of a post nestled in the mountains, another of trains passing through a town, and the third of the city of St. Augustine - are sim­ ilar to the Fort Sill drawing in that each describes a place rather than narrating a story- Detailing the mountains, the houses and the topography of St. Augustine (Fig. 6), for example, Chief Killer has not placed himself or any other figure within the boundaries of the drawing page. He describes the specifics of the place as he saw them. In the same way, while the Fort Sill scene contains many participants, it is more a description than a narration. The plan of the fort, the differentiation of buildings, the varia­ tion in officers' and enlisted men's uniforms are all recorded as a fully illustrative reproduction of Fort Sill. 6 Chief Killer is an observer, emphasizing descriptive skills that were not previously a part of ledger art. 6. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877.Pencil, ink, crayon, colored Drawings on the Plains detailed important identifying pencil, paper. 81," (19 cm); 11" (28 cm). Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown features of participants in actions portrayed. The person Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, involved in a scene was known by virtue of his parapher­ Providence, Rhode Island. 7. Drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Pencil, ink, crayon, col­ nalia, such as shields, specificlodge designs, horse accou­ ored pencil, paper. 8 y," (19 cm); 11" (28 ern), Courtesy Anne S.K. trements or body paint which could stand on their own as Brown Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, signifiersfor the owner of the shield, horse or design. Providence, Rhode Island. Ledger art dating from this period prior to Fort 1875and early 1876are not concerned with these views; Marion often included representations of the principal rather they concentrate on nostalgic images of the protagonists in battle encounters or horse raids. The Plains. By mid-1876, a year into the Florida confinement, Plains artist directed his attention to the important incidents of prison life and the journey from Fort Sill, as aspects of each event - who did what to whom ­ Pratt indicated, did become prominent. though occasionally he presented a house, an army The long train trip from Fort Sill took the men post , a wagon or, more rarely, a landscape. It was not through various large cities including Indianapolis, St. necessary to illustrate where actions took place. Louis, Nashville and Atlanta. Chief Killer has recorded The communications system of Fort Marion art was one of those cities in the rows of buildings that line the drastically different. Drawings made there existed for train's passage (Fig. 9). Trains appear multiple times in many reasons - exploration of scenes of the distant Fort Marion drawings created by other known artists Plains for exiled prisoners, the creation of drawings to (Supree 1977:23-29; Harris 1989: 107, 111) . The men send home to families , and the use of such art for sale must have been intrigued by these fast-moving systems to interested outsiders . Audiences beyond the confines of transport. Pratt fueled this interest, consciously or of the prison did not share a common base of experience unconsciously, by ordering what he termed picture cards with the artists. Without this foundation , drawings lost of various objects and machinery - including locomo­ their traditional ability to communicate narrative without tives and steamboats - to place in the sections of the additional verbal or written explanation. old fort converted to classrooms for use by the prison­ Directly or indirectly, Richard Pratt may have had an ers (Pratt 1876a). effect on the type of subjects explored in Florida by the prisoners of war. In recall ing the long trip from Indian The World in Miniature Territory to Florida, Pratt observed that "these incidents and many others made vivid pictures in the minds of the Chief Killer sought new means of record ing images of Indians Soon the Indians with their pencils and paper his experiences beginning with the journey from Fort Sill began to make pictures of the incidents of their prison and continuing with his life in Florida. These composi­ life, beginning at Fort Sill" (Pratt n.d.). However, the ear­ tional schemes move from the single band of figures or liest Fort Marion drawings bearing collection dates of multiple rows of participants presented against a blank page to the all-encompassing bird's-eye views of Fort Sill 3Svetlana Alpers promoted the questions posed hereof FortMarion or, even more impressive , of St. Augustine (Fig. 6). The art (1976-1977, 1983). lush landscapes, the differentiation of architectural forms,

54 AMERICA NINDIAN ART MAGAZINE the city's formation. Such eleva ­ tions and maps of St. Augustine created by various artists during the second half of the nineteenth centu ry may have provided at least some inspiration for Chief Killer's view of St. Augustine. The pictorial concept at work in these drawings includes clear landmarks of cities and tran­ scribes those locations in ways that geographers might use. But the kind of mapping or transcrip­ tion offered in Chief Killer's draw­ ings differs from the sketchy maps known from the Plains. The artist's presence is suggested through his knowledge of the landscape, but he is not here as a participant in the scene; he observes from outside the space as well. """"--"-,------";"77- -07- ----,""""..,,,------' 7 The Chief Killer images from the Brown University drawing the exacting details of location and the vast panoramas book embody a new attention to graphic description of depicted differ from the other images in Chief Killer 's locale. Other artists from the Fort Mario n period also drawing book and from previous Plains drawings. The explored landscaped illustrations , and they, like Chief view of Fort Sill, St. Augustine and the town along the Killer, used these representational schemes most fre­ train's route is profile, yet simultaneously bird's-eye, as the quently in images detailing the journey to and exile in viewer looks down on the angled town or fort. Florida.. That these were new themes without precedent In his renditions of landscape, Chief Killer departed on the Plains may partially expla in the innovations. from the linear, outlined style that predominates in both However, the complex reasons for the creation of Fort Fort Marion and Plains art and instead used watercolors Marion art may have had an effect as well. or inks in a painterly fashion, rather than outlining shapes The detailed renditions of St. Augustine, the light­ and filling them with color. The flow of the liquid color house and the fort may have served as mementos for across the pages resulted in mottled effects. Some areas the visitors who carried such colorful drawings home with of the ocher-shaded landscape appear muted while oth­ them. Too, memories of the Plains wars were strong in ers are deeply saturated. The range of colors the artist March 1877. For years, press accounts of the Plains had used in the cityscapes, particularly in the view of St. fueled the fears and imaginations of readers. Many of the Augustine, and the painstaking detail he provided are last major battles of the Central and Northern Plains , unusual. including Rosebud and Little Big Horn, had been fought Chief Killer's plan of the city of St. Augustine - its after the Southern Plains prisoners were transported to appropriately placed gazebo and monument in the midst Florida. Even if the Florida audience did not know that of the city plaza, Trinity Episcopal Church located south Chief Killer or any of the other Fort Marion captives had of the plaza and the cathedral on the north, the jutting been involved in the well-publicized German affair, the plan of the fortress of San Marcos , the piers and hous­ story of Custer 's defeat was still being told repeatedly. A es that line the city streets, and the presence across the drawing book from Fort Marion offered a way of coming bay of two lighthouses , both the older white structure to into contact with these potentially dangerous events and the north and the new black-and-white striped lighthouse - is complete (Fig. 6). The specificity of this drawing is

comparable to exacting portraiture, only here the sub­ 4 Various Fort Marion drawi ngs recording the journey to Florida were ject is a place not a person. included in "Beyond the Prison Gate: The Fort Marion Experience and Its Artistic Legacy," an exhibit organized by the National Cowboy Hall Chief Killer, like the other Fort Marion inmates, was of Fame , on tour between spring of 1993 and 1994. Silberman (1993) not kept locked within the prison walls but was allowed to includes illustrations of similar drawings by the artist Zotom and travel the streets of St. Augustine, thus familiarizing him­ the Cheyenne artist Making Medicine . Dunn 1969, Harris 1989, Pratt 1964, Supree 1977 and Szabo 1994 are among the publications which self with the plan of the community. Maps or elevations of include Fort Marion drawings with a similar focus on the journey to the city were available as were early postcards recording Fort Marion and life in SI. Augustine.

SPRING 1994 55 men while simultaneously keeping safe and removed Bibliography from them. Alpers , Svetlana The Fort Marion inmates themselves had many 1983 The Art of Describing : Dutch Art in the Seventeenth new experiences during their captivity. That artists chose Century. University of Chicago Press, Chicago . to record memories of these new places and experi ­ 1976- Describe or Narrate? A Problem in Realistic 1977 Representation. New Literary History, 8:15-41. ences cannot simply be attributed to Pratt's influence. Recording these places, presenting miniature renditions Berthrong, Donald J. 1963 The Southern . University of Press, of their reality, was important to the artists. They were Norman . outsiders, placed in foreign locations, and their draw­ Clark , T.J. ings were a means of exploring and understanding those 1973 Image of the People: Gustave Courbet and the 1848 new places. Revolution . New York Graphic Society, Ltd., Greenw ich, As previously mentioned, some of the detailed Connecticut. drawings the artists created in Florida were sent home to Dunn , Dorothy friends and families in Indian Territory as a way of shar­ 1969 1877: Plains Indian Skelch Books of Zo-Tom and Howling Wolf. Introduction by Dorothy Dunn. Northland Press, ing at least a portion of their experience of foreign life. Flagstaff, Arizona . That at least the Cheyenne and Arapaho inmates were Graham, Thomas anxious to communicate with their families is apparent 1978 The Awakening of St. Augustine, the Anderson Family and through extant picture letters as well as official corre­ the Oldest City: 1821-1924. St. Augustine Historical Society, spondence between Pratt and the Cheyenne and St. Augustine , Florida. Arapaho Agent John D. Miles (Miles 1875a, 1875b, Griswold. Gillett 1876a, 1876b,1876c;Pratt 1876b,1877b). Pratt mentions 1958 Old Fort Sill: The First Seven Years. The Chronicles of Oklahoma . 36:2-14. only one drawing sent from Fort Marion to Indian Territory in enough detail to reconstruct its subject ; the Harris, Moira F. 1989 Between Two Cultures: Kiowa Art from Fort Marion. Pogo drawing, by an unnamed Southern Cheyenne artist, Press, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota . recorded the Fort Marion prisoners at work moving a Meredith , Grace E., editor local St. Augustine building (Pratt 1877a). 1927 GirlCaptives of the Cheyennes : A True Story of the Capture The multiple roles that Fort Marion drawings played and Rescue of Four Pioneer Girls, 1874. Gem Publishing for their creators and their various audiences give these Co., Los Angeles. drawings a unique position in the history of Plains art. Miles, John D. The artists' dislocation from their previous lives and the 1875a Letter to Richard H. Pratt, May 15. Box 7, folder 198, Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections , Beinecke related reasons for making art offer at least a partial Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New explanation for the diversity of images included within a Haven , Conn ecticut. single book of drawings. Some of the sixteen Chief Killer 1875b Letter to Richard H. Pratt, December 17, Box 7, folder 198, drawings from the Brown book are closely related to the Richard H. Pratt Papers, Western Americana Collections, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale messages and narrative communication required of University, New Haven , Connecticut. drawings previously created on the Plains; others, like 1876a Letter to Richard H. Pratt, June 27.Box 7, folder 198, the fully descriptive, non-narrative representations of St. Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale Augustine or Fort Sill, suggest an artist now estranged University, New Haven, Connect icut. from previous life and views of art , using drawings to 1876b Letter to Richard H. Pratt, August 23. Box 7, folder 198, communicate to entirely different audiences. The result­ Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections , ing books of drawings, in their entirety, illustrate the dis­ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven , Connecticut. junction of these roles and the creation of what have now 1876c Letter to Richard H. Pratt, September 13. Box 7, folder 198, become multiple-voiced messages for diverse and dis­ Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections, connected audiences. The similarity of this disjunction Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale to nineteenth-century artists of varying cultures under University, New Haven , Connecticut. vastly different circumstances is strik inq." The mixed Miles, Nelson A. messages and multiple voices of Fort Marion drawings 1897 Personal Recollections and Observations of General Nelson A. Miles Embracing a Brief View of the Civil War or are part of the beginning of the era of modern art in from New England to the Golden Gate and the Story of His which artists, faced with rapidly changing circumstances Indian Campaigns with Comments on the Exploration, and diverse social structures, use art as a means of Development and Progress of Our Great Western Empire. The Werner Co., Chicago . exploring, understanding and coping with newly frag­ Nye, W.S. mented lives. 1969 Carbine and Lance: The Story of Old Fort Sill. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Oestreiche r, Pamela H. 1981 On the White Man's Road? Acculturation and the Fort Marion Southern Plains Prisoners. Unpublish ed Ph.D. dis­ sertaion. Department of Anthropology, Michigan State ' See T.J . Clark 1973 and Alpers 1976-1977. University, East Lansing .

56 AMERICAN INDIAN ART MAGAZ INE 8

8. Detail of Fig. 6. Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Provi­ dence, Rhode Island. 9. Detail of a drawing by Chief Killer, March 1877. Courtesy Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.

9 Petersen , Karen Daniels 1971 Plains Indian Art from Fort Marion. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 1978 The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites. In Powell, Peter J. Americanizing the American Indians: Writings by the 1981 People of the Sacred Mountain: A History of the Northern "Friends ofthe Indian" 1880-1900, edited by Francis Paul Cheyenne Chiefs and Warrior Societies 1830-1878 with an Prucha, pp.260 -271. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. Epilogue 1969-1974. Harper and Row, . (Originally published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1973.) Pratt, Richard H. Silberman, Arthur n.d. The Florida Indian Prisoners of 1875 to 1878. Box 25, folder 676, Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana 1993 The Art of Fort Marion . Native Peoples, 6:32-39. Collections, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Supree , Burton Yale University, New Haven , Connecticut. Typed manu­ 1977 Bear 's Heart: Scenes from the Life of a Cheyenne Artist of script. One Hundred YearsAgo with Pictures by Himself. J.B. 1876a Letter to A.S. Barnes Co., New York, September 6. Box 14, Lippincott , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. folder 341, Richard H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Szabo , Joyce M. Collections, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, 1994 Howling Wolf and the History of Ledger Art. University of Yale University, New Haven , Connecticut. New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 1876b Letter to John D. Miles, June 24. Oklahoma Historical U.S. National Museum Society Indian Archives , Oklahoma City. Indian Prisoners 1878 Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. 1. File. Government Printing Office, Washington , D.C. 1877a Letter to John D. Miles, April 5. Oklahoma Historical Society, Indian Archives , Cheyenne and Arapaho Agency, The author wishes to acknowledge the invaluable help of Peter Oklahoma City. Indian Prisoners File. Harrington, Curator of the Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection of Brown 1877b Letter to R. MacKenzie, August. Box 14, folder 341, Richard University, for inviting her to examine the Brown drawing book last H. Pratt Papers , Western Americana Collections , Beinecke year and Sheherzad Navidi , Librarian of the St. Augustine Historical Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Society, for her assistance in obtaining nineteenth-century maps of Haven, Connecticut. the city. 1964 Battlefield and Classroom: Four Decades with the American Indian, 1867-1904. Edited by Robert M. Utley. Yale Joyce M. Szabo is Assistant Professor ofArt History, University of University Press, New Haven , Connecticut. New Mexico, Albuquerque.

SPRING 1994 57