WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/westminsterresearch Military media machine: how the British military communicated Afghanistan at home Rikke Bjerg Jensen Faculty of Media, Arts and Design This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2014. This is an exact reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] MILITARY MEDIA MACHINE HOW THE BRITISH MILITARY COMMUNICATED AFGHANISTAN AT HOME RIKKE BJERG JENSEN A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2014 ABSTRACT Military Media Machine is an investigation into the media management structure, and the increasingly dynamic communication processes, developed and implemented by the UK military. It explores – rather than explains – the proliferation in military media facilitation within defence, at a time when the British armed forces are concluding their nearly 13-year campaign in Afghanistan. During this extraordinary period of strategic pressure, telling a story of success has become a key factor in the military’s understanding of their own communication function. So this thesis suggests. It does so by demonstrating how strategic narratives are constructed to distance the soldier and the military institution from the war itself. It shows how the military shift from a combat to a ‘train and advice’ role has challenged the ways in which this distinction is upheld and communicated. This has a wider applicability too, as it testifies to the increasing conflation of military goals and political objectives. Using access to UK and NATO field settings and doctrinal discussions, the study documents a growing presence of media theory at the heart of military doctrine. It demonstrates how the British military have engaged large (and not necessarily efficient) resources to managing the story as part of their Afghanistan exit strategy. This includes new communication initiatives, online engagement procedures, information doctrine and media training facilitation. Thesis findings indicate that the purpose of these initiatives is to influence target audiences through the ‘means’ of the media. They paint a picture of an organisation that is increasingly engaged in catering to, and producing material for, the media. Media studies have generally not engaged in military communication research. Similarly, the military have shown little interest in involving external partners in their communication function. The thesis positions itself at the heart of this discussion. It recognises that new frameworks of understanding are needed; frameworks that do not attempt to improve the effectiveness of military messaging but which examine it and consider the practice. Unlike most work carried out in military academies the purpose of the study has not been to develop doctrine. Rather, by taking on an inside-out approach (as opposed to an outside-in approach) the thesis examines a fast-growing aspect of communication research that has so far been poorly documented within media and communications studies. ii Contents Acronyms v Images & Tables vii Acknowledgements ix Published Material x Declaration of Authorship xi Introduction: Why Communicating Afghanistan Matters 1 BACKGROUND & CONTEXT 1 Communicating Militaries: Three Debates 17 Accountability 18 Military Culture 27 War Amongst the People 36 Conclusions 44 2 Historical Traces: Towards the Green Book 48 The Falklands: New Bearings 49 Media War in the Gulf 55 Towards Afghanistan & the Green Book 61 Conclusions 66 3 Methodology: My Journey through the Field 68 Ideas behind the Methodology 68 A Question of Access 75 Ethnographic Traces 81 Summary 85 THE STRUCTURES & VEHICLES OF MILITARY COMMUNICATION 4 The Principles of Influence 88 The Function of Doctrine 89 The Role of Strategic Communication 96 Targeting Audiences 109 Conclusions 121 5 Organising Military Communication 124 Three Levels of Military Communication 125 Military Objectives 138 Conclusions 146 iii MANAGING PERCEPTIONS: AFGHANISTAN DISCOURSES 6 Telling Afghanistan at Home 150 Why Communicating Security Matters 151 Strategic Narratives & the Story of Success 155 Counter-Narratives 171 Conclusions 180 7 New Media, New Narrative & Afghanistan 183 Online Communication & Counter-Narratives 184 Why Communicating Human(e) Rights Matters 199 Conclusions 211 CONCLUSIONS 8 Conclusion: Military Media Machine 214 Revisiting the Field: Original Contributions 215 Military Communication Research and its Wider Applicability 220 Limitations of the Military Media Machine 228 Bibliography 233 Appendices 253 iv Acronyms ANA Afghan National Army ANP Afghan National Police ANSF Afghan National Security Force ARRC Allied Rapid Reaction Corps CA Comprehensive Approach CCT Combat Camera Team CIMIC Civil-military Cooperation CoG Centre of Gravity DCMC Defence Crisis Management Centre DCMO Defence Crisis Management Organisation DCP Directorate of Communication Planning D Def PR Directorate of Defence Public Relations DfID Department for International Development DMC Directorate Media and Communication DMOC Defence Media Operations Centre D News Director of News D Op Directorate of Operational Planning DPO Defence Press Office DSMC Defence School of Media and Communications EBA Effects Based Approach FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office FLC Front Line Commander FLMP Front Line Media Pools FOB Forward Operating Base FOI Freedom of Information IED Improvised Explosive Device IFOR Implementation Force IO Influence Operations ISAF International Security Assistance Force JMOT Joint Media Operations Team JOA Joint Operations Area JTFHQ Joint Task Force Headquarters KLE Key Leader Engagement LTT Lines To Take MMG Media Management Group MOD Ministry of Defence v MOG(V) Media Operations Group (Volunteer) MPT Media Production Team MRT Media Response Team NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NGO Non-Governmental Organization OPSEC Operations Security PAO Public Affairs Office PB Patrol Base PIC Press Information Centre P Info Public Information PJHQ Permanent Joint Headquarter PRT Provincial Reconstruction Team SACEUR Supreme Allied Command Europe SimPress Simulated Press StratCom Strategic Communication TAPIOs Territorial Army Pool of Information Officers vi Images & Figures Table 3.1 Overview of military documents 70 Table 3.2 Overview of field settings, interviews 74 and email correspondence Figure 4.1 The United Kingdom Information Strategy 90 Image 5.1 Press Information Centre (PIC), exercise scenario 132 Loyal Ledger/Loyal Mariner ’09 (ARRC, NATO) Image 5.2 Combat Camera Team Videographer at Work 133 in Afghanistan (2010) Image 6.1 Media skills training (ARRC: March 2009) 163 Image 7.1 Screenshot of UK Defence Social Media Hub. 193 Image 7.2 Handover of Lashkar Gah to Afghan Forces 198 Image 7.3 Afghanistan Flag during Handover of Lashkar Gah to 198 Afghan Forces Image 7.4 Soldier talks to Children while on Patrol in Afghanistan 202 Image 7.5 Afghan Girl with British Soldier 204 Image 7.6 Soldier Talks with Local Children in Afghanistan 204 Image 7.7 ANA Soldier on Patrol with British Soldier in Operation 206 Omid Char. Image 7.8 Afghan and British Soldier 206 Image 7.9 Combat Camera Team photographer in Afghanistan 210 vii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the assistance, cooperation and support of a number of people. These people all deserve huge thanks. I am particularly grateful to those who took part in the study: military personnel and practitioners who gave of their time to respond to my, sometimes many(!), questions; military insiders who granted me access to field settings; communications and conflict scholars who invited me to take part in specialised seminars and workshops; and media professionals who helped substantiate the research. Without their willingness the study would never have taken off. Needless to say, I am hugely thankful to Professor Jean Seaton, my Director of Studies, who has not only guided me through the research but stimulated discussion. Knowing that she has always been only a phone call away has been reassuring and invaluable at times when I have doubted my own judgement. If it was not for her I would never have been brave enough to take on this project. I would also like to thank my second supervisor Dr Anthony McNicholas for his excellent support at crucial points in the research process. Finally, my family and friends also deserve thanks for their support and for listening to my constant chatter about Afghanistan. The research is funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation. ix Published Material Parts of the material included in