DOCSLIB.ORG

The Germ of an Idea

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Germ of an Idea THE GERM OF AN IDEA Contagionism, Religion, and Society in Britain, 1660-1730 MARGARET DELACY The Germ of an Idea This page intentionally left blank The Germ of an Idea Contagionism, Religion, and Society in Britain, 1660-1730 Margaret DeLacy THE GERM OF AN IDEA Copyright © Margaret DeLacy 2016 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2016 978-1-137-57527-2 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission. In accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 2016 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of Nature America, Inc., One New York Plaza, Suite 4500, New York, NY 10004-1562. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. ISBN 978-1-349-57558-9 E-PDF ISBN: 978-1-137-57529-6 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-57529-6 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: DeLacy, Margaret, author. Title: The germ of an idea: contagionism, religion and society in Britain, 1660-1730 / Margaret DeLacy. Description: New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, [2015] Identifiers: LCCN 2015023117 | Subjects: LCSH: Medicine—Great Britain—History—17th century. | Medicine—Great Britain—History—18th century. | Epidemics—Great Britain—History. | Plague—Great Britain—History. | Medicine—Philosophy. | Diseases—Philosophy. | Medicine—Religious aspects. Classification: LCC R486 .D43 2015 | DDC 610.941—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015023117 A catalogue record for the book is available from the British Library. This book is dedicated to the memory of my brother, John Calvert Eisenstein (1953–1974) This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface: The Eighteenth-Century Slump? ix Acknowledgments xix Abbreviations and Short Titles xxi 1 Introduction: Medical Theory in Early Modern Europe 1 2 Restoration Medicine and the Dissenters 17 3 Populist Writing on Diseases in the Late Seventeenth Century 37 4 The Search for Middle Ground: Disease Theory as Natural History 49 5 Animalcules and Animals 67 6 English Contagionism and Hans Sloane’s Circle 85 7 An English Treatise on Living Contagion: Benjamin Marten’s New Theory of Consumptions, 1720 107 8 Smallpox Inoculation and the Royal Society, 1700–1723 127 9 Contagion and Plague in the Eighteenth Century 147 Conclusion 171 Notes 177 Bibliography 265 Index 293 This page intentionally left blank Preface The Eighteenth-Century Slump?1 Sometimes a single question or comment will trigger a long research pro- gram. My current project began with the tantalizing remark of Charles- Edward Amory Winslow: By 1700 there was available theoretical and observational evidence which should have made possible the formulation of our modern germ-theory of dis- ease. Kircher had advanced the concept of a contagium animatum . Redi had presented convincing evidence that living things . were not spontaneously produced . Leeuwenhoek had actually described . protozoa and bacteria . If an open-minded and imaginative observer had put the work of these three pioneers together, the germ-theory of disease could have been developed in the seventeenth century instead of the nineteenth. Why [were] medical thinkers . diverted?2 Winslow’s frustration with early-eighteenth-century medicine echoed the bleak view of his predecessor, the medical historian Fielding H. Garrison, who had argued that the eighteenth century was a “lull” characterized by “exaggerated sobriety and apparent content with the old order of things,” “tedious and plati- tudinous philosophizing,” and a “mania for sterile, dry-as-dust classifications.”3 These claims left me wondering how early modern doctors actually approached the problem of explaining disease. How close had they come to developing a theory that some diseases might result from living contagions— that is, a theory resembling what Winslow loosely termed the “modern germ- theory of disease”?4 Was there an abrupt break in this pattern of thought after 1700? Did the “medical revolution” that reached a peak in Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood in the seventeenth century simply fizzle out? Finally, apart from the tidiness of being able to assign “precursor- hood” appropriately, why should we care? In what ways might the ideas of Restoration medical thinkers matter to us? Being new to this field, I thought it would be easy to find a book that would answer these questions. When I turned to eighteenth-century medical works to learn about the conceptualization of disease during the period, one reason many historians have avoided this subject became evident. I could not understand what I read. When they discussed philosophy, politics, and even religion, eighteenth-century x Preface authors used language that at least seems to be clear and comprehensible, but when they wrote about medicine they drew on a vocabulary and an underly- ing conceptual framework that is almost impenetrable today. Medical ideas from this time cannot be mapped isomorphically onto any corresponding set of terms and ideas of our own. Events and conditions that began the century as strings of adjectives such as “bilious,” “putrid,” “low,” “pestilential,” and “intermittent” were being discarded or rearranged into distinct diseases. The names for these illnesses were becoming more consis- tent in both English and Latin, enabling physicians to communicate more fruitfully with each other. This process began well before 1700 and ended long after 1900, but it was gathering steam in this period, when completely different systems for conceptualizing disease competed with each other. It is not surprising that this period of complex transitions seemed inchoate. Many years later, I have reached some conclusions. First, claims that this period saw an abrupt break with the past or future are exaggerated or mis- placed. Second, the interest of authors in ideas about contagion was related to their status as outsiders in England or their experience as religious dis- senters (broadly defined).5 Moreover, this relationship persisted from before the Restoration right through this period. Third, what was important about their idea of contagion was not whether it accurately anticipated Pasteur’s (or Bassi’s or Henle’s, or twentieth-century) ideas but its contribution to the shift from a physiological to an ontological view of acute diseases.6 In other words, contagionism partly replaced the conceptualization of illness as an imbalance or dysfunction with the conceptualization of separate disease enti- ties with their own characteristic patterns.7 The theory that the contagium itself might be alive sometimes played a role in this transformation, but the idea of contagion itself affected disease theory even when the nature of the agent was seen as inanimate or was not specified. The rest of this book will discuss the second two conclusions in greater detail, but the hypothesis of an eighteenth-century “lull” deserves further consideration here. In the paragraph before the one quoted above, Win- slow had acknowledged that “Benjamin Marten in 1720, three years before Leeuwenhoek’s death, assumes that tuberculosis is caused by invisible ‘ani- malculae,’ like those discovered by Leeuwenhoek . .”8 This led me back to Clifford Dobell’s biography of Leeuwenhoek and to William Bulloch’s History of Bacteriology.9 The latter contained a more detailed discussion of Marten’s work, including quotations from Marten’s New Theory of Consump- tions (1720), but it ended with what would become a familiar assessment: “Marten’s book . was soon relegated to oblivion. Marten could never have dreamt that his views would turn out to be so correct. How different were they from those of his day and long after.”10 After very brief and dismissive references to two other eighteenth-century authors (Carl Linnaeus and Marc Anton von Plenciz), Bulloch, like many of his colleagues, turned with relief to his real subject, the enormous strides that were made in bacteriology in the nineteenth century. Clearly, Marten was an interesting but inconvenient snag complicating the story of eighteenth-century nescience. Preface xi Bulloch’s work in turn led me to the articles by Charles Singer on Marten himself. In 1910, Singer, then a young physician, stumbled on a copy of Marten’s New Theory when browsing through some used books and pur- chased it for a few pennies.11 This beguiling work changed Singer’s life for- ever. He quickly published an article on Marten and then, with help from his new wife, the scholar Dorothea Waley Singer, researched and self-published a book on the idea of living contagion from 1500–1750.12 He conclusively demonstrated that many earlier European authors had expressed an interest in ideas about pathogenic “worms” or “animalcules,”
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Notes to the Note on the Text and Introduction
    Notes Notes to the Note on the Text and Introduction i. Mandeville’s address is repeated at the end of the Preface: “From my House in Manchester-Court, Channel-Row, Westminster.” ii. A Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions, vulgarly call’d the hypo in men and vapours in women; In which the Symptoms, Causes, and Cure of those Diseases are set forth after a Method intirely new. The whole interspers’d, with Instructive Discourses on the Real art of Physick it self; And Entertaining Remarks on the Modern Practice of Physicians and Apothecaries; Very useful to all, that have the Misfortune to stand in need of either. In three dialogues. By B. de Mandeville, M.D. (London, printed for and to be had of the author, at his house in Manchester-Court, in Channel- Row, Westminster; and D. Leach, in the Little-Old-Baily, and W. Taylor, at the Ship in Pater-Noster-­Row, and J. Woodward in Scalding-Alley, near Stocks-Market, 1711). The second 1711 issue bears the following publica- tion details: “London, printed and sold by Dryden Leach, in Elliot’s Court, in the Little-Old-Baily, and W. Taylor, at the Ship in Pater-Noster-Row, 1711”. The 1715 reprint bears the same title with different publication details (London, printed by Dryden Leach, in Elliot’s Court, in the Little Old-Baily, and sold by Charles Rivington, at the Bible and Crown, near the Chapter-House in St. Paul’s Church Yard, 1715). A Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Diseases. In three dialogues.
    [Show full text]
  • Experimental Pharmacology and Therapeutic Innovation in the Eighteenth Century
    -e: EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTIC INNOVATION IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY by ANDREAS-HOLGER MAEHLE A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London University College London 1996 ProQuest Number: 10017185 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10017185 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT In the historiography of pharmacology and therapeutics, the 18th century is regarded as a period of transition from traditional, Galenistic materia medica to the beginnings of modern, experimental drug research. Ackerknecht (1973) characterized the pharmacotherapy of this period as a "chaotic mixture of chemiatric and Galenistic practices", yet acknowledged an "increasing tendency toward empiricism, partly even true experimentalism". This thesis explores this transitional phase for the first time in depth, examining the relations between pharmacological experimentation, theory-building, and therapeutic practice. Furthermore, ethical aspects are highlighted. The general introduction discusses the secondary literature and presents the results of a systematic study of pharmacological articles in relevant 18th-century periodicals. The identified main areas of contemporary interest, the spectrum of methods applied, and the composition of the authorship are described and interpreted.
    [Show full text]
  • Experimental Philosophers and Public Demonstrators in Augustan England
    13 J B)HS, 1995, 28, 131-56 Who did the work? Experimental philosophers and public demonstrators in Augustan England STEPHEN PUMFREY* The growth of modern science has been accompanied by the growth of professionalization. We can unquestionably speak of professional science since the nineteenth century, although historians dispute about where, when and how much. It is much more problematic and anachronistic to do so of the late seventeenth century, despite the familiar view that the period saw the origin of modern experimental science. This paper explores the broad implications of that problem. One area of scientific activity, public science lecturing and demonstrating, certainly produced its first professionals in the period 1660-1730. This was a period which Geoffrey Holmes called 'Augustan England', and which he found to be marked by the expansion of many of the professions.1 Swollen lower ranks of physicians, civil servants and teachers crowded onto the ladder up to gentility, and even solicitors achieved respectability. Alongside these established types the professional scientist, such as the public lecturer, was a novelty. Later, in the high Georgian era, a small army of men like Stephen Demainbray and Benjamin Martin made recognized if precarious livings from public experimentation, but the first generation pioneers were entering new and risky territory. As Larry Stewart has shown, 'the rise of public science' was a successful social and economic transformation of the highest significance in the history of science which was part of what has been called England's commercial revolution.2 We are accustomed to think of early, pioneering professionals like Robert Hooke, Francis Hauksbee or Denis Papin as 'notable scientists'.
    [Show full text]
  • The Geographicall Compass”: History, Authority and Utility in the English Voyage Account, 1660-1730
    “THE GEOGRAPHICALL COMPASS”: HISTORY, AUTHORITY AND UTILITY IN THE ENGLISH VOYAGE ACCOUNT, 1660-1730 by Jacob Pollock Bachelor of Arts, University of Auckland, 2002 Master of Arts, University of Auckland, 2005 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2012 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH KENNETH P. DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Jacob Pollock It was defended on February Nine, 2012 and approved by Seymour Drescher, University Professor, History Peter Machamer, Professor, History and Philosophy of Science John Twyning, Associate Professor, English Dissertation Advisors: Jonathan Scott, Professor, History Pinar M. Emiralioglu, Assistant Professor, History ii Copyright © by Jacob Pollock 2012 iii “THE GEOGRAPHICALL COMPASS”: HISTORY, AUTHORITY AND UTILITY IN THE ENGLISH VOYAGE ACCOUNT, 166O-1730 Jacob Pollock, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2012 The late-seventeenth and early-eighteenth centuries saw a dramatic increase in the publication of accounts of voyages on the London book market. These publications ranged from brief extracts of romantic narratives involving shipwrecks in the East Indies to multi-volume compilations of voyages to all parts of the world, printed in folio and containing numerous maps and engravings. Existing scholarship often views such accounts as entertainment destined for a popular audience. This dissertation shows how the voyage account was used in multiple genres and multiple intellectual contexts, finding its way into debates about natural philosophy, religion, and history, and playing as important a role in the work of the Royal Society as it did in the literary practices of the period.
    [Show full text]
  • John Houghton and Medical Practice in London C. 1700 Jonathan Barry
    John Houghton and Medical Practice in London c. 1700 Jonathan Barry Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Volume 92, Number 4, Winter 2018, pp. 575-603 (Article) Published by Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/bhm.2018.0072 For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/713339 [ Access provided at 1 Oct 2021 02:31 GMT with no institutional affiliation ] This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. John Houghton and Medical Practice in London c. 1700 JONATHAN BARRY summary: This article considers the evidence for medical practice in Lon- don c. 1700 provided by A Collection for the Improvement of Husbandry and Trade (1692–1703) by the apothecary and Fellow of the Royal Society, John Houghton (1645–1705). Houghton discusses how products are used medicinally, as well as the necessary qualifications for a physician, and reports his own experiments and health experiences. His advertisements reveal the range of (largely medical) products he could himself supply, but he also offered an information service, often for medical practitioners, throwing light on both the supply and demand for medical practitioners in different communities and the desirable attributes of shops. Whereas most sources used to uncover medical practice highlight conflict and competition, Houghton’s approach emphasizes consensus and cooperation, partly for his own ideological and commercial reasons, and partly reflecting the emergence of new forms of medical practice supported by the new science and by genteel consumer demand. keywords: advertising, apothecary, London, medical practice, natural history, pharmacy, physician The recent literature on English medical practice in the late seventeenth century has tended to focus on conflict and competition in London, both between individual practitioners and between institutions or types of practitioner, notably between physicians and both surgeons and apoth- ecaries.
    [Show full text]
  • The Geographicall Compass”: History, Authority and Utility in the English Voyage Account, 1660-1730
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by D-Scholarship@Pitt “THE GEOGRAPHICALL COMPASS”: HISTORY, AUTHORITY AND UTILITY IN THE ENGLISH VOYAGE ACCOUNT, 1660-1730 by Jacob Pollock Bachelor of Arts, University of Auckland, 2002 Master of Arts, University of Auckland, 2005 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2012 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH KENNETH P. DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Jacob Pollock It was defended on February Nine, 2012 and approved by Seymour Drescher, University Professor, History Peter Machamer, Professor, History and Philosophy of Science John Twyning, Associate Professor, English Dissertation Advisors: Jonathan Scott, Professor, History Pinar M. Emiralioglu, Assistant Professor, History ii Copyright © by Jacob Pollock 2012 iii “THE GEOGRAPHICALL COMPASS”: HISTORY, AUTHORITY AND UTILITY IN THE ENGLISH VOYAGE ACCOUNT, 166O-1730 Jacob Pollock, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2012 The late-seventeenth and early-eighteenth centuries saw a dramatic increase in the publication of accounts of voyages on the London book market. These publications ranged from brief extracts of romantic narratives involving shipwrecks in the East Indies to multi-volume compilations of voyages to all parts of the world, printed in folio and containing numerous maps and engravings. Existing scholarship often views such accounts as entertainment destined for a popular audience. This dissertation shows how the voyage account was used in multiple genres and multiple intellectual contexts, finding its way into debates about natural philosophy, religion, and history, and playing as important a role in the work of the Royal Society as it did in the literary practices of the period.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Studies in the Development of Experimental
    1 STUDIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY IN THE EIGHTEENTH AND EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURIES A Thesis presented by MELVIN PETER EARLES for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of London. University College, October, 1961. London. 2 ABSTRACT General pharmacology in -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is considered (Parts 1 and 2). Reference is made to some criticisms of the contemporary materia medica and -to early attempts at a scientific investigation of drugs and poisons. The studies of vegetable drugs by Stoerk and Withering are discussed to illustrate the problems associated with pharmaco-dynamic studies in clinical practice. Part 3 describes the experiments with drugs arid poisons carried out in -the eighteenth century. Parti- cular reference is made to experimental studies of cherry laurel, arrow-poisons, viper venom and opium. The influence of this work on the history of experimental pharmacology is considered in a discussion concerning the recognition of animal experiments as a valid contribution to pharmacology and human medicine. In Part 4 the factors contributing to advances in posology are discussed with particular reference to experi- mental studies and to the isolation of active constituents of drugs. Part is concerned with the development of knowledge concerning the mode of action of drugs and poisons, in particular with the problem of the manner in 3 which a substance can affect an organ situated at a dis- tance from the site of administration. These sections of the thesis include a study of the work of some inves- tigators in the early nineteenth century with particular reference to some early researches by Fran9ois Magendie.
    [Show full text]
  • 2440 Eblj Article 6, 2007
    A Fragment of the Library of Theodore Haak (1605-1690) William Poole Great libraries are often built on the stock of prior great libraries, as much in the early modern period as in others. As the seventeenth-century French librarian Gabriel Naudé counselled his budding collector, ‘the first, the speediest, easie and advantagious [way] of all the rest ... is made by the acquisition of some other entire and undissipated Library.’1 One of the more valuable pleasures of provenance research is the detection of such libraries- behind-libraries, often extending to two, three, or even more removes. Over time, however, many collections assembled upon earlier collections suffer mutilation, and this mutilation inevitably disturbs the older strata. One example relevant to this article is the library of the Royal Society of London: when this library was a mere toddler, it was joined in 1667 by the distinctly aristocratic Arundelian library; later, these collections effectively merged. Behind Thomas Howard, Fourteenth Earl of Arundel’s, great Caroline library lay the bulk of the German humanist Willibald Pirckheimer’s collection; and at the centre of Pirckheimer’s collection was a supposed third of the books of the fifteenth-century King of Hungary Matthias Corvinus. But even in its earliest days the archaeology of the Royal Society’s ‘Bibliotheca Norfolciana’ may not have been appreciated by its new custodians. As the FRS and mathematician John Pell (1611-1685) wrote in March 1667 on the Society’s new library to the subject of this article, Theodore Haak (1605-1690), ‘I beleeve, divers of the R. S.
    [Show full text]
  • George I Slides 4 2020
    10/12/2020 Palaces Kensington Palace with the statue of William III. He and Mary II bought it from the Earl of Nottingham and used Wren to turn it into a palace. George employed William Kent to improve and decorate the royal apartments from 1722 onwards. He also added a new wing for his mistress 1 2 C18th view of Kensington Palace Kent’s Cupola Room 1722-5 painted by Richard Cattermole in 1817 3 4 The Cupola Room today Kent’s King’s Great Drawing Room painted by Charles Wild in 1816 5 6 1 10/12/2020 Ceiling of the King’s Great Drawing Room William Kent by William Aikman c William Kent by Benedetto Luti 1718 1723-5 NPG 7 8 Kent’s Great Staircase 1725-7 painted by Charles Wild in 1819 Great Staircase Today showing Tijou’s ironwork 9 10 Mahomet and Mustafa the king’s Turkish servants and Ulric his Polish page Kent’s Presence Chamber painted by James Stephanoff in 1816 11 12 2 10/12/2020 John Vanbrugh’s New Kitchen 1717 painted by James Stephanoff in 1819 13 14 Candlesticks 1727 by John Gumley for Kensington Side table by John Gumley 1727 for Kensington 15 16 Pier Table by James Moore 1720 for Kensington 17 18 3 10/12/2020 James Moore’s Pier Table 1723-4 at Kensington 19 20 Michael Rysbrack’s Roman Marriage of 1722 for Kensington James Moore’s Pier Table 1723 at Kensington 21 22 Henry Wise designer of the gardens at Kensington Palace originally for Queen Anne but continued to 1728, painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller c 1715 Kensington Gardens in 1736 23 24 4 10/12/2020 Kensington palace and gardens before Wise’s alterations Kensington Palace and Gardens by Johannes Kip in 1724 after Wise’s alterations for George 25 26 John Rocque’s View of Kensington Palace 1739 Another view of the gardens c 1730 27 28 St James’s Palace in George’s day.
    [Show full text]
  • A 'Philosophical Storehouse': the Life and Afterlife Of
    1 A ‘Philosophical Storehouse’: The life and afterlife of the Royal Society’s repository Jennifer M. Thomas Submitted for PhD examination 2 - ABSTRACT - In June 1781, the Royal Society’s repository was transferred to the British Museum. Though ostensibly as a result of the limited space in the Royal Society’s purpose-built accommodation at Somerset House, the Society were perhaps also a little relieved to relinquish a collection that had proved to be somewhat burdensome during its residence at the Society and which was frequently criticised for its decaying specimens, broken items and missing, possibly stolen, objects. However this seems to be only part of the story. Drawing upon manuscript material in the Royal Society and the British Library, this study will examine the repository’s pattern of usage, collecting strategies and intellectual output throughout its life, in addition to exploring its afterlife at the British Museum using the British Museum’s, Royal College of Surgeon’s and Natural History Museum’s extensive archives. This thesis will seek to reveal an alternative account of the Royal Society’s repository arguing that it was comprised of a substantial and significant collection that the British Museum, at least initially, appears to have been grateful to receive and which, periodically, played a central role in the Society’s and naturalists' work. 3 - TABLE OF CONTENTS - List of Figures 4 Acknowledgements 5 Notes on Transcription 6 Introduction 7 A ‘Philosophical Storehouse’: The life and afterlife of the Royal Society’s Repository
    [Show full text]
  • Frühe Mikroskopie Beobachtung Als Forschungspraxis Edition Open Access
    Frühe Mikroskopie Beobachtung als Forschungspraxis Edition Open Access The Edition Open Access (EOA) platform was founded to bring together publication initiati- ves seeking to disseminate the results of scholarly work in a format that combines traditional publications with the digital medium. It currently hosts the open-access publications of the “Max Planck Research Library for the History and Development of Knowledge” (MPRL) and “Edition Open Sources” (EOS). EOA is open to host other open access initiatives simi- lar in conception and spirit, in accordance with the Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the sciences and humanities, which was launched by the Max Planck Society in 2003. By combining the advantages of traditional publications and the digital medium, the platform offers a new way of publishing research and of studying historical topics or current issues in relation to primary materials that are otherwise not easily available. The volumes are available both as printed books and as online open access publications. They are directed at scholars and students of various disciplines, as well as at a broader public interested in how science shapes our world. Frühe Mikroskopie Beobachtung als Forschungspraxis Simon Rebohm Studies 9 Max Planck Research Library for the History and Development of Knowledge Studies 9 Eingereicht von: Fynn Ole Engler Umschlag: Darstellung von Insektenflügeln mit “Blutgefäßen” und “Federn” aus einem Brief Leeuwenhoeks an die Royal Society vom 24. Juni 1692 (Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, The Collected Letters of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek / Alle de brieven van Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Swets & Zeitlinger, 1939–1999, 9.37–67). Reproduktion nach: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.
    [Show full text]
  • BUTLER, Howard Kenneth, 1942- the STUDY of FOSSILS in the LAST HALF of the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
    This dissertation has been snicrouhned exactly as received 6 8-14,192 BUTLER, Howard Kenneth, 1942- THE STUDY OF FOSSILS IN THE LAST HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. The University of Oklahoma, Ph.D„ 1968 History, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (^1 Copyright by Howard Kenneth Butler 1968 THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE STUDY OF FOSSILS IN THE LAST HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY HOWARD KENNETH BUTLER N orman, Oklahoma 1968 THE STUDY OF FOSSILS IN THE LAST HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY APPROVED BY / S ' . DISSERTATION COMMIT']TEE This dissertation is lovingly dedicated to my wife, Graciela, and to my son, Howard Kenneth, Jr. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Thomas M. Smith, Associate Professor of the History of Science, and to Duane H. D. Roller, McCasland Professor of the History of Science and Curator of the History of Science Collections, for their help and encourage­ ment in preparing this dissertation. To David B. Kitts, Professor of Geology and the His­ tory of Science, to William E. Livezey, Regents Professor of History, and to Leslie F. Smith, Professor of History, for reading the manuscript of the dissertation. To Mrs. George Goodman, Librarian of the History of Science Collections, for her aid in obtaining material for this dissertation. To my fellow graduate students, for their interest and friendship. To the United States Office of Education for Title IV National Defense Education Act Fellowships. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION .......................................
    [Show full text]