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ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY of THESSALONIKI SCHOOL of JOURNALISM & MASS COMMUNICATIONS ΜA in DIGITAL MEDIA, COMMUNICATION & J

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ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY of THESSALONIKI SCHOOL of JOURNALISM & MASS COMMUNICATIONS ΜA in DIGITAL MEDIA, COMMUNICATION & J ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM & MASS COMMUNICATIONS ΜA in DIGITAL MEDIA, COMMUNICATION & JOURNALISM Master of Arts Dissertation USA Embedded Journalism Vs Russian Military Journalism. Two sides of the same coin… or not? Elias Nikezis Supervising Professor Nikolaos Panagiotou Thessaloniki 2016 ii Abstract As the nature of war itself has significantly changed since the end of World War II (WWII), evolving from an industrial to an information one, changes on the relationship between military and media have also occurred, in order to adapt to the new challenging information environment. Media gained a protagonist role in that new form of war and their representatives face today more danger than ever, making almost impossible for a foreign reporter to work as independent in a conflict zone. Both United States of America (USA) and Russian experts voice worries about the extreme danger that today’s war correspondents have to deal with. The practice of embedded journalism, as a mean of controlling dissemination of information, has primary appeared during the Granada invasion, developed by the British in the Falkland Islands and perfected by the US after the end of the first Gulf war. The practice of embedded has been introduced by the US military as an answer to journalists demand on getting first hand information and eyewitness frontline heat, especially after the complains about the coverage of the Gulf war, but it has been later adapted also by the Russian military, customised to best fit its needs. In both cases it has been proven to provide positive coverage of the conflict, in favour of the military, while at the same time it provided descent coverage of the conflict. Comparing the USA and Russian military approaches to the media and war reporting they both have developed similar successful media policies, significantly based on regulating their relationship with war correspondents, customised to best fit their objectives and best target their audiences, to ensure gaining and maintaining population support. Key Words: Embedded journalism, dissemination of information, military journalism, media policy iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………….………ii TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………..……………….….iii ABREVIATIONS………………………………………………………………………………….....v INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..……………….….1 1 Chapter one: The USA approach………………………………….…………..…….…..……4 1.1 From Patriotic to Embedded Journalism…………………………….…..….………..4 1.2 World War II: War correspondence coming to age….……………….…..………….4 1.2.1 Bill Mauldin and Ernie Pyle………….………………………………………5 1.2.2 Stars and Stripes Newspaper…………………………………………………6 1.2.3 The Writing 69th……………………………………………….…..………...6 1.2.4 The Murrow Boys……………………………………………….……………7 1.3 Vietnam: A lesson learned……………………………………………………………7 1.4 The Granada invasion: Censorship Heyday……….…………………..……………..8 1.5 Gulf War: The CNN Effect……………………...……………………….…………..9 1.6 Iraq: War in the information era……………………………………….……………10 1.7 Moving forward…………………………………..…………………………………12 2 Chapter two: The USSR - Russia Approach…………………………………………..……13 2.1 Military and War Journalism from USSR to Post-Soviet Russia Reform………..…13 2.2 Crimea: The generation of the new Russian identity…………………………….…13 2.3 WWII - Reporting the Great Patriotic War, 1941-1945……………………....…….14 2.3.1 Vasily Grossman………………..……………………………………..……14 2.3.2 Krasnaia Zvezda (Red Star)…………………………………………………15 2.4 Afghanistan: Military Journalists Only……………………………………………..15 2.5 Glasnost: Impact on Soviet Union’s military journalism………………….………..17 2.6 Chechnya: Two wars, one media policy, a Waterloo and a Great Success…..……..18 3 Chapter three: War Correspondents and dangers in the war zone…………….…………….23 3.1 Not a military trick………………………………………………………………….23 3.2 Reporting War: A dangerous Job…………………...………………………………23 3.3 New working conditions, new journalism and an unclear legal status…….…….….23 3.4 The challenge for a today’s war reporter……………………………………………24 3.5 Providing proper training……………………………….…….…………………….25 3.6 The international recognition emblem………………………………………………26 3.7 Losing the civilian status……………………………………………………………26 3.8 The SAFE initiative…………………………………………………………………27 iv 3.9 The revised US Law of War Manual………………………………………………..27 3.9.1 Losing the civilian status II…………………………………………………28 4. Chapter Four: Embedded Vs Independent’s Coverage…………………….……………….30 4.1 War Correspondent’s dilemmas…………………………………….…………..…..30 4.2 Embedded Journalism………………………………………..………….………….32 4.3 Being embedded with US Military…………………………………..……………...32 4.3.1 Iraq coverage comparative framing analysis………………….…………….33 4.3.2 The cause of differences……………………………………….……………34 4.3.3 Practicing self censorship……………………………………….…………..35 4.4 Reporting the 2nd Chechnya War…………………………………………...………….36 4.4.1 Embedded with Russian military……………………………….……….….36 4.4.2 Other voices………………………………………………………….……..39 5. Chapter five: Discussion and Findings………………………………………………….…..41 5.1 A common start………………………………...………………………………..….41 5.2 Different paths – Ending up on similar policies…………………..…………….….42 5.2.1 Self Censorship……………………………………………………………..44 5.2.2 Effort to control independents………………………………………………45 5.3 Risking to ensure two sided coverage………………………………………………46 5.4 Nowadays policies. …………………………………………………………………47 CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………………………48 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………….…..50 v ABREVIATIONS CPJ Committee for Protection of Journalists DoD Department of Defence SAFE Securing Access to Free Expression US United States USA United States of America USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WWII World War II OWI Office of War Information POW Prisoner Of War ICC International Criminal Court 1 INTRODUCTION East versus West media policies From industrial to information war This paper is concerned with comparing the USA and Russian military approach to the media and war reporting. As the nature of war has significantly changed since the end of World War II (WWII), changes on the relationship between military and media have also occurred, in order to adapt to the new challenging environment, as we moved from an industrial to an information type of war. During 20th-century wars, the entire populace was often mobilised in support of the nation in struggle. War economies would then have been established, with industry and the war effort conjoined, males enlisted to fight, and women sent to jobs in factories and fields. In the era of Information War, the military has adequate numbers of specialists to fly powerful airplanes and to operate complex missiles, and, by extension, only a few key industries such as computing and aerospace need to be closely wedded to the war capability. Information War can thereby be waged with surprisingly little direct effect on the citizens in whose name it is fought (Tumber & Webster 2006) Information War is different from previous wars in that, while far fewer people take part in it, and thereby there are fewer combatants who will return home to talk about their experiences, there is a massively increased media experience of Information War. In advanced societies especially, but to a greater or lesser degree everywhere, Information War commands enormous media coverage, and media are so much more extensive than ever before. Audiences follow the course of war through television especially, through rolling news, through Internet sites, through emails as well as through the more traditional newspapers and magazines. Those who conduct such war make strenuous efforts to manage what people learn about it. Perception management is an integral part of Information War, so critical is public opinion in such conflict. Those with Information War capability, are also the best positioned to exercise control over consciousness (Tumber et al. 2006). However, so chaotic, dense and fast-changing is the information environment of war that even the USA or Russia is seriously limited in how much they can restrict what is shown round the world to suit its own perspective. Media role in that information war is of course the most significant one. Military and Media always had a complex relationship in times of war. Both USA and Russia tried through the past century to implement policies to control information and regulate their relationships with the media. USA has tried different approaches, which finally led them to introduce the “tactic” of embedded 2 media as the best approach. Russia seems to have adopted these policies, including the practice of embedded journalism, but customised according to its own objectives. In both cases those tactics seem to have served well the two superpowers. Today there seem to be by the USA military a turn also to journalists operating independently, as U.S. military officials who have rewritten the Department of Defence (DoD) military’s Law of War Manual, on July 2016, introduce supportive measures that imply a new policy on them. On the other had USSR has been through different approaches to media, at least since the turmoil of glasnost, but even today. Russia’s policies tent to resemble to those used by the Western militaries, as Russian military journalism has opened its gates to other independent journalist and international media. Embedding has become part of this policy too, although under different regulations. What are really the differences between the framing of an American embedded journalist and a Russian military journalist and what are the similarities? Is embedded journalism a way to control - frame information
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