Helsinki Policy Forum

Discussion Papers

Religious Literacy, Foreign Policy & Diplomacy

September 2016 FORWARD THINKING FORWARD THINKING

Contents

Foreword by Religion and the state in the Lord Hylton Arab world by Faisal Abual- 03 Hassan 25

Religious Literacy, Religious Literacy in a political Foreign Policy and context by Hassan Annabi 04 Diplomacy 29

Summary of themes raised The challenges of religious in Helsinki Policy Forum illiteracy and radicalism by 06 Meetings Dr Ahmad Iravani 32

Recommendations Religious Literacy in an International context by Peter 09 Weiderud 37

Religious Literacy and Policy Violence in the Name of 11 Making by Faruk Loğoğlu Religion, by Oliver McTernan 39

The Importance of Biographies Terminology by Hamadi 13 Jebali 43

Religious Literacy and Islam The Helsinki Policy Forum in the Middle East by 20 Dr Abd El-Monem Abo 46 El-Fotouh

This report is a collection of essays from different authors and does not necessarily represent the formal position of any participating organisation or government in the Helsinki Policy Forum. Any errors contained in the report are the responsibility of authors alone. FORWARD THINKING FORWARD THINKING

Foreword By Lord Hylton

he Helsinki Policy Forum has done a service There is the deeper level of dialogue between religious by gathering Discussion Papers from a wide and secular perspectives. For this to be successful, range of contributors covering the Middle it is desirable that the participants come as close TEast and North Africa, together with views from as possible to understanding the faith of the other, Europe and USA. as well as he or she understands it for themselves. This may sound like a counsel of perfection, but it It can no longer be assumed that religions don’t should still be the aim. matter, because they will wither away under the impact of modern scientific thought. On the other At all levels religious literacy cannot be ignored, hand, it is mistaken to treat them as the root of all because it is a powerful tool for understanding evil. We should, I suggest, recognize that faiths behaviour and guiding practical and sensitive policies. do influence behaviour, sometimes positively and sometimes harmfully. It is important also to be aware Lord Hylton is a Member of the House of Lords and of the interaction between religious faith and social is a trustee of Forward Thinking. factors, such as poverty and unemployment. These often deny young people all prospect of a reasonable career and the chance to marry and raise a family. When humiliation and oppression aggravate existing grievances, the result can be explosive, leading sometimes to whole society uprisings and sometimes to acts of individual violence. Lord Hylton Religion is closely linked with personal and group identity. Those whose identity is denied or suppressed will often grasp any available identity, even if they are not normally strongly religious. Equally, those who do believe, may well derive strength from their faith to resist their enemies and oppressors. It seems that religious literacy is needed on at least two levels.

People active in the public and international sphere need basic knowledge of what the various faiths teach and what are the sensitivities of their adherents. Attitudes can, of course, vary widely from the tolerant cultural believers to the ultra-conservative, literal and zealot types.

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Religous Literacy, Foreign Policy and Diplomacy By Forward Thinking

Background The risk is that this process has created a form of de-intellectualisation that has removed the wider There is an increasing view that, in today’s modern historical context into which the notion of secularism world, religious literacy is an important skill for was born. policy-makers, supporting their ability to engage with difficult and complex challenges. For many people Addressing the challenge across the world, religious and spiritual values inform the living of their daily lives. However, political and Religious illiteracy can also exist in religious institutions social sciences – the intellectual backdrop to western themselves. There is the notion of what could be diplomacy – have often been accused of ignoring the termed a ‘two book preacher’ or a ‘two book imam’ religious dimension in their approach and analysis – an individual who assumes religious literacy having of political challenges, or misrepresented it, only read two books about the religion, and then tries to addressing issues with a religious element through assert themselves as an authority within the faith. a security prism. Policy makers would benefit from the religious literacy skills to differentiate between such individuals and In order to explore a new framework that would other religious leaders, or between cultural and accommodate religious perspectives and increase religious norms. religious literacy amongst policy-makers, it is worth questioning (what to some might be) received wisdom. One of the mistaken approaches towards addressing Arguably, the notion of secularism was initially as the challenge of how to increase religious literacy a market place that created space for freedom of amongst policy-makers has focused on the idea that expression and competition of ideas, religious and what needs to be done is to teach the religion, for non-religious. example Islam.

To many, it was a mechanism for diffusing tensions, This becomes a process of the translation of a series of rather than confronting religion. However, over time facts, rather than understanding. The key question is the notion of ‘secularist’ developed, and influenced whether a series of tools can be identified that could by Marxist ideas about religion. Whereas the idea of be recommended to policy-makers to increase their ‘secular’ provides space, ‘secularist’ carries notions understanding of religion(s), religious communities, of exclusion. Such conceptions of secularism became and ultimately provide them with a degree of religious rooted in social sciences. literacy that can inform policy-making and react to events as they unfold.

“Religious literacy is an important skill for policymakers, supporting their ability to engage with difficult and complex challenges"

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Source: Hieu Le, 2015. CC0 Public Licence

There are many instances one could point to, to By sharing this paper, the aim is to draw out the unique highlight the importance of religious literacy for experience, insight and expertise of participants policy-makers. Perhaps none is more timely, than in the Helsinki Policy Forum. Participation in the the challenge of understanding the rapid growth of Helsinki Policy Forum comes from across Europe, the Islamic State in Syria and Iraq (ISIS/ISIL/Da’esh); the Middle East, North Africa and the Gulf, and from its appeal to its supporters and potential supporters; across the political spectrum. It aims to cast new its relation to Islam and other political movements light on developing a deeper understanding of the that reference Islam; and what measures and policies issues through sharing insights, and to probe at our could be adopted that would be most effective at collective knowledge through drawing on learning addressing the challenges it poses. from others.

The current phenomenon of ISIS poses all sorts of This paper contains a number of contributions, made challenges to policy-makers. There is a lack of clarity by a wide range of individuals, each with a unique in the public domain as to the relationship between understanding of the current situation. Each has shared ISIS and Islam, those who support ISIS and Muslims their own thoughts, reflected on the experience of and Muslim communities. their society, as well as furthering the debate by questioning some well found assumptions. It is generally recognised that the majority of Muslims do not adhere to or share the same values, goals or It is our hope that through this, policy makers will practices as the followers of ISIS; and religious scholars gain better insight into the importance of religious have issued communiqués clearly articulating actions literacy, as well as into the deep impact that religion permitted under Islamic law as a way of a rebuttal has had on modern societies. to arguments made by ISIS justifying their actions.

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Summary of themes raised in HPF meetings By Forward Thinking

ver the course of the three Helsinki Policy Forum Secular actors from the region often hold similar Omeetings, participants have implicitly engaged concerns, expressing fears that groups such as the with the question of religious literacy through their Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood operate in a secretive discussions on major regional and international manner, have shown themselves unwilling to challenges. The meetings took place on 2-4 June accommodate the concerns of others or engage in 2014 in Helsinki, 21-22 October in Madrid, and 17-19 dialogue, have refused to acknowledge their mistakes, March 2015 in Helsinki. The following is a summary and have attempted to devise rules and systems that of those issues discussed that address the subject disenfranchised opponents. of religious literacy in foreign policy. Double Standards Religious/Secular - how to accommodate political Islam It was acknowledged that there is a degree of “double standards” in operation with regards to the West’s The European experience produces a particular approach to Islamist parties, holding them to higher analytical framework. Within Europe, the divide standards than other actors they engage with in the between religion and politics (though not as clear region. Western powers have shown themselves willing as often asserted) is taken by politicians to be an to work with nationalists, Socialists and Monarchies, essential means of offering equal space to all groups none of whom had succeeded in establishing democracy and recognising essential rights such as freedom of or meaningful gender equality and yet it is Islamists conscience. This has created a degree of uncertainty that were treated with suspicion on these issues, towards parties in the MENA region that still openly even when specific movements repeatedly expressed acknowledge a religious reference, due to concerns their adherence to democratic values. Lacking a that they will deny the equal rights of all groups nuanced understanding, or a deliberate blurring and use religious justifications to exclude rivals and of the details, also presents a problem. Attempts monopolise power. to confuse or conflate the Muslim Brotherhood in Libya with groups such as Da’esh were unhelpful Whilst recognising that non-secular parties often and ignored the reality on the ground, where Libya performed well in elections, some Western policymakers Dawn forces had attacked Da’esh fighters in Sirte. still feared that they might use a democratic mandate to then impose laws that came at the expense of the There is a need for Western policy makers to broaden rights of minorities. their understanding of parties that reference religion through utilising frameworks that may be more familiar.

"There is a need for Western policy makers to broaden their understanding of parties that reference religion"

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Just as political ideologies (such as socialism) might inform the values and politics of parties in the West, so can religion inform the values and perspectives of Islamic parties without precluding them from competing within the boundaries of a democratic system.

Constitutional Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood, could plausibly be compared to the Christian Democrats in Europe. A French protest in support of "the Hero of Tunisia", on 15 Debates over terminology January 2011. Source: Antoine Walter, Creative Commons

It is an open debate as to whether Islamist parties Frustrated Youth should consider moving away from the very label Islamist and instead “focus on the real issues of The anger of a frustrated youth was said to stem from development and freedom.” Some suggested that a lack of integration, with participants highlighting the label had become a distraction and source of the continued failure of many European states to division, splitting societies along Islamist/secular effectively engage with their Muslim communities. lines. This division is somewhat arbitrary, confusing There is the risk that this anger and frustration, the political debates with issues of religion, when stemming from a lack of opportunity - politically, the real divide in the region was between “those socially and economically - prevents development who support democracy and those who do not.” and the ability to fulfil aspirations which will feed into the growth of extremist organisations. Establishing and strengthening a new political culture that prioritises the values of reconciliation, Marginalised and with few opportunities, some accommodation, and dialogue is essential for young people, such as those in Libya, were said to reducing political polarisation. Political inclusion and have “found dignity through the gun” during the consensus are the only means of ending violence and revolution and are reluctant to give lay down their achieving sustainable stability that is a precondition arms, given the few real alternatives for employment for long-term economic growth or social standing.

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Counter-extremism policies There is a need to address the structural challenges underlying a regional unrest caused by state breakdown, Counter-extremism policies should be devised in tribalism, the growth of sectarianism and regional collaboration with individuals and groups from the and international competition and interference. MENA-gulf region who have an understanding of the motivating factors and religious justifications. The tension between a desire for stability, and a Moderate Islamists may be particularly well equipped recognition of the need for change, has been exploited to fulfil such a role. Additionally, Islamists may be by some autocratic leaders who have sought to effective interlocutors with extremist organisations/ present themselves as the only viable alternative individuals, able to convince them to reject violent to instability and violent extremism. This willingness strategies and instead pursue their aims peacefully. to work with autocracies has been reinforced by However, the fear of also being labelled “extremist” a tendency to view the region solely through the may deter Islamist organisations from carrying out lens of security, marginalising other considerations. such a role, unless they had the clear support of the However, the stability offered by these regimes is, international community arguably, fundamentally “false” as beneath a thin veneer or stability, an array of problems are being In addition, the quality of religious education in much generated by the inability of such governments to of the MENA region was particularly criticised, with “offer either real developments, or freedoms.” The some arguing that improving religious literacy in illusory nature of this stability was exposed by the schools was an important dimension of tackling the uprisings of 2011. growth of organisations such as Da’esh. Immediately after the 2011 revolutions, it appeared International Challenges - Sustainable that the international community, and Europe in stability particular, would re-examine their policies towards the region and realise that their desire for stability While the international community has a justifiable was best met by promoting and supporting democratic interest in stability in the MENA-Gulf region it should values and adherence to human rights in the region. recognise that sustainable stability requires change More recently, however, there has been a growing and reform, not a maintenance of the status quo. tendency to once again prioritise security and a turn Furthermore, stability should be understood as a to “strong men” who offer stability and a return to condition, not a guiding principle or value for foreign the status quo but who in return tightly circumscribe policy. By supporting and promoting democratic the limits of political activity. values, such as dialogue, inclusion and reconciliation (and conversely opposing and challenging actors who fail to abide by these values) the international community should recognise that they are establishing the foundations upon which real stability and real security can be achieved.

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Recommendations By Forward Thinking

ur world, through sheer demographic growth, is Oseeing an increasing number of religious people. Those unaffiliated with any religion are forecast to drop from 16.4% of the population in 2010, to 13.2%, while the combined share of Christians and Muslims is set to rise from 54.6% to 61.1%. Furthermore, the proportion of the human population on earth attached to the four biggest religions – Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism – is set to rise from 73% in 2005 to 80% by 2050.

Predictions of the steady decline of the political influence of religion have been foundational to Data from PEW Research Centre. 'The Future of World modern political theories. In spite of the ongoing Religions' global influence of religions in political life, it is only in the aftermath of events such as the Iranian Revolution, and the terrorist attacks of the past 15 To the founding fathers, religion was not something years that the West has begun to acknowledge the to be liberated from, but an aid to liberation. For ways that religions and religious influences have example, regarding immigration, religion aided been marginalized and too simplistically rendered. immigrants through providing networks upon arrival in the country. In Europe, secularisation led to a Religion’s influence remains vast, despite predictions diminishing of religion in political life, whereas in that religious influences would steadily decline in the US it led to a flourishing of faith in public life. concert with the rise of secular democracies and advances in science and economic development, Religions are collections of ideas, practices, values, though this has largely failed to materialise in and stories that are all embedded in cultures and several developed economies, most notably the US. not separable from them. Just as religion cannot be Understanding these complex religious influences understood in isolation from its cultural (including is a critical dimension of understanding the full political) contexts, it is impossible to understand spectrum of human interactions in local, national, culture without considering its religious dimensions. and global political arenas. In Europe it could be Religions are internally diverse, represented by differing argued that religion, throughout the centuries, was sects (e.g., Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant in some way or another identified with power. The for Christianity) there are differences within sects Enlightenment in Europe was anti-clerical and, to because religious communities function in different some, anti-Christian. In the US, the separation of political contexts. Religions are constantly interpreted church and state did not signify the separation of and reinterpreted by believers. church and society.

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Critical to this definition is the importance of For someone living in western Europe, according understanding religions and religious influences in to a Eurobarometer poll taken in 2010, the odds context and as inextricably woven into all dimensions of believing in a God are fairly low, with only 27% of human experience. Such an understanding French, 37% Brits and 44% Germans. highlights the inadequacy of understanding religions through common means such as learning about With the importance of our perceived atheism we ritual practices or exploring “what scriptures say” may sometimes forget the importance of religion about topics or questions. Unfortunately, these are to every political context, as even our societies, some of the most common approaches to learning despite being widely atheist, are built on religious about religion and lead to simplistic and inaccurate foundations. We should therefore strive to sensitise representations of the roles religions play in human ourselves to a world in which religion is alive and agency and understanding. well, not the world in which we might feel more comfortable. Perhaps we could also expand on our Another challenge is that individuals often harbour understanding and begin to see religion as much as a host of embedded assumptions about religion; a source of healing, as of a source of division. some of which are conscious and able to be openly interrogated but many that are unconscious and therefore difficult to discern and engage. This is compounded by the fact that these individuals often feel confident about their conscious assumptions about religion when many of those assumptions are profoundly problematic. Related to the point, we can ask why the notion of a Christian Democracy widely accepted and uncontested in the west, with examples in Italy, Germany, even the UK, and the notion of a Muslim democracy is not, with the example of Turkey.

Protect Your Republic Protest that took place at Anıtkabir on April 14, 2007. Source: Selahattin Sönmez licensed under Creative Commons

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Religous Literacy and Policy Making By

Faruk Loğoğlu

Faruk Loğoğlu making a press statement at the Ataturk Airport in 2013. Source: Istanbulolay: 2013

Changes recommended in the working General Observations definition of “religious literacy” 1.Historically religion has been a harbinger of conflict eligious literacy does not require or mean an and violence within and among organized human Radherence to any particular faith or belief, but entities. Despite claims of peace and tolerance, it is the attainment of a level of knowledge regarding monotheistic religions in particular, given their the mind-sets, beliefs and practices of various faith ultimately exclusionary nature, have often bred traditions, which can have a direct impact on the and fed violent confrontations with their internal thinking, behaviour and the political, moral and social or external opposites. decisions of individuals or groups in a given context. 2.Modernization and prosperity along with timely Religious literacy is essentially the intellectual interjections of thought and philosophy helped the backdrop that enables policy makers and citizens to development of secularism, placing matters of faith understand and properly analyse the complex and and belief in the private domain, separating them dynamic relationship between religion and politics. from the affairs of the state. In particular, religious literacy should help enable politicians / opinion leaders / intellectuals to delve 3.The principle of secularism and its practice in into the fault lines of their societies and develop different contexts are certainly not uniform. However, relevant policies at the national and international level. in all successful cases of secularism, the end result is the same: religion is not part of the main stream of politics. Put differently, secularism, when successful, harmonizes the co-habituation politics and faith, but keeps them separate.

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4. The more sustainable version of secularism is when It is therefore misleading to try to establish an organic state and religion are separated, but religion and society link between democracy and a particular religion. remain connected. This is best exemplified by the USA. Nonetheless, the relationship between political The more aggressive version of secularism is when culture and religion is an important one because it not only the state but also the society is separated is ultimately the political culture of any given society from religion where the manifestations of the latter that sustains its democracy. Religious beliefs and are challenged on charges of anti-secularism. This precepts are more assertive ingredients of political stricter version is exemplified by Turkey and France. culture in Muslim societies than in others.

5. The virtue of secularism is that it provides a 9. All terrorist organizations are the products, reflections levelling ground for all faiths and beliefs. It rests on and manifestations of prevailing political, economic, the assumption that there is not and cannot be a social and psychological conditions in any given society. hierarchy among different religions/faiths/beliefs. In If this premise is sound, then it follows that the fight this sense, it embraces an egalitarian stance towards against Al Qaida, ISIS and others is/should be more different faiths. Secularism is therefore the neutral about addressing those conditions and ameliorating backdrop to pluralism. them than about weakening and eradicating the terrorists. We must learn to deal with the causes of 6. Chronic poverty, exclusion and hopelessness at these events, not just the consequences. one end and prosperity and boredom at the other end breed the search for more, not less religion. For 10. What then are we to do in the light of the above the poor, religious radicalism is the means of social analysis? mobility on earth, for the well-to-do, spirituality is the path of social mobility in the after-life. • Approach “religious literacy” as a society-wide need. 7. Analysts have often disregarded the role of religion • Involve and engage international institutions and as a public force capable of shaping domestic and organizations in the drive to increase religious literacy international politics, though this has changed since on global scale. the terrorist attacks undertaken by radicals. This has • Promote secularism by appropriate means in schools led to the current focus on religion as a tool in the and civil society. hands of radical and extremist elements. However, in • Give equal space to different faiths/beliefs. the Turkish case, religion has also become an effective • Explore and study the subject of “political culture” weapon in the hands of those holding power, abusing and its relationship to democracy; uncover and it domestically and in their foreign relations in order strengthen elements in traditional culture that could to maintain themselves in power and shape society be transferred to the political arena in support of and the world according to their beliefs. democracy. • Help improve economic and social conditions and 8. Democracy should be a secular regime by nature enhance the sense of hope and opportunity for the and by definition. It rests on the equal participation younger generation. of all citizens – which are equal before the law – in • Religious literacy requires an understanding of how the political process. religion is used for political ends by political actors.

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The Importance of Terminology By Hamadi Jebali

Tunisia’s Prime Minister Hamadi Jebali speaks as he announces his resignation, Tunis February 19, 2013. Source: REUTERS/Zoubeir Souissi

s I imagined and hoped the Helsinki Forum is Of particular importance today is understanding the Aa space for honest and transparent dialogue religious phenomenon of “Islam.”The goal of religious between decision-makers and figures of influence. literacy is to equip decision makers with multiple, and They bring both knowledge and practical expertise possibly contradictory, understandings and opinions from different religions, languages and nations and on the role of religion in society and politics. This is share a common goal: avoiding a clash of civilisations, in order to equip them with the knowledge and tools a spectre that threatens the world, and whose signs to make more informed decisions and avoid actions are increasingly everywhere. Today there is an urgent that can lead to negative results for the individuals and need to listen to, and understand, each other in order the peoples involved. In the MENA region, although to reduce divisions and promote coexistence. This there is a great deal of debate on the role of religion entails the intellectual and psychological willingness to there is a great deal of analytical confusion, with no accept the other, especially when there is difference, clear or common understanding of key terms. As a and requires a belief in ‘freedom’ as a common basis first step there is a need to define the terms and for coexistence. Without this belief no dialogue, agree on their meanings before further analysis or especially those addressing sensitive issues such as conclusions are drawn. The most important terms religion, can succeed. to define are the following.

Religious literacy and policymaking • Islamism, Islamists and the difference between Muslims and Islamists Religious literacy and policymaking is related to questions around religion’s place in society, and its • Separation of religion and politics in contrast to impact on decision-making. separation of religion and the State

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• Fundamentalism, Conservatism, Political Islam, We can, therefore, see that Europe’s different Salafism, Radicalisation, Terrorism, Secularity, approaches to religion stems from its own unique secularism, modernity and the progressives history and context. Europe’s relationship and Dictatorship and tyranny in contrast to democracy understanding of religion is closely bound to specific and the rule of law. institutions – most obviously the church. In contrast Islam does not recognise any religious “intermediary” • Civil society in contrast to religious society and like the church. In fact, every attempt to impose a militarized society religious institution on Islam (such as al-Azhar) has failed. However, in the MENA region, secular elites These are the most common terms in the current have been heavily influenced by European (and world of politics but are rarely defined or understood particularly French) approaches to religion and in objective terms. Instead, too often, each concept have, historically, attempted to directly transpose is understood through the preconceived conclusions such models regardless of our own history and or judgments of individuals. culture. Such a forced projection [of the Christian

We see that conflict on these terms is in part shaped “Such was and is the influence by differing perspectives on the appropriate role of of events in the West on the religion in the life of the individual and in society. “elite” class in our countries, Such conflicts are not limited to the MENA region that the term ‘vanguard activist’ and were manifest in the West during the time of came to be assigned to every the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, with Muslim ‘activist’ ” debates over the role of Christianity, and the role of the church leading to different countries adopting experience onto that of Islam] has triggered a variety different approaches. of reactions towards such “extreme” secularism. It led, sometimes, to violence and counter-violence Today, we find that the ‘French School’, or French and gave extremists and terrorists (in the name of Secular Ideology, tends to be more extreme in such religion) an excuse to shed blood to “defend Islam”. distancing to the point of interference in the private Such violence has expanded to Western countries matters of families, schools, and streets, along with and societies, whose people became a victim of the the prohibition of religion in some areas by state policy of some of their rulers to support such extreme institutions. The only remaining space for religion secularism. In this way, flawed understandings of is within the church’s walls, limited to its ritual history and religion have contributed to a horrific mission as a place for worship on a Sunday morning. cycle of violence and misunderstanding, leading In contrast, we find the German and Anglo-Saxon to terrorism in the MENA countries, and harming approach to secularism to be more moderate and efforts to meet the real needs of people in the region open. It tolerates some role for religion, or the for development, employment, liberty and human church, in public affairs, with the exception of the rights. It has also led to the ideological polarisation State. Further differentiated again is the American of elites in the East and West. ideology which includes “men of religion” in the highest political event - the presidential elections!

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Female protestor in Tahir Square, 2013. Source:Hassan Ammar/AP

Extremist secular elites have often allied with Despite the attempts of some countries to understand oppressive regimes in many countries (military or the lessons of the past, and not to side again with authoritarian regimes) to protect or promote their tyranny, narrow and limited interests won out. ideological project in the face of popular opposition. The Egyptian model is one example of this. After 2011: When looking behind these actors, the local (Egyptian), regional and international communities appear to be • There was a revolution made by the people against in a strange, even contradictory, alliance. What gathers corruption and tyranny all these actors onto the same stage is, in reality, the toppling of the nascent democratic experience, by the • From the start, the ‘regional system’ (the Gulf States, overthrowing of the Brotherhood that represented Israel and some African countries) saw implications the face of this democratic experience. of these revolutions for their own security. They decided, to prevent the revolution from expanding. Do the members of this ‘alliance of misfortune’ - The focus was on Egypt for its strategic importance, especially within Europe and America - realise the then its environs: Yemen, Syria, Libya then Tunisia danger of their new involvement in the suppression of freedom? If unchecked - • The international community (Europe, the U.S, and even Russia), after a period of surprise and time • Either the military coup will result in tyranny taken to absorb the events, unfortunately decided to enter the equation from the wrong side by siding • Or terrorism, stemming from efforts to oppose the with the conclusions drawn by those actors within coup, will result in different form of tyranny. the regional system.

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I believe the international communities’ decision, 1. The Brotherhood School (Founded by Hassan driven in part by its mistaken understanding of religion al-Banna in 1928, Egypt). It initially focused on in the region, has led policymakers to believe there preaching and then evolved according to circumstance is a binary choice to be made between: into a movement (jamaa’a) whose activities touched all aspects of public and private life: the individual, Atheism and secularity (which dismisses the conscience the family, the institution, the street and the State. of large swathes of the people), or the complete They see Islam as a comprehensive system. They are darkness of one interpretation of religion being forced predominantly peaceful despite some periods of violent upon the people, regardless of their own aspirations. tension with the regime. In the era of King Farouq, and after Nasser’s coup, they knew a difficult time of Moving towards common definitions tyranny and abuse which led to armed groups splitting off from the movement. The most important of these We see, therefore, how flawed understandings of are the movement of ‘Takfir and Hijrah’ (Arabic for religion and religious actors leads to flawed decisions, ‘expulsion from Islam’ and Migration) and Aymen which exacerbate the region’s true problems. I return Zawahiri’s ‘Jamaa-a Mussallahah’ (the Armed Group). to the urgent need for greater understanding of key Despite this, the mother movement maintained its concepts and the more nuance in policymaker’s peaceful approach and developed its political and approach, to move us away from collision and towards social ideology in different ways depending on the coexistence. Accordingly, in this half of my contribution, situation of each country (Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, I will attempt to set out my understanding of four Jordan, Syria, Tunisia). components that I consider to be central to the future of the region. Every decision maker working and living There were particular developments with regards to in the MENA region must familiarise themselves with certain key issues such as: freedoms; elections; secret these components and their mechanisms: activity; freedom of women; union and societal actions; the nature of the State; the relationship with the • The Islamists with all their projects West; and especially the call for the implementation • The Arab countries, especially those in the southern of Sharia and Islamisation of the State. Mediterranean • The seculars Here, without exaggeration, the Tunisian movement • The group comprised of Turkey, Iran and Israel has been the most forward looking and a leader in its view of how to accommodate itself with different A: The Islamists: elements of society in applying its ideology to reality and dealing well with local (Tunisia), regional (North Let us start by defining them: they are an active African) and international (Europe, Africa and the societal elite that expands and narrows depending U.S) dynamics. After Tunisia comes the movement on the country and their circumstances. They are, in Morocco, then Algeria, then Kuwait, then Egypt however, an influential, respected and popular elite, and Lebanon. particularly when contrasted with Leftists, Nationalists or other ideologies. They have a popular platform and broadly manifest into six types:

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The central attributes of these movements are their founded on the idea of Zohd, Arabic for asceticism, peaceful approach, civilian nature, different levels while the word Sufi is derived from the Arabic word of popularity, wealth of qualified individuals of Suuf, meaning wool, which alludes to the wearing diverse intellects, spirit of discipline, and a structure of woollen clothes out of modesty and the humility of predominantly institutional work in conjunction of asceticism. They are reluctant to engage in public with the differing impact of “leadership” within the life, both political and social, and isolate themselves. Islamist parties.

2. In this classification we find the Pakistani Islamist Most of these groups compromise with the ruling Group (al-Jama’a al-Islamiyya al-Pakistaniyya) regimes and in some cases even support them, as founded by Abu Al Ae’la al Mawdudi. Close to the in the case of the military coup in Egypt. Brotherhood in its methodology and roots/values, the group is also influenced to by the nature of the 6. Salafism: largely stemming from Gulf States Afghani-Pakistani society which is characterised by such as Saudi Arabia. Its ideology seeks a “return” tribalism, clans, and conservative chiefdoms. to that of al-Salaf al-Salih - the pious or righteous ancestors - referring to the ideology and behaviour 3. Another faction is the Tahrir Party (Liberation) of the Prophet and his companions. This means the (Taki Eddine Annabhani, Palestine 1948), which is “abolition” of time and space. Many acknowledge more elitist and seeks elite change, including that the ideology of Muhamed Abdul Wahhab. Over of the military. It does not believe in political and time, and as a result of changing situations, Salafism social pluralism, nor elections. It focuses on applying divided into two parts: the Sharia and establishing the Caliphate. It has not known any evolution/development; neither in quality • Loyalist Salafism (loyalty to rulers regardless of [of its ideology], nor in quantity [of it support]. It their names and actions): that part which supports exists in most Islamo-Arab countries but in a very the regimes, obeys their orders, and defends them, limited way. Its relation with the West are tense. especially through Fatwas, mosques and TV preaching. It considers criticism of the regime and opposition to 4. Tabligh Jama-a: This movement was founded in it as disobedience to the Imams, or Fitna - sedition. the Indian-Pakistani sub-continent and is influenced by the peaceful traditions of that society. It has a • Jihadist Salafism: it stems from the same source simple ideological and societal approach, focusing and ideology as the former and started by answering on educational preaching and almost prohibiting the call for Jihad against the USSR in Afghanistan, any political dimension in order to avoid collision later expanding into Pakistan and its surroundings. with the ruling regimes. It focuses on preaching to Its ranks essentially rely on Arab foundations (Gulfis Muslims all over the world urging them to return to and Maghrebins, then Asians and Africans). It split prayers and to meet in the mosques. In general, it into several groups, of which, importantly, one was preaches for ethical behaviour. al Qaeda under the leadership of Osama Bin Laden, and later Aymen Zawahiri. 5. The Sufi groups: They are numerous and heavily influenced by their respective contexts. They are all

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After the overthrowing of Taliban rule in Afghanistan, c) This provoked popular and official reactions in these al Qaeda divided into regional and local groups, countries whereby the doctrinal conflict reached including in Europe, the U.S, China and Russia. It the point of armed collision (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, benefited from the first and second Gulf Wars, and Pakistan, Afghanistan), and is, unfortunately, likely the American withdrawal from Iraq which led to the to accelerate civil conflict emergence of the Zarqawi group. It has returned in a newer ‘version’ as the so-called “Da’esh”, starting d) It is a conflict that is sadly nurtured by some in Iraq and the Levant, and which has now expanded international interests and powers aiming at weakening to many other places. Al Qaeda is a complicated the parties involved in the conflict, dividing their phenomenon in terms of ideology, practice, organisation unity. This is a narrow goal because the danger and finances; it requires deep and composed scientific will eventually reach everyone. This is what we are and sociological research in order to unpack all its witnessing currently dimensions and causes. This is not our topic here, rather we are concerned with “Islamists” as political 3. Pakistan: Pakistan is a vulnerable country with parties, associations and methodologies. a traditional society (tribal and clannish), divided into many tribes and doctrines. The military rules B: Countries: either directly or subversively depending on the There are four key countries to consider in terms of circumstances dictated to a large extent by many size and influence in the region: international powers and interests.

1. Turkey: it has history and experience in the Sunni 4.Key Arab States: These are essentially Egypt, world. It is the place where the West and East meet; Algeria, and Saudi Arabia, however this group lack it has a strategic geographic location and is a country the necessary elements of political, social and military with great symbolism - in particular in that it was power. Instead, they are regressing and becoming the location of the last Caliphal State. It is a leading prey for other local and international powers. power in terms of ideology and politics, and is rich in modernity, the values of freedom and democracy, C. Secularists and it has had an economic renaissance. This has made Turkey’s role essential in the region. An elitist project that, through their blind imitation of imported ideology and their dependence, to the 2. Iran: Iran is on a par with Turkey’s features in extent on external connections and assistance, has terms of location, influence, ambition and also made them lose credibility within their own peoples. development. It also has the requisite elements for This is especially due to a) their {Secular/Laic} position acquiring economic and military power. However: on the “Sacred” (religion), b) their intellectual and a) It made its doctrine (which is different in that it physical attacks on religion, c) the association of this is Shia) the doctrine of the society and the State ideology with the colonial era, and the history of both b) It also made it, to a greater extent, the defining old and modern wars in the region. This has made element of its relations and positions, especially such a category an object of suspicion and rejected towards the Arab world, Africa, and Asia. by many, despite its different motives and interests (Liberal, Leftists).

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Islamabad, Pakistan, 2016. Source: Syed Billal Javaid. CC0 Public Licence

The Left itself is significantly divided into Far Left It provokes questions over double standards and the and Socialists and is in regression after losing its priority given to narrow self-interest by a considerable central supporter (the Communist camp represented number of Western governments at the expense of by the USSR). The Liberals are almost the elite “the people’s causes” and revolutions for dignity, of the elite; they rely on the theory of economic as in the case of Egypt. Such seemingly hypocritical liberalism but, sometimes and in some countries, policies nurture violent reactions and strengthen support the theory of secularism towards religion the extremists’ narrative, used to conduct vindictive and the Islamist movements. Most of the time operations even in Western countries, which operate they are also the ally, or at least supportive, of the under the excuse of defending Islam. This inflexibility ruling regime, be it military or monarchy, as is the and ‘remorselessness’ (so that I don’t say extremism) case of Egypt and the military coup. All this feeds towards Islam and the Islamo-Arab community, into perpetuating radicalisation within the Salafists generated in the West, has been encouraged and generally and the Jihadists particularly, in addition supported by the Far Right parties, the biased media, to other public reactions. and the populist force. It has also been spurred on by the socio-economic crises, particularly in Europe. D. The International powers: Therefore, we find ourselves in front of a horrific prospect: two opposing extremist fronts, each on a Strangely it is the secularists of the MENA region, in all bank and drumming for a destructive war. their variation, that are supported by the international powers - especially France in North Africa - despite Looking ahead we must ask what is the direction their weak culture of freedom and democratic values. of the future – greater confrontation or growing This raises doubts about the credibility and sincerity co-operation? This is the essential question that of these international powers and their purported confronts us all. I hope that we will be allowed further support of freedom and democracy in the region. opportunities for an in-depth contribution to this interesting debate in service of freedom and peace.

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Religous Literacy and Islam in the Middle East By Dr Abd El-Monem Abo El-Fotouh

Abdel-Moneim Aboul-Fotouh during interview with the Associated Press at his home in Cairo, Egypt, Monday, Nov. 18, 2013: Source: (AP Photo/Amr Nabil)

Introduction: These are simple examples of some of the prevailing efore discussing religious literacy and its impact forms of “stereotyping” by most western politicians Bon framing and rationalising foreign policy and and maybe even some Arab intellectual politicians diplomacy, there may be a need to discuss “the when talking about Islam and its relationship with stereotypes” used by most politicians to simplify democracy, or democracy and its requirements in the political crises they face or their way of dealing our Arab region. with them. There is perhaps another point that must be mentioned This is not just an issue of negative “stereotypes” with before talking about the impact of religion on the regards to ‘the other’ but also about “stereotyping” politics of people’s affairs, namely that related modernity and progress through presenting a ready- to injustices in today’s world. The citizens of the made framework for the shape of progress, and all Global North see a world full of justice, humanity this entails in terms of cultural imposition on society. and civilisation while those in the Global South see a world full of injustice, chaos, and the crushing of “Islamic texts call for violence”…”Islam is inherently humanity. anti-democratic”...“implementation of democracy is linked to implementation of secularism”…

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Protester waving flag during Tahir Square Protests, 2011. Source: Jonathan Rashad Flickr. Licensed over Creative Commons

Lack of religious literacy among some politicians and Da’esh, al Qaeda and others did not attract thousands diplomats is not the most important issue, of greater and tens of thousands of youths by the power of a importance is how religion is valued in bearing life’s religious text or a fatwa alone, rather they attracted difficulties to those oppressed and deprived of their them in an environment of a country “forcibly raped” rights by leaders supported by those politicians, or for over 70 years by a group of foreign immigrants how it is valued in terms of waiting for the mercy through intensely racist and sectarian religious of divine intervention to the poor, destitute and speech with the blessings of the world. If we agree those deprived of their wealth for the benefit of the that our common goal is to achieve democracy and multinational organisations and corporations from justice and the preservation of human dignity for all the countries of those diplomats. people without exception, skipping over these core points and assuming that religious literacy is sufficient It is not sufficient to provide religious training for to understand the birth of “Da’esh” and its sisters politicians to improve their knowledge of Islam, its actually drives us further away from our stated goal. doctrines and sects, in order for them to understand the relationship between religion and what is happening Main points: within Muslim countries. Those politicians interested in foreign policy must realise that “Da’esh” originated 1) Religious literacy and Clerics: and thrived in a country plagued by criminal rulers unable to control their country without Western Since the discussion is essentially focused on the material and military support. MENA region, religious literacy in this context is linked to a large extent with knowledge of Islam itself. Although the issue is more complex than can be explained in a few pages, there is an urgent need to understand the general nature of Islam.

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For instance, in Sunni Islam there are no “clerics.” This category, that exists in Christianity, Judaism or “If ‘secularism’ meant ‘pluralism of even among those who follow the Shia doctrine, does ideas, accepting the other, rights not exist in Sunni Islam. The relationship between for equal citizenship rights and a Sunni Muslim and their God needs no priest or rejection of theocracies.. then it ‘Marja’a’ as intermediary. “Sunni scholars” are no and modernity go hand in hand” more than “scholars” or “readers” or “Mujtahids/ individuals practicing independent reasoning” or 2) How can something be judged with regard to “teachers”; therefore, they have no religious mandate/ religious factors? guardianship over “Muslims” and correspondingly nor do they have immunity or holiness. Religious factors can be an important variable when judging an issue such as the rise of “Da’esh” but it is Therefore, the person who understands such a clearly not the most important variable. On closer general nature of Islam (Sunni Islam specifically) examination, the rise of ISIS originates from political avoids slipping into an illusory assumption that the causes, and the religious factors are only catalysing or subordination/submission of some Muslims to Abu Bakr unifying factors. A quick look at the pressures faced Baghdadi or Ayman Zawahiri, stems from a religious by Sunni Muslims in Iraq at the hands of sectarian mandate (as it was the case with the Pope of Rome rule and at the number of crimes committed by the in medieval times, or with Imam Khomeini after the Assad regime, backed by the sectarian support of Iranian revolution). In this case, the subordination Iran and Hezbollah as well as the absence of any of these Muslims is essentially political. In the eyes avenues for a political solution to the crises in these of these Muslims they are following a path that can two countries confirms this clearly. succeed in responding to the oppression spawned by the rule of these countries, or in fighting the There is an urgent need to understand the role of enemies who protect the occupied “Israel” (i.e. the the religious factor in extremism, but in terms of Palestinian territories) and who constantly humiliate its ability to motivate and mobilize, not in terms of the nation (Arabs and Muslims). its causal role.

This is just one example seeking to clarify that 3) There is no doubt that religion has a strong presence the required religious literacy is not about being in the MENA region and its influence (even if only absorbed in the many literal and historical details morally) on events is much greater than in other regions of religions and the extent of the texts’ impact on of the world. Indeed, the interference of Hezbollah the people. Rather, the most important ‘literacy’ in Syria derives from a sectarian religious position, is understanding the nature of religions and the likewise the rejection by most Sunni Muslims of the relationships emanating between the individuals, popular revolution in Bahrain stems from a sectarian bodies, and affiliated entities of that religion. religious position as well. However, I must emphasise that such effects and influence stem from political factors, and that solving these political problems can help dissolve and resolve such increasingly growing sectarian positions.

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Child Praying 2015. Source: chidioc. CC0 Public Licence: pixabay

4) Our government does not deal with Religion as If the majority of the people chose for the laws a means of understanding the world or a means of regulating them not to contradict with their religious domestic or foreign policy, instead, it uses religion roots? Or chose to be ruled by a political faction merely as a means to secure its authority. Our inspired by religious rules in their thoughts and ideas? government is not keen for a “religious revolution” to take place as claimed by some. In reality it is •But if “secularism” meant “pluralism of ideas, keen to exploit religion in any form (Sufi, Liberal, accepting the other, rights for equal citizenship or even Salafi) to pull the rug from under the feet rights and rejection of theocracies ruled by clerics or of its political opponents who use the same means those claiming divine rights” then it and modernity to attract and mobilise supporters! go hand in hand.

5) In order to avoid a superficial discussion, secularism 6) Clerics in Europe during the medieval ages were a needs a precise definition before discussing its fundamental cause of reinforcing oppressive regimes relationship with modernity. and anesthetising people, causing them to abandon their political, economic and social rights. Therefore, •If “secularism” means a complete political rupture the development of European societies depended on with religion and its aspects, why did secular Turkey the separation of religion in general - and clerics in fail to develop during 70 long years until it started particular - from the State. This Western experience reconciling politics and religion? has no parallels with Muslim societies in this regard. On the contrary, many of the “Ulama” among Sunnis, •If “secularism” means the complete “neutrality” or the “Imams” or ‘Marj’as” among the Shi’a, were of religions within the political system, what stops symbolic of the fight against the tyranny of rulers modernity (if it means democracy, pluralism, justice and corruption, wholly unlike the bitter western and development.) experience in this regard.

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7) There are no Sunni religious institutions similar and some parties on the Right in the US, Italy and to those found in the Western or Shia experiences; other countries, however there is an extreme aversion the institutions that exist in the Sunni world are or suspicion of parties that wish to have the same for no more than religious learning. Sunni Muslims relationship with Islam. carry a partial appreciation/respect to some of these institutions based on their previous partisan positions 10) The theory of “black and white” secularism versus in protecting the religion on the one hand and in theocracy does not dominate Western politicians’ defending the oppressed and combating colonisation classifications of the nature of Arab or Muslim on the other. Therefore, what is required here is not countries and their relationship with religion, but opposition to these institutions or refusal to tolerate rather what informs their political ideology is whether them, as the western experience would assume, but their interests in the region are served regardless of on the one, hand a real call for these institutions how democratic or secular the countries are. Western to be independent from the State in which they countries have no problem in accepting theocratic operate, and on the other, non-engagement with states, either in institutional form or character, as those institutions that claim to have a say in political long as they serve their interests. They may also be affairs. This is to prevent them from deviating from suspicious, or even reject, real democracy in such the purpose for which they were established, or from [Arab or Muslim] countries, whether secular or not, becoming political or authoritarian tools. due to fear of threats to their interests.

8) One thesis we have advocated for some time is 11) Religious literacy in its traditional form is not, on the separation of what is called the work of “dawa/ its own, a guardian against extremism and violence. preaching” from “political party” work. Any group The only safeguard against such ideas (in addition that wants to undertake dawa, calling on people to the aforementioned remedying of political and to commit to the teachings and values of religion, economic injustices) is the degree to which the must not practice competitive political party work in religiously literate person accepts the idea of pluralism any shape or form. Equally any political group that and acceptance of the other, and the firm belief that draws upon religion as an inspiration for their vision their religious literacy in its entirety is nothing but a on political and economic affairs must not exercise product of a human effort and this effort is not sacred dawa upon people in order not to mix up what is in and of itself. This is the real distinction between a “human” with what is “sacred”, and in order not to religious literacy that attracts its adherents towards transform the field of political competition into a extremism and violence, in directions other than field of religious differences distancing politics from resisting the occupier, and the religious literacy that its core concern, which is looking after the interests helps broaden horizons and facilitate co-existence of the people under their responsibility. with the other.

9) There is no doubt that there are considerable The discussion of rational explanations alone for double standards in the criteria that western the causes of religious extremism is superficial; the politicians use to measure different positions. There issue revolves essentially around the environment, is continued tolerance or at least an understanding political circumstances, societal pressures and the of the relationship that exists between Christianity psychological sense of defeat.

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Religion and the State in the Arab World By Faisal Abualhassan

Religion and the State in the Arab World, 1900-2015: A View from the Arabian Peninsula

he Arab uprisings since 2011 and their subsequent Tsuccesses, failures, and consequences have put into the spotlight, yet again, the role of the relationship between religion and politics in the Arab world, the so-called incompatibility of democracy with Islam. On one hand, these questions - the role of religion in politics, how to guarantee the voice of citizens in national policies and governance, balancing human rights with national security - are in no way specific to the Arab world. However, decades, if not Faisal Abualhassan. Source: Al Jazeera Licensed under centuries, of misunderstanding, ignorance, foreign Creative Commons intervention, and exoticizing the region (and Islam in general) as seemingly different or opposite to the Political Islamism, then, can be seen as the result socio-political development in the West, have led to of instrumentalisation of religion in socio-political both real and imagined differences in the role that discourses amongst colonial elites as a unifying factor states have come to play in the lives of the nearly in anti-colonial resistance (see, for example, Michel 350 million citizens of the 22 Arab states. Aflaq's explanations on the importance of Islam as a unifying factor even amongst the Christians of Arab Islamism, Colonialism and Identity in the nationalism.) Following the independence of the Colonial Arab world various Arab states, however, colonial elites preferred a secular agenda of Arab nationalism to develop To begin, a working definition of "Islamism" or the multi-confessional societies of the Arab world, "Political Islamism" should be established, for clarity Nasserism and Baathism being the foremost victors. and simplicity's sake, to better clearly explore the underlying questions of religion in politics, religious illiteracy, and the varying nuances and situations across the contemporary Arab world. Islamism is a century's old response to both: 1) religious illiteracy “Political Islamism, then, and ignorance across the colonial Muslim world at can be seen as the result of the dawn of the 20th century and 2) a desire for instrumentalism of religion social reform and transformation. in socio-political discourses amongst colonial elites”

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Those who remained steadfast to the concept of the However, they defended the difference between the "Islamic state" model proposed by late 19th century/ de facto and de jure situation with the formula "Better early 20th-century anti-colonial reformers, however, one hundred years of the Sultan's tyranny than one refused to relinquish their desired monopoly over year of people's tyranny over each other" to justify religious discourses on society and politics. They the authoritarian and centralized rule of the sultans, continued to take advantage of poverty and religious effectively serving as a vanguard of thought, and and literal illiteracy across the Arab world to maintain politically as little more than a rubber-stamp religious their relevance, all the while resorting to any means, authority for the sultans. Outside the ivory towers often-violent ones, in order to maintain relevance. of "pure" religious thought, society, life and politics Such a violent and zealous "any means necessary" evolved and progressed and, while all maintaining survivalism on the part of the Muslim Brotherhood more or less an overall adherence to the main tenets and other Political Islamists has led to stalled socio- of the faith, Muslim societies - from Morocco in the political, cultural, and religious progress in the region west to Indonesia in the east, from the Crimea in as the secular and nationalist regimes failed to respond the north to Zanzibar in the south - developed and to the educational and developmental needs of the combined regional peculiarities, with the traditions Arab people; the same needs all too often taken of Islamic mystics known as Sufis, with pre-Islamic advantage of by Political Islamists in order to exert traditions into what is often known as "folkloric "societal pressure" on the secular regimes to comply Islam," which dominated the lives of the working with the goals of Islamists' agenda. and lower classes in Muslim societies up until the 20th century. Religious literacy, indeed any literacy, To understand Islamists' point-of-view, the historical was a privilege of the elite, and thus it is no surprise relationship between religion and "the State" must that both secular and Islamist agendas for reform be understood in the regional context. Whereas were born amongst the elites. historically the hierarchical and organized religious establishment that is "the Church" dominated the With the arrival of European colonialism and it's political theatre in the West - and therefore religious shattering the imagined state of Muslim supremacy authority's association the elite - since the arrival on across the Islamic world (dating to the Islamic Golden the scene of the "Ulema" as a scholarly class in the Age, which corresponded to Europe's Dark Ages) early centuries of Islam, their sole route to maintain came an increasingly interconnected world. their existence alongside the temporal powers of sultanic dynasties was to relegate themselves to an As a largely colonized people (few places aside from "ivory tower" wherein Islamic theology and thought the central Arabian Peninsula, due to its seemingly in its "purist" form was guarded. The Ulema and lack of importance or wealth, in the Muslim world their extensive scholarly works, often the cited were left uncolonized) "Muslim identity" and other sources of fundamentalists today, concurred even Islam-related discourses were appropriated by new on the illegitimacy of hereditary rule (ironic given reformers, such as the early Muslim Brotherhood, the number of eponymous dynasties which ruled the who decried the Sufis, traditional Ulema, and sultans Muslim world up through the current day.) alike for their co-optation by the colonial powers.

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The nearly-universal experience of colonialism amongst Those who remained unconverted to this simplified Muslims allowed for a politicized "Muslim" identity ideology, became indignant, by effect, radicalizing to provide a sort of unified, seemingly universal the few remaining liberal institutions into militantly resistance and opposition identity, a mythological secular, anti-Islamist establishments (the Egyptian universalism parallel to the empires that dominated military, the laïcards of Tunisia, the Assad regime, them. However, practices amongst the Muslims etc.) allowing for a standoff in which there is no were far from uniform or universal, and so the room for tolerance or pluralism. early Islamist thinkers and activists set to work on bringing the various folkloric traditions to an end with The Exception in the Arabian Peninsula a mantra of modernism, science, and an "Islamic" (and not a European, or colonial, or monarchical) Meanwhile, in the Arabian Peninsula, what is known "state." With the fall of the Ottoman Empire and as Al Wahabbiyah, or the so-called "Wahhabi" the abolishment of the caliphate, leadership for the movement, was first and foremost a state-formation taxes and souls of the Arabs fell to the vying factions process, which while similarly instrumentalizing of the Arab nationalists and the Political Islamists, religion to justify its existence and maximize its appeal whose descendants continue to fight until today. and unify varying peoples, maintained, unlike the Political Islamists (whose discourses were directly Partially due to the refusal of the Arab nationalist secular a reaction to colonization,) the nuanced separation regimes to share power with the Political Islamists of the temporal and religious authorities due to its and the inevitable exposure of unrealistic mantras literalist approach to scriptural interpretation. Unlike of their retrograde ideology, but mostly due to the the more urban centres in the Arab world, the central Political Islamists' taking advantage of the religious Arabian Peninsula remained, until the mid-20th illiterate masses in the Arab world by spreading their century, a tribal society. Before the "Wahhabi" paternalistic and scientific approach to religion (note movement of the 18th century, lack of religious the controversies they occupy themselves with the literacy had seen deviations from Islamic practices most: hijab, beard, prayer locations, numbers of widespread across central Arabia well beyond the prostrations in the preferred, that is to say beyond umbrella of "folkloric Islam." the five required, prayers, etc…). In implanting in the consciousness' of the Muslim masses such a Thus was the context of the mise-en-scène of haraam/halaal (forbidden/permissible), positivist, "Wahhabism," which unlike Islamism, was a local, modernist Islam, political Islamists refused to yield indigenous solution to a local problem, and in to natural socio-political evolution, after effectively which the ruler, in the form of an Al Saud dynast, destroying the philosophical and evolutionary triumphed over the religious leaders - importantly, tendencies (resulting in what could be termed a it did not aspire to universalism nor socio-political "normative revolution" in orthodox Sunni thought) transformation into an Islamised modernity (à la and have forced Arab and Muslim societies into the "Islamic State" concept of the Political Islamists,") stalemate they currently face. rather, it sought to modernize Islam.

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A famous account of Ibn Saud, the founder of the Moving Forward Third Saudi State, the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, instructing his Wahhabi Ulema Revolutionary ideologies with goals of social involves the king telling his religious advisors: ‘You, transformation are artificial solutions to problems O wise sheikhs, are the crown of my head [both an that no longer exist. Their popularity is only maintained expression of respect in Arabic, and symbolizing their due to religious (and literal) illiteracy. Focusing on legitimizing authority]. However, do not forget, if I development, education, infrastructure and actual move my head either way, you either stay on my religious literacy - instead of on outdated and head or fall down.’ distracting Political Islamist-monopolized debates over surface issues such as women's veils - is what The organic development and evolution of a state should be taking place. The concept of an "Islamic in Arabia during the unification of the kingdom State" is artificial and not compatible with 21st century between 1902 and 1932 can be understood as the modernity: its origins in colonized society rely upon evolution of tribal society governed by customary East/West differentiation that is no longer the reality law into an urbanized consultative monarchy, and of the globalized world that the Arab states find neither as an "Islamic State" nor governance model themselves nearly after 70 years of independence. that could be duplicated and exported elsewhere. In the Saudi context, the institutionalization of state Religion is a powerful tool, a tool used, amongst agencies and focus on education and development, others, by the pragmatic governance systems of the normalized and countered radical elements (such Arabian Peninsula, but also in Algeria, Jordan and as the rebellion of fanatics in the 1920's,) even Morocco who "do politics" albeit with an Islamic within Arabian Peninsula society. Furthermore, reference, or inspiration; conversely, ideological this institutionalization and state-formation in the groups (be they movements or regimes) such as Arabian Peninsula was completed by the early 20th Political Islamists, not only lack internal mechanisms century, before rapid global communication was a to check the fanaticism inspired by religious illiteracy fact of daily life in the region, and before petrol and amongst the masses, but also seek to politicize Islam its financiering capabilities were discovered. itself, with the dire consequences we see today of unleashed fanaticism at its most ferocious, i.e., Daesh The development of an Islamic governance system in Syria. In understanding such important nuances, in Arabia, therefore, was a historical outlier in the and that there is no “one size fits all” approach to history of the relationship between religion and religion and the state in the Arab and Islamic worlds, state in the broader Arab and Islamic worlds, and foreign policy and diplomacy can better understand was not, and is not, a system to be reproduced or that policies encouraging civil society and local, exported elsewhere. This context explains why, today, indigenous movements that neither take their direction the Saudi state invests so much of its resources, from foreign powers nor those that espouse radical diplomatic efforts, and, when necessary, military ideologies of social transformation, will only benefit efforts, towards maintaining and ensuring legitimate and ensure a more stable and prosperous future. regimes that, likewise, promote natural socio-political evolutions and development over radical ideologies that promote social transformation.

28 | HELSINKI POLICY FORUM - DISCUSSION PAPER FORWARD THINKING Religous Literacy ina Political Context By By rights for women in1956). status law Arab the in World basic acknowledging first Jews, personal State} on Muslim an citizens of {non-Muslim Dhimmis of stigma the lifting 1861 in slavery and slave trade in 1846, the first constitution firstthe countries banning(issuing law Muslim the forefront ofsuchprogress compared to therest of the socio-political system.at be to seems Tunisia a renewal inreligious literacy andto reforms inthe Turkey,of something Tunisia)to and leading Egypt (mainlycountriescertain emergein to begun In the 19th century, signs of intellectual awakening {innovation}, andthat “all bid’ah isinthehell fire”. religious understanding, considering itto be Bid’ah (renewal/revival) tajdid in all of prohibition the on Fuqaha the with agreed authorities political the the doorfor independent reasoning was and closed However, Hanbali). century, 13th the starting from and Shafiei, Hanafi, emerged(Maliki, doctrines four the where centuries 9th and 8th the to back tracked be can and scholars} {religious Fuqaha the tradition} and Ijtihad, the independent reasoning of literacy is based on the Quran, Sunna {the prophet’s the contradictions and conflicts. For Sunni Muslims, this country to another in the Arab Muslim World, hence literacy differs one religious of from definition The On religious literacy: beyond religion inandofitself. and diplomacy has many aspects related to strategies relationship between religious literacy, foreign policy, it initssocio-historical framework. Moreover, the contextualisingWorld,takewithout cannot place T Hassan Annabi today, particularly as it relates to the Muslim today, the relates to it as particularly he discussion surrounding religious literacy HELSINKI POLICYFORUM -DISCUSSION PAPER which is inspired by Salafism, or that which tries which that or Salafism, by inspired is which religious which So literacy are we That discussing? Brotherhood movements). development ofthe Wahabist andtheMuslim forefathers pious Salaf-A-Salih- the (the toreturn religious literacy, insular and self-regarding, claiming anti-Westernemergenceof the to led colonialism Caliphate and the fall ofMuslim countries under However, the abolishment of meantime, the the in critical thinking. interaction and failing to advocate for independent misguidance and kufr {disbelief}, indifferent to real of respecting the rituals, emphasising Jihad against more inthe actsofworship, stressing the necessity most educational systems in the Arab World interested the young in particular. Unfortunately, today we see we governments demand to provide to society, and The issue lies inthe content ofthe religious literacy that literacy andpolitical power: relationship between religiousthe On enlightenment? to coherent be thought the with universal the of FORWARD THINKING

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29 Offical executive office photograph - Mr. Hassan Annabi. Source: http://nidaa-tounes.org/ FORWARD THINKING FORWARD THINKING

Therefore, the ideal solution lies in reforming In reality, matters have become increasingly complicated the education system so that it focuses more on in our times - the times of globalization. Due to tolerance and seeing the future with determination, communication and networking technologies and the optimism and the rejection of the culture of death speed of spreading information, there is no longer and blasphemy. only one type of religious literacy in one country and the State is no longer the only influential factor This is, nevertheless, insufficient. There must be on religious literacy. Public opinion is attracted to training/qualifications for preaching Imams and those different and sometimes contradictory literacies, who give Dawah {proselytize} in order that they have making it difficult to predict the position the masses a certain degree of knowledge (knowledge of other will take, particularly when the political system religions, proficiency in at least one foreign language, shackles freedom of expression. knowledge of movements of philosophy etc.). Therefore, the challenge is less about providing It is beyond belief that the political authorities empower tools for policy makers enabling them to develop these imams to religiously “educate” society whilst they religious literacy, and more about decision makers lack the simplest literacy levels. Ironically, awareness knowing the direction of public opinion so that there about the necessity of educating “religious leaders” are not mere helpless spectators. Decision makers emerged and developed in non-Muslim countries (for cannot undertake this responsibility without giving instance Europe), and remains an obsession whilst scientific research the importance it deserves, and to this day it is insufficient if not completely absent without working closely with civil society in a climate in Muslim countries. of freedom and respect of basic rights.

Palmyra, Syria. 2009. Source: andrewlambo, pixabay. CC0 Public Domain

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On the relationship between religious However, this will not benefit us as long as we treat literacy, foreign policy, and diplomacy: religion and religious literacy as if they are isolated from politics, economy, and culture. We must review We should acknowledge that the relationships between policies in order to rebuild some level of trust; this the Muslim East and the Christian West remain necessitates finding final solutions to a number of contaminated by old grudges, only aggravated by problems that have direct and indirect links with the passing of time and the effect of, among others, religious literacy: the nine Crusader wars, colonialism, the Palestinian cause, the invasion of Iraq and the intervention in - The Palestinian cause Syria under the auspices of fighting authoritarianism. All this has deepened the gulf between the two - The use of religious terrorist movements to fight civilisations. foes (Bin Laden and al Qaeda against Russia, and Da’esh for the Syrian situation) This has also led to a confusion among the general public in many Arab and Muslim countries about - Taking into consideration immediate interests in that which is universal within Western Civilisation dealings with states (human rights, democracy, gender equality, respect of minorities etc.) and that which is political and context - The use of double standards when it comes to specific in the way the West treats others (colonial principles (for instance demonising Syrian leaders policies, double standards depending on interests, whilst turning a blind eye to the crimes and human ignoring the particularities of other civilisation etc.). rights abuses committed on a daily basis in some Gulf States). How to escape the vicious cycle? Hence the importance of the role played by circles We may seek easy solutions, for example sending of multi-expertise intellectuals, of many nationalities religious attachés to embassies with the task of (among these is Forward Thinking) in influencing studying the religious practices of their assigned decision-making. countries, in order to provide the political official with knowledge of reality on the ground.

“However, this will not benefit us as long as we treat religion and religious literacy as if they were isolated from politics, economy and culture”

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The Challenges of Religious Illiteracy and Radicalism By Dr Ahmad Iravani

Dr Ahmad Iravani speaking at the WEF, Source: csime.org, 2016

ny discussion exploring an issue such as religious Challenge of religious literacy/illiteracy Aliteracy and foreign policy requires more reflection than can be outlined here in a few pages. Definitions The challenge of the ‘two book Imam’ or ‘two book of the different terms used require agreement because preacher’ is a real challenge. Take, for example, the although they may be common in name they may Taliban or Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi. It appears they not be in understanding to each person. have never studied Islam deeply. A considerable number of people living the extremist movement Discussions around secularisation in Europe need have a background in sciences and usually little, to go beyond just the influence of Marxist thinking. if any, religious learning. The problem we have The Vienna Circle in the early 20th Century argued today is that many of these people are claiming for for a kind of kingdom of science and progress. themselves religious authority. They are rejecting What became known as the Positivist Movement the materials of the clergy and those that the clergy rejected anything that could not be proven. This study. They simplify as much as they can. They do pushed religion more into a corner and excluded it by not think or reflect. When the humanities are not claiming everything must be verified to be true. This studied, individuals learn less about reflection and was in effect an argument against all metaphysics, critical thinking and, instead, literal thinking can as irrelevant and useless. dominate. They cannot go inside the ocean, as it were, because they are afraid and lack the tools. They fail to delve deeply into issues because they have limited thinking, and therefore, withdraw from scholarly debate.

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However, the important point is that this phenomenon It is very important that policy makers are supported in has become a fact of a society that policy-makers their ability to deepen their understanding of religious cannot ignore. At the end of the day, one has to literacy, and for this teaching, and learning, is very judge an individual based on the products of their important. The story reminds us that developing an actions, and one cannot deny these groups are being awareness of religion and how it influences individuals’ productive. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of lives and their interaction with society requires due Imams and religious authorities who disagree with attention to the broader cultural and social literacy extremists, but they are less productive and have that makes reaching out to the masses a lot easier, less impact in terms of their followers. less elitist and more effective.

In this sense, the Islamic State (Daesh) might have The challenges posed by radicalisation more power than those who have the real knowledge and therefore it would be a mistake to underestimate Radicalisation is a complex social, ideological and the power of the ‘two-book preacher.’ psychological process that an individual goes through that is not necessarily linear, or does it result in the We have a story in Persian about two Imams in a use of violence. It is important to recognise that it village. One of them was very knowledgeable and is a case-by-case individual process with both short learned, and whose knowledge was not just limited to term and long-term causes and factors. Policy makers religion. The second lacked a similar depth of religious should take into account the following factors: learning but was very knowledgeable about people and how to communicate or manipulate them. The • Radicalisation depends on the context and experience people of the village were mostly illiterate and there of individuals and communities and should not be was competition between the two Imams in the seen as a singular process. village. One day they decided to gather the people of the village and invite the villagers to ask them one • A particular understanding of Islam is certainly question, which they in turn would answer so that the basis of the self-discovery of many extremists. the people would decide who was the better scholar. Although this might be a ‘distorted’ understanding One of the villagers asked, ‘What is a snake?’ to the majority of Muslims across the world, for those who embrace it, it is an ‘authentic’ and ‘just’ The learned Imam began a very detailed explanation version of Islam. of a snake, going into the anatomy, science, mythology and other aspects. Some of the villagers looked • The line between non-violent radical and extreme confused and lost in the answer. When it was the readings of Islam and violent radical and extreme turn for the second Imam to answer, he drew a readings of Islam is blurred. Not every radical reading snake in the dust. Who did the people believe? The of Islam advocates violence. second Imam.

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In terms of causes of extremism there are a number Changing international context that should be taken into consideration: Apart from the importance of deepening policy-makers’ • Real or perceived injustices inflicted upon themselves, religious literacy and understanding of religion in or the broader Muslim community with which they order to inform how to deal with radicalisation and feel affiliated. extremism, there are further challenges that policy makers face at the intersection of religion and politics. • Local governments, with the tacit or active support of Western powers, are usually responsible for The notion of national interest is also being challenged perpetrating such injustices. in today’s globalised world, and in this challenge there is an important role for religion to play a part • As a result of globalisation there has been a of the solution. cultural shift that has left a great number of young and vulnerable young people socially and culturally Globalisation is making the world more complex dislocated, which has resulted in an identity crisis with a compression of time and space and increased that can be a radicalising force on individuals. communication, interaction and interlinking among actors and people. This on-going process, and with • Intimidating counter-terrorism and law enforcement it the increased importance of identity and claims of measure, at times, could be mitigating factors in identity across states, borders, creating transnational pushing radicals over the edge to violent actions. issues, has called into question the utility of notions such as national, international and fixed loyalties Any strategies to deal with this phenomenon should and interests. partner with Muslim communities in developing and implementing educational and re-socialisation Rigorously inspired identity politics has added another programmes to empower the communities to take the layer of complexity to state-centred conceptualisation lead without unnecessary and extensive involvement of national interest. Islam has a profound bearing of governmental authorities and institutions. on social, cultural and daily life of individuals and communities. The constant and present role it has The measures should not in any way compromise the on people has the effect of being a source from credibility of families, community leaders or Imams. which people construct meaning, and also a tool There is an important role for the private sector in to express frustrations and claims. Islam cannot creating opportunities for social and economic mobility. condone authoritarian rule and intolerant societies, as the early history of Islam testifies, advocating There needs to be a concerted effort to redress justice and individual freedom. the negative role played by the media in unfairly targeting the entire Muslim community as a bastion The problem of authoritarian rule and the question of hatred and radicalism. The media can play a very of freedom need to be addressed, and there are positive role with long tem impact on educational democratic traditions within Islam rooted in Islamic and preventative measures. texts.

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As an interconnected world and digital revolution has In Islam, modernity has been felt in different ways, brought us all closer together, and as problems and leading some to decrease their emphasis on legal tensions have magnified in the nexus of globalized practices of the religion, while their religiosity has world and individual state’s interests, the notion of increased day by day, or adherence to mysticism national interest seems to be more problematic. has increased. The traditional notion of national interest might be a valuable rhetorical device to justify foreign Modernisation in Europe came out of philosophy. policy, but globalisation has challenged the notion However, it was then exported to the Middle East. of borders. The complex problems of our age will not Which means that the philosophical foundation be solved through policies that rely on a demarcation was never present in the Middle East. Instead they line between ‘we’ versus ‘them’, in which one side received technological advancement, without the holds the source of the problem and the other holds European philosophical heritage. Attempts to export the answer and truth. Rather, common solutions the philosophical heritage, has sometimes been are needed and for that there needs to be inclusive interpreted as a cultural attack in the Middle East. national and international dialogue. In this changing The argument that there is a necessary link between context, there is an important role for religion to play modernisation and secularisation does not hold up and be part of the solution. when one examines modernisation and how it has played out differently across the world, from Latin There are many issues beyond religion that play a America to East Asia. Importantly, the European role in generating conflict, including identity, borders, experience of secularisation is not present in the US. water, politics, super-powers, regional powers, proxy wars, and the interests of those financing conflict. There is a difference between secularisation and All these, and many more, are also factors in various pluralism. Modernisation goes beyond secularisation. conflicts that may have a dormant sectarian or religious Many societies are pluralistic but not secularised. conflict built into it too. It would be mistaken to Modernisation gives more to pluralism than understand these conflicts only through the religious secularisation. Modernisation helps in the accepting dimension of the conflict. of a pluralistic society. Pluralistic societies face an inevitable challenge of finding laws to reflect its In discussions of understanding religion, we usually diversity. In an interconnected world, it’s likely that address westerners to understand religion, by which there is a need to recognise more pluralism. This has we mean understanding Islam. But policy makers in nothing to do with secularisation. the Middle East should also appreciate the power of religion in the west and in particular the United The Iranian experience States. It is a mistake to think that religion is not relevant in the United States. Following the Iranian revolution of 1979, for the first time in the history of Islam the clergy are in power. Modernisation appears to have had some impact There have been Islamic governments before, but on religious practice. However, not in the way that in these instances they were run by lay people, with is often thought – that modernisation leads to the Clergy at their side. decreasing importance of religion.

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In terms of causes of extremism there are a number In fact, it is in the national interest of each country to that should be taken into consideration: take religion seriously. Take the resurgence of Islam nowadays, and Muslim minorities in Europe. These Religion played a role in motivating the people to Muslims are part of Europe, the family of Europe. overthrow the Shah who was the embodiment There is a need to look at Islam and Islamic institutions of a country whose ruler was a puppet to global and develop and build them into society. There is a super-powers. need to communicate with them better. Government should not interfere with issues of religion because Religion played an important role in the liberation it creates a counter reaction. of society. It is possible with hindsight to criticise certain actions done in the name of religion, but in There is a need for a dynamic to be present within the initial days of the revolution and mobilisation communities to deal with challenges, and in my of the country, slogans with a religious resonance, experience that comes from communities interacting such as ‘justice, independence, freedom’ played with other communities. Community and faith leaders crucial roles. from different faith backgrounds should be meeting and exchanging, creating a better atmosphere. Some see a contradiction when the words Islam and Communication should be two-way and subjective Democracy are put side by side. Islamic democracy, not objective. The minute a community is ostracised like any democracy, will have its own colour and and individuals start asking: ‘what do we do with essence. It will not be like US or Swiss democracy. them,’ this will be a disaster. Communities must be Turkey and Malaysia are two examples of the varying involved and seen as part of the solution. At the nature of democracy. same time there is a need to recognise that literalism, Daesh, and other challenges, that may appear at first Recommendations glance to be religious in nature, are part of a far more complex context that need to be understood, in order It would be a mistake to ignore religion. Policy makers to formulate the most appropriate policy response. should take more seriously the power of religion and issues of religion. There is an expression in Farsi, ‘Try to kick someone through the door, and they come back through the window.’ It is impossible to get rid of religion.

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Religous Literacy in an International Context By Peter Weiderud

Peter Weiderud, 2010. Source: Fredrik Persson/ TT

Religious literacy is highly commendable for policy- Hence there was no reason to understand religion, as makers. The level of illiteracy is very different in it was merely a secondary result of socio-economic different countries, contexts and cultures. In the change. Religion became less important in industrial more secular northern Europe policy-makers might societies as compared to the agrarian society. easier understand the importance of neutrality in And even in post-industrial societies the ability of relation to different religions compared to southern established religious authorities to dictate to the Europe, at least as long as the religious expressions masses is crumbling away. But, spiritual concerns, are kept to the private sphere. broadly defined, are not crumbling away. They are becoming more widespread. Religions are here to A European Christian Democrat might easier understand stay. But their roles are changing. and discuss Political Islam, compared to a Social Democrat, even if the concrete political expressions are Religions play different roles in different societies. more left. Western policy-makers assumed illiteracy When societies undergo socio-economic development is largely dependent upon the predictions formulated citizens are given objective capability to base their by sociologists in the so-called secularization thesis. lives on autonomous choice. But even though this During industrialisation one could notice how religion trend is global and noticeable in all developing and religious authority lost influence in society. Some countries, the world is not becoming homogeneous drew the conclusion that, as a result of modernization, and the imprint of cultural traditions and differences religion would gradually disappear. are not disappearing.

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The interaction between traditional norms, Extremism cannot be assessed without references modernization, religions, national aspirations, national to distribution of power and social capitol, economic pride and national humiliation, is increasingly complex. resources and present traditions and traditional values.

Part of the problem is of course that all policy This brings us back to the observation of the European makers are products of their own experiences. Few Christian Democrat and Social Democrat. The Social European Social Democrats have personal experience Democrat – or the left - is able to understand and of religion – they look at it as outside observers. analyse the world with a class perspective – a Many Christian Democrats might have experienced socio economic analyses. But he has difficulties in religion, but are lacking experience of being poor. understanding the importance of identity, and hence So how do you avoid the risk of these issues being religion becomes difficult, threatening or ignored. discussed from an outside perspective when bringing The Christian Democrat – or political right - understands policy makers together? the importance of identity, but struggles to understand the class perspective. One key aspect might be a strong and principled focus on the freedom of religion. Freedom of religion and My observation is that it is important to work with belief, as a human right, includes freedom to, as well both perspectives – identity and class – to understand as freedom from and freedom to choose religion, the development of Political Islam, and also to be which demands treating every human being with able to lay the foundation for a society built on unity the same respect. in diversity. Focusing only on identity tends to divide the world into us and them, while purely a class Religions will not disappear. They are part of society perspective is runs the risk of being patronizing or as much as all culture, ethnic and identity-related ignoring some of the fundamental questions that issues are. The religious expressions are as inter- need to be addressed in order to the ensure the twined in rest of society and as needed in society respect of human rights – in particular freedom of as language, literature, poetry, music and art are. religion - and democracy. People are different and have different preferences. Policy-makers have reason to undertake regular This offers a challenge to all. Those that are strong on encounters with religious leaders and religious ‘freedom to’, often have difficulties with ‘freedom from’, institutions. Religious leaders are not almighty, but and vice versa. Understanding fully the freedom to they have their own and relevant channels to the choose – treating all traditions with the same respect hearts and minds of citizens. And, policy makers may – is a problem in most societies – Europe as well as humbly ask religious leaders to contribute to peace the MENA region I am sitting in now. And both are and reconciliation in society. facing the risk of growing intolerance of minorities.

Religious extremism is present in all religions, in various degrees. But extremism is not more representative of religions than Ku Klux Klan is of Christianity as a whole.

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Violence in the Name of Religion By Oliver McTernan

n the context of the challenge of faith based terrorism, of which ISIS is currently the most notable torchbearer, we are faced with the Iquestion of how to understand the phenomenon of faith based violence - the minds and motives of young people for whom faith based violence appeals. The central hypothesis here is that the religious factor in contemporary conflict does matter, and that it should not be dismissed as an epiphenomenon, a proxy for some other cause. Religion needs to be acknowledged as an actor in its own right; failure to address it is failure to address the concerns and interests of a wider constituency. Oliver McTernan speaking during a conference in Rome: June 2016 Consequently, to curtail the spread of religiously inspired terror will require a greater willingness for It is perhaps more useful to point out that the origins self-reflection by both political and religious leaders. of religion are rooted in the transcendent and point Political leaders should acknowledge that religion to a reality beyond our world of time and place, can be an actor in its own right and should not be accepting that religion is a human construction, dismissed as a surrogate for greed, grievance, protest part of what Barth describes as ‘a human response or political ambition while religious leaders need to to revelation’. reflect critically on their own failure to provide more effective leadership and witness to the fundamental Religion is difficult to define in concrete and distinct values of their respective faiths. The difficulty in terms because it is more dynamic that political or coming to a nuanced analysis is not limited to the, academic worlds have hitherto acknowledged. Any at times, artificially demarcated worlds of religious characterisation of faith-based terrorism along the and political leaders, but also relates to academia; narrative lines of a ‘clash of civilisations’ falls foul of few political and social scientists have either the portraying civilisations as more homogenised and language or the understanding to analyse accurately integrated that they are in reality, failing to convey what is happening in the world of religion. the depth of diversity and dissonance that is to be found within religion, especially in the Muslim Defining religion and the clash of civilisations World where there is neither a consistent voice nor unanimity of observance among believers. How necessary is it to define what is meant by religion given the difficulties in finding a definition that is totally inclusive and reflects how adherents of each religion would describe their own beliefs and practices?

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It is Important to acknowledge such diversity of Claims of ‘apocalyptic nihilism’ and 9/11-style violence thought and that Muslims can hold dynamically as a rejection of modernity and globalisation are a opposing positions on fundamental questions as partial truth that fails to address the core problem to the meaning and application of their beliefs in which is how faith-inspired terrorists view their contemporary society. It would be a mistake to look religion. The social injustices, poverty, unemployment at the Muslim world as a political bloc with a common and political repression that leave millions dispos- religious ideology making it a cohesive whole and sessed unquestionably provide a fertile breeding a threat to alternative civilisations. Such a ‘clash of ground for militant groups, but these conditions are civilisations’ paradigm also provides Western policy not in themselves sufficient to explain why people makers with an excuse not to get involved and deludes kill in God’s name. those wanting to promote liberal democracy globally that the major obstacle to their ambitions are ‘age The secularisation of political thinking old ethnic prejudices’. The ‘secularisation thesis’ that dominates current political Understating and overstating religion thinking has been shaped by the post-Westphalian and Enlightenment division of religion from politics People either over or under state religion when and the public sphere, seeing the decline of religion faced with headlines that link religion and violence; as a natural and irreversible process in the face of both reactions fail to do justice to the complexity of science as the new paradigm for understanding the faith-linked terrorism. On the other hand religion is world. Religion is framed as a comforting myth but portrayed as a negative force in a secularised society, one which has ceased to have an impact on social on the other we can see the complete disassocia- or political life of modern society. This is partly the tion of religion from violence such as that by liberal impact of Marx, Durkheim and Freud’s psychological commentators, religious leaders and politicians and socio-economic explanations of religion that hold post 9/11, and in response to ISIS brutality. Secular that secularisation is the inevitable consequence of endorsement of the claim that faith is not to blame modernisation; religion is a surrogate for political for any of the current-day atrocities stems from power and ambition, and is an effective mobilising the deeply ingrained conviction that religion by force. This same secularised and reductionist mind-set itself is incapable of inspiring such action, masking prevails in academic and policy-making circles where over the real cause, which, it would be claimed, is violent jihad has come to be understood as a ‘mask’ more likely to be a mix of grievance and political and a ‘political creed’ and the resurgence of Islam ambition. Religious leaders’ repudiation of any link is assumed to be a temporary stage in social devel- between religion and violence is prompted by fear opment that will be reversed with the advance of that such a link portrays a distorted image of their modernisation. The Treaty of Westphalia may have faith however denial of the problem is part of the ended pitch battles over belief but arguably, rather problem, allowing religious leaders to circumvent than removing religion from international politics, the fact that all main faith traditions have a violent by domesticating or nationalising it, religion was and bloody record that must be acknowledged and turned into a powerful social agent used to enforce addressed to avoid repetition. cultural identity.

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Equally over-exaggerated is the impact of the Enlighten- They are highly selective in the parts of their tradition, ment; in an age where people are no longer obliged heritage and sacred texts they choose to highlight, to conform to societal norms and expectations, a have a worldview characterised by an uncompro- decline in religious practice does not necessarily mising dualism between good and bad, and reject relate to a decline in the phenomenon of believing. relativism and individualism as threats to identity but yet make effective use of modern technology. The religious mind-set is an important factor in and Religiously motivated conflicts differ from their of itself - it is more than a ‘tool for protest’ and a secular counterparts in the trans historical scope ‘useful marketing ploy’- it is an active and potent of their goals which surpass all claims of temporal factor and people are still sufficiently passionate political authority and give the struggle a sense of about their beliefs to die and kill for them. Religion timelessness. is rarely the sole cause of conflict, but it is central to the meaning of too many to ignore or side-line it. The The faith-based terrorist is one who perceives himself dominance of the ‘secularisation thesis’ means many to be ‘engaged in a mission of transcendent impor- find it very difficult to understand that theology and tance’ and one who is driven by an apocalyptic vision belief can and do shape people’s political judgements in which he is fighting a cosmic conflict between the forces of good and evil. Religion brings an unwilling- Salman Rushdie, writing that ‘the restoration of religion ness to compromise informed by the belief that their to the sphere of the personal, its depoliticisation, cause is divinely sanctioned, that to compromise is is the nettle that all Muslim societies must grasp in to betray their belief and that they have an exclusive order to become modern’, fails to recognise that many monopoly on truth and goodness. Instilling terror religious people do not understand faith to be a private is one way of demonstrating the inability of secular affair but a total framework for a complete life - the forces to control and secure public spaces and there- paradigm of separation between church and state is fore the religiously motivated terrorist can portray therefore anathema. Far from rejecting modernity the acts as ‘reclaiming spiritual ground’, asserting many religiously inspired terrorist groups embrace victory. The struggle is redefined in spiritual terms its benefits to further their religious ambitions. with the ultimate victory in God’s hands where the feeling of being part of a greater cause matters more Religious violence and the trans-historical than whether the cause is winnable. narrative History across the centuries also gives us numerous Most fundamentalists see themselves as ‘interpreters examples of religiously inspired violence from all the of history’ believing they have the knowledge and major religious traditions, substantiating the belief empowerment to direct the course of events and of many that religion is a major factor in communal believing themselves to be the ‘chosen ones’; they strife and providing traditions from which today’s are absolute about the truthfulness of their inter- activists can draw in order to legitimise their own pretation of divine revelation. violence in God’s name.

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An historical overview of the world’s mainstream While the stereotype of terrorists is as young, poor, religious traditions highlights how, without excep- disenfranchised and alienated young men, there are tion, each faith community has, in the face of the many cases where this profile is mistaken; the profile threat of extinction or the opportunity to expand of many Palestinian suicide bomber recruits was as interpreted its fundamental teachings to accom- middle class, educated and employed while the 9/11 modate the changing circumstance by sanctioning hijackers, and Osama Bin Laden, were middle class the use of violence to protect and secure its own Saudis and Egyptians. In such cases the experience sectarian interests. of humiliation, whether felt at a personal (e.g. Israeli checkpoints) or group (anger at Western foreign In each faith tradition one can find sufficient ambiguity policy) level is key. Religion endows the individual in its founding texts and stories to justify killing for with a sense of honour, personal pride, kinship and the glory of God. Today’s religious extremists can identity while violence gives a sense of empower- find their rationale for inflicting terror in the name ment, a combination that provides ‘antidotes’ to of God in the ambivalence towards violence that is such humiliation. found in each faith tradition. Final thoughts - technical and adaptive Socio-economic factors and the catalyst challenges of humiliation The crisis of faith-inspired violence the world faces In the immediate aftermath of 9/11, poverty and today has its roots in the inequality of our global illiteracy were singled out as the root causes of this structures and the intolerance inherent in the new wave of global terrorism. It was said that the competing truth claims of the different religious deprivation of millions, coexisting with islands of traditions. The problem of inequality and poverty is enormous wealth, bred a deep sense of injustice, partly a ‘technical problem’ and partly an ‘adaptive social alienation, despair and willingness to sacrifice challenge’. The technical problem revolves around lives among those who feel they have nothing left to concrete economic and policy issues, such as the gain. The idea that poverty fuels terrorism remains perceived Western hypocrisy in supporting repressive prevalent under the assumption that ‘life is cheap’ regimes in the name of stability, and the failure to in areas of deep poverty, however there is no natural practice purported ideals of democracy and Human teleology between hardships suffered, the rise of Rights. The adaptive challenge requires a paradigm religious fundamentalism and the resort to violence. shift that recognises that the ‘secularisation thesis’ The complex interplay of economic, social, political is an inadequate analytical framework through which and colonial factors, where one group is targeted to understand the realities of religious belief and for privilege or discrimination, or where there is faith-inspired violence. disproportionate hardship, all underpin religious conflict. Religion may not be the sole or prime cause of these conflicts, but it is part of the problem and should be acknowledged as such. Humiliation should be recognized as a central catalyst.

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Biographies

Dr Osman Faruk Loğoğlu Mr Hamadi Jebali

Dr Loğoğlu is a former member of parliament for Mr Jebali served as Prime Minister of Tunisia between Adana district, representing the Republican People’s December 2011 and February 2013 and was Secretary Party (CHP). Dr Loğoğlu retired from public service General of Ennahda until 2014. Mr Jebali became a in 2006 after thirty-five years in the Turkish Ministry member of Ennahda’s executive council in the early of Foreign Affairs including as Turkey’s Ambassador 1990s and throughout this period, he served as the to Copenhagen, Denmark (1993-1996) and Baku, editor-in-chief of Ennahda’s official weekly newspaper Azerbaijan (1996-1998). Ambassador Loğoğlu became Al-Fajr. The Ben Ali government eventually prohibited Deputy Undersecretary for multilateral political its publishing and condemned Mr Jebali to 15 years affairs in 1998 and then served as Undersecretary imprisonment, of which he served 11 years in solitary of the Foreign Ministry from 2000 until his posting confinement. In 2006 Mr Jebali was conditionally as Ambassador of Turkey to Washington D.C., USA released. Since the Tunisian Revolution of 2011 and (2001-2005). He received his doctorate in Political the subsequent legalisation of Ennahda, he has played Science at Princeton University and was a lecturer in a leading role in Tunisian politics. Political Science at Middlebury College (1969-1970). He is the author of a book titled İsmet İnönü and Dr Abd Moneim Aboul-Fotouh the Making of Modern Turkey and has published articles on foreign affairs in both Turkish and English Dr Aboul-Fotouh is a founder and President of Misr in various journals. Dr. Loğoğlu served as President of Al Qawia (Strong Egypt) Party and is a former leading the think-tank the Eurasian Strategic Studies Center member of Muslim Brotherhood. Dr Aboul-Fotouh left (ASAM) for two years (2006-2008) and was the Deputy the Muslim Brotherhood in 2011 following a decision Chairman of the Turkish National Commission for to run for president in the 2012 Egyptian presidential UNESCO (2006-2010). He was elected a member election, where he finished fourth. A student activist of parliament for Adana in the June 2011 elections in the Egyptian university scene during the 1970s, and served as a member of the Foreign Relations he held the post of Deputy President of the Egyptian Committee of the Turkish Grand National Assembly. National Student Union and was among the key figures From August 2011 to September 2014 Dr Loğoğlu that facilitated the entry of members of Islamic groups was the Vice-Chairman of the Republican People’s into the organization of the Muslim Brotherhood in Party (CHP) in charge of foreign relations and remains the 1970s. He was arrested in 1981 and was later an active commentator on foreign affairs in Turkey. tried by a military court and was sentenced to five years imprisonment in 1996. After his release, he was elected to the following posts: General Secretary of the Arab Medics Union, Chairman of the Committee for emergency relief and director of all hospitals in Islamic Medical Association in 2004 .

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Mr Faisal Abualhassan Peter Weiderud

Mr Faisal Abualhassan is a researcher in the Unit for Peter Weiderud is the Director of the Swedish Institute the Study of Contemporary Political Thought at the Alexandria, a dialogue institute between Europe King Faisal Centre for Research and Islamic Studies, and the MENA Region, within the Swedish Foreign Riyadh. His commentaries and analysis on political Ministry. He acts as Facilitator of The Religious Track thought and sociology have been published by of the Cyprus Peace Process under the Auspices of the Al-Jazeera, among other outlets. Abualhassan was Embassy of Sweden (since 2009) and is also President born and educated in Saudi Arabia before receiving of the Swedish Foundation for Human Rights. his M.A at Sciences Po in Paris. Peter was President of the Religious Social Democrats of Sweden 2005-15 and in that capacity also a member Mr Hassan Annabi of the Executive Committee and Party Board of the Social Democratic Party of Sweden. Mr Hassan Annabi is a member of the Political Executive of Nidaa Tounes. Prior to his political career, Peter has previously served as: Senior Advisor to the Mr. Annabi was active in academia and civil society, Swedish Foreign Ministers Lena Hjelm-Wallén and serving as Secretary General of the Tunisian Society Anna Lindh; Director for International Affairs of the of Academic Historians, and Dean of the Faculty of World Council of Churches in Geneva; International Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of Director of Church of Sweden; Chief Executive Officer Tunis. In the aftermath of the 2011 revolution, Mr. of the European Training and Technology Center in Annabi was appointed as Secretary of State to the Erbil; and as General Secretary for the Parliamentary Minister of Education in the interim government of Forum on Small Arms and Light Weapons. Beji Caid Essebsi. He stepped down from this position following the elections of October 2011. Peter has also served in numerous boards and committees related to arms control, human rights and Dr Ahmad Iravani international affairs. Peter holds a BA in Journalism from Stockholm University and a Certificate in Peace Dr Ahmad Iravani is currently president of the Center and Conflict studies and Management from the for the Study of Islam and the Middle East, and University of Uppsala Fellow at The Institute for Policy Research & Catholic Studies at The Catholic University of America where he teaches courses in Islamic Law, Introduction to Islam, and Modern Iran in the Columbus School of Law and the School of Theology. Dr Iravani is also an Ayatollah, after receiving the highest possible degree in Islamic Studies (Ijtihad) in 1997 (Qom), and the First Kharej Degree (equal to a Ph.D.) in Islamic Studies, from the Islamic University in Qom (1992).

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Oliver McTernan

Oliver McTernan is Director and co-Founder of Forward Thinking, a UK-based organization that works to prevent and resolve conflict at a national and global level and to promote understanding between religious and secular society. For twenty-five years he was a member of the Executive Committee of Pax Christi International and was responsible for the movements East-West Dialogue programme, which included an ongoing dialogue with the Soviet communist party.

Prior to taking up his present job in 2004, he was senior advisor to the Club of Madrid, a group of former Heads of State and Government who are committed to supporting governments in transition to democracy. He was a visiting Fellow of the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 2000-2003 where he researched the failure of peace processes and the relationship between religion and conflict.

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The Helsinki Policy Forum

Helsinki Policy Forum: May 2016. Source: Forward Thinking

Aims and objectives of the Helsinki Policy Forum

The Helsinki Policy Forum, established in February 2014, aims to respond to the current context and provide a secure space for an honest exchange of views on the challenges and opportunities facing the MENA/Gulf region, as a whole, and western governments. The Forum has convened four full meetings (Helsinki, June 2014; Madrid, October 2014; Helsinki, March 2015; Berlin, December 2015) and two meetings of its steering group (Chantilly, November 2015 and Helsinki, March 2016).

The Forum brings together senior parliamentarians, political leaders, government officials, and finan- cial experts from the Western and Gulf-MENA region. It facilitates an informal discussion aimed at deepening understanding and informing policy-making on identified issues of concern to promote enlightened policy responses to common issues. The objective of the Forum is not to be a talking shop, but a space in which dialogue can lead to action and initiatives to address identified challenges.

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Structure of the Forum

The Helsinki Policy Forum is an integrated part of Forward Thinking’s engagement and is facilitated by Forward Thinking in collaboration with participating governments. The Forum has a grant from the Foreign Ministry of Finland for core running costs covering. It is aimed for the Forum to be a partnership between governments and non-governmental organisations, recognising that any successes that come out of the dialogue will have to be taken forward by governments at the appropriate time to achieve their potential. Further meetings of the Forum throughout the year are hosted by participating governments and facilitated by Forward Thinking. The Forum aims to convene around 35-40 participants from the constituencies outlined above.

“We would like to express our gratitude to the Finnish government for their support to the Forum, both in terms of the core costs and the annual hosting of a meeting and all logistical support”

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