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1 Ideological Correlates of Sexual Behavior 1 Ideological Correlates of Sexual Behavior: Linking political ideology, religiosity, and gender ideology with orgasm and desire Emily Ann Harris Bachelor Arts/Science (Honours I) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2018 School of Psychology 2 Abstract Ideologies provide a set of norms and values that guide our attitudes and behavior in times of uncertainty. Given the private nature of sex, we may be particularly reliant on our pre-existing ideas about the world to guide our actions in the bedroom. Previous research on the influence of social values on sexual behavior has typically focused on group-level processes, for example, research on the cultural suppression of female sexuality (Baumeister & Twenge, 2002). Scholars in the social sciences have discussed the ways in which we internalize social norms and values, and how these might influence our experience of sex, for example through sexual scripts (Gagnon & Simon, 1973). There is, however, limited empirical work testing the association between worldviews, or ideologies, and sexual behavior at the individual level. The aim of the present thesis is to investigate whether ideologies are predictive of sexual behavior. I focus on three ideologies, namely, political ideology, religiosity, and gender ideology, and three aspects of sexuality: orgasm (Chapter 3), faking orgasm (Chapter 4), and sexual desire (Chapter 5). In Chapter 3, I present findings from two surveys of women (N = 662) showing that traditional gender ideology is indirectly linked with frequency of orgasm. I find that women who endorse a benevolently sexist worldview (i.e., a traditional gender ideology) are more likely to believe that men are sexually selfish. This belief then predicts decreased willingness to ask for sexual pleasure, which in turn predicts less frequent orgasms. This study provides the first evidence that traditional gender ideology constrains sexual pleasure (though indirectly). In Chapter 4, I show that hostile and benevolent sexism are predictive of lifetime frequency of faking orgasm in women. Women high in benevolent sexism faked their orgasm less frequently, whereas women high in hostile sexism faked their orgasm more frequently. The studies presented in Chapters 3 and 4 show that women who endorse a traditional gender ideology may not actively pursue sexual pleasure, or feel the need to exaggerate their sexual pleasure. Where previous work has shown that benevolent sexism has negative consequences for women in social and relationship contexts, the findings presented in Chapters 3 and 4 show that benevolent sexism also has implications for women’s lives. These studies contribute to an existing literature that has sought to identify and challenge the ways in which patriarchal values shape women’s sexuality. In general, feminist scholars and social scientists have emphasized the ways in which women’s sexuality is socially determined. Far less work has been done on the social influences on men’s sexuality. Relatedly, academic and lay theories of sexuality propose that women’s sexuality is more sensitive to the social environment relative to men’s sexuality (Baumeister, 2000; Regan & Berscheid, 1995). We tested this assumption in Chapter 5 by measuring men and women’s sexual desire over time in order to assess variation in desire, and the degree to which desire is associated with social and psychological factors. We found that the patterns of sexual desire between men and women are remarkably 3 similar. We found no gender differences in sexual desire variability, nor did gender moderate any of the effects of social and psychological factors on desire. In Chapters 4 and 5, I find no effect of political ideology or religiosity on women’s likelihood of faking orgasm, or men and women’s levels of sexual desire. In both studies, neither political ideology nor religiosity comes close to reaching significance. Thus, these two ideologies may be too psychologically distal to have a meaningful impact on sexual outcomes. Further, the relevance of political ideology and religion with regards to sexuality may have faded over time, or at least narrowed to specific domains of sexuality, such as sexual orientation and gender identity (Aosved & Long, 2006). Gender and gender ideology, on the other hand, emerge as consistent themes across my three studies. As such, when it comes to ideology, it is our ideas about men and women in society that are most likely to guide our sexual behavior. I discuss the implications and future directions of these findings in Chapter 6. 4 Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. Emily Harris December, 2018 5 Publications included in this thesis Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). On the link between benevolent sexism and orgasm frequency in heterosexual women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 1923- 31. doi: 10.1007/s10508-016-0780-9 Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., Larsen, H., & Barlow, F. K. (Submitted) Beliefs about Gender Predict Faking Orgasm in Women. Under review at Archives of Sexual Behavior. Other publications during candidature Peer reviewed journal articles Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E. A., & Fielding, K. S. (2018). Relationships among conspiratorial beliefs, conservatism and climate scepticism across nations. Nature Climate Change, 8, 614-620. Hornsey, M. J., Bain, P. G., Harris, E. A., Lebedeva, N., Kashima, E., Guan, Y., González, R., Chen, S. X., & Blumen, S. (2018). How much is enough in a perfect world? Cultural variation in ideal levels of happiness, pleasure, freedom, health, self-esteem, longevity, and intelligence. Psychological Science, 29, 1393-1404. Hornsey, M. J., Greenaway, K. H., Harris, E. A., Bain, P. G. (2018). Exploring cultural differences in the extent to which people perceive and desire control. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1-12. Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E. A., Fielding, K. S. (2018). The psychological roots of antivaccination attitudes: A 24-nation investigation. Health Psychology, 37, 307-315. Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). On the link between benevolent sexism and orgasm frequency in heterosexual women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 1923- 31. doi: 10.1007/s10508-016-0780-9 Harris, E. A., Thai, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). Fifty shades flipped: Effects of reading erotica depicting a sexually dominant woman compared to a sexually dominant man. The Journal of Sex Research, 54, 386-397. Connor, P.* & Harris, E. A.,* Guy, S., Fernando, J., Shank, D. B., Kurz, T., . Kashima, Y. (2016). Interpersonal communication about climate change: How messages change when communicated through simulated online social networks. Climatic Change, 136, 463-476. * These authors contributed equally to this work 6 Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E. A., Bain, P. G., & Fielding, K. S. (2016). Meta-analyses of the determinants and outcomes of belief in climate change. Nature Climate Change, 6, 622-626. Sherlock, J. M., Sidari, M. J., Harris, E. A., Barlow, F. K., & Zietsch, B. P. (2016). Testing the mate-choice hypothesis of the female orgasm: Disentangling traits and behaviours. Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology, 6. Conference abstracts Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2018). Does women’s sexual desire fluctuate more than men’s? A test of the Erotic Plasticity Hypothesis. The 19th annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. Atlanta, U.S.A. Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2018). Does women’s sexual desire fluctuate more than men’s? The 47th annual meeting of the Society of Australasian Social Psychology. Wellington, New Zealand. Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2017). On the link between benevolent sexism and heterosexual women's orgasm frequency (2017). The 43rd annual meeting of the International Academy of Sex Research. Charleston, U.S.A. Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2017). The role of benevolent sexism in women’s sexual experiences. The 46th annual meeting of the Society of Australasian Social Psychology. Melbourne, Australia. Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). On the link between benevolent sexism and orgasm frequency in heterosexual women. The 15th annual conference of the APS Psychology of Relationships Interest Group. Brisbane, Australia. Harris, E. A., Hornsey, M., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). Exploring the link between benevolent sexism and orgasm frequency in women.
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