THE EFFECT OF BIRTH ORDER ON SELF-CONCEPT
IN HIGH SCHOOL AGE STUDENTS
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty
of
California State University, Hayward
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Counseling
By
Lisa Gene Fisher
May, 1993 ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the
effects, if any exist, of birth order on self-concept in high school age students. The Piers-Harris Children's Self
Concept Scale was administered to 29 female and 7 male tenth
grade students at San Lorenzo High School. Scoring of the
inventories resulted in one total score and six factor
scores including Behavior, Intellectual and School Status,
Physical Appearance and Attributes, Anxiety, Popularity and
Happiness and Satisfaction. An additional page was attached
to the inventory requesting the subject to report all members of his or her family and the ages of those family members. Each subjects was then classified as first, middle
or last-born according to the information provided by the
subject. An analysis of variance was performed on the total
score and each of the factor scores obtained by each subject on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. No
significant differences were found between the mean scores
for each of the groups.
ii THE EFFECT OF BIRTH ORDER ON SELF-CONCEPT
IN HIGH SCHOOL AGE STUDENTS
By
Lisa Gene Fisher
Approved: Date:
Iff)
lll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Tom
Whalen, for the patience and support he provided me over the last year while working on this project. My gratitude also goes to Dr. Ted Alper for taking the time to read this manuscript and offer his suggestions. Many, many thanks go to the staff and students at San Lorenzo High School who, without them, this study could not have been done. In particular, I wish to thank Sheryl Cambra and Dave Rhodes whose support, encouragement and incredible cooperation made my work easier. I would also like to thank the students 1n the Clinical Child/School Psychology program for their suggestions and comments relating to this thesis. Thanks to
Jeanine Wright for the many hours spent thinking, talking, crying, laughing about and avoiding the "T" word. Last, but definately not least, I want to thank my family, especially my mom and dad, for their neverending love and support throughout the years and also, by having five children, providing me with the idea for this project.
lV TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT...... l. l.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... i v
LIST OF TABLES ...... vii
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION...... 1
General Statement of the Problem...... 1
Background of the Problem...... 1
Significance of the Problem...... 5
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 7
Introduction...... 7
Birth Order and Achievement...... 7
Birth Order and Psycholgocial Functioning... 9
Birth Order and Popularity ...... 12
Birth Order and Self-Concept ...... 14
Summary ...... 17
3. DESIGN AND PROCEDURES ...... 19
Problem ...... 19
Hypothesis...... 19
Population and Sample ...... 20
General Methodoloy ...... 20
Instrument Used ...... 21
Analytic Procedure ...... 23
v CHAPTER Page
4. RESULTS ...... 25
Descriptive Results ...... 25
Testing the Hypothesis ...... 26
Summary of Results ...... 32
5. SUMMARY ...... 34
Conclusions ...... 34
Limitations...... 3 6
Recommendations...... 3 6
REFERENCES...... 3 9
APPENDIX
A. SAMPLE INVENTORY ...... 41
B. RAW DATA ...... 47
Vl LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
1. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Total Scores ...... 26
2. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Behavior Scores ...... 27
3. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Intellectual and School Status Scores ...... 28
4. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Physical Appearance and Attributes Scores ...... 29
5. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Anxiety Scores ...... 30
6. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Popularity Scores .... 31
7. Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Happiness and Satisfaction Score ...... 32
Vll CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
General Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study is to examine the
relationship between birth order and self-concept in tenth
grade students. Is there a difference in how the first, middle and last-born child in a family feels about himself?
This study will focus on the effect that ordinal placement within one's family has on how a person may view himself.
Specifically, this study will look at how birth order may
influence self-concept in tenth-grade students at San
Lorenzo High School.
In this text, self-concept is defined as a
relatively stable set of self-attitudes, reflecting both a
description and an evaluation of one's own behavior and
attributes. Thus, self-concept is based on conscious self
perceptions and awareness of one's own behaviors and
attributes. Defined as such, self-concept can be used
interchangeably with the terms self-esteem and self-regard.
Background of the Problem
It has long been known that siblings play an
important role in the family structure and that sibling
1 2
relationships are unique in that a sibling 1s viewed as a
friend, a pseudo-parent, someone with whom to compete and a confidant. Research on this topic has shown that birth order is an important and complex variable in personality development. The results of such research provide an interesting view of how one's place in the family can continue to be a major factor in development throughout one's lifespan.
Birth order, gender, family styles of communication, bonding, socialization, intersubjective matching and structure building all have a lasting impact on our intrapsychic functioning (Agger, 1988, p.4).
Over eighty percent of children in the United States have at least one sibling. The arrival of a sibling has an effect on future relationships for the other children concerned. As Judy Dunn stated in her article on sibling relationships in early childhood, "It is clear that for first children the arrival of a sibling affects their relationship with their parents dramatically" (Dunn, 1983, p.787). Research indicates that parents treat their firstborn child differently after the arrival of the second child, and this action has a measurable effect on both children. However, these effects are different depending on the particular developmental period of the person. For example, during early childhood, ages four to six, birth order influences intellectual and academic achievement, degree of stress and anxiety experienced by the child and activity level . During late adolescence and early 3
adulthood, ages seventeen to twenty-two, birth order plays a role in self-concept, psychological functioning and well being, educational attainment and occupational status.
Along with other critical factors including heredity, family size, the spacing and sex of siblings, education and upbringing, birth order provides clues about children that can be used to help them feel good about who they are
(Marzella, 1990). However, there is the danger of putting too much emphasis on birth order analysis and, thus, stereotyping children solely on the basis of their position in the family.
The theory of birth order effects was first introduced by Alfred Adler in the 1920's. He outlined the general dynamics that occur in families as each child is born. Adler suggested that the first-born child, who is also the only-child, is treated as the center of his parents' universe. However, this changes when the second child lS born. Adler suggests that the first-born child never recovers from the trauma of losing his position and the exclusive attention of his parents when the second child is born. These feelings have been linked to the oldest child's need for affiliation and achievement as well as stronger dependency needs. According to Adler, the youngest child can concentrate on catching up with older siblings, while being relatively secure about being lavished with affection from the rest of the family. However, the last- 4
born is also likely to be more egocentric (Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1956). The first-born child often takes on a parental role in his treatment of his younger sibling. In response to the older sibling's role, the second child may rebel against authority and take on a competitive stance throughout his life. According to Adler, the second-born child is in a more advantageous position than the first- born.
Never having had to give up exclusive parental attention, and having an older sibling as a 'pacemaker,' maximizes chances for healthy development in the second born and other middle siblings (Gates, et al, 1986, p.29).
The youngest child, according to Adler, remains pampered and maintained as a dependent individual. He may respond to opportunities for competition with older siblings and may,
1n fact, earn greater success.
The theory concerning the effects of birth order has been of interest to researchers since it was first proposed.
Numerous researchers have studied such effects including intellectual functioning, dependency, anxiety, occupational status and achievement and rates of alcoholism. The results from such studies suggest that birth order does have some effect on overall personality development. However, the findings are also inconsistent, particularly in the area of self-concept. For this reason, the relationship between birth order and self-concept will be the focus of the present study. 5
Significance of the Problem
Although Adler first suggested that a relationship exists between birth order and self-concept over sixty-five years ago, such a relationship remains a source of controversy in the field of psychology today. When first proposed, Adler did not substantiate his theory with research. He based his theory on clinical observations and historical data rather than experimental research. Since then, numerous researchers have sought to prove or disprove
Adler's theory regarding birth order and self-concept, but most efforts have only added to the inconsistencies and questions regarding this issue. In this sense, a study on the relationship between birth order and self- concept is an important addition to the existing research and literature intended to answer the questions regarding this topic.
The present study builds on research conducted by
Wendy Miller (1982) in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Counseling from California
State University, Hayward. In her study, Miller examined the relationship between birth order and self-concept in 171 sixth-grade students. Using the Revised Experimental/
Supplemental Education form of the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale, she found one significant birth order difference on the School Status factor. On this factor, middle-born children scored lower than both first and last- 6
borns. All other differences were insignificant according to her results. Because past research (Marzollo, 1990) has shown that birth order is more likely to have an effect during adolescence, the subjects chosen to participate in this study represent that age group.
This area of research has important implications not only in the field of psychology but also for educators, clinicians and parents. It is presumed that all of those who are in contact with children are concerned with the enhancement of self-concept and any suggestions or indications as how best to do so would be beneficial. For example, if parents were aware of how ordinal placement in the family effects children, they could take measures to minimize the more negative effects and maximize the positives. Parents and teachers may be able to better understand a particular child and how he about himself.
Such an effect may also be another factor in understanding the overall behavior of a child and contribute to interactions with that child. CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this section is to review the literature that has been published regarding the effects of birth order on personality, focusing specifically on the effects on self-concept. It will first provide a broad overview of the effects birth order has on children and adults in the areas of achievement, psychological functioning, popularity and self-concept. Attempts to answer questions pertaining to why such effects occur will not be made. Rather, the focus will remain on what the effects of birth order are and what might be expected from the oldest, youngest and middle child in terms of behavior.
Birth Order and Achievement
Each position in a family has its advantages and disadvantages which allow for the maximizing of strengths and minimizing of problems. Traditionally, the first-born child is seen as the achiever, the middle child is the diplomat and the last is, and always will be, the baby
(Marzollo, 1990). The first-born child is typically the one who is driven toward success and stardom in his given field.
7 8
In general, older children have higher intelligence
quotients than younger siblings. The difference is thought
to be due to the amount of attention eager new parents pay
to their first child. In looking at academic achievement,
Cherian (1990) found that birth order is negatively related
to success in school.
The first-born are inclined to greater social conformity; they fall into line more readily when rewards are offered and are more responsive to social pressures. They show stronger need for achievement than the later-born (Cherian, 1990, p.22).
This finding is related to the greater degree of attention
given to first-born children by parents . In this way, the
oldest child has an advantage over younger siblings.
Because the audience of the first-born child is so
enthusiastic, the child takes pride in his accomplishments
and develops a deep sense of self-worth (Marzollo, 1990).
In many respects, the youngest child is much like
the oldest child . Parents tend to give the youngest child much attention and affection, which may be related to the higher achievement level demonstrated in younger children
than in middle children. The emotional satisfaction and psychological security of the youngest child is also said to be enhanced because contact with the parents is close
(Cherian, 1990). Parents also tend to be less restrictive with the youngest child.
Seasoned parents know how fast childhood goes by so they often justify their permissiveness by telling themselves, he's our last, so let's enjoy him as long as we can (Marzollo, 1990, p.91). 9
The positive consequences of this more permissive upbringing
are that many last-borns are fun-loving, affectionate and
persuasive. They often grow up to become successful
salespeople, counselors and teachers. On the negative side,
the youngest may feel that the family does not take him
seriously. The endless fawning over and praise given to
these children contributes to these feelings. The youngest
is always trying to catch up with his older siblings. He is
constantly being compared and contrasted to other siblings, which leaves him extremely self-confidant in some ways and
insecure in others.
Birth Order and Psychological Functioning
Clinical evidence exists that shows in adult life,
transference aspects of a predominately sibling nature may
emerge to govern interpersonal relationships, self-concept,
ego functioning and certain phases of psychoanalytic
treatment (Agger, 1988). Obviously, siblings and sibling
relationships play a major role in personality development,
and the effects remain important throughout life. In terms
of psychological well-being, several studies have suggested
that young adult first-borns are more anxious, neurotic and
stressed out than later-borns. Later-born children also have been shown to have greater social skills than first borns and are rated more popular and socially skilled by peers and teachers (Fullerton, 1989). Doss (1980) found 10
adolescents who were only children to be the most maladjusted on the Bell Adjustment Inventory while those subjects who were fourth or fifth-born were the best adjusted on all scales.
Such findings contradict research done with younger children which indicates that the first-born child is driven toward success and that he takes pride in his accomplishments and develops a deep sense of self-worth
(Marzollo, 1990). The results of research conducted by
Gates, et al suggest that first-born children appear healthier than middle or last-barns. They found first-borns to show less depression and less anxiety than other groups
(Gates, et al, 1986). Because of this, it is reasonable to postulate that at different stages of development, birth order had different effects on personality. In fact,
Zajonc, one of the leading researchers on birth order, stated,
Few studies have recognized that the effects of birth order can vary across developmental periods as personality interacts with the stage specific context and tasks of development (Zajonc et. al., 1979, cited in Fullerton et. al., 1989, p.556)
Another aspect of personality that has been related. to birth order is that of narcissism. The concept of narcissistic personality consists of a combination of several attributes such as self-absorption, lack of empathy, feelings of entitlement, having a grandiose sense of self- importance, interpersonal exploitativeness; and a 11
preoccupation with positive fantasies about success, power, brilliance, beauty or ideal love. In his study, Joubert
(1989) looked at the relationship between birth order and narcissism in young adults. He found that first-born individuals have significantly higher narcissism scores on the Narcissism Personality Inventory than do later-born individuals. "These findings give some support to the hypotheses that being a first-born child does frequently provide developmental stimulus for narcissism" (Joubert,
1989, p.722).
While the greater amount of attention given to the oldest child by the parents can be viewed as an advantage in terms of achievement, it can be a serious disadvantage when looking at personality development and psychological functioning. The child is bound to feel extreme pressure from the parents to succeed which, in turn, may cause the child to experience an enormous amount of anxiety. Past research has found that first-borns are more likely to be problem children and that eldest children are overrepresented in outpatient psychiatric clinics when compared to the general population (Tuckman and Regan,
1967). First-borns also may suffer from a type of pseudomaturity. They may act grown up throughout childhood because their role models are adults rather than older siblings. However, they will often reject the role of leader when they reach early adulthood. A first-born is 12
also not the most gracious rece2ver of criticism. Constant critical comments about the child's performance may cause him to become a worried perfectionist. However, these findings were contradicted by those of Gates, Lineberger,
Crockett and Hubbard (1988) who found that first-born children aged five to seven years old appeared to be healthier than other groups. They showed less depression, less anxiety and higher self-concept scores than younger children. These results suggest that emotional development and personality are aspects of birth order that require more research and investigation.
Whereas the middle child is often looked upon by the general public as the problem child or the "rebel without a cause", it is more likely that the first or last-born child will suffer from personality disorders. One particular study by Kaur and Dheer (1982) found middle-borns to score higher on extraversion dimensions of personality. They also found that first-borns and later-borns show more neurotic tendencies than do middle-borns who tend to be more emotionally stable.
Birth Order and Popularity
Research on the relationship between birth order and popularity takes into consideration the development of effective interpersonal skills. 13
If later-born children are to obtain even a modicum, if not fair share of positive outcomes, they must develop their interpersonal skills - powers of negotiation, accommodation, tolerance and a capacity to accept less favorable outcomes - to a degree not typically found in first-born children (Miller & Maruyama, p .123).
It has been suggested that it is not as necessary for first- born children to develop these skills because they, by virtue of higher status implicit in birth order, possess greater power and may simply take or achieve what they want arbitrarily. Middle-borns have the benefit of having developed interpersonal skills to deal effectively with their older siblings and also be in a position of power with their younger brothers and sisters. While being in this position might result in more flexibility in interaction strategies, middle-borns will be less interpersonally skilled than last-born children.
Miller and Maruyama argue that later-born children develop interpersonal skills that first-born children lack and, in turn, later-born children become more popular. On the other hand, first-borns may develop more autocratic interactive styles and negative personality traits which decrease their popularity with their peers. Results from their study clearly indicated that
later-born children demonstrate a greater popularity than their early-born peers upon entering school and throughout the grade school years (Miller & Maruyama, 1976, p.128).
In a comparison of only children with those who have siblings, Miller and Maruyama found that the greater 14
popularity of last-born children sterns from positive qualities they develop rather than from negative characteristics reflecting the first-born child's use of power. Specifically, they found later borns to be more sociable and friendly and less demanding and jealous than their first-born peers. In this way, the later-born child is viewed as more sociable toward and accepting of his
friends and, in turn, generates more positive feelings from his peers.
Birth Order and Self-Concept
A number of reasons why birth order is expected to be consequential for a person's self-concept have surfaced.
Theories of self-concept have emphasized the importance of primary group interaction. This interaction is affected by certain structural features of the group, including the size, age and sex composition of the sibling system. The most conspicuous feature of the sibling system is that it is hierarchical in regard to such things as power, competencies and responsibilities. In most cases, older children are bigger, stronger and given more responsibilities than their younger siblings.
The distinctive feature of the position of younger children in the birth order is that they are more subject to child-level interaction, and are typically subordinate to older children. Younger children receive less attention from parents, less encouragement, less responsibility and have a harder time carving out a distinct 'niche' for themselves in the family system (Gecas and Pasley, 1983, p.523). 15
In their research, Gecas and Pasley (1983) tested the effects of birth order on self-concept and found little evidence to support such a connection. While there was a slight tendency for middle-born children to have the lowest self-evaluations and oldest siblings to have the highest, these tendencies were neither very strong nor very consistent. In their study on health concerns of adolescents, Turner, Duchen-Smith and Jacobsen found that girls from smaller families, those with less than four persons, were more concerned about physical appearance than girls from larger families or those with more than four persons. "Girls from smaller families expressed concern about feeling 'down in the dumps a lot,' while girls from larger families responded more to the issue of tension"
(Turner, et. al., 1985, p.429). These researchers also found that the number of siblings had an impact on how the girls involved in the study felt about their own appearance.
Results indicated that girls with only one sibling were more concerned about physical appearance while girls with two siblings expressed more emotionally related concerns. Girls with three or more siblings in their family listed more psychological issues as their main concerns than the other groups. The only difference that was statistically significant for boys was greater concern about muscles in those with three or more siblings. 16
Research on the relationship between self-concept and birth order has also taken into consideration the effects of same-sex and mixed-sex sibling configurations on child development. One study (Nystul, 1981) showed individuals from families of mixed-sex siblings to have less positive self-concepts than individuals from families of same-sex siblings. However, these finding were relevant only when the mixed-sex siblings were defined as two same- sex siblings with an opposite-sex sibling.
The present results seem to describe what could be termed 'a special place in the family.' That is, if a child is the only boy or girl in the family, the child has a special place by being 'the boy' or 'the girl' (Nystul, 1981, p.136).
It is also suggested by the research that, as two girls rival for their special place within the family, their self- concept apparently suffers.
It is possible that birth order effects upon self- concept are more conspicuous during childhood when family influence in general is stronger. During adolescence, the child is more likely to rebel against family influence and seek increasing independence and autonomy from parents and siblings in the process of developing a personal identity and consolidating a self-concept. These findings suggest either that birth order simply does not explain very much after all, or that there may be too many more direct influences on such personality variables as self-evaluation 17
for the effects of birth order to be noticeable. For this reason, this area of concern warrants more research.
Summary
The research findings presented indicate that, as an adult, the first-born child may have more problems than his younger siblings. Fortunately for the oldest child, not all the news is bad. In his study on birth order and educational attainment and occupational status, Marjoribanks
(1987) found that birth order and sibsize are related to the eventual social status of female young adults. In particular, increases in birth order are related to decreases in the educational attainment and occupational status of the females in the study. One explanation for this finding evolves from social contract theories of sibling effects which suggest that "later-born children in families may be disadvantaged by a dilution in their interactions with parents" (Marjoribanks, 1987, p.150).
Obviously, birth order has different effects on different aspects of personality at various stages of lifespan development. For example, while the oldest child might show the highest level of academic achievement at age five, he or she most likely will not differ from younger siblings in terms of intelligence as a young adult .
Therefore, the question remains as to whether or not, on the basis of knowing a person's birth order, we can describe his 18
maJOr personality characteristics, what he 1s like at work,
his politics, his philosophy, even whom he should marry if he wants a stable marriage (Fakouri and Hafner, 1984). CHAPTER 3
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Problem The specific purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between birth order and self-concept in tenth-grade students and determine if there is a difference in how the first, middle and last-born child feels about himself.
Hypothesis The hypothesis proposed in this study was that last born children will have the highest overall level of self concept as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept Scale and middle-born children will have the lowest level of self-concept. Self-concept was measured in the following areas: Behavior, Intellectual and School Status, Physical Appearance and Attributes, Anxiety, Popularity and Happiness and Satisfaction. It was hypothesized that later barns will demonstrate higher scores in more areas than middle and first-borns.
19 20
Population and Sample
Permission to conduct this study was obtained from the principal, the vice-principals and the principal's cabinet members at San Lorenzo High School as well as from the teacher whose classes participated in the study.
Students at San Lorenzo High School were ethnically diverse and came from lower to middle socioeconomic backgrounds. There were 252 tenth graders enrolled in the school. The students used in this study were selected because of their enrollment in a particular class.
A letter was sent home with the students informing parents of the intent to distribute the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale to their children. Parents were asked to sign a permission slip allowing their child to participate in the study. All parental requests asking that the child not participate in the study were honored. In all, thirty-six inventories were distributed and collected.
Of the thirty-six subjects, seven were male and twenty-nine were female. The subjects ranged in age from fifteen to eighteen.
General Methodology
The subjects were given the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale during their regular class period. They were asked to complete the eighty item questionnaire by answering either "yes" or "no" to each question. As it was 21
not necessary to know the identity of the subjects for the study, confidentiality of each student was protected. The students were told not to put their names on their papers.
Each questionnaire was assigned a number to eliminate confusion during the analysis of the results.
The investigator introduced the questionnaire to each of the classes involved in the study. The students were told that they were participating in a research project and that their answers would remain completely confidential.
It was explained to them that it was necessary for them to answer the questions as truthfully as possible. The questionnaire took approximately thirty minutes to complete.
The investigator remained in the room to answer questions from the subjects. Completed questionnaires were collected by the examiner.
Instruments Used
The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale is a non-threatening measure of how a child feels about himself.
It is relatively quick and simple to answer. The measure requires no preparation on the part of the subjects. The questions on the scale pertain to the areas of behavior, intelligence and school status, physical appearance and attributes, anxiety, popularity and happiness and satisfaction. The subjects simply circled "yes" or "no" after each question to indicate their response. The scale 22
lS intended for use with children and adolescents ages eight to eighteen years old. The reason for this is that the reading required of the respondent is at approximately a third-grade level. The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale appears to be a valid and reliable measure of self concept. Piers (1964) reported the reliability coeffecients
for the scale to range from .42 to .96 with a median test retest reliability of .73. A test-retest with a four month interval resulted in a coefficient of .72 for tenth-grade students. The concurrent validity, found by measuring the
Piers-Harris against other tests of self-concept, ranged from .34 to .68.
The uses of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale are many. It can be used as a screening device to identify children who may benefit from further psychological serv1ces or as an assessment tool to be integrated with other information obtained to give a comprehensive v1ew of an individual child. The primary purpose of the Piers
Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, and the main reason for its development, is to provide a quantitative, self report measure of children's self-concepts. The purpose of its use in this particular study was to investigate the relationship between self-concept and birth order.
In addition to the eighty item questionnaire, subjects were asked to list the members of their family and the ages of those members on an additional page. Subjects 23
were told to identify the family members in terms of relationship, such as mother, rather than by name so as to retain the confidentiality. In this way, birth order of the respondent was determined. See Appendix A for a sample inventory.
Analytic Procedure
Each of the inventories collected was scored, by hand, by the investigator. The scoring resulted in one total score and six factor scores for each subject.
Subjects were then categorized as first, middle or last-born according to their responses on the attached page of the questionnaire. First-born children are those who are the oldest child ln the family whether it be the natural or step family. For example, if a student reported his family to consist of a father, mother, older step-brother, himself and a younger sister, the student in question would be considered the middle child and the step-brother the oldest.
Last-born children are those who are the youngest and middle-borns fall anywhere between first and last-born children. Only-children were categorized as first-born.
In all, eighteen of the subjects were categorized as first-born, ten as middle-born and eight as last-born. The number of siblings in the families of the subjects ranged from none to seven with the average number of children being 3.47. Only one subject indicated that he is an only- 24
child. Of the thirty-six subjects, twenty-two indicated they come from intact families where both the biological mother and the biological father are in the home. Ten of the subjects whose parents are divorced have a step-parent living in the home with them. Four of the subjects are living with a single-parent.
Because the number of female subjects was so much greater than the number of male subjects, the data were first analyzed using a T-test to determine whether or not a difference existed between females and males in terms of self-concept. If a difference was found, the scores collected for male subjects would not have been used and the study would have focused only on female tenth-grade students. However, no difference was found. Thus, it appears that gender does not influence self-concept. Also, gender could be ruled out as a confounding variable in the overall results.
The data were then analyzed using an analysis of variance for each of the seven scores to determine the effects that birth order may have on each of the areas including behavior, intellectual and school status, physical appearance and attributes, anxiety, popularity and happiness and satisfaction. CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Included in this chapter are the results of the analysis of the data. The raw data that were collected are presented in Appendix B. The hypotheses were tested in null form to be rejected if the .05 level of significance was reached.
Descriptive Results
The results obtained for the total score on the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale show that no significant differences exist between the scores for first, middle and last-born children. The mean score for first born children was 52.61 with a standard deviation of 11.55, the mean score for middle-borns was 53.00 with a standard deviation of 11.97 and the mean score for last-borns was
55.00 with a standard deviation of 13.69. Total scores for first-born subjects ranged from 33 to 75. Total scores for middle-borns ranged from 34 to 70 while for last-borns, total scores ranged from 32 to 73. According to the Piers
Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale manual and profile form, total scores between 37 and 53 are considered average.
Higher scores are above average, indicating a higher self-
25 26 concept, and lower scores are below average suggesting a decreased level of self-esteem. Overall, the mean scores for each of the groups was within or above the average range of scores expected.
Testing the Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant difference between first, middle and last-born children on the total score attained on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Last-borns will demonstrate a higher mean score than first and middle-barns and first-borns will have a higher mean score than middle-barns.
Table 1 Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Total Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 52.61 11.55
Middle-born 2 10 53.00 11.97
Last-born 3 8 55.00 13.69 F Probability = .8962
Table 1 presents the means and F probability value for the total score on the Piers-Harris Children's Self- 27
Concept Scale. The results indicate that there were no significant differences between the groups. Because no significant differences were found between first, middle or last-born children on the total score, the null hypothesis was accepted.
Hypothesis 2: A significant difference will be found between the mean scores of first, middle and last-born children on the Behavior factor scores of the Piers-Harris.
Table 2
Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Behavior Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 12.44 2.41
Middle-born 2 10 12.30 3.37
Last-born 3 8 13.00 2.98
F Probability = .8591
Table 2 presents the means and F Probability value for the Behavior scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-
Concept Scale for first, middle and last-born subjects. No significant differences were found between the groups and the null hypothesis was accepted. 28
Hypothesis 3: Significant differences between the mean scores for first, middle and last-born subjects will be found on the Intellectual and School Status factor of the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale.
Table 3
Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Intellectual and School Status Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 10.28 3.89
Middle-born 2 10 12.10 3.28
Last-born 3 08 12.13 3.31
F Probability = .3268
The means and F Probability value for the
Intellectual and School Status factor of the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale are presented in Table 3.
Results show that no significant differences were found on the scores of first, middle or last-born children.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
Hypothesis 4: Subjects who are the last-born children will have higher mean scores on the Physical
Appearance and Attributes factor of the Piers-Harris 29
Children's Self-Concept Scale than first or middle-born children.
Table 4
Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Physical Appearance and Attributes Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 8.56 2.81
Middle-born 2 10 9.40 3.31
Last-born 3 8 8.25 3.81
F Probability= .7146
Table 4 presents the means and F Probability value for the Physical Appearance and Attributes factor scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Because no significant differences were found between the three groups, the null hypothesis could not be rejected.
Hypothesis 5: On the Anxiety factor of the Piers-
Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, last-born children will have significantly higher mean scores than those who are first-born and first-borns will demonstrate higher mean scores than middle-born children. 30
Table 5
Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Anxiety Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 8.39 3.50
Middle-born 2 10 8.50 3.50
Last-born 3 8 8.00 4.44
F Probability = .9569
Presented in Table 5 are the mean scores and the F
Probability value for first, middle and last-born subjects on the Anxiety factor of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-
Concept Scale. No significant differences were found for the scores between the groups and the null hypothesis could not be rejected.
Hypothesis 6: Significant differences will be found between the scores of first, middle and last-born children on the Popularity factor of the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale with last-borns showing the highest mean score and middle-borns the lowest mean score. 31
Table 6
Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Popularity Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 8.44 2.38
Middle-born 2 10 9.30 1.83
Last-born 3 8 7.88 1.96 F Probability = .3722
Table 6 presents the mean scores and the F
Probability value for first, middle and last-born subjects on the Popularity factor of the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale. No significant differences were found between the groups. Because of this, the null hypothesis could not be rejected.
Hypothesis 7: On the Happiness and Satisfaction factor of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, significant differences will be found between the mean scores for first, middle and last-born children. Last-borns will show higher mean scores than first-borns and first- borns will demonstrate higher mean scores than middle-borns. 32
Table 7
Means and F Probability Value for Birth Order Groups on Piers-Harris Happiness and Satisfaction Scores
Value Label Value N Mean SD
First-born 1 18 7.94 1.80
Middle-born 2 10 7.80 2.35
Last-born 3 8 7.63 1.77
F Probability = .9272
Means and the F Probability factor value for the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale Happiness and
Satisfaction score are presented in Table 7. No significant differences were noted on mean scores obtained by first, middle or last-born children in terms of their perception of
their own happiness and satisfaction. Thus, the hypothesis
that last-borns would have higher scores than first-borns and first-borns would have higher scores than middle-borns was not supported.
Summary of Results
No significant differences were found between first, middle and last-born subjects on the total score or on each of the six factor scores including Behavior, Intellectual and School Status, Physical Appearance and Attributes, 33
Anxiety, Popularity and Happiness and Satisfaction of the
Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. The hypothesis that last-born children would score higher in each of the areas than first-borns and first-borns would score higher than middle-borns was not supported by the data collected from this study. CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY
Conclusions
The results obtained in this study suggest that birth order does not have a significant effect on self concept of the tenth-grade students who participated. No significant differences between the mean scores for first, middle or last-born children were found on the total score of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale or on the s1x factor scores included in the scale.
These findings are consistent with those found by
Gecas and Pasley (1983) who found little evidence to support a connection between birth order and self-concept. Although they observed a slight tendency for middle-born children to have the lowest self-evaluations and oldest siblings to have the highest, these tendencies were neither very strong nor consistent. In her study on the relationship between birth order and self-concept of sixth-grade students, Miller
(1982) found a significant birth order difference among sixth-grade students on the Intellectual and School Status factor of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale with middle-born children scoring lower than both first and last-born children. The present study focused on tenth-
34 35
grade students because of the evidence suggesting that birth order may have more of an effect on adolescents than on younger children. However, the difference found by
Miller in sixth-grade students was not apparent in the tenth-grade students who participated in this study.
Although no significant differences were observed between the mean scores on the Piers-Harris Children's Self
Concept Scale for first, middle and last-born subjects, some slight trends in the direction hypothesized were noted. For instance on the Total score attained on the scale and on the
Behavior factor score, last-born children scored slightly higher than first-borns and first-borns scored slightly higher than middle-borns. However, it must be reiterated that these were only slight trends and are not indicative of significant results. It is also worthy of note that these trends did not remain consistent throughout the analysis of the scores on all the factors.
Overall, it appears that the present study only adds to the conflicting evidence already in existence that both confirms and contradicts Adler's original theory regarding birth order expectations. It is obvious that this area of research is one that remains elusive in the field of psychology. 36
Limitations
The most obvious limitation of this study was the small number of subjects used . The sample was representative of only 14.7 percent of tenth-grade students at San Lorenzo High School. The ages of the subjects ranged from 15 to 18 years old with 32 of the subjects reporting themselves to be 16 years old. Thus, the sample contained a rather selective group of adolescents. The fact that all of the subjects were enrolled in the same course which deals with self-esteem issues may also have had an impact on the results. Due to the nature of the course the students were taking, they may have been more aware of how they feel about themselves and the importance of feeling comfortable with one's own self and proud of who that person is. Thus, the fact that the scores of each of the groups did not differ significantly may have been reflective of this thinking.
Recommendations
Questions regarding the effect that ordinal position in the family has on the personality development of an individual continue to be raised in literature and research.
The answers generally lead to more questions on this subject. It has become evident over the years that the effects birth order may have are dependent on a variety of factors and may be variable depending on the age of the 37
individual, the number of siblings, the gender composition of the siblings and overall family interactions.
Future studies on this topic might use a larger and broader sample population. For example, subjects from various grade levels and different schools could be chosen to participate. Tenth grade students were chosen for the present study on the basis of research findings reported in
Marzollo's (1990) article suggesting that birth order has more of an effect on self-concept in adolescence than any other developmental period. However, it might be beneficial to use subjects from various age levels to get a clearer picture of emerging birth order effects and more opportunities to compare and contrast the different groups.
Consideration should also be made of the changes that are taking place within families. More and more children are being affected by divorce and becoming a part of a step-family which may include new siblings. Such changes are likely to have a dramatic impact on the individuals involved which, in turn, may impact self concept. Future research would be wise to focus on these changes and the impending results.
Insight into the personality development and behavior of children will be of interest to parents, teachers, psychologists, clinicians and anybody else who may be involved with children for many years to come and will most likely continue to be a major area of research. 38
However, it 1s important to remember that children are also individuals and that although birth order may affect a child, it does not automatically shape personality. If it did, life would be much more predictable and a great deal less interesting. REFERENCES
Adler, A. (1927). The practice and theory of individual psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Agger, E.M. (1988( Psychoanalytic perspectives on sibling relationships. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 8(1), p.3-30.
Ansbacher, M.L. & Ansbacher, R. (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler. New York: Basic Books.
Cherian, V.I. (1990). Birth order and academic achievement of children in Transkei. Psychological Reports, 66, p.19-24.
Dunn, J. (1983). Sibling relationships ln early childhood. Child Development, 54, p.787-811.
Eaton, W.O., Chipperfield, J.G. & Singbell, C.E. (1989). Birth order and activity level in children. Developmental Psychology, 25(4), p.668-672.
Fakouri, M.E. & Hafner, J.L. (1984). Early recollections of first-borns. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40(1), p.209-213.
Fullerton, C.S., Ursano, R.J., Wetzler, H.P. & Slusarcick, A. (1989). Birth order, psychological well-being, and social supports in young adults. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177(9), p.556-559.
Gates, L., Lineberger, M.R., Crockett,, J. & Hubbard, J. (1988). Birth order and its relationship to depression, anxiety, and self-concept test scores in children. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149(1), p.29-34.
Gecas, V. & Pasley, K. (1983). Birth order and self concept in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 12(6), p.521-535.
Joubert, C.E. (1989). Birth order and narcissism. Psychological Reports, 64, p.721-722.
Kaur, H. & Dheer, V. (1982). Birth order, academic achievement and personality structure. Indian Journal of Clincial Psychology, 9, p.189-192.
39 40
Marjoribanks, K. (1987). Birth order and sibsize correlates of educational attainment and occupational status. Psychological Reports, 61, p.147-150.
Marzollo, J. (1990). What birth order means. Parents ~M~a~g~a~z~i~n~e~,~6~S, p.84-91. Miller, N. & Maruyama, G. (1976) . Ordinal position and peer popularity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33(2), p.123-131.
Miller, W.S. (1983). The relationship between birth order and self-concept. Master's thesis, California State University, Hayward.
Nystul, M.S. (1981). Effects of siblings' sex composition on self-concept. The Journal of Psychology, 108, p.133-136.
Nystul, M.S. (1990). Effects of birth order, sex, and astrological sign on personality. Psychological Reports, &Q, p.272-274.
Piers, E. & Harris, D. (1969). The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The wav I feel about myself). Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Test.
Tuckman J. & Regan, R. (1967). Ordinal position and behavior problems in children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 8(1), p.32-39.
Turner, J.G., Duchen-Smith, K.L. & Jacobsen, R.B. (1985). Health concerns of adolescents: impacts of family status, sex, family size, and birth order. Psychological Reports, 57, p.428-430. Appendix A
SAMPLE INVENTORY
41 42
"THE WAY I FEEL ABOUT MYSELF"
The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
Directions: Here are a set of statements that tell how some people feel about themselves. Read each statment and decide whether or not it describes the way you feel about yorself. It if is true or mostly true for you, circle the word "yes" next to the statment. If it is false or mostly false for you, circle the word "no." Answer every question, even if some are hard to decide. Do not circle both "yes" and "no" for the same statement. There are no right or wrong answers. Only you can tell us how you feel about yourself, so we hope you will mark the way you really feel inside.
1. My classmates make fun of me ...... yes no
2. I am a happy person ...... yes no
3. It is hard for me to make friends ...... yes no
4. I am often sad ...... yes no
5 . I am smart ...... yes no
6. I am shy ...... yes no
7. I get nervous when the teacher calls on me ...... yes no
8 . My looks bother me ...... yes no
9. When I grow up, I will be an important person ...... yes no
10. I get worried when we have tests in school ...... yes no
11. I am unpopular ...... yes no
12. I am well behaved in school ...... yes no
13. It is usually my fault when something goes wrong ...... yes no
14. I cause trouble to my family ...... yes no
15. I am strong ...... yes no 43
16. I have good ideas ...... yes no 17. I am an important member of my family ...... yes no
18. I usually want my own way ...... yes no
19. I am good at making things with my hands .... yes no 20. I give up easily ...... yes no
21. I am good in my school work ...... yes no 22. I do many bad things ...... yes no
23. I can draw well ...... yes no 24. I am good in music ...... yes no 25. I behave badly at horne ...... yes no 26. I am slow in finishing my school work ...... yes no
27. I am an important member of my class ...... yes no 28. I am nervous ...... yes no 29. I have pretty eyes ...... yes no 30. I can give a good report in front of the class ...... yes no
31. In school I am a dreamer ...... yes no
32. I pick on my brother(s) and sister(s) ...... yes no
33. My friends like my ideas ...... yes no
34. I often get into trouble ...... yes no
35. I am obedient at horne ...... yes no
36. I am lucky ...... yes no
37. I worry a lot ...... yes no
38. My parents expect too much of me ...... yes no
39. I like being the way I am ...... yes no
40. I feel left out things ...... yes no
41. I have nice hair ...... yes no 44
42. I often volunteer in school ...... yes no 43. I wish I were different ...... yes no 44. I sleep well at night ...... yes no 45. I hate school ...... yes no 46. I am among the last to be chosen for games ...... yes no
47. I am sick a lot ...... yes no
48. I am often mean to other people ...... yes no 49. My classmates in school think I have good ideas ...... yes no 50 . I am unhappy ...... yes no 51. I have many friends ...... yes no
52. I am cheerful ...... yes no 53. I am dumb about most things ...... yes no 54. I am good looking ...... yes no 55. I have lots of pep ...... yes no 56. I get into a lot of fights ...... yes no 57. I am popular with boys ...... yes no
58. People pick on me ...... yes no 59. My family is disappointed in me ...... yes no
60. I have a pleasant face ...... yes no
61. When I try to make something, everything seems to go wrong ...... yes no
62. I am picked on at horne ...... yes no
63. I am a leader in games and sports ...... yes no
64. I am clumsy ...... yes no
65. In games and sports, I watch instead of play ...... yes no 45
66. I forget what I learn ...... yes no 67. I am easy to get along with ...... yes no 68. I lose my temper easily ...... yes no 69. I am popular with girls ...... yes no 7 0 . I am a good reader ...... yes no 71. I would rather work alone than with a group ...... yes no
72. I like my brother (sister) ...... yes no
73. I have a good figure ...... yes no 74. I am often afraid ...... yes no 75. I am always dropping or breaking things ..... yes no 76. I can be trusted ...... yes no 77. I am different from other people ...... yes no
78. I think bad thoughts ...... yes no 79. I cry easily ...... yes no 80. I am a good person ...... yes no 46
In this section, please list the family members with whom you live. Do not give their names, just their relationship to you. Also, please list the age of each person, including yourself. If you have a step-parent, or step-brother or sister, please write it as "Stepdad" or whatever applies to your family. Also, if you have older brother or sisters who don't live at home anymore, please list them as well.
Sample: Myself 15
Stepdad 42
Mother 40
Stepbrother 17
Sister 13
Your family: Person Appendix B
RAW DATA
47 48
First-borns
52 13 08 10 06 09 09
58 14 14 07 08 10 07
68 14 15 11 14 11 10
54 08 13 11 11 11 09
71 14 17 13 12 10 09
56 15 11 07 08 09 07
45 13 10 06 10 06 10
48 08 07 10 05 08 09
61 14 13 09 11 10 08
56 15 11 09 08 08 07
75 16 17 13 13 11 10
35 10 06 06 04 08 04
54 14 10 09 09 08 07
50 10 08 11 09 11 09
40 13 05 05 02 05 07
33 10 06 04 02 02 04
42 12 09 04 08 07 08
49 11 05 09 11 08 09 49
Middle-borns
52 14 15 08 10 10 07
35 12 09 01 02 05 02
34 04 05 10 07 08 05
60 14 14 10 07 10 08
59 14 12 11 09 10 08
70 15 16 11 14 11 10
62 13 15 12 08 08 10
62 14 11 09 12 10 10
45 09 12 09 05 08 07
51 14 12 13 11 11 08 50
Last-borns
70 15 16 12 14 11 09
43 07 09 08 07 08 07
62 15 16 09 09 06 08
73 16 16 13 11 10 10
32 12 09 01 01 05 04
54 11 11 09 12 08 08
57 13 11 09 07 08 08
49 15 09 05 03 07 07