Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30 – April 3 Time Allotment: 80 Minutes Per Day

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30 – April 3 Time Allotment: 80 minutes per day

Student Name: ______

Teacher Name: ______

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Packet Overview Date Objective(s) Page Number Monday, March 30 Review: The Conservative Order and the Industrial 2 Revolution Tuesday, March 31 1. Identify the major figures who played an 4 important role in the unifications of Italy, Germany, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Wednesday, April 1 1. Describe the liberal reforms that took place in 7 France, Russia, and Great Britain in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Thursday, April 2 1. Evaluate the effects of labor unions and political 12 parties on the working class in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Friday, April 3 Essay: The Long Century 13

Additional Directions: This packet is designed to complete without printing out the full packet. Simply type or write your answers on separate sheet. Start a new page for each day. Label each day with your name, “Humane Letters”, and the date. Write the name of the bolded section heading you are working on and put the number next to each answer you write. Please write clearly and in complete sentences. When you submit your packet simply turn in your answers. You do not need to turn in the whole packet. Happy Learning!

Academic Honesty I certify that I completed this assignment I certify that my student completed this independently in accordance with the GHNO assignment independently in accordance with Academy Honor Code. the GHNO Academy Honor Code. Student signature: Parent signature:

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Monday, March 30 History Unit: Nineteenth Century Lesson 6: Review: The Conservative Order and the Industrial Revolution

Introduction to Lesson 6 At this point in our study of the nineteenth century, we are going to pause and remind ourselves of the prevailing movements and struggles between 1815 and 1850. This period includes the defeat of Napoleon and the establishment of the Congress System, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. It culminated in the widespread revolutions of 1848. Use your notes, textbook readings, and packet from last week to answer the questions below and help you review.

1. Define nationalism within in the context of the nineteenth century. (Remember the definition you memorized!)

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2. What were two of the political goals nineteenth century liberalism sought to achieve?

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3. What three institutions formed an alliance to protect the established order against growing reform movements, and espoused the political philosophy that became known as conservatism?

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4. What was the Concert of Europe (also known as the Congress System)?

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5. What was one reform that came about as a result of the Great Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain?

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

6. Define industrialization within the context of nineteenth century Europe.

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7. How did the population of cities change in the nineteenth century? What was one reform that was pursued as a result of this change?

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8. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, workers underwent a process of proletarianization. Describe what this means.

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9. What is utilitarianism and how did it relate to classical economics in the nineteenth century?

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10. How does Marx fit the proletariat (working class) into a larger historical narrative of oppression? What are two policies he advocated in order revolutionize the industrial capitalist order?

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11. What were three countries that had revolutions in 1848?

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Tuesday, March 31 History Unit: Nineteenth Century Lesson 7: Italian and German Unification

Socratic Guiding Question: Keep this question in mind as you study this lesson! 1. Which is more important to a nation: political ideals or political unity?

Objectives: Be able to do this by the end of the lesson. 1. Identify the major figures who played an important role in the unifications of Italy, Germany, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Introduction to Lesson 7 From 1815 to 1850 Europe experienced significant economic change and increasing calls for political reforms. Eventually the winds of change would lead to successful unification movements in two areas that had long resisted centralization – Italy and Germany. It would also lead to a very tenuous settlement in the Habsburg territories eastern Europe, which had long been (and would continue to be) a hotbed of nationalism.

Unification of Italy Think back to the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. While nations like England and France were consolidating under one monarch, the Italian peninsula was divided into several different sovereign states. We talked about how the competition between the states in some ways helped the explosion of learning and art that took place in the 1300s and 1400s. We also learned how the political divisions led to serious military and political upheavals. This culminated in the sack of Rome in 1527 by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. (Think of the irony: a man who claims to be the “holy” “emperor” of “Rome” sacking…Rome.)

In the three centuries after, Italy remained politically fragmented. Corrupt kingdoms like Naples controlled the south, the Pope reigned supreme in most of central Italy, and the Habsburgs of Austria were constantly inserting their influence in the north. However, in the 1800s, Italy was not exempt from the growing nationalistic spirit. Last week we read Giuseppe Mazzini’s definition of nationalism. He was a leader in the Italian nationalist movement that wanted to unite Italians under one government of their own and expel the Austrians from the peninsula.

Throughout the 1830s and 1840s Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi (yes, they were both named Giuseppe…) led failed revolts. They were both involved in the failed Roman republic of 1849. They were radicals who wanted to establish republican political reforms to serve the goal of nationalism.

Radicalism is rarely effective in the long run (remember that revolution in France…). The successful unification of Italy would fall to Count Camillo Cavour. Cavour was the Prime Minister of Piedmont, a kingdom that included a large portion of northwestern Italy and the island of Sardinia. See the map on p. 785 (attached) He was an excellent politician, who hoped to 4

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3 unite Italy under a stable government and to institute modest liberal reforms. The key to Cavour’s success was his ability to win the favor of Napoleon III, the emperor of France. They hatched a plan to lure Austria into war and then bring in French troops to support the Italians. The war united many of the Italian states to join the cause to expel Austria from northern Italy. In the end, Napoleon betrayed Cavour by negotiating his own peace treaty with Austria (never trust a man named Napoleon). But Cavour’s war with Austria had stirred up enough nationalistic spirit to convince most of the Italian states unite under the leadership of Piedmont to form a unified Italian state in 1860.

But Garibaldi and his radical nationalists were not going to give up their dreams of a republic without a fight. Garibaldi landed troops in Sicily and moved north int Italy. Cavour moved his troops against Garibaldi’s, and Cavour was able to capture all central Italy with the exception of Rome (which was still controlled by the Pope). Eventually, Cavour convinced Garibaldi that nationalism was more important than republicanism, and Garibaldi and the southern states agreed to join with Piedmont create a unified Italy. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king of Italy.

It wasn’t until 1866 that Italy gained Venetia in the northeastern part of the peninsula by supporting Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War. French troops kept Rome under the rule of the papacy until they withdrew to fight the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Italy then annexed Rome and made it the capital city. The Pope retreated into the walls of the Vatican and remained hostile to the Italian state until the Lateran Accord of 1929. The Vatican to this day is its own sovereign state within the city of Rome.

1. How was Count Cavour able to unite the Italians under the leadership of Piedmont?

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German Unification Another part of Europe that had long resisted unification was Germany. In the Middle Ages Germany was separated into over 300(!) autonomous states that made up Holy Roman Empire. By the 1800s Germany was dominated by Prussia in the north and west and the Habsburg empire, which included Austria in the south and east. The story of German unification would be one of Prussian dominance, which was achieved only when it was able to win control by defeating Austria and France militarily.

Read pages 787- 792 in your textbook (attached). Then answer the questions below.

1. Germany was united by the conservative ______, the ______, and the prime minister of ______.

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

2. Who was the prime minister of Prussia who was most responsible for German unification?

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3. How did the prime minister of Prussia trick France into starting the Franco-Prussian War?

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4. What territory did the new German Empire gain from France after the Franco-Prussian War? (This is important for the World Wars!)

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The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary The Habsburgs, who had long dominated the Holy Roman Empire, controlled a number of territories in the southeast of Europe. However, there had long been tensions between these territories. The government was run out of Vienna, Austria, which was German speaking, Roman Catholic and ethnically distinct from Hungary in the east. The people of Hungary were known as Magyars and they resented Austrian rule and the authoritarianism of the Habsburgs.

In 1867 Francis Joseph, the Habsburg emperor (who ruled from 1848-1916!), was able to come to an agreement with the Magyars of Hungary. Hungary was given its own parliament. Francis Joseph was crowned king of Hungary, which meant Hungary was now viewed as its own state, but with the same king as Austria.

This compromise did not please everyone. There were many other nationalities including, Czechs, Ruthenians, Romanians, and Ruthenians. They all wanted their own states. These nationalistic tensions would be instrumental in the outbreak of World War I.

Closing: Answer the following questions. 1. Who were three major figures in the unification of Italy in the 1860s? ______

2. Which German state took the lead in creating a united German Empire. Who was the prime minister who led the way? ______

3. What compromise was reached between the Austrians and the Hungarians in 1867? ______

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Wednesday, April 1 History Unit: Nineteenth Century Lesson 8: Liberal Reforms in Late Nineteenth Century Europe

Socratic Guiding Question: Keep this question in mind as you study this lesson! 1. Is it better to embrace political reform or resist it?

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of the lesson. 1. Describe the liberal reforms that took place in France, Russia, and Great Britain in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Introduction to Lesson 8 While Italy, Germany, and Austria-Hungary experienced unification movements, France, Russia, ad Britain made significant reforms in their governments. Some of these reforms were voluntary and some were force on their rulers due to changing circumstances.

France Becomes a Republic (Again) Napoleon III had become emperor of France in 1851. His first years of rule were very authoritarian. He controlled the legislature, censured the press and suppressed those who spoke out against him. However, as his popularity waned, Napoleon instituted some liberal reforms. He allowed a constitution which made the ministers of the government answerable to the legislature and not to him. He loosened the censorship on the press and signed a free trade agreement with Britain.

These reforms would not be enough to save the emperor from his disasters in foreign affairs. The greatest disaster was the Franco-Prussian War. Not only were the French soundly defeated, but Napoleon himself was captured and imprisoned. When Paris heard the news, a republic was proclaimed in France.

Radicals in Paris used this opportunity to push for socialism. A new government was elected in Paris in 1871 known as the Paris Commune. The new government of France sent troops to take back Paris from the Commune. Twenty thousand Parisians were killed in the fighting. The short- lived Paris Commune became a legend for Marxists in later years.

The new government fell into the hands of monarchists who wanted a king (France just can’t make up its mind). But the man who had a claim to the throne refused to become king because he disliked the revolutionary tri-color flag of France (yes, he really refused to be king because he disliked the flag). While government tried to find a suitable king, they formed a republican form of governance with representatives elected by universal male suffrage. After a while the new government just stuck.

There was one major scandal that threatened the new French government and continued to haunt it into the twentieth century. It is now known as “The Dreyfus Affair.” In 1894 a French military 7

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3 court found Captain Alfred Dreyfus guilty of sending secret information to the Germans. The evidence was very weak. Even when the evidence was proved to forged (and secrets kept leaking to the German government), the French government continued to say that Dreyfus was guilty. The problem was that Dreyfus was Jewish. Many in France thought that the government was deliberately framing Dreyfus because of his ethnicity. Discrimination against a person because of their Jewish heritage is called Anti-Semitism (this is, of course, very important when we get to World War II). While Dreyfus was pardoned (after being convicted a second time!) by the President, the whole affair convinced many in France that their government was corrupt.

1. Describe the difference between the first part of Napoleon III’s reign and the second part. What happened to the Second French Empire as a result of the Franco-Prussian War?

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Russia Institutes Reforms and Confronts Terrorists Russia had long remained resistant to change. Remember Tsar Nicholas I’s reaction to the Decemberist Revolt of 1825. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, some very significant reforms were taken that granted new freedom to Russians.

Russia had tried to increase its territory in the Mediterranean (Russia wants a warm water port!) by provoking conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Both Britain and France had extensive commercial interests in the area, so they opposed Russia gaining more control. This conflict sparked the Crimean War between Russia and Britain and France (1853-1856). Neither side fared particularly well in battle. In the end, however, Russia lost, and it was forced to rethink its policies at home. (Side Note: the famous nurse Florence Nightingale is known for her service in the Crimean War).

Alexander II came to the throne and instituted one of the most important social changes in Russian history. In 1861 he abolished serfdom. Serfs were peasants who were forced to work for their owners of the land they lived on. They had to perform involuntary service and had little to no recourse if they were mistreated. As far as involuntary servitude and lack of legal protection, it resembled American slavery. Serfs were economically inefficient (because no one works as well when they are forced to and receive nothing in return), and it was increasingly viewed as morally repugnant. No other part of Europe retained serfs. The institution was seen as a Medieval evil (say that five times fast). Alexander wanted to bring Russia into the nineteenth century, morally and economically.

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Alexander instituted judicial reforms. These included the principle that all citizens were equal before the law, trial by jury, and impartial hearings.

Alexander’s reforms did not end all opposition to the Tsarist government though. The serfs were still very poor and were mostly set free with no money and no land. Alexander still violently suppressed rebellion in Poland to preserve Russian dominance. Despite his reforms, political radicals still resented the fact that Alexander was an absolute ruler. Protests swept through the Russian countryside, where peasants were suffering economically. In 1881, a revolutionary threw a bomb at Alexander’s carriage and killed him.

Poor living conditions, autocratic rule, and calls for reform would continue into the twentieth century and lead to one of the most important revolutions in history: the Bolshevik Revolution.

1. Who were serfs? Which Tsar of Russia freed them? What other reforms did this Tsar undertake?

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Great Britain Moves Toward Democracy Throughout the nineteenth century, Britain had shown a willingness to incorporate liberal reforms. In the end, the willingness of the establishment to accept reforms strengthened the political stability of the nation. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Britain continued to incorporate reforms that made it more democratic, while retaining its traditional institutions, including the monarchy.

In 1866, the Liberal government of Britain introduced a new reform bill (remember the first one in 1837). However, the bill was defeated because it was democratic (it increased the population eligible to vote significantly)

But to everyone’s surprise, in 1867 the Conservatives (who had opposed the reform bill a year earlier) passed their own reform bill that nearly doubled the electorate! The leader of this maneuver was Benjamin Disraeli, one of the most famous prime ministers in British history. He was convinced that the working classes had proved themselves responsible citizens who deserved a greater say in their government. He also believed that by taking credit for the Second Reform Bill (as it is called), the Conservative Party would gain the trust and affection of the voters. In the long run, he was right. The Conservative Party remains a dominant force in British

Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3 politics to this day. In the short term, however, Disraeli lost the 1868 election to his rival, William Gladstone, the leader of the Liberal Party.

Remember, “liberal” in nineteenth century Europe did not mean what it does today in America. Neither does “conservative.” Gladstone and his Liberal government supported free trade, lower taxes, and refused to give protections to unions. He also removed the requirement that professors at Oxford and Cambridge be Anglicans, which led to greater religious toleration. One of the most important reforms that Gladstone undertook was the funding of public education. Until that time, the state had given a small amount of money to churches to run school. Now the government began to open schools itself. This was the beginning of modern public education in Britain.

Disraeli beat Gladstone in 1874 and returned a Conservative government to Parliament. Whereas Gladstone emphasized free markets and competition, Disraeli believed that it was the duty of government to help those in need and to better society. He passed the Public Health Act of 1875 which gave the government power to ensure sanitation and physical well-being for citizens. Under Disraeli, the government started providing housing for poorer members of the working class. Disraeli also allowed labor unions to protest for higher wages.

In 1880, Gladstone defeated Disraeli’s Conservative government again in an election. (The Gladstone/Disraeli rivalry is one of the great political stories of nineteenth century British politics.) The main issue that marked Gladstone’s later career was “The Irish Question.” Ireland had long resented English rule. The Irish members of Parliament constantly called for Irish “home rule” (the ability for Ireland to rule itself as its own country). In 1885, Gladstone announced his support for Irish home rule. Many of his own Liberal party members joined the Conservatives to defeat the bill. Gladstone resigned as prime minister and called for a new election. He lost. It was not until 1914 that Parliament granted Ireland home rule.

1. Describe the reforms that the Liberal Party undertook in Britain under the leadership of William Gladstone.

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

2. Describe the reforms that the Conservative Party undertook under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli.

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Closing: Write 5-7 sentences answering the following question. 1. Did Britain become a “democratic” nation as a result of the reforms carried out by Gladstone and Disraeli? Why or why not?

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Thursday, April 2 History Unit: Nineteenth Century Lesson 9: Labor, Socialism, and Politics at the Turn of the Century

Socratic Guiding Question: Keep this question in mind as you study this lesson! 1. What is the purpose of political parties? Do they help or hurt citizens?

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of the lesson. 1. Evaluate the effects of labor unions and political parties on the working class in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Introduction to Lesson 9 Last week, we learned about the Industrial Revolution and how it drastically changed the labor force, the family and the make-up of cities. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Europe underwent a “second” Industrial Revolution. The gap between Britain, which had led industrialization, and the rest of Europe closed. There important social and political consequences of this continued industrial expansion. Some of the most important were the growth of trade unions and mass political parties.

Read pp. 835-841 in your textbook (attached). Then answer the questions below. 1. What caused the growth in trade unions and mass political parties?

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______2. Did the political and social status of the working class improve between 1860 and 1914? Why or why not?

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______3. Why were the debates over “opportunism” and “revisionism” important to the Western European socialist parties?

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

Friday, April 3 History Unit: Nineteenth Century Lesson 10: Essay: The Long Century

The nineteenth century has been called “The Long Century.” It was marked by many political, economic, and ideological changes that had numerous lasting effects on all aspects of society. Which were the most important changes: the political, the economic, or the ideological? Choose one category and write a thesis and three paragraphs defending your point of view. Here are some examples from each category. Feel free to use some of the examples I have listed.

Political Examples: Germany unification, Great Reform Bill in Great Britain (1837), Emancipation of Serfs in Russia etc.

Economic Examples: Industrial Revolution, Classical economics; labor force; trade unions etc.

Ideological Examples: Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism, Utilitarianism, Socialism etc.

Suggested Time: Planning: 20 minutes Writing: 60 minutes

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

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Humane Letters 10: Modern Europe March 30-April 3

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