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Determinants of Shadow Education: a Cross-National Analysis

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Determinants of Shadow Education: a Cross-National Analysis Determinants of Shadow Education: A Cross-National Analysis Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Darby E. Southgate, M.A. Graduate Program in Sociology The Ohio State University 2009 Dissertation Committee: Claudia Buchmann, Advisor Vincent J. Roscigno Pamela Paxton Copyright by Darby Elizabeth Southgate 2009 ABSTRACT The term shadow education refers to supplemental, privately-funded academic lessons outside of school. Shadow education is a global phenomenon that occurs in all nations with national levels of participation ranging between 10 to over 80 percent. Like a shadow, it generally goes unnoticed and it takes the shape of formal school in curricula and purpose. Shadow education takes many forms. It can be as informal as a senior student teaching a junior student or a teacher tutoring a student or group of students; or, it can be something more formalized and complex such as organized learning centers. Shadow education is growing. In some areas, learning centers alone have experienced more than a 40 percent annual increase in franchises, expanding to every continent on earth. In some countries, the costs of shadow education are comparable to or exceed the national educational expenditure. Families everywhere demand more education for their children and an industry has formed to provide this service. Despite its extensive use and growth, shadow education has received very little attention by scholars. To date, only a relatively small number of studies have looked at shadow education; those that have are most often case studies of nation states. These social scientists are concerned that shadow education is a powerful force in education ii stratification. Given the stratifying nature of education generally, this privately-funded form has deep implications for issues of access and inequality. Drawing upon PISA 2003 data which surveys over 200,000 15 year-old students from 41 nations, this study considers macro and micro level determinants of shadow education in order to ascertain whether its use is detrimental to educational equity. First, the study looks at potential national modal strategies. Second, it examines levels of family capital and gender on shadow education use. Logistic regression, correlation and descriptive statistics show the vast majority of nations use a modal strategy of remediation when employing shadow education, meaning shadow education is used for struggling students and not for high performing students, and all nations employ a remediation strategy when considering tutoring as apart from formal learning centers – in no nation do high performing students employ tutors. Moreover, national levels of inequality are associated with the use of shadow education. As inequality increases, so too does additional schooling. Family decisions regarding the use of shadow education are driven by levels of economic, social and cultural capital. Comparing low- medium- and high-use of shadow education nations reveals similarities in resource allocation processes despite great national differences. Specifically, as family capital increases so too does the use of the shadow education; it is utilized more by girls than by boys; and, cultural capital is the best predictor of shadow education. Families with high levels of cultural capital and high levels of social capital are more likely to purchase shadow education compared to families with lower levels of capital. iii Findings indicate shadow education is used in a variety of ways that include advantaging females, leveling the disadvantage of speaking a foreign language in the home, and is also a modern way that families reproduce a social class advantage. The complexity of shadow education use demands additional investigation as to the mechanisms behind its use – specifically, the decision-making process of families that includes the intersections of gender and class. The social reproductive aspect of shadow education use has implications on education inequality, particularly in light of recent efforts by the United Nations to provide free public primary education to all children. While mass education helps integrate children into a global economy, the use of shadow education will maintain existing patterns of stratification. However, the high use by girls indicates that shadow education is also being used to decrease gender inequality. These mixed findings point to a complex supplementary educational system that can both maintain inequality as well as reduce it. Recommendations include an increase in public awareness, national monitoring and regulation of shadow education. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The early Saxon educationalist Johannes Parvus ([1159] 2009) acknowledges an earlier philosopher when he says “We are like dwarfs on the shoulders of giants, so that we can see more than they, and things at a greater distance, not by virtue of any sharpness of sight on our part, or any physical distinction, but because we are carried high and raised up by their giant size.” No better metaphor describes my experience working with the sociology faculty at The Ohio State University. It is my distinct pleasure to acknowledge them now, declare my gratitude and offer my deepest respect for their dedication, not only to me but to the discipline of sociology. It is a great honor having had the opportunity to work with such giants. The following acknowledgments are in no particular order, as each of the individuals named below have been instrumental in supporting my research, providing guidance and helping me grow as a scholar, an instructor, and as a person. Claudia Buchmann, Chair of the Dissertation Committee, worked tirelessly with me over the last year. Not only did she pour over pages of output, discuss strategies, and revise my drafts, she offered me scholarly and personal support. For this, I will always be indebted to her. Vinnie Roscigno, my advisor and friend. Vinnie encouraged me to pursue my interests in culture and stratification and worked with me academically (and on his banjo) to show v how and why music matters. One high-point of graduate school was playing in a Labor band with Vinnie and other great sociologists: Steve Lopez, Bill Danaher, Jill Harrison and Ryan Light. This experience helped me understand cultural capital better than ever! Thank you, Vinnie for making that happen. Thank you also to Steve Lopez. I tutored your students in undergraduate theory and your nuanced understanding of Marx and Weber helped me grow as a theorist. I would also like to acknowledge the support I received from Pam Paxton on the dissertation and the needs assessment for the sociology department. Despite her busy schedule, she always made time for me. In addition to my committee, I would also like to acknowledge the faculty members upon whose shoulders I now stand, in particular, Zhenchao Qian and Bob Kaufman for their statistics courses. The years I spent in Zhenchao’s classes gave me the confidence I needed to not only become a better consumer of statistics but also to attempt this large scale study which is before you. Also, to Bob, thank you for helping me understand how to handle two-step, stratified samples. Under their tutelage, I grew into a mixed-method sociologists; I am forever grateful. Last, but in no way least, that you Lisa Keister for your continued support of my research and scholarship. Our discussions over stratification will stay with me forever. Last but certainly not least, I must thank my family and friends who supported me through this effort. My parents, Anneliese and Douglas, came to America to pursue the American Dream. Thank you for dreaming, and for supporting me through this and all my efforts. I have learned more from your love and commitment than any lesson or book could convey. My sister Robin and husband Joe Cotter. Your love and support fill my vi daily life – I can never repay you for all that you do. And thank you to my dearest friend, Richard Griffith, for picking me up when I stumble and pointing me back in the right direction. They say every great journey begins with a single step. Without the love and support of my family and friends I never would have had the courage to take that first step, let alone pursue such a great adventure. vii VITA November, 1964 ………………………....Born, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 2000………………………………………B.A., Sociology, California State University, Long Beach 2003………………………………………M.A., Sociology, California State University, Dominguez Hills 2003-2009………………………………..Graduate Teaching and Research Associate The Ohio State University 2009………………………………………Adjunct faculty, Columbus State Community College PUBLICATIONS Southgate, Darby and Vincent Roscigno. 2009. “The Impact of Music on Early Childhood and Adolescent Achievement.” Social Science Quarterly 90(1):4-21. Southgate, Darby. 2008. “Gangsta Rap Music.” Encyclopedia entry in Encyclopedia of Gangs, edited by Louis Kontos and David C. Brotherton, Pp:201-208. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Southgate, Darby. 2008. Review of Teaching Nonmajors: Advice for Liberal Arts Professors by P. Sven Arvidson. Albany: SUNY Press. Teaching Sociology (37)3:319- 322. Southgate, Darby. 2007. Review of Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop by Jeff Chang. Socialism and Democracy 20(4):166-169. viii Christie, Robert, Darby Southgate, and Derrick Jones. 2002. EnScan 2001: Expanded Environmental Scan, with SWOT Analysis. California State University, Dominguez Hills. FIELDS OF
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