1 Cheliabinsk As a Mirror of Russia in the 20Th Century

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1 Cheliabinsk As a Mirror of Russia in the 20th Century

1. The conversation – ‘Que dit-on de la guerre?’, ‘On n’est pas prêt. Surtout l’usine de Tcheliabinsk. L’armée est prête, le pays paysan ne l’est pas.’ – is described in Boris Souvarine, Souvenirs sur Isaac Babel, Panaït Istrati, Pierre Pascal, Paris: Gérard Lebovici, 1985, p. 17. Isaak Babel (1894–1940) was born in the Jewish ghetto in Odessa; he grew up in the harbour town of Nikolaev and studied at the university in Kiev. He then moved to St Petersburg, where he published essays criticising Tsarism, antisemitism and the bureaucracy. Babel held a very optimistic view of the prospects for the socialist movement. During the Russian Civil War, he joined Budennyi’s Red Cavalry army. In 1923, he started to publish short stories set during that period, which he later assem- bled in Krasnaya konnitsa (Red Cavalry). Babel was one of the most highly regarded Soviet authors and was privi- leged to travel abroad. On many occasions he visited his wife Eugenia, who had lived in Paris since 1925. Babel made a speech at the International Writers Congress in Paris in 1935. Babel had been living in a Ukrainian village in 1930, at the time of the ‘dekulakization’ and deportation of peasants from their villages to Northern Russia and Siberia. He was deeply shocked by what he had seen, which was a drastic change from the policies of the 1920s. Thereafter, Babel had lived on a kolkhoz in order to gather information for a new book on the peasants’ new lives. Towards the end of the 1930s, Babel was more and more heavily criticised and he was arrested in May 1939. The NKVD secret police accused him of Trotskyism and ‘anti-Soviet activities’. He was executed on 17 March 1940. For a biography, see Reinhard Krumm, Isaak Babel. Schreiben under Stalin. Eine Biographie. (Norderstedt: Books on Demand 2005), idem, Isaak Babel. Biografiia (Moscow: Rosspen, 2008). Compare with Vitalii Shentalinskii, Raby svobody: V literaturnykh archivakh KGB, (Moskow: Parus 1995, p. 26–81) concerning the denunciations against Babel, his interrogation and confessions. At the time, his wife was falsely informed that Babel had been sentenced to a Gulag and had died on 17 March 1941. Babel was rehabilitated in 1954. The actual circumstances of his trial and execution were made public only in the late 1980s under glasnost. 2. Boris Souvarine (Lifschitz) (1894–1985) belonged to the Left wing of French socialists that protested against World War I, and was later among the found- ers of the French Communist Party. However, by 1924 he had already been excluded from the party for disciplinary reasons. Thanks to his independent attitude regarding the Soviet experiment, Souvarine was soon considered one of France’s most knowledgeable experts on the Soviet Union. Hist first major work was the third volume of the Panaït Istratis novel Vers l’autre flamme. It was later re-edited under the title La Russie en 1930, a title that

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referred to the Marquis de Custine’s classical description of Tsarist Russia in 1839. Souvarine eagerly followed what was happening in Soviet Russia by reading the press. Like many ex-communists, he had a special advantage in terms of his ability to analyse Soviet developments, although he was forbidden to return to the USSR. By the mid-1930s, he had collected materials for a biography on Stalin, entitled Staline: Aperçu historique du bolchevisme (Paris: Plon 1935). At the time, very few people in France appreciated this biography because the dominant mode in the Popular Front era was pro-Soviet. However, his biography withstood the test of time. Souvarine’s biography of Stalin was re-edited in France and Italy in the 1970s with an afterword by the author. On Souvarine’s struggle to create his own niche in predominantly pro-Soviet France before and after WWII in order to carry on critical research and debates on the USSR, see Jean-Louis Panné, Boris Souvarine: Le premier deçu du communisme, Paris: Robert Laffont 1993, pp. 174–261, 308– 366. 3. V. Bozhe, ‘P. Stolypinu videlas blestiashchaia budushchnost Urala i Sibiri’, Cheliabinsk, 1999, no. 2. On the migration to Siberia, see Donald W. Treadgold, The Great Siberian Migration: Government and Peasant in Resettlement from Emancipation to the First World War, Princeton: Princeton University Press 1957, pp. 90–98, 146–149. 4. On the early history of Cheliabinsk, see Ivan Degtiarëv, Cheliabinskaia starina. Sbornik statei i materialov po istorii Cheliabinska rannego perioda (30-e gody XVIII – seredina XIX veka). Tsentr Istoriko-kultornogo naslediia g. Cheliabinska Cheliabinsk 1996; A.L. Pastukhov, Ot Cheliaba do Cheliabinska: Puteshestvie v proshloe, Cheliabinsk: Vzgliad, 2000. 5. Anatole Kopp, L’Architecture de la période stalinienne, with a foreword by Charles Bettelheim, Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble 1978, p. 154. As a pioneering French architect, Kopp made several study trips to the USSR starting in the late 1950s. However, even though he was associated with the French Communist Party he could not visit any other places than the tourist-adapted cities of Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev and a few other towns. To learn about the rest of the country’s architecture, he had to be content with studying books and journals in the libraries. 6. Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization, Berkeley, CA, & London: University of California Press 1995. It is worth noting that one of the best-selling descriptions of Soviet Russia in the 1940s was Behind the Urals: An American in Russia’s City of Steel (1943) by American engineer John Scott. Scott vividly and with great empathy showed how the steel works at Magnitogorsk had been founded. His book was translated into Swedish in the same year and a German version was edited in Switzerland. Scott worked as engineer in Magnitogorsk from 1931 to 1937. He was then stationed in Moscow until 1941 as a correspondent for British and American newspapers. During the last years of World War II, Scott was stationed in Stockholm as a correspondent for Time-Life and as an undercover agent of the new intelligence organ, the Office for Strategic Studies (or OSS). In the meantime, Scott had prepared a massive survey in Washington for US economic intelligence on Soviet heavy industry built during the pre-war five-year plans and situ- ated beyond the Volga river, in the Urals and in Western Siberia. The level of detail included in this intelligence study indicates that Scott might have 292 Notes

been engaged in US intelligence work throughout his stay in the Soviet Union from the early 1930s. See also Lennart Samuelson, ‘Making Sense of Stalinist Industrialisation: An Insider’s Approach’, in Markets and Embeddedness: Essays in Honour of Ulf Olsson, Göteborg: Ekonomisk-historiska institutionen vid Handelshögskolan, Göteborgs Universitet 2004, pp. 209–218. 7. William H. Chamberlin, The Russian Enigma. An Interpretation, New York: C. Scribner’s sons, 1943 p. 179. 8. OGAChO, f. P-75, op. 1, d. 686, l. 152–160, Protocol from the Cheliabinsk okrug party conference 25–31 May 1930.

2 From the Civil War to the Five-year Plans

1. For the party system in Cheliabinsk city and the southern Urals before 1917, see Igor Narskii’s PhD dissertation, Politicheskie ob”edineniia na Urale do 1917 g., Cheliabinsk 1995; idem, ‘Politische Parteien in der russischen Provinz (Ural, 1901–1916)’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 1997, No. 45. 2. Elena Pavlovna Turova, ‘God 1914. Voina. Cheliabinsk i cheliabintsy’, Neizvestnyi Cheliabinsk, vol. 1, 1996, pp. 65–83. 3. Ural: Vek dvadtsatyi. Liudi, sobytiia, zhizn, ed. A.D. Kirillov, Ekaterinburg: Ural Politicheskii 2000, p. 34–38. 4. Ivan Kashirin was enrolled with the secret police from July 1920 and took part in the OGPU repression against peasants during the 1930–1931 collectivisation in the lower Volga region. He was arrested during the Great Terror and executed in 1937. 5. Nikolai Kashirin was a member of the Military-Revolutionary Council of the Red Army in the 1920s. During the Great Terror he was implicated the one of the fabricated cases against the army. 6. For a survey of the Russian Civil War, see Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, (London: Allen & Unwin 2000); on the battles between Red and White forces in the Urals and in Siberia, pp. 75–111, 132–147. 7. Vladimir Mogilnikov’s memory has been preserved in the form of streets named after him in the small town of Brodokalmak and in Cheliabinsk. 8. The square along the White Barracks was renamed The Fallen Revolutionaries’ Square in 1920 (Ploshchad’ pavshikh revoliutsionerov). 9. For a survey of the Russian Civil War, see Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, (London: Allen & Unwin 2000); on the battles between Red and White forces in the Urals and in Siberia, pp. 75–111, 132–147. 10. Gulsina D. Selianinova, ‘Intelligentsiia i terror: Opyt grazhdanskoi voiny na Urale, 1918–1919 gg.’, Ural i Sibir’ v stalinskoi politike, Novosibirsk: Sibirskii Khronograf 2002, pp. 5–30. Before 1991, Soviet historians had written considerably more about the repressions perpetrated by the White Armies against workers and others who had supported Soviet power. Similarly one- sided descriptions of the Red Terror dominated in the West, see, e.g., George Leggett, The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1981). Obviously, much research remains to be done in order to establish the extent of summary executions and other repressive measures that are habitually included in the concept of terror. From a post-Soviet perspective, it has become more vital to provide a balanced description of both sides and to explain better the widespread violence outside the direct military Notes 293

confrontations between 1918 and 1921. Compare Aleksei Litvin, Krasnyi i belyi terror v Rossii, 1918–1922 gg., Moscow: Iauza/Eksmo 2004, especially Chapter 3 ‘The practice of the anti-Bolshevik government’ (p. 139 et seq.) and Chapter 4 ‘Total terror. The Crucification of symbols. The Dictators liquidate the opposition’ (p. 225 et seq.). Litvin described (p. 99 et seq.) how concentration and forced labour camps were established by the Bolsheviks, as well as the 1919 laws that regulated the organisation of the camp. In his concluding chapter, Litvin shows how new cadres were recruited to the ChK. By the end of 1920, 17,000 people, mostly peasants and workers, were imprisoned in these camps. Lenin supported the harsh repression, and internal criticisms by other Bolsheviks were ignored. Today, it is important to avoid politicising the population losses of Russia between 1914 and 1921, and instead to carefully analyse and separate various factors at work. This analysis has started in the form of the most updated demographic calculations by Russian historians, Yurii A. Poliakov and Valentina B. Zhiromskaia, Naselenie Rossii v XX veke. Istoricheskie otjerki, vol. 1, 1900–1939, Moscow: Rosspen 2000, pp. 83–133. Unlike earlier studies, it is necessary to first separate the losses of the Red and White Armies from the terror that was directed on the civilian population – from both sides of the Civil War. It is then necessary to estimate the number of victims in anti-Jewish pogroms that were perpetrated predominantly by the White Armies. Thereafter, one must estimate how natality and mortality, as well as the living conditions, changed in various parts of the country. Although the registers of the population almost collapsed during the Civil War and a more reliable census was only taken in 1926, there are fairly good estimates of the different components behind the demographic development. Of course, it is not possible to determine the exact number of victims of the terror (just as for other forms of repression in later periods in Soviet history). However, this argument should not be used to denigrate the scien- tific progress that demographers and historians have made in recent years. It is no longer appropriate to treat the estimates made by General Denikin’s commission in southern Russia in 1919 that the Red Terror had claimed 1.7 million lives as equally valid. Those numbers reflect how wartime propaganda was formed to influence public opinion. Finally, it is necessary to estimate the approximate number of deaths in epidemics (typhus and the Spanish flu) that spread across Russia and Europe in 1918–1919. Danish historian Bent Jensen has lumped together – in ‘statistics’ of Bolshevik terror – the total population losses between 1917 and 1922. Compare the table of population losses, in Bent Jensen, Gulag og glemsel: Ruslands tragedie og Vestens hukommesestab i det 20. århundrede, (Copenhagen: Gyldendal 2002), p. 24. 11. Among the rich body of post-Soviet literature on the White Armies in the Civil War, it is worthwhile studying the objective and untendentious work by the young Evgenii Volkov (b. 1964), entitled Pod znamenem belogo admirala: Ofitserskii korpus vooruzhënnykh formirovanii A.V. Kolchaka v period grazhdanskoi voiny, (Irkutsk: Sarma 2005). 12. A street named after Sofia Krivaia in central Cheliabinsk runs parallel to the great Lenin Prospekt, the avenue that starts at Gagarin Park in the western part of the city. 294 Notes

13. See calculations by Colonel-General G.F. Krivosheev of the losses during the 1918–1921 Civil War and the battles against intervention armies. He briefly discusses the source problems due to the lack of reliable reports, Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century, London: Greenhill Books 1997, pp. 7–39. 14. P.R. Nazyrov, ‘Cheliabinsk v 1918–1919 (Iz istorii goroda v gody grazhdanskoi voiny)’, Cheliabinsk neizvestnyi, vol. 1, Cheliabinsk 1996, pp. 90–103; K. Zadirskii, ‘Tukhachevskii v Cheliabinske’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 13 September 1989. Also see the articles ‘Cheliabinskaia operatsiia’, ‘Ufimskaia operatsiia’, ‘Zlatoustovskaia operatsiia’, Grazhdanskaia voina i voennaia interventsiia v SSSR. Entsiklopediia, Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1983. 15. Mikhail Tukhachevskii (b. 1893) has been judged by history in many ways. He was sentenced to death in a closed show trial in June 1937 for alleged high treason and espionage in favour of Nazi Germany. He then figured as one of the main culprits in the ‘confessions’ at the third Moscow show trial in 1938. A conspiracy theory was combined with the theme of his alleged plan for a coup d’état. To communists in the Stalinist generation, these myths became ‘truth’ in books like Michael Sayers and Albert Eugene Kahn The Great Conspiracy: The Secret War against Soviet Russia (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company 1946). In the 1950s, Tukhachevskii was formally rehabilitated and the falsifications in the 1937 show trial became officially known in the higher Party circles. Tukhachevskii’s main publications were republished in the 1960s and his important role in the reconstruction of the Red Army in the 1930s was recognised. A standard Soviet-era biography is Valentin Ivanov’s Marshal M.N. Tukhachevskii, (Moscow: Voenizdat 1990), particularly for its account of Tukhachevskii’s campaign with the Fifth Army of the Eastern Army Group over the Ural mountains and the Battle of Cheliabinsk in 1919, pp. 97–121. After the fall of communism, Tukhachevskii’s role in the Soviet experiment was interpreted anew. Some new information on how Tukhachevskii handled the crushing of the 1921 peasant rebellion in the Tambov region have been found in the military archives. He is referred to as the ‘blood- stained marshal’ by, for example, German Smirnov, ‘Pravda o krovavom marsjale’ in the anthology Krovavyi marshal: Mikhail Tuchachevskii, 1893– 1937, (St Petersburg: Korona 1997). For an introduction to Tukhachevskii’s role in the formulation of a new military doctrine, see Sophie de Lastours, Toukhachevski: Le Bâtisseur de l’Armée Rouge, (Paris: Albin Michel 1996). A recent addition to the body of Tukhachevskii literature, with interesting excerpts from the interrogation of Tukhachevskii in May–June 1937, is Iuliia Kantor, Voina i mir marshala Tukhachevskogo, (Moscow: Vremia 2005). 16. Larisa V. Borisova, Voennyi kommunizm: nasilie kak element khoziaistven- nogo mekhanizma, (Moscow: Institute of Russian History of the Academy of Sciences/MONF 2001). 17. Vladimir Bozhe, ‘Trudovye armii v Sovetskoi Rossii (1920–1921): Diskussiia o meste trudovykh chastei v khoziaistvennoi zhizni strany’, Istoricheskie chteniia, vol. 4, pp. 104–109. 18. Georgii L. Piatakov (1890–1937) led the economic recovery and reconstruction in three different phases after the 1917 revolutions. He started as head of the labour army in the Urals, was then put in charge of Notes 295

refurbishing destroyed coal mines in the Ukraine in the early 1920s and, finally, in the 1930s became deputy commissar of heavy industry with special responsibility for defence industries. His management style and methods were formed during the first two of these phases. Piatakov was close to Trotsky and joined the Leftist opposition in the mid-1920s against Stalin. Although Piatakov had been an ardent promoter of the interests of the defence industry, he was arrested on fabricated political motives and false charges of economic failures in late 1936. He was sentenced to death at the second Moscow show trial in February 1937. See Andrea Graziosi, ‘G.L. Piatakov: A Mirror of Soviet History’, ‘At the Roots of Soviet Industrial Relations and Practices: Piatakov’s Donbass in 1921’, in A New Peculiar State: Explorations in Soviet History, 1917–1937, (Westport & London: Praeger 2000), pp. 1–64, 119–178. 19. For Trotsky’s view of the situation in Soviet Russia during the Civil War, see Terrorism and Communism, Chapter VII, ‘The question of labour organization’. The interpretations of Trotsky’s suggestion to use ‘labour armies’ (trudarmiia) in 1919–1920 spurred controversy in the academic community. For a survey, see, e.g., Francesco Benvenuti, ‘Dal communismo di guerra alla NEP: Il dibattio dui sindicati’, Pensiero e azione politica di Lev Trockij, vol. 1, (Milano: Leo P. Olschki 1982), pp. 261–288. For a historical background that clearly states the contemporaneous limits of the Bolsheviks’ labour policy, compare Lars T. Lih, ‘Our Position is in the Highest Degree Tragic’: Bolshevik ‘Euphoria in 1920’, in Mike Haynes & Jim Wolfreys (eds), History and Revolution: Refuting Revisionism, (London: Verso 2007), pp. 118–137. 20. See Leninskii sbornik, vol. XI, pp. 345–403, for the passages in Bukharin’s Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda that Lenin had underlined or commented on. Compare also Nikolai Bukharin, The Economics and Politics of the Transition Period, edited and introduced by Kenneth J. Tarbuck, (London: Routledge 1979). 21. A.P. Abramovskii & P.N. Pankin, ‘Golubaia armiia’: Sozdanie, bor’ba, razgrom’, Istoricheskie chteniia, 4, pp. 68–70; A.V. Bakunin, ‘Grazhdanskaia voina i krasnyi terror v Rossii’, ibid., pp. 22–25; A.I. Skorikov, ‘Iz istorii povstancheskogo i dezertirskogo dvizheniia na territorii Cheliabinskoi gubernii v kontse 1919–nachale 1921 gg.’, ibid., pp. 59–62. See also Veprev & Liutov, Gosudarstvennaia bezopasnost’, pp. 194–200. 22. Skripkov, Cheliabinsk. Vek dvadtsatyi, p. 64. 23. P.F. Nazyrov, ‘Cheliabinsk v 1918–1919 gg.: Iz istorii goroda v period grazhdanskoi voiny’, Cheliabinsk Neizvestnyi, vol. 3, 1996, pp. 90–103. Compare statistics for the number of prisoners of war in Cheka camps in 1921, Voenno- istoricheskii archiv, 2004: 6. 24. V.L. Telitsyn, Skvoz’ ternii ‘voennogo kommunizma’: krest’ianskoe khozhaistvo Urala v 1917–1921 gg., Moscow: RAN Institut Rossiiskoi Istorii 1998; A.V. Ivanov, A.T. Tertyshnyi, Ural’skoe krest’ianstvo i vlast’ v period grazhdanskoi voiny (1917–1921 gg): Opyt osmysleniia problemy v otechestvennoi istoriografii, Ekaterinburg: Uralskii Gosudarstvennyi Ekonomicheskii Universitet 2002. 25. Vladimir Bozhe & Igor Nepein, Zhatva smerti: Golod v Cheliabinskoi gubernii v 1921–1922 gg. Cheliabinsk 1994. Irina Iangirova, ‘K vesne 1922 goda 296 Notes

v Cheliabinskoi gubernii umerli ot goloda okolo 10 tysiach chelovek...’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 23/12 1992. 26. Iu. Iu. Khmelëvskaia, ‘Rol’ amerikanskoi missii v bor’be s golodom na Urale (po materialam Ural’sko-Ufimskogo okruga ARA, 1921–1923), Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 149–153. 27. Alan Ball, And Now My Soul is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930, (Berkeley: University of California Press 1994), pp. 154–156, 183. On child care and education in general, see Lisa A. Kirschenbaum, Small Comrades: Revolutionizing Childhood in Soviet Russia, 1917–1932, (London & New York: Routledge 2001). Anton Makarenko (1888–1939), a teacher, organised an ‘internat’ for orphans who had started to lead criminal lives. Education was combined with practical labour, and harsh discipline was often the responsibility of the children themselves. The Road to Life, an Epic of Education [1935] (Moscow: Progress 1977). For a description of the Cheka colonies for homeless children and orphan (‘besprizorniki’), see Aleksandr M. Plekhanov, VChK–OGPU, 1921–1928, (Moscow: X-history 2003), pp. 430–437. 28. William Henry Chamberlin, The Russian Enigma, (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons 1944). 29. G.K. Pavlenko, ‘Istoriograficheskie problemy industrialnoi modernizatsii na Urale’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR, pp. 68–71. 30. A.A. Antufev, Ural’skaia promyshlennost’ nakanune i v gody Velikoi Otechetsvennoi voiny, (Ekaterinburg: Ural’skoe Otdelenie Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk 1992). 31. Edward Carr (1892–1982) took an interest in Russian history in the early 1930s. He visited Moscow in 1937 and followed the terror-stricken society at close range. However, he also saw the long-term effects of the harsh industrialisation drive more clearly than many observers. See Jonathan Haslam, The Vices of Integrity. E.H. Carr, 1892–1982, (London: Verso 1999), pp. 74–79. Historians continue to debate the question of alternatives to forced collectivisation. For a recent reinterpretation of Stalinist industrialisation, see Robert Allen, Farm to Factory: A Reinterpretation of the Soviet Industrialization, (Princeton University Press 2003). In the post-Soviet Russian historiography, the price of ‘Stalin’s revolution from above’ has also been hotly argued; see, for example, P.E. Alekseev & V.D. Kamynin, ‘Industrializatsiia SSSR kak obekt mnogokontseptualnogo rassmotreniia’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 168–171. 32. Nadezhda Petrovna Shmakova, ‘Mashinostroitel’naia promyshlennost Iuzhnogo Urala v 30-e gody XX veka’, Promyshlennost’ Urala v XIX–XX vekakh, Moscow: AIRO-XX 2002, pp. 208–226. 33. In the 1920s, a popularly controlled organ to combat bureaucratisation was set up in the so-called Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate (Rabkrin). It was later combined with the Communist Party’s own control commission; see Arfon Rees, State Control in Soviet Russia: The Rise and Fall of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate, 1920–1934, (London: Macmillan 1987). 34. Hubert R. Knickerbocker, The Red Trade Menace: Progress of the Soviet Five-Year Plan, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company 1931), pp. 61ff. Notes 297

35. D.V. Gavrilov, ‘Ural’skii tyl v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine: Geopoliticheskii aspekt’, Ural v Velikoi Otechetsvennoi voine, 1941–1945 gg., Ekaterinburg 1995, p. 58. 36. Tatiana Kirstein, Sowjetische Industrialisierung - Spontaner oder Planierter Prozess? Eine Strukturanalyse des wirtschaftspolitischen Entscheidungsprozesses beim Aufbau des Ural-Kuzneck-Kombinats 1918–1930, (Baden-Baden: Nomos 1979). This dissertation analysed the decision-making process for the mines, transport system and the city to be built to exploit the Magnitka iron ores. 37. Vladimir Kucher, Magnitka – Eto navsegda. Dela i sudby stalinskikh direktorov, (Moscow: Novosti 2003). 38. Albert A. Antuf’ev, Ural’skaia promyshlennost’ nakanune i v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny, (Ekaterinburg: Ural Section of the Russian Academy of Sciences 1998). 39. T.V. Palagina, ‘Iz istorii Cheliabinskogo elektrolitnogo zinkogo zavoda’, Cheliabinsk neizvestnyi, vol. 1, Cheliabinsk 1996, pp. 112–120. 40. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 5, d. 1, l. 10 ch. Materialy dokladchikam na otchëtnykh sobraniakh o rabote gorsoveta za 1933. 41. OGAChO, f. 870, op. 9, d. 8, l. 1, 15. 42. OGAChO, f. 804, op. 1, d. 29, l. 24–27, Report from the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate, Rabkrin, in March 1932. 43. P.V. Kostiunina, ‘Istoriia OAO “Ufaleinikel” – pervenets nikelevoi promyshlennosti SSSR’, Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, pp. 189–192. 44. OGAChO, f. R-1637, op. 1, d. 186, l.1–16; OGAChO, f. R-804, op. 11, d. 514. 45. G.V. Forstman & M. D. Mashin, Ural’skie stankostroiteli. Istoriko-biograficheskii ocherk. Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Ural’skoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1985. OGAChO, R-220.5.1: 1–2, 6–11. Materialy dokladchikam na otchëtnykh sobraniiakh o rabote gorsoveta. 1. ‘Itogi pervoi piatiletki’. The results of the first five-year plan, from 1928–32, were presented in a heavily censured and tendentious man- ner. Few of the original goals had been achieved and there was a severe famine in the autumn of 1932. The manipulation of the plan results was particularly skewed for macro data on industrial production. It was undeni- able that some targets had not been achieved and this was blamed on the threat of war with Japan, which was claimed to have created new priorities. This was, in fact, partly correct. However, the most unrealistic of the targets proclaimed in 1930 were simply dropped and the plan’s fulfilment was instead compared with more modest, original targets set in 1928–29. 46. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 2, d. 605, ll. 1–7, 10–15, Dokladnaia zapiska o sostoianii promyshlennosti, transporta i gorodskogo stroitel’stva g. Cheliabinska za vremia ot III do IV gorodskoi partkonferentsii; see also Natalia P. Shmakova, ‘Mashinostroitel’naia promyshlennost’ Iuzhnogo Urala v 30-e gody XX veka’, Promyshlennost’ Urala v XIX–XX vekakh, Moscow: ARIO-XX 2002, pp. 208–226. 47. OGAChO, f. 75, op. 1, d. 566, l. 219–220, Report from OGPU to the regional party committee, 27 April 1928. 48. OGAChO, R-134, op. 1, d. 210, l. 34–36, Resolution from May 1928 on the collectivisation of agriculture in the Urals. 49. A.A. Napylov & N.V. Kostin, ‘Kollektivizatsiia kak neobkhodimaia predposylka industrializatsii SSSR’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 28–29; M.A. Ivanova, ‘Kollektivizatsiia – samaia 298 Notes

massovaia repressiia vlasti protiv naroda’, Totalitarizm v Rossii (SSSR) 1917– 1991. Oppozitsiia i repressii, Perm 1998, pp. 49–51. Postanovlenie biuro OK VKP(b) o poriadke provedeniia rabot po likvidatsii kulachestva kak klassa, 11 February 1930. On the collectivisation, the deportation of kulaks and their families in 1930–32 and the role of the OGPU secret police in these operations, see Nikolai A. Ivnitskii, Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie (nachalo 30-kh godov), Moscow: Magistr. 1996, and idem, Repressivnaia politika sovetskoi vlasti v derevne (1928–1933 gg.), Moscow: Institut rossiiskoi istorii RAN 2000. 50. On Article 58 on political crimes as defined in the Soviet criminal code, see the appendix in Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin’s Purges in the 1930s, (London: Macmillan 1968). 51. OGAChO, f.804, op.8, d. 143, l. 21. 52. A.A. Rakov, ‘Opyt analiza kulatskogo khozhaistva 1930 goda: Ekonomiko- pravovoi i politicheskoi aspekty’, Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii: Materialy nauchnoi konferentsii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 164–167; Irina Iangirova, ‘Zhertvy ‘Velikogo pereloma’, Golos, 10–17 January, 16–23 February 1992. 53. GASO, f. 245, op. 3, d. 341, l. 30–35. 54. V.V. Betenev, ‘Pravookhranitel’nye organy Iuzhnogo Urala v period provedeniia kollektivizatsii’, Iuzhnyi Ural v istorii Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 137– 139; P. Iu. Salmina, ‘Prokuratura Juzhnogo Urala v 30-e gody’, ibid., pp. 179–182. 55. OGAChO, f. 180, op. 1, d. 367, l. 194. 56. OGAChO, f. 180, op. 1, d. 398, l. 32. 57. Ivanova, ‘Kollektivizatsiia – samaia massovaia repressiia vlasti protiv naroda’, p. 51. 58. OGAChO, f. 288, op. 2, d. 5, l. 8. 59. OGAChO, f.288, op.1, d.150, l. 198–202. 60. Nazi German propaganda during the 1930s frequently referred to Stalin’s agricultural policy as aiming to ‘exterminate’ the peasants, using the German words ausrotten or Ausrottung (extermination). The best-selling novel based on Karl Albrecht’s life in Soviet Russia frequently used these sliding terms to inspire anti-communist, anti-Jewish and anti-Russian opin- ions. Karl Albrecht Der verratene Sozialismus. Zehn Jahre as Staatsbeamter in der Sowjetunion Berlin 1938 (with numerous later editions until 1943). 61. Irina Iangirova, ‘Raskulachivanie’, rotaprint 90–02-21; idem ‘Velikii pere- lom Iuzhnouralskii variant’, Golos, 4–11/9 1992. The data for all of the Urals are based upon I.E. Plotnikov, ‘Kak likvidirovali kulachestvo na Urale’, Otechestvennaia istoriia, 1993, No. 4, p. 159. The standard textbooks and documentaries (khrestomatiia) used by students at Russia’s universities con- tain the important resolutions of the Communist Party Politburo on deku- lakisation, resolutions on the number of ‘counter-revolutionary peasants’ to be executed or sent to labour camps. See, for example, A.F. Kiselëv & E.M. Shchagin (eds), Khrestomatiia po otechestvennoi istorii (1914–1945 gg.), Moscow: Vlados 1996, pp. 435–440 on collectivisation. 62. James J. Schneider, The Structure of Strategic Revolution: Total War and the Roots of the Soviet Warfare State, (Novato, CA: Presidio 1994), pp. 237–241, 257–263. Notes 299

63. Viktor N. Zemskov, Spetsposelentsy v SSSR, 1930–1960, Moscow: Nauka 2003. 64. GASO, f. 245, op. 3, d. 376, l. 4–5 ob. 65. OGAChO, f. R–220, op. 9, d. 24, l. 81. 66. OGAChO, f. R–220, op. 9, d. 24, l. 83–85. 67. OGAChO, f. 1075, op, 1, d. 23, l. 89–90. 68. GASO, f. 245, op. 3, d. 376, l. 42. 69. OGAChO, f. R-804, op. 5, d. 10, l 72–87, On coal mining in Kopeisk in 1937 and preparations for increasing coal production in 1938; OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 2, d. 602, l. 53–62. 70. OGAChO, f. 1075, op.1, d. 33, l. 89–145. 71. Footnote 183 in Cheliabinskaia oblast 1917–1945.

3 The Industrial City As a Socialist Vision and Soviet Reality

1. See Anton Karlgren, Stalin: Bolsjevismens väg från leninism till stalinism, Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt & Söners 1942. Karlgren (1882–1973) was profes- sor of Slavic languages in Copenhagen and later editor at the Stockholm newspaper Dagens Nyheter. 2. In France, Marxism has fascinated several generations of intellectuals, mainly due to the strong position of the French Communist Party in the working class. Intellectuals eagerly adopted the official Soviet self-image and the myths surrounding the ‘construction of Socialism’ in Russia. A typi- cal hagiography is the history of Soviet Russia as presented by Louis Aragon in Histoire de l’URSS (Paris: Union Générale d’Editions 1962). As more ‘rev- elations’ were made by Khrushchev and others regarding the USSR, French ex-party members tried to formulate their new attitudes to Soviet history. Jean Elleinstein wrote an officially accepted textbook on ‘socialism in one country’, Le socialisme dans un pays. Histoire de l’U.R.S.S. (Tome 2) (Paris: Editions Sociales 1973). Some years later, Elleinstein tried to formulate his own explanation of Stalinism, Le Phénomène stalinien (Paris: Grasset 1975). However, this attempt exposed him to severe criticism from the Communist Party. Elleinstein later wrote biographies of Karl Marx and Joseph Stalin, without adding anything substantial in terms of knowledge. 3. Among numerous Western and Russian works on how Lenin and the Bolsheviks envisioned the prospects for their revolution in 1921 is Moshe Lewin’s Lenin’s Last Struggle (1967, new edition with a new foreword by the author, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press 2005). 4. Among those who maintained the opinion that the Bolsheviks were led by a utopian vision were two Soviet historians who were in exile in the 1980s, Michel Heller and Aleksandr Nekrich, Utopia in Power: the History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present, (New York: Summit Books 1986). Lenin was allegedly ‘fettered’ by this utopian vision in 1917 (pp. 41–58), and finally, the regime that emerged in the late 1930s was described by Heller and Nekrich as ‘the socialist totalitarian state’ (p. 263). 5. This is based on N.P. Korolëv, ‘K.V. Ryndin i protsess industrializatsii v Cheliabinskoi oblasti’, in Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 300 Notes

2003, pp. 109–113; idem ‘K voprosu o deiatelnosti K.V. Ryndina kak partiinogo rukovoditelia sovetskogo gosudarstva’, in Iuzhnyj Ural v sudbde Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 174–178. 6. E. Arfon Rees, State Control in Soviet Russia: The Rise and Fall of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate, 1920–1934, London: Macmillan 1987. 7. Compare R.W. Davies, Oleg V. Khlevniuk & E.A. Rees, The Stalin–Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–1936, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2003, pp. 272–273. This English edition contains 182 of the original 867 letters in the Russian edition of Stalin–Kaganovich. Perepiska, 1931–1936 (Moscow: Rosspen 2002). The letters exchanged between Stalin and Kaganovich were written when one of them was on a month-long holiday by the Black Sea. Their correspondence sheds light on many economic and foreign policy problems and how the leaders argued over repressive measures and laws. Their letters have added to the knowledge of the decision-making process at the highest level of the Soviet Union. See also Stephen G. Wheatcroft, ‘From Team-Stalin to Degenerate Tyranny’, in E. Arfon Rees (ed.) The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship: The Politburo, 1924–1953 (London: Palgrave Macmillan 2004), pp. 79–107. 8. R.W. Davies, Oleg V. Khlevniuk, E.A. Rees, Stalin–Kaganovich Correspondence, pp. 285–287. 9. Pismo ob organizatsii i provedenii anti-rozhdestvenskoi kampanii v 1931 godu, OGAChO, R-221.1.107: 11–12, Materialy o rabote biuro soiuza bezbozhnikov, 1931. 10. On the atheist, anti-religious campaigns and, from another perspective, enlightenment in the Soviet Union between the wars, which were directed against all religions – the Russian Orthodox as well as Roman Catholic and Judaism and Buddhism – see William B. Husband, ‘Godless Atheists’: Atheism and Society in Soviet Russia, 1917–1932, DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press 2000, pp. 36–100, and Daniel Peris, Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1998. On the mockery of religion, the societies of atheist propaganda and the closing of churches in the late 1920s, see Paul Gabel, And God Created Lenin: Marxism vs. Religion in Russia, 1917–1929, Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books 2006. 11. For a detailed analysis of religious life in Cheliabinsk from the late 1800s to the 1930s, see Vladimir P. Bozhe, ‘Ocherk tserkovno-religioznoi zhizni Cheliabinska nachala XX v.’, Cheliabinsk neizvestnyi: Kraevedcheskii sbornik, vol. 1, Cheliabinsk 1996; idem, ‘Materialy k istorii tserkovno-religioznoi zhizni Cheliabinska (1917–1937 gg.)’, Cheliabinsk neizvestnyi. Kraevedcheskii sbornik, vol. 2, Cheliabinsk 1998, pp. 107–199. 12. See Veprev & Liutov, Gosudarstvennaia bezopasnost: Tri veka na Iuzhnom Urale, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Uralskoe Knizhnoe Izdatelstvo 2002, pp. 278–279. 13. OGAChO, f. 274, op. 3, d. 55, l. 79. 14. OGAChO, f. P.288, op. 2, d. 602, l. 53–62. 15. The Main Post Office in the city centre is a cultural heritage building. It was rebuilt in the 1990s to achieve the original form that the architect had envisioned and, at the same time, its infrastructure and technical facilities were modernised. Kirov Street (referred to as the Workers’ and Peasants’ Street before 1935) is now a pedestrian walkway. In Soviet times it became a rough, torn street with a heavy traffic load. All the shops, cafes and offices from Notes 301

the early 1900s have now been given carefully restored exteriors. Along the pedestrian street, a number of sculptures are reminders of the historical trades in Cheliabinsk. See also T. Maevskaia, ‘Glavpochtamt’, Biulleten arkhitektury, 2000, no. 2; Iu. Filinskich, ‘Poslednii ‘vzvizg’ konstruktivizma’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 26 February 2001. 16. For the dominant views on town planning in the 1920s, see Anatole Kopp, Ville et révolution: Architecture et urbanisme soviétiques des annés vingt, Paris: Anthropos, 1967; idem, Changer la vie, changer la ville: De la vie nouvelle aux problèmes urbains. U.R.P.P. 1917–1932, Paris: UEG, 1975. On the history of Soviet architecture in general, compare Selim Khan-Magomedov, Pioneers of Soviet Architecture: The Search for New Solutions in the 1920s and 1930s (London: Thames and Hudson 1983). Although Khan-Magomedov had to avoid certain topics when writing in the 1980s, this book is the most comprehensive survey of the history of Soviet architecture. The massive plans to transform the centre of Moscow are described in ‘Mysterious Pages of History of the 30s’, in V.A. Vinogradov (ed.) Moscow. 850th Anniversary, Moscow 1997, vol. 2, pp. 94–96. For other interpretations of Stalinist architecture, see Harald Bodenschatz & Christiane Post (eds), Städtebau im Schatten Stalins: Die internationale Such nach der sozialististischen Stadt in der Sowjetunion 1929–1935, Berlin: Braun 2004. 17. V.P. Terekhov, ‘Inzhenerno-tekhnicheskaia intelligentsiia Urala nakanune Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, Ural v strategii Vtoroi Mirovoi voiny, Ekaterinburg 2000, pp. 160–166. 18. See Evgeniia Gershkovich & Evgenii Korneev, Vysokii stalinskii stil’, Moscow 2005; Alessandra Latour, Birth of a Metropolis: Moscow 1930–1955. Recollections and Images, Moscow: Iskusstvo-XX vek 2005. For an interpretation of the epoch’s art in the paradigm of totalitarianism, see Igor Golomstock, Arte totalitaria nell’URSS di Stalin, nella Germania di Hitler, nell’Italia di Mussolini, Milan: Leonardo 1990 (translation from Russian, Totalitarnoe iskusstvo, Moscow: Gallart, 1994). 19. Nikolai Miliutin, Sotsgorod. Problema stroitel’stva sotsialisticheskikh gorodov. Osnovnye voproys ratsional’noi planirovki i stroitel’stva naselënnykh mest SSSR, Moscow 1930. 20. See Jean-Louis Cohen, Le Corbusier and the Mystique of the USSR. Theories and Projects for Moscow, 1928–1936. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1992. Naum Gabo was one of more than ten foreign architects who were invited to compete for the Palace of Soviets, see the catalogue Naum Gabo and the Competition for the Palace of Soviets, Moscow 1931–1933, Berlin & Moscow 1993, pp. 197–201. 21. V.I. Isaev, ‘Sotsial’nye problemy formirovaniia Uralo-Kuznetskogo kompleksa’, in Ural i Sibir’ v stalinskoi politike, Novosibirsk: Sibirskii khronograf 2002, pp. 126–137. 22. Sotsial’no-ekonomicheskie ustanovki i skhema raspredeleniia territorii g. Cheliabinska, vol. 1, Leningrad 1935. ‘Printsipial’nye ustanovki rasseleniia i ego normativy’, ‘Proektnoe razmeshchenie promyshlennosti’, ‘Proektnaia schema raspredeleniia territorii Cheliabinska’, vol 2: Cheliabinsk kak nauch- nyi i uchebnyi tsentr. 23. E.V. Konysheva, ‘A. K. Burov i Cheliabinskaia arkhitektura rubezha 20-kh–30 -kh gg.’, Biulleten’ arkhitektury, 2000, No. 5; Marina Salmina, Istoriia Iuzhnogo Urala XX–nachalo XXI veka, Cheliabinsk: Vzgliad 2004, pp. 93–94. 302 Notes

24. OGAChO, f. 180, op. 1, d. 359, l. 50. 25. On women in Soviet industry in the inter-war period, compare Wendy Z. Goldman, Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin’s Russia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2002; Melanie Ilic (ed.), Women in the Stalin Era, London: Palgrave Macmillan 2001. 26. OGAChO, f. 804, op. 1, d. 141, l. 25; op. 8, d. 143, l. 31; op. 9, d. 4, l. 48; Dokladnaia zapiska o sostoianii zhilshchno-kommunal’nogo khozhiaistva v oblasti i g. Cheliabinske za 1940 god. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 3, d. 704, ll. 4–8, 12–14, 17–25 & 74–94. 27. OGAChO, P-297, op. 2, d. 480, l. 35–39. 28. OGAChO, f. 220, op. 1, d. 329, l. 109. 29. E.A. Malyshev, ‘Sotsialno-kul’turnye tendentsii istoricheskogo razvitiia toponimiki zhilykh raionov ChTZ v 1930–60-ch gg.’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 64–66. 30. OGAChO, f. 804, op. 1, d. 141, 25; op. 8, d. 143, l. 31; op. 9, d. 4, l. 48. 31. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 1, d. 364, l. 186–191, the head of the 2nd depart- ment of the NKVD directorate in Cheliabinsk, Lieutenant-Colonel Brudno, special report (spetssvodka) on the conditions in the workers’ villages (trud- posëlki), 28 March, 1937. 32. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 1, d. 335, l. 1–5, Proposals from working men and women, engineers and clerks at the deputies’ gatherings for the election of the district soviet at the tractor factory, February 1937. 33. E. Podtiashkin, ‘Baraki’, Golos, 25 October–1 November 1991. 34. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 3, d. 499, ll. 1–8, 78–92, 112, 123, O sostoianii mest- nogo khozhiaistva Cheliabinskoi oblasti. 35. John Scott, Behind the Urals: An American Worker in Russia’s Cit y of Steel,[1942], enlarged edition prepared by Stephen Kotkin, Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press 1989, p. 219. 36. OGAChO, f. 220, op, 5, d. 70, l. 45, Report to the City Soviet on the education at the Cheliabinsk Pedagogical Institute, 21 January 1940. 37. A.P. Cherednichenko, (ed.), Cheliabinskskii Gosudarstvennyi Pedagogicheskii Universitet, Cheliabinsk: Izdatel’stvo ChGPU 1999, pp. 14–64. 38. OGAChO, f. R–220, op. 11, d. 14, l. 105–106; f. R–220, op. 11, d. 15, l. 6–6ob, Excerpts from the Cheliabinsk city party committee on the alphabetisation campaign at the tractor factory, 3 June 1936. 39. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 15, l 56–57, Rezoljutsiia Chelabinskogo gorkoma, ‘O sostoianii likvidatsii negramotnosti na ChTZ, 3 June, 1936. 40. OGAChO, f. 220, op. 1, d. 605, l. 66. 41. Cheliabinskskii rabochii, 28 January 1932. 42. OGAChO, f. R-1595, op. 1, d. 26, l. 48–50. Cheliabinskskii oblastnoi otdel zdravookhraneniia. 43. OGAChO, f. 379, op. 2, d. 760, l. 30. 44. OGAChO, f. R-1595, op. 1. d. 26, l. 54–55. 45. OGAChO, f. R-1595, op. 1, d. 2, l. 13. 46. OGAChO, f.-R1595, op. 1, d. 13, l. 176–182ob. 47. OGAChO, f. R-1595, op. 1, d. 26, l. 88–91. 48. OGAChO, f. R.1595, op. 1, d. 26, l. 92–94. 49. OGAChO, f. 288, op. 1, d. 25, l. 57–61. During the two five-year plans from 1928–1937, 14.2 million rubles were invested in water supply lines, and by Notes 303

1937 their total length was 126 kilometres, OGAChO, f. 220, op. 4, d. 498, l. 16, op. 8., d. 143, l. 29. 50. V.M. Semënov, V.N. Novosiolov & L .V. Shubarina, Sport na Iuzhnom Urale: Istoriia razvitiia fizicheskoi kul’tury i sporta v Cheliabinske 1919–1929 gody, Cheliabinsk: Ural’skaia akademiia fizicheskoi kul’tury 2000. 51. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 15, l. 72–73, Resolution of 23 July 1936. 52. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 15, l. 110. 53. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 15, l. 137–139.

4 The Tractor Factory’s Civilian Production and Military Potential

1. OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1, d. 28, l. 11. 2. R.W. Davies, Oleg V. Khlevniuk & E.A. Rees (eds.), Stalin– Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–1936, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2003, pp. 64, 82. 3. OGAChO, P-124, op. 1, d. 28, l. 11. 4. OGAChO, P-124, op. 1, d. 28, l. 57. 5. On Sergo Ordzhonikidze,(1886–1937), one of the most important personali- ties during the forced industrialisation, see Oleg Vitalievitch Khlevniuk. In Stalin’s Shadow: The Career of ‘Sergo’ Ordzhonikidze, Armonk, NY & London: Sharpe 1995. 6. For one such report, compare ‘Obzor raboty po stroitel’stvu Cheliabinskogo Traktornogo zavoda. Sostavlen po materialam EKO Cheliabinskgogo Opersektora PP OGPU po Uralu po sostoianiiu na 26 aprelja 1931 g.’, OGAChO, f 75, op 1, d 685, l. 104–109. 7. Davies et al., Stalin–Kaganovich Correspondence, p. 221. 8. A.G. Kireev & E.G. Khoviv, ChTZ – moia biografiia. Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno- Uralskoe knizhnoe izdatelstvo 1983. On the expansion of the working class, from approximately three to six million persons during the first five- year plan, see Jean-Paul Depretto, Les Ouvriers en U.R.S.S. 1928–1941, Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne 1997, in particular his descriptions of the conditions in the Kuznetsk region, which resemble the conditions in Cheliabinsk, pp. 187–251. 9. In his analysis of Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development 1930 to 1945 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press 1971), American historian Antony Sutton tended to overestimate the Western part and under- estimate the internal Soviet development of new technology. Nonetheless, this is a magnificent survey of practically all sectors in which Western companies contributed to Soviet industrialisation in the inter-war period. Sutton’s problem was that the archives of private Western companies were inaccessible or had kept very few documents of their Soviet affairs. The opening of formerly closed Soviet archives in the 1990s shed more light on the transfer of Western technology. On American technology and the Cheliabinsk Tractor Plant, see Sutton, Western Technology, pp. 188–191; Leonid S Komarov, ‘ChTZ – Katerpiller’, SShA: Ekonomika, politika, ideologiia, 1977, no. 1, pp. 59–70; Elena A. Kalinkina,’... Kazhdyi nash den’ oplachva- etsia zolotom...’ (O komandirovkakh spetsialistov ChTS i ChTZ za granitsu 304 Notes

v 1930-e gg.)’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 204–208. 10. Trotsky’s memoir, Moia zhizn (My Life), was published in 1930 in Berlin, and was soon translated into many European languages. Numerous new editions have become available in recent years. 11. OGAChO, f. R-379, op. 12, d. 6, l. 54–61. 12. Materialy k kontrolnym tsifram khoziaistva Cheliabinskogo raiona na 1932 g., Cheliabinsk 1932. 13. OGAChO, f. 98, op. 1, d. 3234, l. 91–92 (Cheliabinskaia oblast, p. 140). 14. Z. Krasilshchik, V borbe za Cheliabinskskii traktornyi, Sverdlovsk–Moscow n.p. 1931, provides a detailed description of how the tractor factory was intended to produce civilian tractors and artillery haulers. 15. OGAChO, 379. 2.11, 23ob–125. 16. The actual role of forced convict labour during the industrialisation of the 1930s has been overestimated in much of the Western literature. For better data on the role of Gulag prisoners and special settlements in the Urals, cf. Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilization, Berkeley, CA, & London: University of California Press 1995, pp. 230–235; James Harris, The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System, Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press 1999, pp. 105–122. For details of the camps and special settlements that were essential during the construction of the metal works and other factories in Nizhnii Tagil and the northern Urals, see Viktor Kirillov, Kniga pamiati. Posviashchaetsia Tagilchanam – zhertvam repressii 1917–1980-kh godov, Ekateringburg: UIF Nauka 1994; idem, Istoriia repressii v Nizhnetagil’skom regione Urala, 1920–1950 gody, vols 1–2, Nizhnii Tagil: n.p. 1996; idem, Zhertvy repressii: Nizhnii Tagil 1920–1980-e gody, Ekaterinburg: n.p. 1999. 17. OGAChO, f. R-804, op. 8, d. 49, l. 120–125. Stenogramma slëta stakhanovt- sev i udarnikov vsekh predpriiatii Cheliabinskoi oblasti. The full report from this Stakhanovite meeting in 1937 is 148 pages. 18. On recruitment outside the Soviet Union of qualified workers and special- ists, see Elena Osokina, Za fasadom ‘stalinskogo izobiliia’. Raspredelenie i rynok v snabzhenii naseleniia v gody industrializatsii, 1927–1941, Moscow: Rosspen 1999, pp. 105–110. See also Vincent E. Baker, ‘American Workers in the Soviet Union Between the Two World Wars: From Dream to Disillusionment’, master’s thesis, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 1998. 19. Richard Cartwright Austin, Building Utopia: Erecting Russia’s First Modern City, 1930, Kent & London: Kent State University Press 2004. 20. Sergej Shurawljow, Ich bitte um Arbeit in der Sowjetunion Das Schicksal deutsche Facharbeiter im Moskau der 30er Jahre (Berlin: Ch. Links 2003) described the fate of German workers at an electric lamp factory in Moscow. For gen- eralisations on foreign workers, compare Sergei Zhuravlëv, ‘Inostrantsy v sovetskom obshchestve 1920–1930-kh godov’, Trudy Instituta rossiiskoi istorii RAN, 1999–2000, Vypusk 3, Moscow 2002, pp. 186–209, and the ensuing discussion among Russian historians on a new domain for archival research in a comparative perspective. 21. Andrea Graziosi, ‘Visitors from Other Times: Foreign Workers in the Prewar Five-Year Plans’, A New, Peculiar State: Explorations in Soviet History, 1917– 1937. Westport, CT, & London: Praeger, 2000, pp. 223–266. In footnote 26 (p. 227), Graziosi refers to a long series of workers’ memoirs that are almost Notes 305

forgotten today but were widely discussed at the time because of their widely differing impressions of Stalin’s Russia. 22. OGAChO. f. R-792, op. 1, d.3, l.14–20, Ukazaniia, spiski, perepiska ob inos- trannykh spetsialistakh, 1934; OGAChO, f. 379, op. 3, d. 555, l. 29–32; OGAChO, f. 288, op. 1, d. 113, l. 19–22. 23. OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1. d. 60, l. 4, 4ob, 5 (1934–35) dokladnye zapiski o rabote s inostrannymi spetsialistami. 24. Izvestiia 28 May–7 June 1931; A. Aleksandrov, ‘Boris Pasternak v Cheliabinske’, Vechernyi Cheliabinsk, 2 March 1990. 25. RGVA f. 31811, op. 1, d. 242, l.20, A report of an inspection trip to the Tractor Experimental Plant at ChTS building site, Pavlovskii, 27 November 1930, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi voennyi arkhiv. 26. The modifications of the Christie tank were the BT-5 and the BT-7, the lat- ter of which had several models such as BT-7A, BT-IS, BT-SV-2 (never put into serial production) and finally BT-7M with a V-2 diesel engine at 500 hp, a weight of 14.7 tons and a pressure on the ground of 0.68 kilograms per square centimetre. A combined wheel and caterpillar track tank, with a maximum speed of 86 kilometres per hour on wheels and 65 on tracks, it had a 45 millimetre gun and three DT7 62 millimetre submachine guns. Over 700 BT-7M tanks were produced in 1939. 27. See A.V. Karpenko, Obozrenie otechestvennoi bronetankovoi tekhniki (1905– 1995gg.), St Petersburg: Nevskii Bastion 1996. 28. Mary R. Habeck, Storm of Steel: The Development of Armor Doctrine in Germany and the Soviet Union, 1919–1939, Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press 2003; see also: Sergei Gorlov, Sovershenno sekretno. Al’ians Moskva–Berlin 1920–1933 gg. (Voenno-politicheskie otnosheniia SSSR–Germaniia), Moscow: Olma-Press 2001. 29. Compare Vladimir K. Triandafillov, The Nature of the Operations of Modern Armies, [1929], edited with a foreword by Jacob W. Kipp, London: Frank Cass 1994. 30. For a detailed analysis of how Russian army theoreticians consolidated the experience from the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905, World War I and the Russian Civil War see the survey by the former US military attaché to Moscow, Richard W. Harrison, The Russian Way of War. Operational Art, 1904–1940, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas 2001. 31. On the technological arms race between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany concerning tanks, see Daniial P. Ibraimov, Protivoborstvo: Istoriia sozdaniia voennoi tekniki v SSSR i Germanii, Moscow: DOSAAF 1989. 32. For an introduction to how the Soviet military conceived their panzer doctrine for modern wars, compare Jacob Kipp, ‘Mass, Mobility and the Origins of Soviet Operational Art, 1918–1936’, Transformation in Russian and Soviet Military History, Proceedings of the Twelfth Military History Symposium, USAF Academy 1986; Richard Simpkin, Deep Battle: The Brainchild of Marshal Tukhachevskii, with a foreword by John Erickson, London: Brassey’s Defence 1987. 33. On Soviet military support to the Chinese Nationalist government, code- named ‘Operation Z’, see Youli Sun, China and the Origins of the Pacific War 1931–1941, London: Macmillan 1993, pp. 109–130. For the support from the Soviet Union and the Red Army for the legitimate Spanish government in the civil war of 1936–1938, internally called ‘Operation X’, see Komintern i 306 Notes

grazhdanskaia voina v Ispanii. Dokumenty, eds. P.P. Pozharskii & A.I. Saplin, Moscow: Nauka 2001; Gerald Howson, Arms for Spain: The Untold Story of the Spanish Civil War, London: John Murray 1998; Jurij Rybalkin, Operatsiia ‘X’: Sovetskaia voennaia pomoshch respublikanskoi Ispanii (1936–1939), Moscow: AIRO-XX 2000. 34. D.V. Gavrilov, ‘Rol’ malykh voin v razvitii voennoi promyshlennosti Urala pered Pervoi i Vtoroi mirovymi voinami’, in Ural v strategii Vtoroi Mirovoi voiny, Ekaterinburg 2002, pp. 81–84. 35. See, Paul A.C. Koistinen, Planning War, Pursuing Peace: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1920–1939, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas 1998. 36. See Lennart Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War-Machine: Tukhachevskii and Military-Economic Planning, 1925–1941, London & New York: Macmillan & St. Martins 1999. 37. Ivan Vernidub, Boepripasy Pobedy. Ocherki, Moscow: TsNIINTIKPK 1998, p. 36. 38. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 119, l. 10–10ob. 39. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 119, l. 9 otborotjnyj spisok nr 3. 40. Proektnoe zadanie po assimiliatsii Cheliabinskogo Traktornogo zavoda mashinoi T-29 posted as the target for 1933 that all the workshops at the tractor plant (thermic, welding, coachwork, testing and assembly) should have wartime preparedness to produce the T-29 tank. 41. OGAChO, f. R-390, op.1, d. 25, l. 103–104, Order from Sergo Ordzhonikidze, 26 October 1933. 42. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 10, l. 6, Letter from ChTZ’s Director Bruskin. 43. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 10, l. 5, 7, 8–9, 14. 44. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 10, ll. 24—25. 45. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 10, ll. 30, 31 and 43. 46. A.N. Shcherba, ‘Stanovlenie i razvitie tankovoi promyshlennosti Leningrada do Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, Peterburgskaia Istoricheskaia shkola. Almanakh. 1: O Viktore Anatoleviche Ezhove i ego tvorchestve, St Petersburg 2001, pp. 232–250.

5 Stagnation and Streamlining in the Whirlwinds of Terror, 1936–1939

1. Victoria Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 1997, p. 168. Bonnell analysed the illustrations’ language in the posters from the Stalin era (pp. 161–279) and showed how the power elite transformed the myths on Lenin by showing Stalin as the fair and wise leader, by demonising the opponents of his regime and, after the war, depicting him as a prescient and far-sighted genius. 2. Zeth Höglund, Häxnatt över Europa: Tal till kristna och hedningar. Stockholm: Axel Holmströms 1939, pp. 102–103. 3. Frederick Beck & W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, London: Hurst & Blackett 1951. Beck and Godin discussed in detail which categories of Soviet citizens, as well as foreigners, were struck by the terror. Notes 307

They also summed up a dozen more or less credible explanations that were in vogue inside the Soviet Union as to why the purges took place. 4. Roy Medvedev, K sudu istorii. Genezis i posledstviia stalinizma, New York: Alfred A. Knopff 1974; idem, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, New York: Alfred Knopf 1971, enlarged ed. 1990. 5. Robert Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin’s Russia, 1934–1941, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1996. 6. For a thorough and detailed chronological survey of the day-to-day events in Soviet society, the Communist Party and the secret police, see Wladislaw Hedeler, Chronik der Moskauer Schauprozesse 1936, 1937 und 1938: Planung, Inszenierung und Wirkung, Berlin: Akademie Verlag 2003. 7. OGAChO, f. R-390, op. 2, d. 4, l. 2. 8. On the Great Terror of 1937 and the most recent fundamental research findings, compare Marc Jansen & Nikita Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1893–1940, Stanford: Hoover Institution Press 2002; idem, Ezhov – stalinskii pitomets, Moscow: Rosspen 2008; Aleksei Polianskiiskii, Ezhov: Istoriia ‘zheleznogo’ narkoma, Moscow: Veche 2003; Vladimir N. Khaustov & Lennart Samuelson, Stalin, NKVD i repressii, 1936 – 1938, Moscow: Rosspen 2008. 9. V.N. Khaustov et al., Lubianka: Stalin i Upravlenie Gosbezopasnosti NKVD, 1936–1938, Moscow: Demokratiia 2003. 10. James Harris, The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System, Ithaca, NY, & London: Cornell University Press 1999, pp. 146 –190. 11. It is not known how these meetings with Stalin were minuted or otherwise documented. It is so far only possible to speculate on what might have been on the agendas. However, new insights have already been gained from a quantitative analysis of these meetings, who the most frequent visitors were and how the categories changed over the years. See Stephen G. Wheatcroft, ‘From Team-Stalin to Degenerate Tyranny’, in Edgar Arfon Rees (ed.) The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship: The Politburo, 1924–1953, London: Palgrave Macmillan 2004, pp. 79–107. 12. N. Gevorkian,’Vstrechnye plany po unichtozheniiu naroda’, Moskovskie novosti, 21 June, 1992, No. 29, pp. 18–19. 13. In March 1956, Ryndin was formally rehabilitated from all these fabricated charges. 14. See Galina Kibitkina, ‘Vzgliad v istoriiu: Vysokoe doverie – bol’shaia otvetstvennost’, Tankograd, No. 12. 1999. 15. Numerous regional studies and documentary collections have been published since 1992 concerning the purges. See, e.g. R.A. Khantalin (ed.) Repressii v Archangelske: 1937–1938. Archangelsk: Pomorskii Gosudarstvennyi Universitet 1999. Among the regional efforts to analyse the Stalinist era, the Komi Republic, which contains the Vorkuta coal mines, deserves particular mention. In the 1940s, these mines were exploited mainly by Gulag prisoners and there were many Gulag camps and special villages in other part of Komi. Historians and archivists in Komi have eight huge volumes entitled Pokaianie (Repentence) with the biographies of thousands of victims of Stalinist-era repression. For a survey of all the lists of victims of 308 Notes

Soviet repression in various parts of the country, see Knigi pamjati zhertv politicheskikh repressij v SSSR: Annotirovannyi ukazatel, St Petersburg: Rossiiskaia natsionalnaia biblioteka 2003, edited by Anatolii Razumov from the association ‘Vozvrashchennyje imena’; on the martyrologies from Cheliabinsk oblast in particular, p. 181. 16. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 1, d. 364, l. 244–248, Spets-svodka ob anti-sovetskikh projavleniiakh v sviazi s protsessom k[ontra].r[evoljutsionnogo] trotskist- skogo parallelnogo tsentra, Nachalnik UNKVD Cheliabinskoi oblasti, star- shii maior Blat, 27 January 1937. 17. G.I. Ierusalimchik, ‘Period industrializatsii i evreiskaia intelligentsia v 30-e gody’, in Raznye gody – obshchaia sudba, Cheliabinsk 1999. 18. V.E. Sakhov, ‘Molokh stalinskikh repressii’, Prizyv, Cheliabinsk, 15 April 1994; N. Shukalin, ‘Nevinoven, no podsuden...’, Cheliabinskskii rabochii, 29 July 1994. 19. ‘Rol’ sudov v repressivnoi politike gosudarstva (na primere lineinogo suda zheleznoi dorogi imeni Kaganovicha’, Archivy Urala, 1995, no. 2, pp. 154–164. 20. A.L. Khudoborodov, ‘Kak eto bylo: O tragicheskoi sud’be direktora Cheliabinskogo gosudarstvennogo pedagogicheskogo instituta I.K. Zelenskogo v 1930-e gody’, Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 168–170. 21. Gustaf Mund, GPU. Das Angriff an der Abendland, Leipzig: Niebelungen 1942. 22. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 2, d. 228, l. 1–148, Soveshchanie direktorov predpriiatii u sekretaria Obkoma VKP(b) t. Ryndina, 1 September 1937. 23. GARF, f. 8418, op. 12. d.91, l. 8–18, Reports with appendices, 11 photographs from the military inspectors, letter from the military representatives (voen- predy) and sketches of spare parts. N. Antselovich. 8 February 1937; GARF, f. 8418, op. 12. d.91, l. 19–23, N. Antinov with copies to Kliment Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, Valerii Mezhlauk and Moisei Rukhimovich. 24. A short biography on Zaltsman remains the only substantial work devoted to this fascinating personality; compare Vladimir Sergiichuk, Tankovyi korol Rossii, Kiev: Nichlava 2005. 25. The waves of repression that hit Cheliabinsk were made public during the perestroika and glasnost periods, when local newspapers published lists and short biographies of the victims of political repression. See Rasstrel’nye spiski (Lists of executions) in the newspaper Cheliabinskskii rabochii; for example, 23 March, 3, 11, 18, 25 April, 15, 29 May, 6, 28 June, 10, 19, 24 July, 7, 14, 28 August, 1991, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 30 July, 4, 25 August, 1, 5, 29 September, 4, 12, 24 November and 24 December, 1991; 3, 15 January, 19, 25 February, 3, 11, 31 March, 8 April, 6, 13, 19 May, 16 June, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 30 July, 1, 5, 29 September, 4, 12, 24 November, 24 December, 1992. Under the heading ‘Reabilitirovannye’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk published lists of 106 persons on 24 and 26 November and 3, 8, 10, 24 and 29 December 1992. Each of these issues contained hundreds of names and brief biographical data on some of them. Even in 1993 and much later, Cheliabinsk newspapers published similar articles and lists of persons who were victims of political repression during the Soviet era. 26. These ‘mass operations’ were, in essence, unknown by historians until the late 1980s. Since then, the relevant documents from the party leadership and the security service have been published. How NKVD prepared and implemented the mass operations is presented in Vladimir Khaustov et al., Notes 309

Lubianka: Stalin i organy gosudarstvennoi bezopasnosti, 1936–1938, Moscow: Demokratiia 2003. Historians in Russia and the West are still debating how best to explain the background to the exceptionally brutal mass executions; for an introduction to this debate, compare Barry McLoughlin and Kevin McDermott (eds.), Stalin’s Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union, London: Palgrave Macmillan 2003; Arch Getty, ‘Excesses are not to be permitted...: Mass Terror Operations in the late 1930s and the Stalinist Government’, Russian Review, 61 (January 2002); Nicolas Werth, ‘Repenser la grande terreur: L’U.R.S.S. des années trente’, Le Débat, November-December 2002. See also the historiographical introduction chapter in Khaustov & Samuelson, Stalin, NKVD i repressii, 1936 – 1938, Moscow: Rosspen 2008. 27. Compare Oleg Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, pp. 140–185. 28. See Iagoda’s comment during the forced collectivisation in 1930 to local OGPU cadres, who had arrested not only rich peasant and ‘counter-revolutionaries’, but also priests, merchants and former White guardists. ‘We are not cleans- ing the countryside of priests, merchants and “others”. “Others”? So they do not know who they take. We will have time to finish off with merchants and priests later. It is essential to hit correctly against the target, the kulak and kulak-counterrevolutionaries’, Les Campagnes soviétiques vues par O.G.P.U.– NVKD, 1930–1934, Sovetskaia derevnia glazami OGPU–NKVD, 1930–1934, ed. Viktor P. Danilov et al., vol. 3: 1, Moscow: Rosspen 2003, p. 107. 29. On the relative economic significance of the Gulag camp system, see Paul Gregory, ‘An Introduction to the Economics of the Gulag’, in Paul R. Gregory & Valery Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor. The Soviet Gulag, Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press 2003, pp. 1–21. 30. See Barrington Moore Jr., Terror and Progress, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1954. 31. V.N. Khaustov et al., Lubianka: Stalin i Glavnoe Upravlenie Gosbezopasnosti NKVD 1937–1938, Moscow: Demokratiia 2004, passim. 32. For a modern interpretation of the classical version on why the Great Terror ended with the purge of the secret police, see Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization, Berkeley, CA, & London: University of California Press 1995, pp. 350–354. When Kotkin conducted his magnificent study of Magnitogorsk in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the regional archives were not yet open for researchers, least of all foreign scholars. 33. The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR), which was the largest party at the time of the elections to the Constituent Assembly in December 1917, had a strong basis in the countryside in the Urals. The SR party split in 1917 into a Leftist organisation that cooperated with the Bolsheviks in the first Soviet government. After a putsch attempt by the Left-SR in the summer of 1918, their organisation was prohibited. The SR took the White side in the Russian Civil War in 1918 in an attempt to reassemble a Constituent Assembly as groundwork for a democratic development in Russia. In 1922, a political trial was arranged against SR leaders for having instigated the Civil War and for terrorist activities. The persons who were accused of ‘counter-revolutionary SR activism’ during the Great Terror in the late 1930s had only been members of the SR some 20 years before and had long since ceased any political 310 Notes

activities. The major settlement by the Bolsheviks against the SR party took place in 1922, see Mark Jansen, The Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries. Moscow 1922, Niemegen: Martinus Niehoff 1982 (Russian translation: Sud bez suda: 1922 god. Pokazatel’nyi protsess sotsialistov-revoljutsionerov, Moscow: Vozvrashchenie 1993). 34. OGAChO, f. 288, op. 3, d. 165, l. 236–240. Memorandum po delu Lapshina, Lugovtseva, Voronchikhina i drugikh, 19 June 1940. A long excerpt from this sentence against the NKVD officials is reproduced in Igor Nepein, Palachi i zhertvy, Cheliabinsk n.p. 1997, pp. 189–193. Nepein’s book includes long excerpts from interrogation protocols with eminent local authors and jour- nalists in Cheliabinsk who had been arrested during the Great Terror. They were broken down mentally and forced to confess to imaginary crimes. Nepein had access to the archives of the Cheliabinsk FSB and could show the mechanisms of the terror in great detail. Two of the four authors arrested were executed; the other two survived their terms in camp and told inves- tigators in the 1950s about how they had been tortured in 1937. Nepein’s book also contains the protocols from 1940 and 1946 with the NKVD inter- rogators who were accused of having forced the arrested persons to ‘confess’ using illegal methods, such as falsifying the signed ‘confessions’ and inventing entire groups of counter-revolutionary networks in Cheliabinsk. For more details on how the arrested NKVD leaders in Cheliabinsk admit- ted interpreting orders from Moscow in 1937–1938 and carrying out their operations against fictional Polish and other conspiracies, see the extensive volume on the history of the state security organs in the Urals in three cen- turies by Oleg Veprev & Viacheslav Liutov, Gosudarstvennaia bezopasnost’: Tri veka na Iuzhnom Urale, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Ural’skoe Knizhnoe Izdatel’stvo 2002, pp. 287–318. For an illuminating account of the methods used by NKVD to force innocents to confess, compare the articles and documents by Aleksandr V. Churakov, Voenno-istoricheskii archiv, nos 6 and 7, 2004. 35. Nepein, Palachi i zhertvy, pp. 193–194. 36. Nikita V. Petrov & K.V. Skorkin, Spravochnik: Kto rukovodil NKVD 1934–1941, Moscow: Zvenia 1999, pp. 436–437. 37. Compare Gábor T. Rittersporn, ‘The Omnipresent Conspiracy: On Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s’, in Arch Getty & Roberta Manning (eds.), Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994, pp. 99–115. 38. Reabilitatsiia – kak eto bylo, vol. 1, pp. 75–77. See also document 15, from 9 January 1956, on the mass terror against members of the Communist Party. 39. Reabilitatsiia, vol. 1, pp. 317–348, the report of Pospelov to the presidium of the central committee, which provided the factual documentation for the ‘secret speech’ of Krushchev at the 20th Party Congress in February 1956. 40. On this turbulent period in Russian historiography, see, e.g., Robert W. Davies, Soviet History in the Gorbachev Revolution, London: Macmillan 1989; idem, Soviet History in the Yeltsin Era, London: Macmillan 1997. 41. Reabilitatsiia – Kak eto bylo. Dokumenty Prezidiuma TsK KPSS i drugie materialy. vol. 1: March 1953–February 1956, eds. A.N. Artizov et al., Moscow: MFD 2000; vol. 2: February 1956–Early 1980s, Moscow: MFD 2003; vol. 3: Mid- 1980s – 1991, Moscow: MFD 2004. Notes 311

6 Industrial Preparedness in Cheliabinsk, 1939–1940

1. Compare Ernst Henry, Hitler over Europe? London 1935 and idem, Feldzug gegen Moskau?, Strasbourg 1936. Both books were translated into Russian, as Gitler nad Evropoj? and Gitler protiv SSSR: Grjadushchaia sch- vatka mezhdu fasjistskimi i sotsialistitjeskimi armijami and issued in huge print runs. Rostovskii was a frequent contributor of articles to The New Statesman and The Nation. He stayed in London during World War II and after his return to the Soviet Union, he was struck by the repression during the anti-Semitic campaign in Stalin’s last years of power. In 1965, Ilya Ehrenburg tape recorded Ernst Henry’s critique of Stalinism. The notes were not published until the late 1980s, however, in the glasnost period. See also the articles by Iakov Drabkin and Lev Bezymenskii in the re-issues of Ernst Henry’s two books (Moscow: Russkii raritet 2004, pp. 469–485). 2. Michael Jabara Carley, 1939. The Alliance that never was and the Coming of World War II, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee 1999. 3. See Alvin Finkel & Clement Leibovitz, The Chamberlain–Hitler Collusion, New York: Monthly Review Press 1998. 4. Maurice Edelman, How Russia prepared: U.PS.S.R. beyond the Urals, London: Penguin 1942. 5. Frey Rydeberg, Carl Kempff & Georg Gärdin, Det militariserade samhället: några fakta om Sovjetunionen och dess maktmedel, Stockholm: Hasse W. Tullberg 1934. 6. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 1, d. 451, l. 83–89, 103–108, 147–149. 7. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 23, l. 81–82. 8. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 1, l. 4. 9. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 1, l. 24. 10. OGAChO, P-288, op. 3, d. 676, l. 26–31, 35, report on the machine-building industry in the Cheliabinsk region, Dokladnaia o rabote mashinostroitel- noi promyshlennosti Cheliabinskoi oblasti. The People’s Commissariat of Machine-building, with its 11 large enterprises, was of direct importance for the defence of the country. 11. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 23, l. 81, 82. Jfr R-792.1.39: 83–83ob. 12. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 23, l. 84–88. 13. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 1, d. 29, l. 10. 14. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 39, l. 9–15. 15. OGAChO, f. R-792.2.23:31–32. 16. OGAChO, f. R-792.2.23: 33–39, Plan organizatsii kursov po povysheniiu kvalifikatsii rabotnikov moborganov NKSredMash. 17. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 23, l. 138–139. 18. OGAChO P-288, op. 4, d. 14, l. 220–206, Malinenko at the Plenum of Cheliabinsk obkom plenary meeting, 18–20 June, 1940. 19. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 1, d. 512, l. 41, Partinformatsiia Traktorozavodskogo raikoma VKP(b) v obkom, gorkom VKP(b), September 1940. 20. Igor Shmelëv, Istoriia tanka, 1916–1996, Moscow: Tekhnika – molodezhi, 1996. On the designer and inventor Zhozef Kotin‘s life, see Konstruktor boevykh mashin (O Zh. Ia. Kotine), Leningrad: Lenizdat 1988. 21. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 1, d. 512, l. 69–72, Politicheskaia informatsiia sekre- tariam gorkoma VKP (b), t. Fokinu, June 1940. 312 Notes

22. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 299, l. 110–114. 23. OGAChO, P-92, op. 1, d. 451, l. 89. 24. OGAChO, P. 124, op. 1, d. 178, l. 108, Spravka o kolichestve osuzhdennykh narushitelei trud[ovoi] distsypliny po ChTZ za period s 1 iiulia po 20 noi- abria 1940; OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1, D. 178, l 89–93, Dokladnaia zapiska. Upravlenie kadrov TsK VKP(b), tov. Tsunikovu ot Burakovskogo, sekretaria partiinogo komiteta Cheliabinskogo traktornogo zavoda im. Stalina. 25. See Evan Mawdsley, ‘Crossing the Rubicon: Soviet Plans for Offensive War in 1940–1941’, The International History Review, December 2003, vol. XXV, pp. 818–865, see also Bianka Pietrow-Ennker (ed.) Präventivkrieg? Der deutsche Angriff auf die Sowjetunion, Frankfurt am Main: Fischer 2000. 26. RGAE, f. 7516, op. 1, d. 750, l. 1–10, Postanovlenie SNK 1502–1503. 27. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 88, l. 7–12, Prikaz po Narodnomu komissariatu srednego mashinostroeniia’O meropriiatiakh po podgotovki k perekhodu promyshlennosti na mobilizatsionnyi plan po boepripasam’, 10 June 1941. 28. The first very detailed history on the tractor factory had almost no information about the mobilisation planning or conversion preparedness for tank production; compare L.S. Komarov & Je. G. Khoviv & N.I. Zarzhevskii, Letopis Cheliabinskogo traktornogo (1929–1945 gg.), Moscow: Profizdat 1972. 29. See Mary R. Habeck, Storm of Steel: The Development of Armor Doctrine in Germany and the Soviet Union, 1919–1939, Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2003. 30. On the tank production in Leningrad before World War II, see A.N. Shcherba, ‘Stanovlenie i razvitie tankovoi promyshlennosti Leningrada do Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, Peterburgskaia Istorichestkaia shkola. Almanakh. 1: O Viktore Anatoleviche Ezhove i ego tvorchsetve, St Petersburg 2001, pp. 232–250. 31. OGAChO, R-792, op. 1, d. 64, l. 79–85. 32. OGAChO, R-792, op. 1, d. 73, l. 108–109. 33. OGAChO, R-792, op. 1, d. 73, l. 240. 34. M.A. Feldman, ‘K voprosu o stepeni gotovnosti promyshlennosti Urala k Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine’, Ural v voennoi istorii Rossii, Ekaterinburg 2004, p. 159–161.

7 Production Conditions for Heavy Tanks in the Urals

1. For an unsurpassed history of the Eastern Front in World War II, see Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945, (London: Barrie & Rockliff 1964 and later). Werth, whose Russian parents had migrated to the United Kingdom after 1917, wrote several books on France’s political crisis in the 1930s and Germany’s victory over France in 1940. In 1941, after the Nazi German alliance attacked the Soviet Union, Werth travelled on a convoy steamer across the North Sea to Murmansk. His first newspaper articles from wartime Moscow were published as Moscow ’41, (London: H. Hamilton 1942). He was better able than most correspondents to feel the atmosphere among Soviet soldiers and ordinary Russians. This forms the bulk of his later book, which was limited in extent by the sources available in the late 1960s. Notes 313

His son is the French historian, Nicolas Werth, who, together with Stephan Courtois and others, compiled The Black Book of Communism, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1999. (French edition 1997). Among other scholarly works on the German-Russian war should be mentioned David M. Glantz, Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War, Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press 1998; Mikhail Meltiukhov, Upushchennyi shans Stalina: Sovetskii Soiuz i bor’ba za Evropu, 1939–1941 (Moscow: Veche 2000). Meltiukhov does not categorically deny that the Soviet leadership in 1941 might have planned for a pre-emptive counterstrike against the mobilising German army. This interpretation, which originally goes back to Hitler’s own arguments for starting the invasion in 1941, has been rejected by most Russian and Western scholars. See, e.g., Gabriel Gorodetsky Grand delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia, (New Haven, CT, & London: Yale University Press 1999). 2. An update on why the Kremlin – that is, mostly Stalin himself – was surprised by the German attack has been written by the CIA intelligence officer in Berlin during the Cold War David E. Murphy, What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa (New Haven, CT, & London: Yale University Press 2005). 3. Warum Krieg mit Stalin? Das Rotbuch der Anti-Komintern, Berlin: Niebelungen- Verlag 1941, pp. 57–73. 4. This is not the proper forum for a survey of the research regarding what led to the fatal decision on the ‘Jewish question’ at the Wannsee conference in Berlin in February 1942. One hypothesis is that the decisions on ‘the final solution’ to exterminate the Jews in Europe were made after the failure of Operation Barbarossa in the autumn-winter of 1941–1942, as the German armies had failed to conquer Moscow and Leningrad. The leading German generals had understood that the war against the USSR could not be won in a single campaign but would be yet another extended war of attrition. Contrary to this hypothesis is the evidence that the mass executions of Jews, as well as of communists and army political commissars, took place in the summer of 1941 as the German armies made deep advances into Ukraine and Russia. See Pavel Polian, ‘First Victims of Holocaust: Soviet-Jewish Prisoners of War in German Captivity’, Kritika. Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, New Series, vol. 6, No. 4, 2005, pp. 763–788. 5. This controversial theme has received relatively little attention in the scholarly literature. Nazi conceptions of ‘Jewish Bolshevism’ are discussed by Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein, ‘Jüdischer Boschewismus’. Mythos und Realität, Schnellroda: Antaios 2003. For a general review of the represen- tation and images of the Soviet Union in various social groups, parties, churches and institutions in Nazi Germany, see Hans-Erich Volkmann (ed.), Das Russlandbild im Dritten Reich, Cologne: Böhlau 1994. 6. D.V. Gavrilov, ‘Ural’skii tyl v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine: Geopoliticheskii aspekt’, in Ural v Velikoi Otetjetsvennoj voine, 1941–1945 gg. Ekaterinburg 1995, pp. 55–62. 7. See Effects of Climate on Combat in European Russia, Historical Study CMH Pub 104–6, Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C., no year of publication. 8. From the literature on Hitler as warlord and the role of the German Generalität, see, e.g., John Strawson, Hitler as Military Commander, New York: Barnes & Noble 1971, chapter: ‘Barbarossa – The irretrievable Blunder’. For a 314 Notes

long-term perspective on the German planning for a war against the Soviet Union, compare Carl Dirks & Karl-Heinz Janßen, Der Krieg der Generäle. Hitler als Werkzeug der Wehrmacht, Berlin: Ullstein 1999. 9. Nikolai A. Voznesenskii, Voennaia ekonomika SSSR v period Otechestvennoi voiny [1947], Moscow: Ekonomicheskaia gazeta 2003, pp. 101–113, especially p. 110. 10. On his activity before and during the Great Patriotic War, see the memoirs of Semën Zakharovich Ginzburg, O proshlom – dlia budushchego, Moscow: Politizdat 1983. During those years, for obvious reasons, Ginzburg could only allude to the existence of forced camp labour in the construction industry. 11. See Arsenii Iu. Ermolov,’Perestroika tankovoi promyshlennosti SSSR 1941–42’, Otechestvennaia istoriia, No. 3, 2004, pp. 28–34. 12. There is only one solid biography of this important personality in the Soviet military-industrial complex: see Viktor Andreevich Chalmaev, Malyshev, Moscow: Molodaia Gvardiia 1978. This book, part of the Zhizn’ zamechatel’nykh liudei series, was more reticent than usual about disclosing any precise data about the Soviet defence industry. Malyshev later entered the Atomic Project of the Soviet Union and supervised the construction of the plutonium works in the Urals. He died at an early age from radioactive over-exposure. See also Vladimir Nikolaevich Novosëlov, ‘V.A. Malyshev i N. P. Dukhov – vydaiushchiesia organizatory oboronnoi promyshlennosti’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii (K 70-letiiu puska Cheliabinskogo traktornogo zavoda), Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 147–150. 13. See, e.g., Aleksei Toptygin, Lavrentij Berija. Neizvestnyj marsjal gosbezopasnosti. Moscow: Jauza/ Eksmo 2005, p. 160f. After the declassification of Beria’s role in the Soviet atomic project from 1944–1949, a slightly different picture of the people’s commissar for internal affairs evolved. The myths spread earlier by Khrushchev and others after Beria’s arrest and execution in 1953 not only ascribed the Great Terror in 1937 to Beria, but also included tales of his maniac behaviour, deviant sexual tastes and even murders of young girls who were presumably picked up by his aides-de- camp on Moscow’s streets. 14. On Uralvagonzavod in the 1930s and the reconstruction of the factory for production of the T-34 tank, see Sergei V. Ustiantsev, Alla V. Pislegina & Al’fiia Kh. Fakhretdennova, Uralvagonzavod, Elita rossiiskoi industrii / Ural Car-Making Works: An Elite of the Russian Industry, Ekaterinburg: Start 2001. 15. Chamberlin’s description of the events in 1917, The Russian Revolution (1934), is still worth reading for anyone interested in Russia’s history. All reports from the Soviet Union in the interwar period were controversial and difficult to evaluate in practice. Western correspondents had to submit their despatches to the Soviet censors at telegraph stations. Only through background material in other articles could British and American newspapers give their readers a more solid understanding of the changes in the USSR. For an interesting comparison of how three famous correspondents described the Soviet Union in the interwar period, see Allen McTavish Johnson, ‘Moscow Dispatches, 1921–1934: The Writings of Walter Duranty, William Henry Chamberlin and Louis Fischer in Soviet Russia’, PhD Thesis, Notes 315

Tulane University, 2000. During the Cold war, Chamberlin was a ‘hawk’ who criticised Franklin Roosevelt’s ‘concessions’ to the Soviet Union during the last years of war. 16. William H. Chamberlin, The Russian Enigma. 17. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 84, l. 33 Order from the people’s commissariat of the medium machine-building industry on immediate transition to production of ammunition according to the plans of 10, 11 and 14 June 1941. 18. Ivan Vernidub, Boepripasy Pobedy. Ocherki, Moscow: TsNIINTIKPK 1998, p. 27. 19. E.B. Druzhinina, ‘Korol’ tankov’: Fakty iz biografii I. M. Zal’tsmana’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 179–186. 20. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 95, ll. 184–185, deputy people’s commissar Nosenko at NKTankoprom to director Zaltsman at the Kirov Works in Cheliabinsk, 13 October, 1941. 21. OGAChO, f. P-288, op.6, d. 292, l. 56–80. 22. Resolution of 25 July, 1942 from the party committee at the Kirov works in Cheliabinsk, based on a report by director Makhonin. 23. OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1, d. 281, l. 92–94. 24. OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1, d. 282, l. 102–104. 25. See Jacques Sapir, L’Économie mobilisée: Essai sur les économies de type sovié- tique, Paris: La Découverte 1989; idem, Logik der sowjetischen Ökonomie oder die permanente Kriegswirtschaft, Berlin: Lit 1992. 26. At Stalingrad and along the Volga River, from November 1942 until February 1943, 160 Soviet divisions with over 1.1 million soldiers and 3500 tanks were engaged to destroy five Axis armies, two of which were German armies with over 50 divisions. They captured or killed over 600,000 men. By way of comparison, at the approximately simultaneous Battle of El Alamein, ten British divisions with 480 tanks destroyed nine German and Italian divisions, which lost approximately 60,000 men. The great differences in Germany’s losses in the Soviet Union and their significance for the outcome of the war in the European theatre is emphasised by David Glantz, Colossus Reborn: The Red Army at War, 1941–1943, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas 2005, pp. xv–xvii, 37. Glantz (pp. 3–62) also highlights a series of less successful Red Army operations in 1942. The official Soviet historiography gave no mention of this or did so in a very distorted form. 27. The Battle of Kursk has been well analysed in the literature, while the opening of the Russian archives has revealed some new facts on the force relations and on the losses on both sides, David Glantz, Colossus Reborn, p. 48–59; see also Robin Cross, Citadel. The Battle of Kursk, New York: Barnes & Noble 1993. 28. Eduard Sobolev, Konstruktorskoe biuro: Sudby liudei i mashin, Cheliabinsk, ‘Vsem!’, 1997, p. 86. 29. OGAChO, R-792, op. 14, d. 135, l. 14–15, 31–34. 30. OGAChO, R-792.5.40: 40–41. The management was to make sure that the personnel would receive motor transport to and from the factory, particularly for the late night shifts. 31. Galina Kibitkina, ‘Rozhdenie i stanovlenie Tankograda’, Tankograd, No. 10, 1999, p. 2. 32. Aleksandr Bek, Novoe naznachenie, Frankfurt am Main: Posev 1972. 316 Notes

33. P.V. Ustiantsev, A.V. Pislegina & A.Ch. Fakhretdennova, Uralvagonzavod, Elita rossiiskoi industrii / Ural Car-Making Works: The Elite of the Russian Industry, Ekateringburg: Start 2001. 34. The publication of source volumes on the Great Patriotic War was a pri- ority task in the 1990s. A large number of archival items were published in the Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina, 1941–1945 series, under the edi- torship of the Institute of Military History by the Ministry of Defence. The thematic source collections on the supreme military leadership, the General Staff, the Supreme Headquarters, the partisan movement and the Battles of Stalingrad, Kursk and Berlin, etc., serve as a solid introduction to the archives themselves. Since 2007, a general order by the Russian minister of defence has started a new declassification procedure for all materials in the ministry’s central archive concerning the period up to 1945. 35. An example of this new historiography is the fourth volume of the collective Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina 1941–1945 (Moscow: Nauka 1999), entitled ‘The People and the War’. The research from the last 10–15 years is also reflected in Voina i obshchestvo (Moscow: Nauka 2004), in which some 30 articles cover both the battle history and the history of the home front, even such themes as collaboration, desertion, the relations with the Orthodox Church and the treatment of returning POWs.

8 1418 Long Days on the Home Front in the Southern Urals

1. K.I. Zubkov, ‘Ural v geopoliticheskikh stratagemakh Vtoroi Mirovoi voiny’, in Ural v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine, 1941–1945 gg. Ekaterinburg: RAN UO, Institut istorrii, 1995; Iu.V. Velichko, ‘Strategicheskoe znachenie Urala v period Vtoroi Mirovoi voiny’, Ural v strategii Vtoroi Mirovoi voiny, Ekaterinburg 2000, pp. 72–76. 2. D.V. Gavrilov, ‘Ural’skii tyl v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine: Geopoliticheskii aspekt’, in Ural v Velikoi Otechetsvennoi voine, 1941–1945 gg., Ekaterinburg 1995, pp. 55–62. 3. See Oleg Veprev & Viacheslav Liutov, Gosudarstvennaia bezopasnost: Tri veka na Iuzhnom Urale,, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Uralskoe Knizhnoe Izdatelstvo, 2002, pp. 319–352; Vladimir P. Motrevich, ‘Novye materialy o deiatel’nosti germanskoi razvedki na Urale v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, VOENnyi KOMmentator, Ekaterinburg, no. 1, 2002, pp. 63–76. 4. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 6, d. 7, l. 382–383. 5. P.G. Agaryshev & N.P. Paletskikh, ‘Cheliabinskaia oblast v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, in Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 208–211. 6. In general, on the Soviet railway system in World War II and the question of moving troops to the front in the first phases of the German-Russian war and the simultaneous evacuation of industry and people eastwards, see Georgii A. Kumanev, ‘Podvig zheleznodorozhnikov’, Eshelony idut na vostok: Iz istorii perebazirovaniia proizvoditel’nykh sil SSSR v 1941–1942 gg., Moscow: Nauka 1966, pp. 116–140. Notes 317

7. The reports that were sent to the people’s commissariats described the chaos that reigned when large amounts of evacuated equipment arrived in echelon after echelon. Goods sometimes remained at a station for days instead of being mounted as soon as possible; see, for example, the report in OGAChO, f. 288, op. 9, d. 288, l. 116. 8. OGAChO, f. P-220, op. 13, d. 1, l. 85–86, 317, P-792, op. 7, d. 13, l. 2–4. 9. OGAChO, f. R-1142, op. 3, d. 2, l. 31–39, 60–62; f. P-288, op. 4, d. 146, ll. 36–43. 10. Direktivnye ukazaniia vysshikh organov gosudarstvennoi vlasti po voprosam evakuatsii i reevakuatsii naseleniia, March 1940–October 1945 (more than 100 pages), OGAChO, f. R-1142, op. 3, d. 2, 25–30, 31–39, 60–62. 11. V.D. Pavlenko, ‘Rol’ Cheliabinskogo oblispolkoma v priëme i razmeshchenii evakuirovannogo naseleniia (iiun 1941–1942 gg.)’, in Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 212–215; M.N. Potëmkina, ‘Evakuirovannye v Cheliabinskoi oblasti: Vklad v delo Pobedy’, ibidem, pp. 216–220. 12. OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1, d. 224, 7–12, 68, 126–132. 13. OGAChO, f. R-1177, op. 2, d. 29, l. 20–21. 14. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 6, d. 7, l. 71–72. 15. The increased role and work of the security service NKVD-NKGB during the war years has been analysed by Aleksandr I. Volkhin, ‘Bor’ba organov NKVD-GUGB Urala i Sibiri s antisovetskoi agitatsiei i propagandoi v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, VOENnyi KOMmentator, Ekaterinburg, 2001, no. 1, pp. 19–46; idem, ‘Poisk povstancheskikh organizatsii organami NKVD-GUGB, borba s terroristicheskimi aktami i banditizmom na Urale i v Sibiri v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, ibidem, pp. 47–62. 16. OGAChO, f. R-1146, op. 1, d. 10, l. 43. 17. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d.11, l. 8–9. 18. E. B. Druzhinina, ‘Korol tankov’: Fakty iz biografii I.M. Zaltsmana’, in Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii (K 70-letiiu puska Cheliabinskogo traktornogo zavoda), Cheliabinsk 2003, p. 180. 19. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 8, d. 145, l. 78–81. 20. OGAChO, f. R-1402, op. 1, d. 1, l. 225–229; Memorandum for a report on which theatre plays should be performed. It was regretted that no plays with local themes had been written by Urals authors, l. 82–83. In general, on the cultural life in Cheliabinsk during the war years, see Aleksandr V. Speranskii, V gornile ispytanii: Kul’tura Urala v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny, Ekaterinburg: UrO RAN 1996, ch. V, pp. 175–218 on the role of thea- tres in the mobilization efforts of the population. 21. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 8, d. 145, l. 78–81. 22. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 3, d. 87, l. 2. 23. Report to the deputy USSR procurator Mokichev on the problems with crim- inals at the enterprise, December 1942, OGAChO, f. R-792, op.3, d. 108, l. 21–22. 24. See Pravda, 27 December 1944. 25. See the survey of the labour force at the factory, OGAChO, f. P-124, op.1, d. 221, l. 176. 26. Svodka o sostoianii trudovoi distsipliny po Kirovskomu zavodu, Deputy Director Tilip. 27. OGAChO, f. P-297, op. 2, d. 858, l. 29, 8. 318 Notes

28. RGASPI, f. 644, op. 14, d. 14, l. 144; data according to A.A. German & A.N. Kurochkin, Nemtsy SSSR v ‘trudovoj armii’, p. 122. 29. OGAChO, f. R-274, d.2, op.5, l. 50. 30. Report of 4 January 1943 to the city soviet executive committee, OGAChO, f. R-200, op. 13, d. 10, l. 17. 31. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 6, d. 18, l. 32, 36–37. 32. Report on delivery in the first decade (ten days) of December according to plan of 35 Katiusha rocket artillery guns, OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 123, l. 124; Letter from Director Poliantsev to obkom Secretary Kashina 31 October, 1941, OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 123, ll. 70–71. 33. See G.K. Pavlenko, ‘Kadry trudovykh rezervov Cheliabinskoi oblasti, 1940– 1945 gg.’, in Iuzhnyi Ural v sudbe Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 240–244. 34. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 125, l. 106. 35. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 3, d. 5, l. 85–87. 36. OGAChO, f. R-274, op. 3, d. 1429, l. 53–53ob. 37. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 6, d. 213, l. 18–18ob, 33–33ob, 40–40ob. Stenogram from a meeting on 14 October 1942. 38. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 5, d. 33, l. 21a. 39. OGAChO, f. R-1317, op. 21, d. 17, l. 130–132. 40. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 5, d. 58, l. 116–117. 41. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 5, d. 77, l. 92. 42. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 307, l. 73–74ob. 43. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 6, d. 358, l. 1; G. A. Goncharov,’Chislennost’ i razmeshchenie’trudarmeitsev’ na Urale v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, Promyshlennost’ Urala v XIX–XX vekakh, Moscow: AIRO-XX 2002, p. 247. 44. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d.322, l. 1–1ob, 5–7. 45. OGAChO, f. 92, op, 5, d. 228, l. 9. 46. G.A. Goncharov, ‘Osobye stroitel’nye montazhnye chasti (OSMCh) na Urale v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, Ural v voennoi istorii Rossii: Traditsii i sovremennost’, Ekaterinburg 2003, pp. 27–30. 47. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 322, l. 28. Report to the military procurator at the NKVD troops in Cheliabinsk oblast concerning desertions from the factory, OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 3, d. 108, l. 1–1p. 48. Leonid L. Mininberg, Sovetskie evrei v nauke i promyshlennosti SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny (1941–45gg.), Moscow: ITs-Granit 1995, p. 372. It was also said that on cloudy days the Lenin statue would not be seen at all, and on sunny days the building would cast a shadow even over the Kremlin. In the 1990s, the ‘new Russians’ and the city authorities managed to quickly rebuild the cathedral according to the original drawings from the 19th century. 49. Cheliabinskaia oblast’ 1917–1945, document 262 and the commentary in footnotes 235–236. 50. For the decisions concerning the Soviet Germans, being citizens of the USSR, see the documentary volumes edited and commented by the leading expert Nikolai F. Bugai, ‘Mobilizovat’ nemtsev v rabochie kolonny... I. Stalin’, Moscow: Gotika 1998; and A.A. German & A.N. Kurochkin, Nemtsy SSSR v ‘trudovoi armii’ (1941–1945), Moscow: Gotika, 1998. 51. Those who pretended to work, did so excessively slowly or even sabotaged a building site were sentenced to up to ten years in prison and were sent Notes 319

to the Gulag camps. See, for example, an NKVD order of 24 March 1942, OGAChO, f. 1619, op. 1, d. 7, l. 20–22, in Cheliabinskaia oblast, 1917–1945, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Ural’skoe izdatel’stvo 1999, pp. 203–204. 52. T.V. Koshman, ‘Trudarmeitsy Kazakhstana na voennykh obiektakh Urala v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, in Ural v voennoi istorii Rossii: traditsii i sovremennost, Ekaterinburg 2004, pp. 71–75. 53. Skvoz gody: Cheliabinskskii metallurgicheskii kombinat. Istoricheskii ocherk. Cheliabinsk: ChMK 1994. 54. OGAChO, f. R-1619, op. 1, d. 33, l. 46–47. 55. Nikita V. Petrov & K.V. Skorkin, Kto rukovodil NKVD, 1934–1941. Spravochnik, Moscow: Zvenia 1999, pp. 356–357. 56. OGAChO, f. P-878, op. 1, d. 302, l. 15–18. 57. OGAChO, f. R-1619, op. 2, d. 26, l. 1–2, 5. 58. This hidden part of Cheliabinsk’s history has been meticulously clarified by history teacher Marina Salmina and her pupils at School No. 59 in the Traktorozavodskii city district. Ekaterina Burkova and Natal’ia Aksionova wrote a term paper on the German POWs in the Urals (‘Voennoplennye Germanskoi armii na Urale 1942–1955 g.g.’). Their paper was based on substantial documentation from a deserted cemetery in the city district with buried POWs, and on over 100 archival files in OGAChO. Their paper described the living and working conditions of the POWs and the role they played in the reconstruction efforts after the war. 59. Gennadii Kornilov, Uralskoe selo i voina (Problemy demograficheskogo razvitija), Ekaterinburg: Uralagropress 1993, pp. 38–39. Kornilov was a pioneer in the analysis of the near-famine conditions in the Urals during the war years, a topic that was carefully censored in Soviet historiography. Kornilov based his research on extensive reports from the countryside of how hundreds of families whose husbands had been called up to the army were starving and how many children had bellies swollen from malnutrition. 60. Nadezhda P. Paletskich, ‘Spetsposeleniia na Urale v period Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, in Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 154–157. 61. On the food situation in general in the USSR during the war, see William Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR during World War II, Cambridge, New York & Melbourne: Cambridge University Press 1990. 62. V.P. Motrevich, ‘Golod na srednem Urale v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, Ural v voennoj istorii Rossii, Ekaterinburg 2003, pp. 85–88. 63. OGAChO, f. 220, op. 6, d. 8, l. 373–375. 64. OGAChO, f. 220, op. 6, d. 3, l. 70–72. 65. OGAChO, f. R-1146, op. 1, d. 2l. 25. 66. OGAChO, f. R-200, op. 6, d. 9l. 22. 67. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 8, d. 32, l. 14. 68. I.A. Usjlik, ‘Bor’ba s ugolovnoj prestupnost’iu v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny’, in Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 225–227. 69. OGAChO, f. 220, op. 6, d. 8, l. 378–379. 70. OGAChO, f. R-274, op. 3, d. 1616, l. 157. 71. OGAChO, f. P-297, op. 2, d. 904, l. 75–81. 320 Notes

72. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 6, d. 7, l. 35. 73. Zhenskoe litso Pobedy. 100 dokumentov o zhenshchinakh Cheliabinskoi oblasti v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny, Cheliabinsk 2002, p. 214, note 49, based on documents in OGAChO, f. P-385, op. 6, d. 10, l. 134, 191; P-915, op. 1, d. 62, l, 23. 74. OGAChO, f. 804, op. 7, d. 93, l. 15–27. 75. Iakov Goldstein, Otkrovenno govoria. Vospominaniia, razmyshleniia, Cheliabinsk: Rifei 1994, p. 166. Goldstein offers a lot of his own observa- tions of the city. However, he just as often retells rumours on the love lives and affairs of his compatriots when, according to his view, fiancées and partners were changed more often than shirts and with a lack of attention to the usual morals. Goldstein’s assertion that Isaak Zaltsman had numerous love affairs with female crane operators and secretaries should be taken with a pinch of salt (ibidem., pp. 162–166). 76. Kornilov, Ural’skoe selo i voina, Ekaterinburg 1993, p. 45. 77. OGAChO, f. 1595, op.1, d.63, l. 8, rapport om hälsoläget i Cheliabinsk under krigsåren, 15 November 1944. 78. OGAChO, f. 288, op. 8, d. 32, l. 13–14. 79. OGAChO, f. 288, op. 9, d. 37, l. 40. 80. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 7, d. 13, l. 131. 81. OGAChO, f. R-220, op.13, d. 7, l. 36–37. 82. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 8, l. 59. 83. OGAChO, f. R-1555, op. 1, d. 51, l. 18–18ob. 84. N. L. Usol’tseva, ‘Mediko-sanitarnoe obsluzhivanie trudiashchichsia ChTZ v gody Velikoi Otetejstvennoi voiny (1941–1945 gg.)’, in Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 162–165. 85. OGAChO, f. 792, op. 7, d. 20, l. 61. 86. OGAChO, f. R-840, op. 2, d. 57, l. 64–64ob. 87. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 10, l. 13. 88. OGAChO, f. R-274, op.20, d. 5, l. 43. 89. See, e.g., OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 4, d. 275, l. 8–12; compare a report of 12 July 1941 on how political information was organized in the city district after war broke out, OGAChO, P-288, op. 4, d. 238, l. 11–12ob, 58. 90. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 8, d. 145, l. 19–161, a list and description of the lec- tures given in 1944. 91. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 8, d. 145, 19–21ob, 63–67, 78–81, a survey of lectur- ing activities in the second half of 1944. 92. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 7, d. 13, l. 160. 93. OGAChO, f. 804, op. 7, d. 111, l. 107; Cheliabinskskii rabochii, 6 August 1943, No. 161, p. 2. 94. M.V. Gavrilinia, ‘Iuzhno-Uralskii gosudarstvennyi universitet: Vekhi istorii’, Ural v istorii Rossii, p. 308–310. Since the 1990s, the former ChPI has been renamed Southern Urals State University and has incorporated economic and juridical faculties. 95. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 9, d. 285, l. 3–8. Petrov, Informatsiia otdela propa- gandy i agitatsii Cheliabinskogo gorkoma VKP(b), 5 May 1945. 96. OGAChO, f. P-288, op. 9, d. 225, l. 14–16, Informatsiia o provedenii Dnia Pobedy v gorode Zlatouste. Notes 321

9 The New Military-Industrial Complex in Cheliabinsk during the Cold War

1. M.V. Gavrilinia, ‘Iuzhno-Ural’skii gosudarstvennyi universitet: Vekhi istorii’, Iuzhnyi Ural v istorii Rossii, pp. 308–310. 2. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 39, l. 126–129. 3. The numbers after the ‘closed cities’ have nothing to do with distances or location. They were simply chosen to spread disinformation regarding the most secret objects in the military-industrial complex. 4. For a general overview on post-war tank production, see Liubov’ V. Shubarina, ‘Borba SKB ChTZ za liderstvo v sozdanii i proizvodstve tiazhëlykh tankov (1945–1960 gg.)’, Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 285–288. 5. E.L. Glotova, ‘Osnovnye napravleniia konversii predpriiatii mashinostroeniia Cheliabinskoi oblasti (1945–1949)’, Iuzhnyi Ural v sud’be Rossii., Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 289–292. 6. OGAChO, R-792. 19. 44: 1–15, the Foundation and Economic Calculations on the Reconstruction in Accordance with the Order of People’s Commissar Malyshev from 26 May 1945. This also contains a short history of how the factory was built in the early 1930s. For an inventory of the worn-out parts of the factory from April 1947, see OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 15, d. 106, l. 17–22. For the activities during the 1940s, see Otchët o rabote Kirovskogo zavoda v g. Cheliabinske za 1947 god., f. R-792, op. 19-s, d. 87, l. 1–10, 52–66. Godovoi otchët po osnovnoi deiatelnosti na 1948 g., OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 19, d. 101, l. 3–10, 65–73. 7. OGAChO, P-124, op. 821, l. 116–121. 8. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 19, d. 111, l. 84–86. Zaltsman’s notes on the IS-4 heavy tanks, OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 15, d. 54, l 1–6. Concerning tank ‘701’ see his note of 19 March 1946, OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 15, d. 9, l. 1–3. 9. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 16, d. 181, l. 14–24. Prikaz ministra Transportnogo mashinostroeniia Soiuza SSR, Nosenko, 19 February 1949. The army’s requirements were: maximum 50 tons and a crew of four men, one D-25 122 millimetre gun, two DShK 12.7 millimetre machine guns, the same armour as on the IS-3, at least the same maximum speed, ground pressure 0.77–0.8 kilograms per square centimetre, a diesel tank of 425–450 litres to an engine of 650 horse power (13 ph per ton) and a range capacity of 2000 kilometres and 200 hours for the engine. 10. A.R. Zaets,’Proizvodstvo bronetankovoi tekhniki na Urale v poselvoennyi period’, in Ural v voennoi istorii Rossii: Traditsii i sovremennost’, Ekaterinburg 2003, pp. 35–40. 11. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 17, d. 29, l. 79–91, Malyshev’s speech on 8 September 1946 was a magnificent survey of what actually characterises the development of armaments during a war as compared to their evolution in peacetime. 12. The articles in Bez tain i sekretov describe the most important tanks produced in Leningrad and in cooperation with the designers at the Cheliabinsk Tractor Factory. See also Liubov V. Shubarina,’Bor’ba SKB ChTZ za liderstvo v sozdanii i proizvodstve tiazhëlykh tankov (1945–1960 gg.)’, in Iuzhnyi Ural v 322 Notes

sud’be Rossii, p. 285–288; idem, ‘Sozdanie tanka T-10 na Cheliabinskom traktornom zavode (1948–1951)’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, pp. 226–9. 13. OGAChO, f. 220, op. 13, d. 40, l. 10–14 March 1950. Decision by the city soviet and the city party committee. 14. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 20, l. 53–54. 15. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 6, d. 31, l. 92–97. 16. OGAChO, f. P-92, op. 6, d.. 31, l. 92–97. 17. Elena Zubkova, Poslevoennoe sovetskoe obshchestvo: Politika i povsednevnost’, 1945–1953, Moscow: Rosspen 1999, p. 43. 18. Articles in Voprosy istorii, no. 2, 1994, p. 60, and Otechestvennaia istoriia, No. 5, 1997, p. 168. On German women who were deported to Cheliabinsk and Kopeisk in the last phase of World War II, see Freya Klier, Verschleppt ans Ende der Welt: Schicksale deutscher Frauen in sowjetischen Arbeitslagern, Berlin: Ullstein, 1999, p. 204. It has been said that these arrested German women compensated for the lost labour force that Russian men would have otherwise represented had they not been killed by the husbands of these women. In other words, it was a kind of war contribution. 19. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 1, d. 96, l. 111–113, letters from director Zaltsman and the head of the Transport Building Ministry Nosenko, September 1948. 20. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 19, d. 96, l. 95. 21. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 16, d. 12, l. 16–20, on the camp prisoners who took the place of foreign POWs. 22. OGAChO, f. R-220, op. 13, d. 20, l. 61–61ob. 23. N.P. Khomutova, ‘Zhilshchnyi vopros na predpriiatiakh voenno-promysh- lennogo kompleksa Iuzhnogo Urala (1945–1955 gg.)’, Iuzhnyi Ural v istorii Rossii, pp. 303–307. 24. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 19, d. 111, l. 94–95. 25. OGAChO, f. R-792, op. 15, d. 250, l. 7. 26. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 1077, l. 32; OGAChO, f. P-124, op. 1, d. 904, l. 88–91. 27. On the Zaltsman case, see Gennadii V. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika Stalina: Vlast’ i antisemitizm, Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniia 2001, pp. 616–618. See also the Politburo criticism of the Cheliabinsk obkom, Cheliabinsk region and city party chairman Beloborodov on 26 January 1950, TsK VKP(b) i regional’nye partiinye komitety, 1945–1953, V.V. Denisov et al. (ed.) Moscow: Rosspen 2004, pp. 240–244. 28. Isaak Zaltsman & G. Edelgauz, ‘Vspominaia uroki Tankograda’, Kommunist, 1984, no. 16, pp. 76–87. 29. Galina Kibitkina, ‘Korol’ tankov’, manuscript at OGAChO. On the accusations at the local level against Zaltsman, OGAChO, P-124/1/904/88–91, Postanovlenie sobraniia partiinogo aktiva Kirovskogo zavoda, 19–20 July 1949. 30. See also the document in the source volume Sovetskaia zhizn, 1945–1953. Seria Dokumenty sovetskoi istorii. Ed. E. Iu. Zubkova, L.P. Kosheliova, G.A. Kuznetsova, A.I. Miniuk & L.A. Rogovaia, Moscow: Rosspen 2003, pp. 292–293. 31. M.N. Fedchenko, ‘Molodëzh ChTZ. Iz opyta sotsializatsii v usloviakh proizvodstvennoi mikrosredy (1946–1950)’, in Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, p. 221. Notes 323

32. E.B. Druzhinina, ‘Korol’ tankov’: Fakty iz biografii I. M. Zaltsmana’, in Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, p.180. 33. Elena Zubkova, Poslevoennoe sovetskoe obshchestvo: Politika i povsednevnost, 1945–1953, Moscow: Rosspen 1999, pp. 146–148. 34. See also A.I. Prishepa, ‘O nachal’nom periode dissidentstva v SSSR (na pri- merakh Urala)’, Totalitarizm v Rossii (SSSR) 1917–1991. Oppozitsiia i repressii. Materialy nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii, Perm 1998, pp. 56–64. 35. P.R. Rozhdestvenskii, ‘Materialy k istorii samodeiatelnykh molodëzhnykh obedinenii v SSSR posle 1945 goda’, Pamiat. Istoricheskii sbornik. Moscow. 1981/ Paris 1983, p. 226. 36. E. Iu. Shutkova, ‘Molodëzhnaia oppozitsiia stalinizmu v poslevoennoe vremia’, Totalitarizm v Rossii (SSSR) 1917–1991. Oppozitsiia i repressii, Materialy nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii, Perm’ 1998, pp. 71–73. 37. Vladimir Novosëlov & Vitalii Tolstikov, Tainy ‘Sorokovki’, Ekaterinburg: Ural’skii Rabochii 1995. 38. Sergeï Vladimirovich Tulinskii, Iuzhno-Ural’skii Gosudarstvennyi universitet, 1943–2003. Istoricheskii ocherk, Cheliabinsk: IuUrGU 2003. 39. Tatiana P. Pushkarëva, ‘Dukhov, Leonid Nikolaevich, ‘Inzhener–konstruktor. 100 let so dnia rozhdeniia’, Kalendar’ znamenatel’nykh i pamjatnykh dat, Cheliabinsk 2004, pp. 159–162. On the history of Southern Urals State University (IuUrGU) from its beginnings as a technical institute for tank construction established during the last years of the Great Patriotic War, see Sergei Tulinskii, Iuzhno-Uralskii Gosudarstvennyi universitet, 1943–2003. Istoricheskii ocherk, Cheliabinsk: IuUrGU 2003. 40. Aleksandr Finodeev, ‘Uchastie Kirovskogo zavoda Narkomata (Ministerstva) transportnogo mashinostroeniia v sozdanii iadernogo oruzhiia’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, pp. 223–225, idem, ‘Nachal’nyj etap razvitiia raketnoi promyshlennosti na Iuzhnom Urale’, Iuzhnii Ural v sud’be Rossii. Materialy nauchnoi konferentsii, pp. 279–284. See also V.P. Terekhov, ‘Stanovlenie i razvitie Ural’skogo raketostroitel’nogo kompleksa’, Ural v voennoi istorii Rossii: Traditsii i sovremennost, Ekaterinburg 2004, pp. 138–148.

10 Historical Memory and Research in Today’s Cheliabinsk

1. See articles in Igor Narskii, (ed.), Vek pamiati, pamiat’ veka: Opyt obrashcheniia s proshlym v XX stoletii, Cheliabinsk: Kamennyi poias 2004. 2. The eminent American expert on the Soviet defence industry and military strategy Raymond Garthoff described how US Intelligence almost by chance – and because of mistakes from the Soviet side – found out the location of the atomic cities in the Urals. On a blurry photograph in a regional newspaper the high-voltage electricity network in the Urals was discerned, and several years before the U-2 spy plane flew over the Soviet Union, it was figured out precisely where the Russian atomic cities were located. See Garthoff, A Journey through the Cold War: A Memoir of Containment and Coexistence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution 2001, p. 94. 3. Two guide books to new source materials can serve as an excellent introduction to declassified and recently published documents; compare I.A. 324 Notes

Kodrakov, Otkrytyi arkhiv–2. Spravochnik sbornikov dokumentov, vysjedshikh v svet v otechestvennykh izdatel’stvakh v 1917–2000, Moscow: Rosspen 2005. 4. Igor Narskii, Zhizn’ v katastrofe: Budni naseleniia Urala v 1917–1922 gg., Moscow: Rosspen 2001. See also A.V. Ivanov & A.T. Tertyshnyi, Ural’skoe krest’ianstvo i vlast’ v period grazhdanskoi voiny (1917–1921gg.): Opyt osmysleniia problemy v otechestvennoi istoriografii, Ekaterinburg: Ural’skii gosudarsven- nyi universitet ekonomiki, 2002, for a critical survey of Soviet and recent Russian historiography on the Civil War in the Urals 1918–1921. 5. Aleksandr Bazarov, Kulak i Agro-Gulag, vol. 1, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Ural’skoe knizhnoe izdatelstvo 1991; idem, Durelom ili gospoda kolkhozniki, vol 1–2, Kurgan: Zaural’e, 1997. 6. Tatiana Slavko, Kulatskaia ssylka na Urale, 1930–1936, Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv 1995. 7. Viktor Kirillov, Istoriia repressii v Nizhnetagil’skom regione Urala, 1920–1950 gody, vol. 1–2, Nizhnii Tagil 1996; idem, Istoriia repressii i pravozashchinoe dvizhenie v Rossii, Ekaterinburg: UMTs UPI 1999; idem, Kniga pamiati. Posviashchaetsia Tagilchanam – zhertvam repressii 1917–1980-ch godov Ekaterinburg: UIF Nauka 1994; Zhertvy repressii: Nizhnii Tagil 1920–1980-e gody, Ekaterinburg: n.p. 1999. See also his Sostoianie raboty nad knigami pamjati zhertv polititjeskich repressij v Rossii, Kazachstane i Ukraine, Nizhnii Tagil: n.p. 2002. 8. M.A. Feldman, ‘Industrializatsiia v Rossii i v SSSR v 20–30-e gg. XX veka (metodologicheskie aspekty)’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, p. 71–74. 9. Igor Narskii, (ed.), Ural v kontekste rossiiskoi modernizatsii. Sbornik nauchnykh statei, Cheliabinsk: Kamennyi poias 2005. 10. The archivists Aleksandr Finodeev, Galina Kibitkina and others at OGAChO have edited a large number of documentary collections, for example Cheliabinskaia oblast, 1917–1945, Neizvestnaia voina, 1941–1945, Zhenskoe litso Pobedy and Eti detskie voennye gody. 11. Aleksandr Finodeev (ed.), Arkhiv – khranitel vremeni. Istoriia arkhivnoi sluzhby Cheliabinskoi oblasti v dokumentakh, vospominaniakh, fotografiakh, Cheliabinsk: ChPO Kniga 2004. 12. See Rasstrel’nye spiski (Lists of executions) in the newspaper Cheliabinskskii rabochii, for e.g. 23 March, 3, 11, 18, 25 April, 15, 29 May, 6, 28 June, 10, 19, 24 July, 7, 14, 28 August 1991, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 30 July, 4, 25 August, 1, 5, 29 September, 4, 12, 24 November and 24 December 1991; 3, 15 January, 19, 25 February, 3, 11, 31 March, 8 April, 6, 13, 19 May, 16 June 1992, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 30 July, 1, 5, 29 September, 4, 12, 24 November, 24 December 1992. Under the heading ‘Reabilitirovannye’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk published lists of 106 persons on 24 and 26 November and 3, 8, 10, 24 and 29 December 1992. Each of these issues of the newspapers contains hundreds of names and brief biographical data. Even much later, local newspapers were still publishing similar articles and lists of persons who were victims of political repression during the Soviet era. 13. See Stephen Kotkin,”Modern Times: The Soviet Union and the Interwar Conjuncture”, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, vol. 2, nr 1, 2001, pp. 111–165. 14. Leonid Komarov, Rossiia tankov ne imela, Cheliabinsk: n.p. 1993. 15. Vladimir Novosiolov & Vitalii Tolstikov, Tainy ‘Sorokovki’, Ekaterinburg: Uralskii Rabochii 1994. Notes 325

16. Aleksandr Vasil’evich Bakunin, Istoriia sovetskogo totalitarizma, vol. 1, Ekaterinburg 1996. 17. Compare Aleksandr V. Speranskii, ‘Totalitarnaia kultura SSSR i Germaniia 30–40-kh gg.: Skhodstva i razlichiia’, Ural v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine, Ekaterinburg 1995, p. 101–107. 18. E.E. Ivanov & M.A. Kudinov,’Industrializatsiia SSSR glazami russkoi emigratsii’, Industrializatsiia SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 190–193. On Piotr Struve, Pavel Miliukov and Sergei Melgunov, as well as other Russian historians in exile, see Istoriki-emigranty. Voprosy russkoi istorii v rabotakh 20-x–30-x godov, Moscow: Institute of Russian History of the Academy of Sciences 2002; Iurii N. Emelianov, S.S. Melgunov: V Rossii i emigratsii, Moscow: Editorial URSS 1998. 19. Igor Narskii (ed.), Chelovek i voina. Voina kak iavlenie kultury, Moscow: AIRO-XX 2001. 20. Boris Lichman, Mnogokontseptual’naia istoriia Rossii. Posobie dlia abiturientov, Ekaterinburg: SV-96 2000; idem, Istoriia Rossii: Teoriia izucheniia, vol 1: S dre v neishikh v remën do kont sa X I X veka & vol. 2: Dvadtsatyi vek, Ekaterinburg: SV-96 2001. 21. Compare Lichman, Istoriia Rossii, vol. 2, Dvadtsatyi vek, pp. 126–167, on the great transformations from the late 1920s to the 1950s. 22. P. E. Alekseev & V. D. Kamynin,’Industrializatsiia SSSR kak obiekt mnogokontseptualnogo rassmotreniia’, Industrializatsiia v SSSR: Uroki istorii, Cheliabinsk 2003, pp. 168–171. 23. Compare in particular, Marina Sergeevna Salmina, Istoriia Iuzhnogo Urala. XX – nachalo XXI veka, Cheliabinsk: Vzgljad 2004. 24. See for example, A.A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina & A. V. Pyzhkov, Istoriia Rossii. XX – nachalo XXI vekov. Uchebnik dlia 9 klassa obshcheobrazovatelnykh uchrezhdenii, Moscow: Prosveshchenie 2003, p. 27 ‘Sotsial’naia sistema v 1930-e gody’, pp. 205–209, as well as the tasks for the students in the working papers Rabochaia tetrad po istorii Rossii. XX vek: 1928–1953 25. Compare the term papers in Memorial’s Russia-wide competition for schoolchildren published in the series ‘Man in History. Russia’s 20th century’: Chelovek v istorii. Rossiia – XX vek. Sbornik rabot pobeditelei. Moscow: Obshchestvo Memorial / Zvenja 2001–2008. 26. Ilya Polezhaikin, ‘Prinuditel’nyi trud na Cheliabinskom Traktornom Zavode’, term paper for 11th grade at General School No 59. 27. See Ekaterina Burkova & Natalia Aksënova’s term paper ‘Voennoplennye germanskoi armii na Urale, 1942–1955 gg.’, term paper for the 11th grade at the General School No 59’; see also Marina P. Salmina, O chëm rasskazalo staroe kladbishche. Po materialam issledovatelskoi deiatel’nosti uchashchichsia, Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskskii gosudarstvennyi universitet 2003. 28. Denis A. Stepanov, ‘Donos kak sposob vzaimootnoshenii cheloveka s vlast’iu. (Po materialam dokumentov 1920x–1940-kh gg. v OGAChO)’, term paper for the 11th class at School No. 59 in Cheliabinsk, 2003. The young Stepanov had investigated a topic that had been much discussed in the scholarly community in the West. He eagerly listened to my descriptions of how Sheila Fitzpatrick and other historians had analysed the Soviet system of denunciations, donositel’stvo, in Stalinist Russia. For example, Sheila Fitzpatrick ‘Supplicants and Citizens: Public Letter-Writing in Soviet Russia in the 1930s’, Slavic Review, Spring 1996, no. 1, pp. 78–105. 326 Notes

29. Vladimir Karpov, Generalissimus, Moscow: Veche 2003. 30. For a survey of all lists of victims of Soviet repression in various parts of the country, see Knigi pamjati zhertv politicheskikh repressij v SSSR: Annotirovannyi ukazatel, St Petersburg: Rossiiskaia natsionalnaia biblioteka 2003, edited by Anatolii Razumov from the association ‘Vozvrashchennyje imena’; on the martyrologies from Cheliabinsk oblast in particular, p. 181. 31. On the rehabilitation process of the 1950s by the KGB, see Oleg Veprev & Viacheslav Liutov, Gosudarstvennaia bezopasnost’: Tri veka na Iuzhnom Urale, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Ural’skoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo 2002, pp. 381–384. 32. ‘Ob utverzhdenii Polozheniia o gorodskoi komissii po vosstanovleniiu prav lits, postradavsjikh ot polititjeskikh repressii’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 27 April 2000. Local Memorial groups have since the 1990s established data on victims of political repression. Most of these data have been made available on CD-ROM disks published by the Memorial Society. 33. ‘V oblasti – 11592 zhertv politicheskikh repressii’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 11 October 1994; See also, Veprev & Liutov, Gosudarstvennaia bezopasnost’, p. 383; G. Gav r ilova, ‘St ranichka istor ii: Den’ polit zak liuchënnyk h’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 4 November 1999. 34. Compare the interview with Chief Archivist and Deputy Head of the Cheliabinsk Province Archival Committee, Galina Nikolaevna Kibitkina, ‘Voennye tainy KPSS raskryty’, Vechernii Cheliabinsk, 31 May 2001, and the lists of declassified documents: Rassekrechennye dokumenty (55-letiiu Pobedy v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine posviashchaetsia), Komitet po delam arkhivov and OGAChO, vols. 1–2, 2000. Bibliography

Printed sources

Newspapers In my research, the bibliographical handbooks Literatura o Cheliabinskoi oblasti: Tekushchii bibliograficheskii ukazatel’, no. 1 (127)/ 1991– no. 1 (144)/2000, Cheliabinsk: Cheliabinskaia universal’naia nauchnaia biblioteka, 1993–2003, have been most useful for locating articles in the regional and city press and periodicals. The newspapers Cheliabinskii rabochii (the Cheliabinsk worker) and Vechernii Cheliabinsk (Evening Cheliabinsk) have provided background material on the atmosphere of the time. However, I did not use articles in the press as sources on the realities in the changing Soviet society.

Source publications Cheliabinsk Region in Photos, 1920–1940 /Cheliabinskaia oblast’ v fotosnimkakh, 1920–1940, ed. V. I. Bogdanovskii, text by K. A. Shishov, Cheliabinsk: Kamennyi poias 2001. Cheliabinsk Region in Photos, 1940–1960 / Cheliabinskaia oblast’ v fotosnimkakh, 1940–1960, eds. V. I. Bogdanovskii, K. N. Bochkarëv et al., Cheliabinsk: Kamennyi poias 2002. Cheliabinskaia oblast’, 1917–1945. Sbornik dokumentov i materialov, eds. P. G. Agaryshev, N. A. Prykina, E. P. Jurova, I. S. Iangirova, Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno- Uralskoe izdatelstvo 1998. Davies, R.W., Oleg V. Khlevniuk & E.A. Rees, eds. The Stalin– Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–1936, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2003. Eti detskie voennye gody, 1941–1945. Sbornik dokumentov i materialov, eds. Aleksandr P. Finodeev, Elena P. Turova, Elena A. Kalinkina, N. A. Prykina & Irina S. Iangirova Cheliabinsk: Komitet po delam archivov 2000. Komintern i grazhdanskaia voina v Ispanii. Dokumenty, eds. S. P. Pozharskii & A.I. Saplin, Moscow: Nauka 2001. Neizvestnaia voina, 1941–1945. Sbornik dokumentov, eds. Aleksandr P. Finodeev, Igor I. Vishev, Nadezhda P. Paletskich & Jelena P. Turova, Cheliabinsk: Komitet po delam arkhivov 2000. Obshchestvo i vlast’. Rossiiskaia provintsiia. Cheliabinskaia oblast’. Dokumenty i materialy. Tom pervyj. 1917–1945, Cheliabinsk 2005. Reabilitatsiia: Kak eto bylo, Dokumenty Prezidiuma TSK KPSS i drugie materialy, mart 1953 – fevral’ 1956, eds. Andrei Artizov, Iu. Sigaev, I. Shevchuck, V. Khlopov, vol. 1, Moscow: Demokratiia 2000. Reabilitatsiia: Kak eto bylo, Dokumenty Prezidiuma TSK KPSS i drugie materialy, fevral’ 1956 – nachalo 80-kh godov, eds. A. Artizov, Iu. Sigaev, V. Khlopov, I. Shevchuck, vol. 2, Moscow: Demokratiia 2003.

327 328 Bibliography

Reabilitatsiia: Kak eto bylo, Dokumenty Politbiuro TSK KPSS, stenogrammy zasedanii komissii Politbiuro i drugie materialy, stredina 80-kh – 1991, eds. A. Artizov, A. Kosakouskii, V. Naumov, I. Shevchuk, vol. 3, Moscow: Demokratiia 2004. Repressii v Arkhangelske: 1937–1938 gg. ed. R. A. Khantalin, Arkhangelsk: Pomorskii Gosudarstvennyi Universitet 1999. Sovetskaia derevnia glazami OGPU–NKVD, 1930–1934 / Les Campagnes soviétiques vues par l’O.G.P.U.–NKVD, 1930–1934, eds. V. P. Danilov, A. Berelowitch, N. Werth & L. Samuelson, vol. 3, 1–2, Moscow: Rosspen 2003–2005. Sovetskaia povsednevnost’ i massovoe soznanie, 1939–1945, eds. A. Ia. Livshin & I. B. Orlov, Moscow: Rosspen 2003. Sovetskaia zhizn’, 1945–1953, eds. Elena Zubkova, Liudmila Kosheleva, Galina A. Kuznetsova, Andrei Miniuk & Larisa Rogovaia, Moscow: Rosspen 2003. Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War, eds. Ronald Radosh, Mary R. Habeck & Gregory Sevostianov, New Haven, CT, & London: Yale University Press 2001. The Stalin– Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931–1936, eds. Robert W. Davies, Oleg V. Khlevniuk & E. Arfon Rees, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2003. Zhenskoe litso Pobedy: 100 dokumentov o zhenshchinakh Cheliabinskoi oblasti v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny, 1941–1945, eds. Aleksandr P. Finodeev, Nadezhda P. Paletskikh & Jelena P. Turova, Cheliabinsk: Komitet po delam archivov 2001.

Encyclopedias Cheliabinsk. Entsiklopediia, Cheliabinsk: Kamennyi Poias 2003. Grazhdanskaia voina i voennaia interventsiia v SSSR. Entsiklopediia. Moscow: Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia 1983. Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina, 1941–1945. Entsiklopediia, ed. M. M. Kozlov. Moscow: Sovjetskaia entsiklopediia 1985.

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Page numbers followed by n refer to endnotes, with note number.

ABTU, Auto, Armour and Tank Carr, Edward, 41, 296n31 Directorate, 170, 177 Caterpillar, Inc., 104, 107, 116 Albrecht, Karl, 298n60 censorship, 137, 161, 251 American Relief Administration, Central Asia, 221, 238 ARA, 37, 296n26 central committee of the Communist amphibious tanks, 188, 212, 260 Party, 44, 51, 72, 78, 138–40, 143, Amtorg, 107 156, 196, 224, 267, 312 anti-religious propaganda, 79, 300n10 Chamberlin, William Henry, 6, 40, anti-Soviet elements, 141, 146, 150–1, 157 191–2, 314n15 architecture, Soviet, 5, 82–4, 264, Cheka, VChK, Extraordinary 291n5, 301n16 committee against counter- artillery hauler S-2, 8, 120, 170, 192 revolution, 23, 32, 36, 74, 240, Arzamas-16 (Sarov), 257, 274, 275 292n10, 295n23, 296n27 Asha steel works, 45, 167 Chekh Legion in World War I, Russian Atomgrad, 255, 280 Civil War, 19–21, 23–4, 27 atomic bomb, 257, 274–5, 283 Chekhoslovakia, 19, 165 atomic bomb project, 274, 283 Chekhov, Anton, 224 atomic city, 255 Cheliabinsk-40 (Ozërsk), 6, 255, 257, 274–5 Babel, Isaak, 1, 39, 290n1 Cheliabinsk-70 (Snezhinsk), 6, 283 Bakal iron and steel works, 45, 63 Cheliabinsk Electrode factory, 248 Bakalstroi, 237–8 Cheliabinsk Electro-metallurgical Balzhi, Mikhail, 211–13 works (ChEMK), 47 barracks, 8, 10, 62, 64, 89–92, 98, Cheliabinsk Iron and Steel Works 226, 232–5, 238–9, 248, 262–3, (ChMZ), 239 265–6, 277, 282 Cheliabinsk Politechnical Institute Beck, Friedrich, 135, 306n3 (ChPI), 10, 213, 255–6, 320 Bek, Aleksandr, 214, 315n32 Cheliabinsk Regional Power station Beria, Lavrentii, 146, 154–6, 158–60, (ChGRES), 46 190, 263, 286, 314n13 Cheliabinsk Tractor Factory (ChTZ), 5, Berlin, 128, 163, 165, 213, 252, 279 88, 98–9, 104–6, 109–10, 117–18, Bettelheim, Charles, 83 128, 130–3, 145, 168–73, 177, Bliukher, Vasilii, 17–18, 23 179–80, 192, 195, 197–8, 222–3, Blue Army, 35–6 231, 260, 262–3, 265–7, 269, 277, Brodokalmak, 2–3, 17, 246, 292n7 285, 303n9 Bruskin, Aleksandr, 117, 132, 144 Cheliabmetallurgstroi, 237, 239–40 Budionnyi, Semën, 30 see also Bakalstroi Bukharin, Nikolai Grigorievich, 151 Cheliabtraktorstroi, Cheliabinsk Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 35, 49, Tractor Building Site (ChTS), 85, 75–6, 136, 295n20 105 Burov, Andrei, 85, 301n23 Christie, Walter, 121, 133, 305n26

345 346 Index

Cold War, 2, 6, 10, 136, 149, 176, 255, five-year plan, third, 153, 302n49 257, 275, 277, 280, 313n2, 314n15 Frunze, Mikhail, 23 collective farms, see kolkhozy Fuller, J.F.C., 124 collectivisation of agriculture, 1, 4, 13, 24, 36, 48–56, 59–61, 66–7, Gabo, Naum, 84, 301n20 72, 102, 106, 136, 152, 242, 281, Germany, 15, 31, 70, 84 284, 286, 292n4, 296n31, 309n28 Ginzburg, Semën, 188, 190, 314n10 Conquest, Robert, 136 GKO (State Defense Committee), 176, constructivism, Soviet architecture 187, 190, 203, 210, 214, 229, 243, style, 82–3, 87 262 cultural palace (dvorets kultury), 82, glasnost, 5, 10, 137, 161, 280, 290n1, 87, 101 308n25, 311n1 Glavenergo, Main Energy directorate, 117 Denikin, Anton, 21, 293n10 Godin, William, 135, 306n3 desertion, 36, 227, 229, 235–6 Goebbels, Joseph, 174 Detroit, 85, 105, 107, 109, 117 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 161, 280, 282 diesel engines, 9, 118, 120–1, 123, Goregliad, A., 233 126, 169, 188–9, 193, 197, 202, Gor’kii (the city, today Nizhnii 208, 259, 305, 321 Novgorod), 84, 108, 142 Djilas, Milovan, 70 Gor’kii Automobile Factory, 176 Dneprodzerzhinsk, 43 Gosplan (State Planning commission), Dnepropetrovsk, 43, 172 43–4, 130, 175–6, 180, 187, 222 Dudov, E.P., 197 Greater Urals project, 44, 59 Dukhov, Nikolai Leonidovich, 128, Guderian, Heinz, 9 149–50, 178, 195, 197, 199–200, Gulag, Main Labour Camp 209, 211, 255, 275 administration, concentrataion Dzerzhinskii, Feliks, 33, 172 camps, 57–8, 63, 65, 111, 135, 137–8, 141, 146, 148, 152–4, Engels, Friedrich, 271 158–60, 188, 226, 229, 234, epidemics, 31, 37, 64, 98, 246, 248, 238–41, 244, 249, 262–4, 271, 293n10 273, 290n1, 293n10, 304n16, Estonia, 236 307n15, 309n29 evacuation, 168, 185–9, 203, 211, GUPVI, Main directorate for 219–23, 264, 316n6 prisoners-of-war and internees, POW camps, 241 Fainsod, Merle, 147 Far East, 20, 91, 151, 156, 250 Henry, Ernst, (pen name of Sergei February 1917 revolution, 16, 19, 24, 74 Rostovskii), 163, 311n1 Feldman, M.A., 312n34, 324n8 Hitler, Adolf, 1, 163, 165, 184, 186, Ferrous Alloys Factory (Ferrosplav), 47 217, 219, 237, 250, 301, 311n1, fifth column, 151–2 313n8 Filatov, 233, 249 Höglund, Zeth, 135, 158 Finland, 150–1, 170–2, 175, 177, 192, Holocaust, 185, 313n4 250 housing conditions, 10, 62, 64–5, 85, five-year plan, first, 6, 13, 42–5, 89–91, 110, 229, 233–5, 258–9, 49–50, 72, 76, 84, 102–3, 291n6, 261, 264–7, 277 297n45, 302n49 five-year plan, second, 44–5, 48, 74, Iagoda, Genrikh, 138, 152 131, 147, 302n49 Iakovlev, Aleksandr, 161 Index 347 industrialisation, 41–3, 47–8, 51, 61, Kurchatov, Igor V., 255, 274–5 70, 74, 82, 104, 106, 108, 111–12, Kurgan, 2, 33, 36, 73, 219 115, 126, 129, 133, 191, 279, Kuzbass, 113 281–2, 284–6, 296n31, 303n5, Kuznetsk, 44 303n9, 304n16 Kyshtym, 38, 63, 230 industrial mobilisation, see mobilisation plan Lenin, 23, 27, 35, 37, 58, 70–1, 73, intelligentsia, 83, 148, 150, 249 94, 136, 236, 271, 286, 293n10, International Harvester Inc., 104, 107 295n20, 299n3, 299n4, 306n1 Iofan, Boris, 236 Lichman, Boris, 284 Irkutsk, 32 Liddell Hart, Basil, 124 Italy, 113, 250, 291n2 Lominadze, Vissarion, 141, 153 Izhorsk factory, 189 Lovin, Kazimir, 98, 106–7, 109, 117, 145 Japan, 1, 42, 151, 163, 171, 250–1, 297 Lugovtsev, Faddei, 156–8

Kabakov, Ivan, 117, 139–40 machine and tractor stations, MTS, kadety, KD, Constitutional Democrats, 56,78, 103, 106, 140, 241–2, 249, 14, 17 259 Kaganovich, Lazar Moiseevich, 76, Magnitogorsk, 5, 44–6, 54, 63–6, 78, 185, 300n7 72–3, 82, 84, 94, 111, 114, 140–1, Kalibr factory, 221–2 148, 153, 192, 219–20, 231 Kalinin, Mikhail, 116–17 Makarenko, Anton, 38, 296n27 Kamenev, Lev, 137 Makhonin, Sergei, 210, 315n22 Kamensk, 48, 63–4, 236 Malyshev, Viacheslav, 171–2, 175, 187, Kamensk-Sinarsk, 48 190, 200, 208, 210, 314n12 Karabash, 48, 63–4, 242 Manchuria, 1, 23 Karaganda, 44 Mannerheim Line, 170, 177 Karlgren, Anton, 69, 299n1 Mariupol, 188, 236–7 katiusha, see rocket artillery launcher Markhasov, I.G., 117 Kautsky, Karl, 34–5 Martov, Iulii, 14 Kazachstan, 48, 220, 238, 274, Marx, Karl, 271, 299n2 319n52 marxism, 58, 71, 271 KGB, Committee of State Security, mass arrests, 14, 156 326n31 mass executions, 158, 185, 308n26 Khalkhin-Gol 1939 battle, 125 Matiasevich, Mikhail, 33 Kirov, Sergei, 82, 137 Mauthausen prisoner-of-war camp, 156 Knickerbocker, Hubert, 42 Medvedev, Roy, 135–6, 139 Kolchak, Aleksandr, 23, 25, 27, 32, 74 Meksin, L.A., 117 Koliushchenko, Dmitrii, 14–16, 21 Memorial, 285, 287, 325n25, 326n32 Koliushchenko Works, 85, 168, 221, Mensheviks, 16, 21, 157 230–1 Merkulov, Viktor, 233 kolkhozy, collective agricultural farms, Miass, city of, 2, 10, 15, 20, 34, 36, 45, 53–5, 57, 59, 60, 63, 103, 109–10, 100, 218, 273, 275, 277 239, 244–5, 290 Mikoian, Anastas, 151 Komarov, Leonid, 10, 283 military-industrial complex, 6, 9–10, Kopeisk, 46, 50, 62, 64–5, 104, 241, 43, 71, 159, 252, 255, 257, 259, 243, 299n69, 322n18 261, 263, 267, 269, 271, 273, 275, kulaks, 58–9, 62–3, 65, 150, 242, 309n28 277, 280, 314n12, 321n3 348 Index

Miliutin, Nikolai, 84 NKTankoprom, people’s commissariat Minaev, A.M., 66 of tank industry, 188, 196, 200, mobilisation plan, 9, 48, 128–33, 170, 220, 316n20 175–7, 179–81, 188, 191–2, 217, NKTP, people’s commissariat of heavy 257, 312n28 industry, 104–5, 132, 144 Mogilnikov, Vladimir, 16, 18, 21, 292 NKVD, people’s commissariat of Mokhov, A.F., 248–9 internal affairs (1934–46), 59, Molière, 224 63–5, 75, 78, 81, 91, 93, 98–9, Molotov (city, now Perm), 243, 252 126, 130, 138, 140–2, 145–6, Molotov, Viacheslav, 76, 89, 140, 151, 150–1, 153–9, 222–3, 229, 155, 180, 190, 217 236–42, 247, 249, 271, 285, 287, Moore, Barringtom Jr., 147, 154 290, 308n26, 310n34 Morozov, Aleksandr, 128 nomenklatura, 72, 78, 83, 136, 150 Moscow, 5, 9, 13, 20, 33, 44, 47, 71–2, Nosenko, Ivan, 259, 267, 315 76, 78, 80, 84, 99–100, 106, 108, Novosëlov, Vladimir, 314n12 117, 127–8, 130, 132, 135–6, 143–5, 163, 165, 170, 172, 174, October 1917 revolution, 12, 17–18 178, 183, 186, 188, 190–2, 197, OGPU, United State Political 199–200, 210, 214, 217, 219–20, Directorate (1922–34), 7, 24, 222, 224, 227, 236, 239, 252, 50–1, 56, 58–9, 62, 126, 152, 154, 266, 268, 271–2, 277, 288, 291n5, 240, 292n4, 298n49, 309n28 291n6, 301n16 Ogurtsov, Dmitrii, 142 Mosin, Vadim, 267 Omsk, 2, 25 Motovilikhi, 201 operational art, 125, 127 Murom, 268 Operation Barbarossa, 2, 9, 174–6, MVD, ministry of internal affairs, 183, 186, 219, 280, 313n4 160, 262–3, 271 Operation Springtime, 127 Ordzhonikidze, Sergo, 45, 96, 106, Nazi-Germany, 1–2, 9, 42, 45, 114, 117–18, 133, 144, 303n5 138, 147, 174, 177, 181, 184, 193, Ordzhonikidze machine-building 206, 217–18, 268, 286, 294, 313n5 works (Stankomash), 48, 84, 220, see also Germany 261 Nesterovskij, Izrail, 117, 132, 145, Orël, 206–8 168–9 Orenburg, 13–14, 16, 19–20, 22 Nikolai II, tsar, 15 ORS, workers’ procurement, 244 Nizhnii Novgorod, see Gor’kii Osoaviakhim, voluntary defence Nizhnii Tagil, 5, 9, 74, 78, 111, 140, organization, 166–7 188–90, 203, 211, 219, 222, 240, Ozërsk, see Cheliabinsk-40 304n16 NKB, people’s commissariat of Palace of Congress in Moscow, 80 armament, 176, 180, 220 Paris, 1, 39, 87, 120, 128, 290n1 NKLegProm, people’s commissariat of Pasternak, Boris, 115–16 light industry, 144 Patolichev, Nikolai, 224, 225, 247 NKMashProm, people’s commissariat perestroika, 280, 308 of machine-building industry, 144 Perm, 23, 72, 74, 140, 157, 190, 219, NKSM, people’s commissariat of 243, 252, 287 medium machine-building Pertsev, I.I., 249 industry, 170 Petrograd, 13, 15, 17–20, 23, 34, 106, NKStroi, 179, 188, 220 185 Index 349

Piatakov,Georgii, 33, 141, 143–5, sanatorium, 98, 211, 248 294n18 Sandomir, 214 Planned economy, 7, 48, 152–3 Sapir, Jacques, 204–5 Podolsk, 156, 189 Saprykin, G.D., 236 Pogodin, M.P., 224 Saratov, 140 Poland, 9, 31, 74, 131, 151, 159, 174, Satka Works, 45, 63–4 183, 236, 243 Schiller, Friedrich von, 224 political prisoners, 14, 36, 111, 154, Schneider, James, 61 160, 240 Scott, John, 94, 148, 291n6 Potsdam, 279 Semipalatinsk, 274 Putilov works, 61, 148–9 Serov, N., 229 shadow enterprise, 188 Radek, Karl, 136, 145 Shakespeare, William, 224 radiofikatsiia, mass introduction of Shaposhnikov, Boris, 61 radio receivers, 103 Shildkrot, Mikhail, 236 Rapoport, Jakov Davydovich, 240 show trials, 44, 77, 109, 136, 140, 143, Raskin, Boris, 142 145, 152, 294n15, 295n18 Rathenau, Walther, 70 Siberia, 1–2, 8, 14–15, 21, 23, 25, 27, rationing, 33, 244 31–2, 38, 44, 46–7, 50, 57, 60, 62, Red Army, 10, 19–21, 23, 28–34, 36, 64, 78, 90, 114, 186, 188, 214, 58, 63, 71, 74, 77, 83, 118, 120, 218, 220, 238, 241, 290n1, 291n3, 122–7, 135, 145–9, 162, 165, 170, 291n6 175, 183–4, 186, 193, 198, 203, Slavko, Tatiana, 281 205–7, 213, 215, 217–18, 226–7, Snezhinsk, see Cheliabinsk-70 230–1, 235, 238, 241–3, 248–9, SNK, see Sovnarkom 251–2, 278, 292n5, 294n15, ‘Snow Wine’, dissident group, 270 305n33, 315n26 Social Democrats, 13–16, 21, 69, 136 Red Guard troops, 17–18, 20–1 Socialist Revolutionaries (SR), 14–17, rehabilitation of victims of political 19–21, 32, 157, 309n33 despotism, 159–61, 243, 287, sotsgorodók, socialist model city, 84–5, 326n31 87 Reichswehr, 124 Souvarine, Boris, 1, 291–2n2 repressions, 8, 32, 37, 51, 126, soviet Germans, 138, 150, 237–41, 135–6, 143, 146, 149–50, 152, 279, 283, 318n50 153, 159–61, 280–1, 283–4, 287, sovkhoz, state-owned collective farm, 292–3, 307n15, 308n25, 308– 54, 63, 114 9n26, 311n1, 324n12, 326n30, sovnarkom, (Council of people’s 326n32 commissars, SNK), 175, 220, 266 Rittersporn, Gabór, 158 Spanish Civil war, 1936–9, 126, 165, rocket artillery launcher, 193, 221, 177 230, 318n32 Spartakiad, 99, 251 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 250, 314n15 Special Design Bureau SKB-2, 149–50, Rostovskii, Sergei (pen-name Ernst 168–9, 172, 178, 196–7 Henry), 163, 165, 311n1 special settlers (spetspereselentsy, Russian Social-Democratic Party spetsposelentsy), 55, 60, 62, 64–6, (RSDAP), 14, 16, 18–19, 24, 74 241–3 Rydeberg, Georg, 165 sport, 65, 99, 251, 269 Ryndin, Kuz’ma, 74–6, 78, 98–9, stakhanovite, 83, 96, 112, 230, 233, 140 –2, 147, 299n5, 307n13 304n17 350 Index

Stalin, Joseph, 13, 34, 49, 51, 55, 60, KV-1S, 197, 200, 204, 206, 208, 210 61, 67, 69, 70, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78, KV-2, 178–9 89, 102, 106, 127, 134, 135, 136, KV-3, 179, 195 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 146, 151, KV-8, 179 152, 154, 155, 157, 158, 160, 161, KV-9, 179, 200 172, 175, 178, 180, 184, 185, 187, KV-13, 208 204, 208, 210, 214, 236, 257, KV-85, 197 258, 268, 274, 276, 286, 287, Panther, 206, 211, 214 288, 291n2, 292, 295n18, 299n2, Panzer III, 183 300n7, 306n1, 307n11, 313n2 PT-76, 260 Stalingrad, 104, 203, 207, 220, 238, SMK (Sergei Mironovich Kirov), 251, 315n26, 316n34 172, 177–8 Stalingrad Tractor Factory, 104, 116, T-10, 212, 260–1 118, 126, 176, 197, 203, 210, 227, T-12, 120 262 T-24, 120 Stalinism, 70, 136, 311n1 T-26, 125, 188 Stalinist neo-classicism, 82–3 T-28, 126, 131–3, 149 Stalin-line fortifications, 43 T-29, 132–3, 306n40 ‘Stalin organs’, see rocket artillery T-34, 122–3, 126, 128, 183–4, launcher 188–90, 197–9, 201–4, 207, state capitalism, 70 210–11, 314n14 Stolypin, Piotr, 2 T-35, 126 Suvenirov, Oleg, 127 T-40, 188–9 Svechin, Aleksandr, 61 T-100, 177 Sverdlovsk (now Ekaterinburg), 9, 46, Tiger, 206, 208, 214 55, 72, 99, 139–40, 189–90, 197, Tashkent, 221 204, 219, 222, 243, 252 Tatar autonomous republic, 233 Svetlov, M.A., 224 Tekelev, A.I., 2 Sweden, 128, 250 terror, the Great 1937 terror, 24, 36, Switzerland, 16, 250, 291n6 74, 77, 126–7, 134–43, 145–7, 149–61, 190, 280–1, 283, 286–7, tank, BT, 183 292n4, 292n5, 306n3, 309n32, BT-2, 121 309n33, 310n34, 314n13 BT-5, 122 Terry, Edward J., 113–14 BT-7, 122–3 Tevosian, Ivan, 214 BT-7M, 123, 305n26 Thälmann, Ernst, 250 Christie, 121, 133, 305n26 Thane, John, 116 Ferdinand, 214 Thurston, Robert, 136 IS-1 (Iosif Stalin), 197, 208–10 Tinchenko, Iaroslav, 127 IS-2, 197, 209–10, 213–14 Titov, N.N., 17 IS-3, 197, 211–12, 214, 258, 260, Tobolsk, 14–15 279, 321n9 Tolstikov, Vitalii S., 283 IS-4, 259–60, 321n8 Tomsk, 46 IS-5, 260 totalitarianism, 283–4, 301n18 IS-8, 260 town-planning, Cheliabinsk, 72, 301n16 Jagdpanther, 215 tractor, Komintern, 170 Jagdtiger, 214 S-2, 179, 192–3 KV-1 (Kliment Voroshilov), 177–9, S-4, 170 195, 198, 200, 204 S-60, 258 Index 351

S-64, 259 Varga, Evgenii, 38 S-65, 118, 170, 179, 192–3, 211, 258 Vasenko, Evdokimov, 15, 17, 23 SG-65, 118, 192 Vega, Lope de, 224 Stalinets-60, 109, 120 Verkhne-Uralsk, 15, 19, 20, 153 Universal, 149 Vernidub, Ivan, 129, 193 Trans-Siberian Railway, 2, 20, 23, Versailles Peace Conference, and 27–8, 32, 46 Treaty, 250 Trashutin, Ivan, 197 Vladivostok, 23, 27 Treubov, Grigorii, 108 voenpred, Red army representative at Triandafillov, Vladimir, 125, 305n29 defense industry factory, 120, Troianov, I.S., 208 148, 308n23 Troitsk, 19–20, 28–9, 32–4, 36, 52, 56, Voitsekhovskii, Sergei, 20, 23 66, 98, 249 Volga, river, region, 5, 18, 24, 37, 42, Trotsky, Leon, 7, 27, 33–4, 108–9, 139, 102, 140, 158, 186, 217–20 295n18, 295n19, 303n10 Volga-Germans, 238 Tseits, N.V., 128, 177 Voroshilov, Kliment, 42, 57, 140, 149, Tsvilling, Samuil, 14–17, 20 167, 172 Tukhachevskii, Mikhail, 28, 30, 31, Voroshilov Works, 125 74, 125, 128, 137, 294n15, 305n32 Voznesenskii, Nikolai, 187, 267 Tupolev, Andrei, 159 VSNKh, Supreme Council of the Turkey, 7, 250 Economy, 42, 113

Ufa, 20–1, 26–8, 38, 46, 74 Warsaw, 31 Ufaleisk, 48 Webb, Beatrice and Sidney, 7 Ukraine, 34, 41–3, 47, 55, 59, 62–3, Wehrmacht, 183, 201, 206, 208, 219, 66, 102, 132, 148–9, 152, 172, 280, 313n8 184, 186–7, 197, 217, 222, 234, Werth, Alexander, 312–13n1 236, 243, 294n18, 313n4 Werth, Nicolas, 309, 313n1 Umanets, 90 White Army, in Civil war 1918–20, UMM, Red Army directorate for 27–8, 30–2, 278 mechanisation and motorisation, 118 Zaltsman, Isaak Moiseevich, 148–9, Ural-Kuznetsk project, 44, 72 195–6, 199, 210–12, 224, 233–4, Uraltrak, (ChTZ since 1992), 6 258–60, 262–3, 266–9, 308n24 Uritskii, Semën, 23 Zemskov, Viktor, 62, 242 USA, 104, 108, 118, 121, 163, 187, 251, Zhukov, Georgii, 199 283 Zigel, M.A., 125 UZTM, Urals Heavy Machine- Zinovev, Georgii, 34, 109, 136–7, 139–40 building Factory in Sverdlovsk, Zlatoust, 2, 15, 20, 28, 32, 34, 46, 189–90 63–4, 74, 114, 230–1, 236, 249