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Wu-Wei: Otro "Camino De Liderazgo

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UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGIA Departamento de Psicología Diferencial y del Trabajo TESIS DOCTORAL Wu-Wei: otro camino de liderazgo Wu-Wei : another way of leadership MEMORIA PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE DOCTOR PRESENTADA POR Haotian Pang Director José Prieto Zamora Madrid, 2018 © Haotian Pang, 2017 UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGIA Departamento de Psicología Diferencial y del Trabajo Wu-Wei: Otro “Camino” de Liderazgo Wu-Wei: Another “Way” of Leadership MEMORIA PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE DOCTOR PRESENTADA POR Haotian Pang Dirigida por Dr. José Prieto Zamora Madrid 2017 WU-WEI: ANOTHER WAY OF LEADERSHIP ii ABSTRACT The main subject of this doctoral dissertation is the nexus between wu-wei (a traditional Chinese notion that permeates decision making and governance) and Supportive versus Toxic leadership styles as understood in the 21st century. The background is psychological research, and a questionnaire was developed and tested with Chinese and Spanish samples. At first glance, wu-wei is an Arcanum, which is a mysterious and contradictory word, a powerful Daoist remedy because it combines action and inaction, liveliness and inertia in wise daily life affairs, in politics as well as the routine nature of authority and initiative in a job where rulership is entailed. In Western languages the translation is a nightmare and featuring it out in a questionnaire a labyrinth. This doctoral dissertation evidenced that the exit can be reached, that it has been a trouble and an amusement to search for the way out. Due to the nature of ancient Daoist philosophical jargon, the notion of wu-wei appears as a central theme of non-intervention governance, which is often mistakenly rendered as laissez-faire leadership style. In addition, the lack of an operational framework built under the modern Western management language doesn’t make the current situation any better. Consequently, no empirical-based assessment instrument has been developed, until now, to measure such a phenomenon. To bridge the gap, a Western leadership literature review was done first to outline the structure of mainstream Western leadership studies, so that the author could develop the wu-wei leadership model under such a framework and made the theories´ comparison possible. Great caution and avoidance of reading too much between the lines has been the blueprint and so the Indirect Leadership Questionnaire (ILQ) was developed to assess the latent construct of a no WU-WEI: ANOTHER WAY OF LEADERSHIP iii directive leadership model. Two axes are involved: Supportive versus Toxic leadership, cooperation versus expertise among teammates. Subsequently, a pilot study was conducted by using a sample of 225 participants from China. The original ILQ with 80 items, which uses a Likert-scale format, then was cut to 34 items after the item analysis; a four-factor construct was obtained by both principal component and exploratory factor analysis. To validate the ILQ, both the online and paper-pencil format tests (in Chinese, Spanish and English) were used in the main study to reach to a more typical sample. The final usable sample size was 616 (CN=311, ES=305) with the average age of 29.44 (SD=8.58) ranging from 18 to 68 years old, which 64% was female. The exploratory factor analysis was first conducted by using half of the sample (N=314). Unweight least squares method and parallel analysis were employed to determine the factor number, it turned out that four-factor was the best solution for the construct of wu-wei leadership model. Afterwards, the other half of the sample (N=301) was used for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The analysis results showed an adequate fit of a refined version of ILQ with 26 items. The reliability analysis revealed the internal consistency, which the four components of ILQ (toxic leader, supportive leader, cooperative followers and follower with expertise) had a Coefficient Alpha ranging from .88 to .93. Its significant positive correlations with the factors of Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) of Bruce J. Avolio demonstrated the evidence of validity. As a result, the final version of ILQ with 26 items was settled to be a valid and empirically sound measurement tool. Finally, with the aim of making a cross-culture comparison, the multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was yielded among Chinese and Spanish participants. Despite the acceptable WU-WEI: ANOTHER WAY OF LEADERSHIP iv Goodness-of-Fit index of each group, the chi-square difference test between the configural and metric invariance was statistically significant, which prevented a strict model of group invariance. Consequently, the absence of weak measurement invariance across groups indicated that the observed indicator variables measure different constructs or factors in different groups. That is to say, how Chinese people saw wu-wei as a leadership theory wasn’t the same as the Spanish people did. However, the t-test result demonstrated that the difference between two data collection methods was significant. Since all Chinese participants in the main study took the online tests, whereas 86.23% of Spanish participants took the paper tests. It raised concern that the different data collection methods might be one of the reasons for the absence of weak measurement invariance across two groups. Future research needs be done to refine the ILQ and to prove its effectiveness in organizational performance. Keywords: wu-wei, Daoism, inaction, Supportive leadership, Toxic leadership, Cooperative teammates, Expert teammates, cross-cultural Chinese and Spanish comparisons WU-WEI: ANOTHER WAY OF LEADERSHIP v RESUMEN El tema principal de esta tesis doctoral es el nexo entre wu-wei (una noción tradicional china que impregna la toma de decisiones y la gobernabilidad) y los estilos de liderazgo tolerante versus tóxico como se entiende en el siglo XXI. El fondo es la investigación psicológica, habiéndose desarrollado un cuestionario y probado con muestras chinas y españolas. A primera vista, wu- wei es un arcano, una palabra misteriosa y contradictoria, un poderoso remedio taoísta, porque combina la acción y la inacción, la vivacidad y la inercia en los asuntos sabios de la vida cotidiana y en la política, así como en la naturaleza rutinaria de la autoridad y de la iniciativa en un trabajo donde se implica a la forma de gobierno. En los idiomas occidentales su traducción es una pesadilla y presentarla en un cuestionario, laberintico. Esta tesis doctoral evidencia que se puede alcanzar la salida y que ha sido un problema y una diversión buscarla. Debido a la naturaleza de la jerga filosófica taoísta antigua, la noción de wu-wei aparece como un tema central del gobierno no intervencionista, que a menudo y equivocadamente se considera como el estilo del laissez-faire del liderazgo. Además, la falta de un marco operacional construido bajo el lenguaje moderno de gestión occidental, no mejora la situación actual. En consecuencia, hasta ahora no se ha desarrollado ningún instrumento de evaluación empírico para medir este fenómeno. Para superar la brecha, se realizó una revisión de la literatura de liderazgo occidental y de ese modo delinear la estructura de los principales estudios occidentales de liderazgo, para que así el autor pudiera desarrollar el modelo de liderazgo wu-wei bajo ese marco y hacer posible la comparación de las teorías. teniendo eso sí, cautela de evitar la lectura entre líneas. Por tanto el Cuestionario de Liderazgo Indirecto (ILQ) se desarrolló para evaluar el contructo latente de WU-WEI: ANOTHER WAY OF LEADERSHIP vi liderazgo no directivo. El constructo se supone bidimensional con los ejes de liderazgo de apoyo versus tóxico, cooperación versus experiencia entre compañeros de equipo. Posteriormente, se realizó un estudio piloto utilizando una muestra de 225 participantes de China. El ILQ (original con 80 ítems), que usa un formato de escala Likert, fue reducida a 34 ítems después del análisis del items. Los resultados del análisis factorial exploratorio, tanto por el método de componentes principales como con ejes principales mostraron cuatro factores. La recogida de datos para la validación del ILQ se llevó a cabo a través de internet y mediante aplicación colectiva presencial presentando el cuestionario en chino, español o inglés. El número de participantes en el studio principal fue de 616 (CN = 311, ES = 305) personas con una edad media de 29,44 años (DS = 8,58), de entre 18 y 68 años, de los cuales el 64% eran mujeres. Se realizó un análisis factorial exploratorio con la mitad de la muestra (N=314), leví con mínimos cuadrados no ponderados y análisis paralelo para determiner el número de factores, que fue figado en cuatro como la major solución para el modelo de liderazgo de wu-wei. Posteriorment se llevó a cabo un análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) con la otra mitad de la muestra (N=301). Los resultados del análisis mostraron un ajuste adecuado del modelo de cuatro factores reduciendo el ILQ a 26 ítems. El análisis de la fiabilidad reveló que la consistencia interna de los cuatro componentes (líder tóxico, líder de apoyo, seguidores cooperativos y seguidores con experiencia) tenía un Coeficiente Alfa de 0,88 a 0,93. Sus correlaciones positivas significativas con los factores del Cuestionario de Liderazgo Autentico (ALQ) de Bruce J. Avolio demostraron la evidencia de validez como relaciones con otras variables. Como resultado, el ILQ con 26 ítems se estableció como una herramienta de medición válida y empíricamente sólida. WU-WEI: ANOTHER WAY OF LEADERSHIP vii Finalmente, con el objetivo de hacer una comparación entre culturas, se llevó a cabo un AFC multigrupo con los participantes chinos y españoles. A pesar del índice de Goodness-of-Fit aceptable de cada grupo, el test de diferencia chi-cuadrado entre la invarianza configural y métrica fue estadísticamente significativo, lo que impidió la comparación de otros modelos de invarianza más estrictos.
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