Musical Styles and Performance Practices

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Historical Style Periods, Musical Style Elements, Repertoire, and Performance Practice Checklist Compiled, Synthesized, and Developed by Dr. Jeffrey S. Gemmell, Millersville University

It is the responsibility of performers, conductors, and music educators to be knowledgeable about historical style periods and apply this information to authentic performance practices. In this way, one participates in performances that are accurate and satisfying, especially when programming art music from the major eras of music history.

MEDIEVAL ERA (c. 500-1450)

Medieval times in Europe also were known as the “Dark Ages.” Three classes of people existed: the poor, or serfs; the nobility, who were wealthy landowners; and the clergy. There was no middle class until late in the period, when a middle class of tradesmen, merchants, and traders gradually evolved. The peasants were, as a whole, illiterate; no system of public education was known. Their status was maintained by the powerful religious and political body: the Roman Catholic Church. Unable to read, the peasants were kept “in the dark” about the value of education and how it could better their status in this life. They were led to believe that fulfillment came in life after death. This attitude, maintained for centuries, began to change only during the Renaissance, when enlightened thinking was reborn.

Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Medieval Era

Music was advanced by the church, where religion was the center of life and culture. Early in the era, monophonic chant dominated and was later codified by Pope Gregory as a standard for use by the church throughout Europe (Gregorian chant). Beginning in c.900, two-voice polyphony was introduced (organum), which later evolved into two significant types of polyphonic composition: the motet and the mass. Motets were written for unaccompanied choir, based on sacred, nonliturgical Latin text, and generally inserted into the regular church mass. The early mass was put together from various single movements by anonymous composers. Beginning in 1360, however, the entire Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei) was composed by one person, e.g., Guillaume de Machaut’s Messe de Notre Dame. Vocal music, where polyphony was performed usually by soloists, was the dominant from of music-making; organs, strings, and wind instruments gradually became more acceptable.

Secular vocal musicians emerged in the south of France and were called troubadours. These singers and storytellers traveled from town to town entertaining people. In northern France they were known as trouvéres, and in German they were called Minnesingers. These minstrels sang in the vernacular, and the music was folklike. The linking of poetry, music, and dancing was common; this type of entertainment flourished in the feudal courts.

1 Melody. Early melodies were pentatonic in structure; later, eight church modes or scales were employed. Movement was mostly conjunct, with small skips and limited range.

Harmony. There was no harmony in chant; later, organum used parallel fourths, fifths, and octaves. In late polyphonic composition, with complex added parts intended for soloists, melodic ornamentation occurred, yet open intervals still dominated.

Tonality. Music was modal; each mode had certain characteristics of range, style, melodic formula, and tonal center. Ionian (major) and Aeolian (natural minor) were part of the modal system.

Rhythm. The pace was steady, gentle, and unmetered in chant, with the eighth-note the pulse. Early organum was free and melismatic until the Arts Antiqua, when measured organum employed short and accented rhythmic patterns. In the Ars Nova, duple rhythm was introduced along with a system of proportional notation.

Texture. Monophonic texture (a single line) existed before 900, and polyphony (two or more melodic lines) was dominant from 900 to 1600.

Timbre. The sound of Medieval music was rather transparent. Both voices and instruments were folklike, and no “heavy” singing or playing was known.

Dynamics. No intensity levels were marked in the music. Given the small ensemble sizes for both singers and instrumentalists, music making was probably rather moderately sounded, with little variation within pieces.

Tempo. No indications of tempo were marked. Church music was typically slow paced, the tactus set by the speed of the human pulse (fifty to sixty beats per minute). Secular dance music moved at a lively pace.

Form. Early sacred forms consisted of chants, organum, clausulae, and conductus. Later sacred forms included complete settings of the mass and motet. Secular writing included the minstrel song, caccia, balata, and dance forms.

Selected Composers and Choral Exemplars of the Medieval Era

Chant: Dies irae Chant: Various anonymous Mass settings (Kyrie, Gloria, etc.) Chant: Pange lingua Hildegaard: O virga ac diadema Song: Sumer Is icumen In

2 Checklist of General Medieval Era Performance Practice Guidelines

Melody. • Emphasize linear nature of chant. • Use legato articulation, with smoothly flowing stepwise motion and abundant airflow to sustain spinning quality of line. • Shape lines according to melodic contour; arch-shaped dynamics.

Harmony. • Highlight chant melody. • Balance dynamics of added harmonies (organum) and remember that later in period, complex polyphonic lines were intended for soloists.

Tonality. • Use solfege to tune modal melodies and be sensitive to tuning intervals, especially half steps vs. whole steps, ascending and descending. • Sing with good intonation by embracing vocal lift, incorporating an inner smile, maintaining a steady air flow, and sustaining melodic lines with a feeling of forward motion.

Rhythm. • Pace the free flowing, non-rhythmic motion and avoid any feeling of meter, however, consider shaping eighth notes in groups of two or three and use chironomy to shape these patterns artistically according to text. • For later rhythmic complexity in polyphony, use gentle feeling of pulse to group notes and align rhythms, but avoid any feeling of modern bar (hierarchy of beats). • Use subtle conducting technique, as necessary, to coordinate singing; emphasize thesis and arsis, with appropriate gestures to encourage breath management for shaping phrases.

Texture. • Monophonic lines must be treated melodically, with appropriate shaping according to text declamation (syllabic stress); meaning is conveyed through overall melodic contour and dynamics (arch-shaped phrasing). • Be sensitive to texture and how harmonies are added; retain clarity of structure.

3 Dynamics. • Shape melodic lines dynamically according to expression and meaning of text, especially in terms of proper syllabic stress and arched-shaped phrases.

• Keep interpretation sensitive and direct, almost “folklike” in general simplicity, but avoid overuse of dramatic dynamic shapes of later styles.

Tempo. • Keep context in mind (see “Timbre” above), and use relaxed tempo to express the text with sensitivity. Tempo will depend upon acoustics of room (e.g., large cathedrals require slower tempos), and be careful not to use tempos that are too slow or two fast! • Appropriate tempo will encourage artistic shaping of lines with enough forward motion to sustain energy, pitch, breath flow, and melodic direction.

Text. • Clarity and expression of text should predominate, with the singing providing an artful and varied means of expression.

• Musical interpretation must reflect meaning of text in most sincere, simple, direct, and genuine way, with understanding that original performances occurred within context of worship service.

RENAISSANCE ERA (c. 1450-1600)

The Renaissance (“rebirth”) represents a time in western European history when humankind awoke from the darkness of the Middle Ages to a period of hope in life on this earth. No longer were people bound to religious beliefs that focused more on life after death than the present life. This enlightenment was fueled by the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. Sacred music, heretofore sung only in Latin was now sung in the vernacular, and commoners were welcomed to participate in singing. The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1450 and the printing of music made it possible to disseminate music on a greater scale. The Renaissance marked a period of intense musical growth, especially that of choral music. The “Golden Era of Polyphony” reached its peak in the music of the Roman School, headed by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525-1594).

Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Renaissance Era

The Renaissance was a period of intense growth in the melodic characteristics of musical composition. The music was primarily linear, each part being equally important. The term a cappella (literally “for the chapel”) is often associated with the Renaissance, though singing was not necessarily performed without accompaniment, except in the Sistine Chapel, where instruments were banned. The use of instruments or the organ to double voice parts was a familiar practice in this period. Melody. Melodic style included conjunct, diatonic motion, a smooth contour, narrow range (often high tessitura), motivic repetition (points of imitation), and text painting (melodic

4 figures representing certain declamations of the text, e.g., “sorrow” is painted in a descending melodic figure). Melismatic passages were also common, and instruments often doubled voices.

Harmony. Tertian harmony dominated, but the interval of the third often was omitted in final chords. Suspensions (dissonances) were prepared and resolved naturally. The emphasis was on linear or horizontal sonorities. The bass voice was added to the choral ensemble around 1450, resulting in four equal voices.

Tonality. The church modes were employed, with major and minor used more at the end of the era. The “Picardy third” was a common device whereby a composition in minor ended on a tonic major chord.

Rhythm. The rhythm, even and nonmetrical, has been characterized as “freedom from the bar line.” The basic pulse was typically the half note. It is not correct to conduct nonmetrical music with standard conducting patterns as this adds false accents to the line that are not present. Rather, conducting the tactus or recurring beat with regular, light, upward (arsis) and relaxing, downward (thesis) gestures moves the music along according to word accent. This type of “air sculpture” (known as chironomy) reflects the natural accents of the text rather the wrongfully perceived meter of the music. Metrical conducting is applicable to some late Renaissance music when the “tyranny of the bar line” was being established.

Texture. Polyphonic texture dominated. Each part must be heard when it presents important musical material. All parts cannot be preeminent at all times. It is important to teach singers to sing softer when the section of the choir that has the “head motive” must be heard. There were also occasional passages in a more homorhythmic style, and polychoral and antiphonal writing were practiced at St. Mark’s Cathedral in Venice.

Timbre. Church choirs were typically small and comprised of men and boys. The sound was balanced and rather light, with little (if any) vibrato in order to produce clear and transparent textures. Secular ensembles employed one or two voices on a part.

Dynamics. Loud and soft were limited, mp to mf, and were unmarked before 1597, when Giovanni Gabrieli first used p to indicate solo and f to indicate tutti. Subtle contrasts were indicated by the rise and fall of vocal lines. Apogic accents (longer notes) received the most weight, and the tonic accent was important in well-written compositions.

Tempo. Tempos were generally not marked; metronome markings in modern editions are editorial. Each tempo was dictated by the text and the time signature (the “proportional” sign), which signified tempus (time, each measure divided into two or three beats) and prolationis (prolation, the division of the beat into two or three subdivisions). In general, the tactus (beat) was the half note and moved between 48 and 80 beats per minute, depending upon the clarity of the fastest notes and the use of ornamentation (the more ornamented, the slower the tempo). Sacred music of the Renaissance was generally slow. When the basic metric pattern moved from two to three beats per measure, however, the

5 indication was to conduct three notes in the new section in the space of two in the previous section, which caused the music to move faster in the triple section.

Text. There was much textual repetition in sacred music. Therefore, the text was often obscured in polyphonic writing. Sacred texts (most from Holy Scripture) were devout, worshipful, and universal. Secular texts were often frivolous and mostly based on love or pastoral themes.

Form. The common sacred forms were mass, motet, canticle, piae cantiones (sacred songs), anthem, and hymn (chorale). Common secular forms were madrigal, chanson, balata, canzonetta, lied, and freemen’s songs.

Selected Composers and Choral Exemplars of the Renaissance Era

The Franco-Flemish School Selected Composers: Arcadelt, Compere, Josquin des Prez, Lasso (Lassus), Isaac, Jacobus Clemens (Clemens non Papa), Mouton, Ockeghem, Obrecht, Willaert, Gombert, and Regnart Selected Compositions: Arcadelt: Ave Maria Josquin des Prez: Ave Maria Mouton: Noe, noe psalite

The Roman School Selected Composers: Morales, Palestrina, and Victoria (Vittoria) Selected Compositions: Palestrina: Sicut cervus Palestrina: Missa Papae Marcelli Victoria: Missa “O quam Gloriosum” Victoria: O magnum mysterium Victoria: O vos omnes Victoria: Ave Maria

The Venetian School Selected Composers: Croce, Andrea Gabrieli, Giovanni Gabrieli (uncle and nephew) Selected Compositions: A. Gabrieli: Angelus ad pastores G. Gabrieli: Jubilate Deo a 8 (1597) G. Gabrieli: O magnum mysterium G. Gabrieli: Attendite, popule meus

6 The German School Selected Composers: Hassler, Jacobus Handl (Gallus), Luther, and Praetorius Selected Compositions: Hassler: Cantate Domino Hassler: Ihr Musici, Frisch auf Hassler: Nun fanget an Luther: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott Luther: Von Himmel hoch da komm ich her Praetorius: Psallite Jacob Handl: Resonet in laudibus

The English School Selected Composers: Byrd, Dunstable, Gibbons, Tallis, Taverner, and Tye Selected Compositions: Byrd: Mass for [Three, Four or Five] Voices Byrd: Ave verum corpus Gibbons: Hosanna to the Son of David Gibbons: This is the record of John Tallis: If ye love me Tye: Laudate Nomen

The English Madrigal School Selected Composers: Bennett, Byrd, Dowland, Farmer, Gibbons, Morley, Weelkes, Wilbye, and Ravenscroft Selected Compositions: Bennett: Weep, O mine eyes Byrd: This sweet and merry month of May (a 4) Dowland: Weep ye no more sad fountains Dowland: What poor Astronomers are they Farmer: Fair Phyllis I saw Gibbons: The Silver Swan Morley: April is in my mistress’ face Morley: Fyer, Fyer Morley: Now is the month of Maying Weelkes: As Vesta was from Latmos hill descending Weelkes: Thule, the period of cosmography

The Italian Madrigal School Selected Composers: Arcadelt, Lasso, Gesualdo, Marenzio, and Monteverdi Selected Compositions: Arcadelt: Il bianco e dolce cigno Lasso: Matona mia cara Lasso: O la, o che bon eccho! (The Echo Song) Lasso: O occhi manza mia Monteverdi: Ecco mormorar l’onde (a 5) Monteverdi: Lasciatemi morire (a 5; 1614)

7 Checklist of General Renaissance Era Performance Practice Guidelines

Melody. • Approach various parts horizontally, as interaction of various melodic lines, yet be sensitive to vertical structures at cadence points. • Use gentle legato articulation: smoothly flowing stepwise motion and abundant airflow to sustain spinning quality of various polyphonic lines. • Listen to the other parts and notice how your part relates to the others. Decide whether you should be predominant (e.g., head motive) or supportive. • Shape all parts according to melodic contour and employ arch-shaped dynamics within the parts; be aware of overall texture and how your part relates to the whole. • Highlight any examples of text painting (see “Text” below). • Emphasize cantabile approach for any instruments that double vocal parts.

Harmony. • Be aware that harmonies are created by interaction of melodic lines – think horizontally – and “lock in” cadences that are more vertically conceived. • Tune constantly through awareness of other parts, especially in cadences, with an understanding of your part in terms of non-harmonic tones, suspensions, and resolution of dissonances.

Rhythm. • Pace the free flowing, non-metrical motion and avoid any feeling of meter in the modern sense. See “Rhythm” under Style Elements section above regarding the avoidance of the “tyranny of the barline.” Conduct the “tactus” as necessary and use chironomy as a means to shape the music according to text. • In general, use a gentle feeling of pulse to group notes and align rhythms, but avoid any feeling of modern bar (hierarchy of beats) so that inherent microrhythms can be heard in the music. • Use subtle conducting technique, as necessary, to coordinate singing; emphasize thesis and arsis, with appropriate gestures to encourage breath management for shaping phrases, necessary lift within the vocal mechanism, and singing on a cushion of air.

Texture. • Polphonic lines must be treated melodically, with appropriate shaping according to text declamation (syllabic stress), meaning as conveyed through overall melodic contour and dynamics (arch-shaped phrasing).

8 • Be sensitive to texture and how harmonies are created (see “Harmony” above); retain clarity of structure so that each part may be heard clearly.

Timbre. • Use appropriate vocal timbre with realization that choirs were generally small. Develop your interpretation and aural image by imagining the large, resonant cathedrals in which this music was performed, remembering who was responsible for performing the repertoire (men and boys), and understanding the context of the original “performance” within worship services where the music used as a liturgical device. • Sing with comparatively simple technique, compared to later styles, and emphasize clarity, transparency, and quality of pitch and intonation. Sound was balanced and rather light, with little (if any) vibrato in order to create clear and transparent textures. Secular ensembles employed only one or two voices on a part. • Explore a variety of vocal timbres to create innovative performances within a more “folklike” context, especially by experimenting with dialects, using colorful, “reedy” vocal production. Try other rambunctious sounds within a healthy approach to vocal technique. Such experimentation with “round and tumble” interpretations is especially effective in secular music (madrigals).

Dynamics. • Shape melodic lines dynamically according to expression and meaning of text, especially with proper syllabic stress and arched-shaped phrases. • Create subtle dynamic contrasts with the melodic rise and fall of the phrases (ascending lines = crescendo; descending lines = descrescendo); apogic accents (longer notes) receive the most weight, highlighted with the use of a gentle messa di voce. • Keep interpretation sensitive and direct, almost “folklike” in general simplicity; avoid overuse of the dramatic dynamics of later styles.

Tempo. • Remember that all modern markings related to tempo are editorial. Original proportional signs signified groupings of notes and subdivisions. In general, the tactus (beat) was the half note and moved between 48 and 80 beats per minute, depending upon composition. • Use generally slower tempos, with large note value receiving the takt (e.g., common time should be conducted in two). When basic metric pattern moves from two to three beats per measure, conduct three notes in the new section in the space of two notes in the previous section (4/4 conducted in two to 3/4 conducted in three; see Victoria’s O magnum mysterium). • Keep context in mind (see “Timbre” above), and use relaxed tempos to express texts with sensitivity. Tempos will depend upon acoustics of room, i.e., large cathedrals require slower tempos, and be careful not to go too slow or two fast! Appropriate tempo will encourage artistic shaping of lines with enough forward motion to sustain energy, pitch, breath flow, and melodic direction.

9 Text. • Clarity and expression of text should predominate, with the singing providing an artful and varied means of expression. Even in complex polyphony, text declamation must remain clear. • Musical interpretation must reflect meaning of text in most sincere, simple, direct, and genuine way, with understanding that original performances occurred within context of worship service. • Madrigals should be performed with animation, energy and creativity. Be sure to highlight text painting and emphasize musically what is written textually. Experimenting with vocal timbre (see above) will emphasize music-text connection.

BAROQUE ERA (c. 1600-1750)

The term “Baroque” originated from the Portuguese word barocca, which indicated an irregularly shaped pearl. It was adopted by later generations as a way of making fun of Baroque art, which was considered exaggerated and in poor taste. Characteristics of Baroque music included its highly ornamented nature (trills, appoggiaturas, etc.), virtuosity, dramatic nature, and specific musical expressiveness (known as “doctrine of the affections”). The Baroque love of decoration flowed through the period’s painting, sculpture, and architecture, as well as its music. The names of Bach and Handel are synonymous with Baroque music.

Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Baroque Era

The music of the Baroque era represented a radical shift from that of the Renaissance. While the music of the earlier period was predominantly vocal and choral, instrumental music now came to rival the voice because of advancements in instrument development and because the courts of nobility and royalty demanded secular entertainments. The length of compositions also was extended in the Baroque, and multimovement forms became common. A cappella music quickly faded as instruments were used to accompany and play independently. The era also saw the beginning of a new form: opera.

Melody. Melismatic passages became common, as did melodic leaps and chromatic pitches. Melodies were greatly ornamented, and included those both written and improvised by soloists. Ranges were moderately wide and often exceeded the octave.

Harmony. Whereas the Renaissance focused on the melody, the Baroque focused on the harmony and its functional nature (tertian, with some seventh chords, augmented sixths, etc.). Modulations were common (circle of fifths), as were sequences.

Tonality. The establishment of the major-minor system was confirmed. Standard pitch level was about a half step lower than today. For minor tonality, melodic minor was used when the melody was the main consideration, and harmonic minor was employed when vertical harmony was the main consideration.

10 Rhythm. The “tyranny of the bar line” was common as consistent metrical organization dominated. Characteristic was an unflagging rhythm (fortspinnung) that moved forward with constancy and even tempo. Dotted rhythms were common but were not played strictly as written. The French style increased the length of the dotted note and shortened the complimentary note. In the Italian style, dotted notes conformed to the basic “swing” of the music; that is, if the underlying feeling was in triplets, dotted notes took on the triplet characteristic of long-short, as in Bach’s “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring.” Baroque music must dance! To this end, Weston Noble cites four basic practices (see “Rhythm” in Performance Practice Checklist below).

Texture. Homophonic texture became extensively used, as did a more fluid type of polyphonic writing. This newer form of polyphony was highly imitative and fugual in nature. Monody (solo with homophonic accompaniment) also was introduced in the early Baroque period by composers such as Monteverdi.

Timbre. Vocal works were generally accompanied by instruments. Larger works contained ritornello sections for instruments alone; the basso continuo provided the harmonic support with a chordal keyboard part (usually harpsichord or organ) and lower string instruments doubling the bass line (usually cello). The composer rarely wrote out the continuo parts but employed a shorthand technique known as figured bass. Choirs became slightly larger in the Baroque, with sixteen to twenty singers, and continued to comprise only men and boys. Instrumental compositions often used contrasting effects between a small group of instruments (concertino) and a full group (ripieno). This from of writing became known as the concertato or concerted (contrasting) style, which became the forerunner of the concerto in the Classical Period.

Dynamics. “Terraced” dynamics resulted in blocks of contrasting louds and softs. The use of crescendo and decrescendo was not common except as messa di voce for long notes. Varying stages of loudness over long phrases were indicated by use of dynamic terms in sequence (i.e., pianissimo, piano, forte, fortissimo).

Tempo. The “doctrine of the affections” indicated one mood (tempo) per movement or section. Contrast was achieved between sections or movements and not within. Tempos were deliberate and steady with little variation. They are believed to have been faster than contemporary interpretations of tempo terminology.

Text. Musica poetica emphasized expression and emotion, which was accomplished through text (word) painting. Sacred music incorporated religious writing and poetry as well as use of scripture.

Form. Single-movement forms included the motet, anthem, and chorale. Multimovement sacred forms were the mass, cantata, oratorio, passion, and Magnificat. Secular forms included opera, solo song, and madrigal.

11 Selected Composers and Choral Exemplars of the Baroque Era

The German School Selected Composers: J. S. Bach, Buxtehude, Hammerschmidt, Handel, Pachelbel, Praetorius, Schütz, and Telemann Selected Compositions: Bach: “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring” from Cantata 147 Bach: Cantata 104: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme Bach: Chorale harmonizations, e.g., Jesu meine Freude Bach: Magnificat Bach: Motets, BWV 225-230 Buxtehude: In dulci jubilo (Cantate de Noël) Buxtehude: Wachet auf, BuxWV 100 Pachelbel: Singet dem Herrn Praetorius: Wachet auf (a 4) Schütz: Also hatt Gott die Welt gebliebt Schütz: Cantate Domino Schütz: Selig sind die Toten Telemann: Psalm 117: Laudate Jehovam omnes gentes

The Italian School Selected Composers: Carissimi, Lotti, Marcello, Monteverdi, Pergolesi, Pitoni, A. Scarlatti, and Vivaldi Selected Compositions: Lotti: Crucifixus Monteverdi: Vespro della Beata Vergine, 1610 Pergolesi: Magnificat Pitoni: Cantate Domino A. Scarlatti: Exultate Deo Vivaldi: Gloria

The English School Selected Composers: Blow, Handel (who became an English citizen), and Purcell Selected Compositions: Blow: Sing, sing ye muses Handel: Chandos Anthem No. 9: “O praise the Lord with one consent” Handel: Alexander’s Feast Handel: Coronation Anthem #2: “The King shall rejoice” Handel: Dixit Dominus, HWV 232 Handel: Joy to the World Handel: Messiah Purcell: Dido and Aeneas Purcell: Jehovah, quam multi sunt hostes mei Purcell: O sing unto the Lord Purcell: Thou knowest Lord, the secrets of our hearts

12 The French School Selected Composers: Charpentier and Lully Selected Compositions: Charpentier: Magnificat Charpentier: Messe de Minuit pour Noël Lully: Salve Regina (Petit motet)

Checklist of General Baroque Era Performance Practice Guidelines

Melody. • Encourage, develop and use a solid vocal technique that allows flexibility, buoyancy, energy, strength, well-balanced breath flow/pressure, consistency of sound through the entire range, clarity, and pitch accuracy. Baroque melodies require strong technique to negotiate pitches and rhythm, especially the regular and abundant use of melismas. • Explore a variety of articulation (legato, non-legato, martellato, staccato, marcato, etc.) to sing parts -- perhaps even within a single melodic figure -- in order to reflect (or sometimes contrast) accompanying instrumental articulation. In contrast to the previous period, vocal forces may be more instrumentally conceived and should be performed appropriately for consistency within the entire ensemble. Simularly, the sophistication, skills and abilities of vocal soloists evolved in this period, hence a variety of vocal techniques are necessary for effective expression in solo passages, arias, etc. • See notes below under “Texture” that pertain to the melodic nature and realization of various parts. • Utilize vibrato as a vocal ornament (similar to what pop singers do today), with generally less vibrato elsewhere.

Harmony. • Use solfege to increase performers’ awareness of harmonic progressions, both vertically and horizontally. • Analyze all harmonies from the bottom up, yet be aware of how each individual part contributes to the total harmonic picture. • Become familiar with the role of the continuo group and be able to realize a figured bass. This aspect of the Baroque ensemble is the harmonic foundation of the majority of compositions. • Analyze all chorales according to common practice procedures, which were codified in this period, but also be aware of the melodic nature of each part and the role of nonharmonic tones in enhancing expression horizontally.

Tonality. • Use solfege to increase ensemble’s understanding of tonality. As major and minor became firmly established in this period, and the use of equal temperament made performance in all keys possible, performers need to be aware of how these keys are specifically applied. Remember the church modes, however, which are still employed.

Rhythm. • Highlight this important and most identifiable feature of the style (along with the use of basso continuo) and encourage singing that is delightfully rhythmic, buoyant and energized. • While the “tyranny of the bar line is established,” the music is not square. The ability of performers to understand the Schwung (“swing”) inherent in the rhythm and to “find the groove” is necessary for the music to dance. • To this end, Weston Noble cites four basic practices: (1) weak beats must lead to strong beats (the emphasis on beat one must be overcome); (2) shorter time values serve as “springboards” to longer time values; (3) repeated notes are often separated thus maintaining the individuality of each note; (4) when a melodic line changes direction, the note preceding the turn is stressed to push the following (weaker) notes along with greater energy (2005, pp. 79-83). For a fuller explanation of these practices, read Lecture 9, “Stylisic Awareness in Music of the Baroque” in Noble’s book, Creating the Special World.

Texture. • Conceptualize Soprano and Bass parts as a melodic duet. Melodic function in homophonic structures is often given to the soprano voice, but the lowest part (basso continuo) is most musical when interpreted melodically, even though it serves such a strong harmonic function. • Interpret each line/part in polyphonic/fugal structures melodically –- with shape, clarity, distinctness, rhythmicity, and articulation – and notice how these melodies interact (bring out “subject,” “head motive,” “fugato figure,” etc.).

Timbre. • Utilize a strong and effective vocal technique to balance the regular use of instrumental accompaniments. Performers need to produce the volume and body necessary for projection, yet remain free, flexible, clear, rhythmic and dance-like in style. • Listen to performances of this repertoire by groups that specialize in Baroque performance practice. Get these sounds in your ears, let them “inform” your own “aural image,” and strive to duplicate this style and timbre in your own performances for utmost authenticity (what’s truest to the music). [My favorite recordings are by the Monteverdi Choir and the English Baroque Soloists under the direction of John Eliot Gardiner. You’ll notice immediately the contrast with more “modern” performances, especially: ensemble size (smaller); nature of the instruments (softer and more subtle); nature of choir voicing (Alto part sung by combination of men and women); and the brisk tempos and impressive virtuosity.]

Dynamics. • Employ dynamic expression to balance rhythmic articulation; retain musicality in a style that is so rhythmically oriented. • Perform terraced dynamics designated for larger sections, but also include micro- dynamics within note/phrase levels for added expression and musiciality, including arch- shaped melodic lines, messa di voce on long notes, other dynamics to accompany the dance- like nature of the rhythm.

14 Tempo. • Know and follow all tempo markings, with a realization that m.m. numbers listed today are usually slower than what current research has found for Baroque repertoire. Consider faster tempos and lighter articulation than what was common standard performance in the mid/early-20th century. (See “Timbre” above.) • Use a metronome in your score preparation to reinforce your own feeling of internal pulse. Notate m.m. values on your scores and share these with your instrumentalists before the first rehearsal with them so that performers are ready for your tempos. For best preparation, consider rehearsing at a variety of tempos – especially faster ones – to encourage utmost flexibility and freedom. Most importantly, keep your tempos steady. • Focus on your own conducting technique (use a baton and hold it comfortably) and make sure it is clear to instrumentalists! Strong ictus points, clear patterns, and consistent “travel” is crucial for instrumentalists to follow you. Have a firm idea of what you want to hear from them on all levels (tempo, rhythm, articulation, dynamics, etc.) and be able to explain (or better yet: sing!!) precisely what you’d like. Be ready to rehearse the instrumentalists to realize your interpretation. Listen carefully to all performers and use your eyes to communicate in order to achieve success: remember to give instrumentalists equal attention!

Text. • Emphasize clear declamation of text and be sure it is well projected. To improve diction, consonant articulation must be crisp and clear, with an effort to place consonants in front of the beat with energy and air flow. If consonants are lazy, the choir will sound sluggish and slow. Tempos between choir and orchestra will not align; total ensemble will suffer. • Convey heightened expression vocally in compositions that reflect musica poetica (emphasis on expression and emotion). Highlight text painting and reinforce emotions embedded in musical material composed with inspiration of the period’s belief in the “doctrine of the affections.”

CLASSICAL ERA (c. 1750-1825)

The Classical era in music was one of grace and elegance. Formality was at its core and was reflected in the mannerisms of royal courts and nobility. The highly decorative Baroque manner was abandoned for a simpler style of musical writing. This style, first known as the stile galant, evolved into more intricate forms such as sonata allegro, which gave birth to the Classical symphony. Austria and Germany were the centers where instrumental music came to dominate. Composers moved from working under the patronage system (Haydn), to defying the system (Mozart), and finally to breaking loose as independent musicians (Beethoven). Choral music continued its importance in the sacred rites of the church, but instrumental music and opera advanced greatly as concerts for the public were made available. Continued improvements in music printing made the dissemination of composers’ works easier, and a wider audience developed for art music. The age of the public concert took root in this era.

15 One place where the Classical giants’ music traveled was to a small group of Moravians, a religious sect who traveled to and settled in the areas of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Most American colonists had little schooling, and art music events were rare. The Moravians, however, were a well-educated group who brought string and wind instruments with them to the New World. Choral music was central to their form of worship, but they also cultivated the use of strings and winds. Children were expected to learn an instrument and read music. Some of the earliest renditions of Beethoven’s symphonies and Haydn oratorios were given by the Moravians in the new colonies.

Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Classical Era

Melody. The structure of the melody was often motivic, characterized by short melodic fragments and little embellishment. Melodies were typically scalewise, with occasional chromatic notes, and often melismatic. Lyricism and smooth contours dominated the melodic outline.

Harmony. A simple, functional harmonic vocabulary was employed, with use of seventh chords and secondary dominants. Organized key relationships were formal and predictable between movements. Continuo writing was abandoned for full part writing except in some sacred choral music.

Tonality. A strong and conservative tonal system of major and minor was employed. Key changes often were expressed only by accidentals in the parts.

Rhythm. Music was metrically conceived and moved by the bar rather than by the beat. Simple and constant rhythm patterns were clearly marked with strong cadences and a certain liveliness. Silence (notated rests) became an important part of the rhythmic structure. The standard appoggiatura was performed as a long-short figure.

Texture. Both homophony and polyphony were used individually and in combination. Grand fugues and double fugues were written in polyphonic texture.

Timbre. Choral forces became larger and sometimes very large. A richer orchestral sound developed as instruments improved in quality. An orchestra of eighteen to twenty strings and winds in pairs was common. The following adjectives are generally characteristic of Classical sound: crystalline, bright, polished, clear, easy, crisp, and elegant.

Dynamics. Intensity levels were regularly marked with dynamic markings, and crescendo and decrescendo markings were gradually developed. Dynamic contrasts were employed within movements as well as various dynamic accents.

Tempo. Classical tempos were generally moderate, and extremes were avoided, although a wide range of tempos was employed, including tempo rubato (used with discretion) and occasional changes of tempo within movements. Beethoven was the first composer to use metronome markings (the metronome was invented by Mäzel).

Text. Literary sources were used as well as that of the Holy Scriptures. Words showed emotional restraint and were rather objective. Text painting continued to be employed.

Form. The formal structure of Classical music was in evidence through great symmetry (ABA) and balance between repetition and contrast. Phrase structure was mostly regular and cadences were well defined. The opera chorus was more effectively used than in the Baroque as opera became more realistic. Larger choral forms included oratorio, cantata, mass, Te Deum, Magnificat, Stabat Mater, and vespers. Similar works included offertories, motets, antiphons, and part-songs.

Selected Composers and Choral Exemplars of the Classical Era

The Viennese School Selected Composers: L. van Beethoven, F. J. Haydn, and W. A. Mozart Selected Compositions: Beethoven: Final movement from Symphony No. 9 Beethoven: “Hallelujah” from Mount of Olives Haydn: Lord Nelson Mass (Mass No. 11 in D Minor) Haydn: “The heaven’s are telling” from The Creation Mozart: Ave verum Mozart: Requiem Mozart: Choruses from Die Zauberflöte The Italian School Selected Composers: Boccherini, Cherubini, Gasparini, and Zingarelli Selected Compositions: Cherubini: Veni Jesu Gasparini: Adoramus te Christe Zingarelli: Go not far from me, O God The English School Selected Composers: Attwood, Callcott, and Wesley. Selected Compositions: Attwood: Teach me, O Lord Attwood: Turn thy face from my sins The Early American School Selected Composers: Billings, Hopkinson, Holyoke, Ingalls, Law, Morgan, and Read Selected Compositions: Billings: Chester Billings: Connection Billings: I am the rose of Sharon Billings: Lamentation over Boston Billings: Modern Music Billings: O praise the Lord of heaven Billings: Thus saith the high and lofty one Billings: When Jesus wept

17 Read: Hear our prayer, O Lord my God Read: O praise the Lord, O my soul The Moravian School Selected Composers: Antes, Bechler, Geisler, Gregor, Herbst, and Peter Selected Compositions: Antes: Go, Congregation, Go Bechler: O the blessedness is great Gregor: In Slumber, Peaceful Slumber Herbst: Lobet den Herrn Herbst: They made a crown of thorns for him Peter: It is a precious thing

Checklist of General Classical Era Performance Practice Guidelines

Melody. • Encourage, develop and use a solid vocal technique that accounts for the lyricism and smooth contour that the melodies regularly require. In addition, the choral instrument requires flexibility, buoyancy, energy, strength, good breath management, consistency of sound through the entire range, clarity, and pitch accuracy. Classical melodies require solid technical foundation to sing well and with expression and refinement. Melodies are usually stepwise with occasional chromaticism and abundant melismas, and the soprano part often lies in a high tessitura. • Explore a variety of articulations in a more measured way than the previous period (legato, non-legato, martellato, staccato, marcato, etc.) to sing melodic lines/parts -- perhaps even within a single melodic figure -- in order to reflect (or sometimes contrast) accompanying instrumental articulations. Vocal forces are still primarily instrumentally conceived (seemingly, at times, even secondary), and this reality needs to be understood for consistency within the entire ensemble. Simultaneously, the greater sophistication, skills and abilities of vocal soloists reach an even higher level in this period. • Realize that the interpretation of this repertoire is more “standard” and “normal” in a modern sense.

Harmony. • Use solfege to increase performers’ awareness of harmony, which in this period is clear and functional, organized and often predictable. Be aware of any music that expands the predictable (“development” sections), especially later in the period, and notice how expression is increased through harmonic development. • Analyze all harmonies from the bottom up – continuo writing is still used in much sacred music – yet be aware of how each individual part contributes to the total harmonic picture. Sacred music is generally more conservative and less adventurous than secular music; solo vocal repertoire generally exhibits more development and advancement than choral music.

Tonality.

18 • Use solfege to increase ensemble’s understanding of tonality. Strong and conservative tonal system was employed, with key changes usually signaled only by accidentals in the parts. Make singers aware these adjustments (highlight accidentals) and emphasize these alterations through accurate performance.

Rhythm. • Be aware that music of this period was conceived by the bar rather than the beat, and this influenced phrase structure, which became a critical component of larger overall forms (e.g., Sonata Allegro, Rondo, etc.). Form and structure became more significant in this period concerned with organization, balance, and symmetry. • Encourage cleanliness, refinement and clarity in performing rhythms that are simple and patterned, clearly marked, with strong cadences, and performed with a certain liveliness heard best using a sound that is lean and clean. • Perform rests (silences) with the same care and attention as notes (sounds) to enliven the rhythmic structure. Standard appoggiatura – notated as an eighth-note grace note – was performed as a long-short gesture (opposite of the notation).

Texture. • Balance all four parts, even though the soprano part usually predominates. In general: (1) sopranos often carry the melody, which needs to be sung with ease, refinement, clarity and sensitivity, regardless of high tessitura; (2) altos need to treat their part as musically as possible and summon their best artistry, even if the material seemingly lacks melodic interest; (3) tenors, often in a high tessitura, need to keep their singing light, rhythmic, dynamically controlled, and sensitive; (4) basses need to keep their sound forward, bright, rhythmic, projected, and proactive rhythmically, especially keeping the consonants in front of the beat. • Interpret each line/part in polyphonic/fugal structures melodically –- with shape, clarity, distinctness, rhythmicity, and articulation – and notice how these melodies interact (bring out “subject,” “head motive,” “fugato figure,” etc.).

Timbre. • Utilize a strong and effective vocal technique to balance the regular presence of instrumental accompaniments. Performers need to produce the volume and body necessary for projection and remain free, flexible, clear, rhythmic and graceful. • Remember that “loud is not thrilling, thrilling is thrilling,” especially as performing forces become larger (sometimes very large) and orchestras employ a richer orchestral sound with modern instruments. The following adjectives are generally characteristic of Classical sound: crystalline, bright, polished, clear, easy, crisp, and elegant.

Dynamics. • Employ dynamics that are regularly marked, including crescendos and decrescendos, but also include micro-dynamics within note/phrase levels for added expression and musiciality, including arch-shaped melodic lines, messa di voce on long notes, and other dynamics to accompany the refined nature of the rhythm.

19 Tempo. • Know and follow all tempo markings, with understanding that tempos in this period were generally moderate – avoiding extremes – and consider some use of tempo rubato (with discretion). • Use a metronome in your score preparation to reinforce your own feeling of internal pulse. Notate m.m. values on your scores and share these with your instrumentalists before the first rehearsal so that performers are ready for your tempos. For best preparation, consider rehearsing at a variety of tempos – including faster ones – to encourage utmost flexibility and freedom. Most important, keep your tempos steady. • Focus on your own conducting technique (use a baton and hold it comfortably) and make sure it is clear to instrumentalists! Strong ictus points, clear patterns, and consistent “travel” is crucial for instrumentalists to follow you. Have a firm idea of what you want to hear from them on all levels (tempo, rhythm, articulation, dynamics, etc.) and be able to explain (or better yet: sing!!) precisely what you’d like. Be ready to rehearse the instrumentalists to realize your interpretation. Listen carefully to all performers and use your eyes to communicate in order to achieve success: remember to give instrumentalists equal attention!

Text. • Emphasize clear declamation of text and be sure it is well projected and elegant. To improve diction, consonant articulation must be crisp and clear, with an effort to place consonants in front of the beat with energy and airflow. If consonants are lazy, the choir will sound sluggish and slow; tempos between choir and orchestra will not align and total ensemble will suffer.

ROMANTIC ERA (c. 1825-1900)

The restraint and objectivity of the Classical era dissolved into the overt emotion and great subjectivity in the Romantic era. This movement began with the literature of the eighteenth century, particularly with such writers as Rousseau and Goethe, and climaxed in the works of the late Romantic composers such as Brahms, Wagner, and Strauss. These composers wrote to communicate depth of emotion, and formal design became less important as musical composition spilled over its boundaries. Choruses grew very large, and orchestras expanded to include families of instruments: strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Orchestral color was enhanced as composers wrote for these families and individual instruments. Opera took on enormous proportions, and opera choruses became operatic in nature with full-throated, soloistic singing. Nationalism took on great importance as schools of composition reflected nationalistic flavor.

Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Romantic Era

It was in the nineteenth century that the conductor, as we know the role today, became a standard part of the music ensemble. Public audiences for music concerts were filled with middle-class citizens who came to view the conductor as a celebrity. Artists, in general, now made the world of music making a public arena; the concert hall took the place of the

20 church for many composers, singers, players, and conductors. Great choral works such as the Deutsches Requiem of Brahms were composed not for a religious service but for a concert-going audience. Choral music transcended the chapel, the church, the drawing room, and the palace to assume a new life in the role of the public concert hall.

Melody. Melodic variation, from flowing and smooth to fragmented and irregular, was dictated by personal feeling, with dynamic peaks and changes. Melodies tended to grow out of harmonic progressions, becoming less independent than previously written. The use of vocal portamento (a slight vocal glide between pitches) was common. Portamento in choral singing as well as orchestral string playing has been so limited in musical performance for so many years that to modern audiences it tends to sound in poor taste.

Harmony. Romantic composers made great use of chromaticism, nonharmonic tones, altered chords, and ninth and thirteenth chords to build harmonic tension. Strong, formal cadences were usually avoided in favor of deceptive cadences used to give a sense of tension and movement. Modal harmonies for folk songs, especially those of nationalistic origin, served to open new avenues of harmonic expressivity.

Tonality. Major-minor tonality continued, but a weaker sense of key center developed, leading to a gradual disintegration of the major-minor system. Tonality was further weakened by the fusion of major and minor modes, using chords typical of one mode in the other. Key relationships became less formalized, with modulations to distant keys; sudden moving in and out of key for short periods of time added to the weakening of a strong feeling for a particular key.

Rhythm. In the early Romantic period, rhythm remained much as it had in the Classical period. By the middle of the nineteenth century, rhythm came to be more irregular and more interesting, with changes in meter, cross-rhythms, and syncopations. Later, rhythm was often complex and rhapsodic, sometimes avoiding strong stresses to increase the sense of tension, especially in slower movements.

Texture. The texture was largely homophonic, with a mixture of vertical and horizontal elements. Polyphonic texture became more of a device than a style. Thick textures often resulted in divided choral parts.

Timbre. Choruses and orchestras were often large, producing a big sound and much drama. Choral singing was more soloistic, operatic, fuller, and heavy, with a strong but balanced bass voice. Small choral ensembles also existed, mostly of amateurs, who gathered together in homes to sing part-songs. This singing was lighter and more folk-like.

Dynamics. A full range of intensity was explored from ppp to fff. Wide changes were frequent, with subtle changes and minute gradations. Many accents added to the dynamic tension.

Tempo. Metronome markings were used extensively, but served only as a guide and in no way bound a performer to a set tempo. Wide variations were employed, from largo to

21 presto. “The general consensus among nineteenth-century musicians was that various performances of the same piece could have a range of suitable tempos, and that flexibility within a given tempo was implied.” (Joseph, 2014, p. 24). There was much use of tempo rubato as an expressive device.

Text. Composers used outstanding literature and poetry as texts for choral music. These were often highly emotional and sensitive, adding to the musical tension. Folklore also was used as a textual source, especially in opera.

Form. Formal structure was often unclear. Sections of works would overlap without strong cadences and lacked symmetry. Contrasting theme groups were employed, but sometimes only motives were pitted against each other. Larger choral forms included cantata, oratorio, mass, Te Deum, and choral symphony. Smaller forms were part-song, motet, opera chorus, sacred piece, and anthem.

Selected Composers and Choral Exemplars of the Romantic Era

The German School Selected Composers: Brahms, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Wagner Selected Compositions: Brahms: O schöne Nacht Brahms: “How lovely is thy dwelling place” from A German Requiem Mendelssohn: He watching over Israel Mendelssohn: “Lift Thine Eyes” from Elijah Mendelssohn: There shall a star from Jacob come forth Schumann: Herbstlied

The Italian School Selected Composers: Bellini, Donizetti, Puccini, Rossini, and Verdi Selected Compositions: Rossini: Ave Maria Rossini: Duetto buffo di due gatti Rossini: Toast pur le nouvel an Verdi: Pater noster Verdi: “Sanctus” from Requiem

The Austrian School Selected Composers: Bruckner, Schubert, Strauss, and Wolf Selected Compositions: Bruckner: Locus iste and other motets Bruckner: Mass in E Minor, especially “Kyrie” Schubert: Mass in G Major Schubert: Der Tanz Schubert: Nachtelle

22 The French School Selected Composers: Adam, Berlioz, Dubois, Fauré, Gounod, Offenbach, and Saint-Saëns (Later Impressionists included Debussy and Ravel.) Selected Compositions: Berlioz: “The Shepherds’ Farewell” from ‘L’enfance du Christ Debussy: Trois Chansons Fauré: Requiem Gounod: “Sanctus” from Messe Solennelle Ravel: Trois Chansons

The Russian School Selected Composers: Bortniansky, Gretchaninov, Leontovich, Mussorgsky, Rachmaninoff, Tchaikovsky, and Tschesnokov Selected Compositions: Gretchaninov: Cherubic Hymn in D Major, Op. 29 Gretchaninov: Nunc dimttis Rachmaninoff: “Bogoroditse Devo” from All-Night Vigil (Vespers), Op. 37 Rachmaninoff: Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, Op. 31 Tchaikovsky: Holy, Holy, Holy (Hymn to the Trinity)

The English School Selected Composers: de Pearsall, Elgar, Noble, Stainer, Sullivan, and S. S. Wesley Selected Compositions: Elgar: Ave verum corpus Elgar: The Snow Stainer: “God so loved the world” from The Crucifixion Sullivan: Finale from Act 1 of The Mikado Wesley: Blessed by the God and Father Wesley: Lead me, Lord

The Czech-Hungarian School Selected Composers: Dvorak and Janacek Selected Compositions: Dvorak: Mass in D Major

The American School Selected Composers: Beach, Burleigh, Buck, De Koven, Foster, Gaul, MacDowell, Mason, and Parker Selected Compositions: Beach: Let this mind be in you Beach: Mass in E-flat Major Burleigh: My Lord, What a Morning Burleigh: Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child Foster: Come where my love lies dreaming MacDowell: The Brook Parker: Lights glittering morn bedecks the sky

23 Checklist of General Romantic Era Performance Practice Guidelines

Melody. • Encourage, develop and use a solid vocal technique that permits singers to express themselves with depth of personal feeling reflected in extremes of dynamic intensity and constancy. Melodies are expressed with richness and fullness of sound with abundant use of color and emotion. • Use of portamento is permitted, with musical emphasis placed on the line and sustained sound/feeling between the notes.

Harmony. • Understand the role of harmonic tension and release as a means to create emotion in musical expression. • Use solfege to increase performers’ awareness of harmony, which in this period is expanded with greater use of chormaticism, nonharmonic tones, altered chords, and ninth and thirteenth chords to build harmonic tension. Draw singers’ awareness to avoidance of cadences through use of the deceptive cadence to create tension, release, and movement. • Analyze all harmonies and be aware of how each individual part contributes to the total harmonic picture. Notice the use of modal harmonies for folks songs and other repertoire to open new avenues to harmonic expressivity, especially for those pieces of nationalistic origin.

Tonality. • Use solfege to increase ensemble’s understanding of tonality, especially the weaker sense of key center and the gradual disintegration of the major-minor system. Note other developing aspects of tonality, including fusion of major and minor modes, less formalized key relationships, modulations to distant keys, and sudden transport inside and outside of keys to create a sense of tonal ambiguity. These efforts serve to increase musical tension and heighten emotion through the creative use of tonality. Singers need to open their artistic sensitivities to these influences and allow the musical material to inspire them to take interpretive risks in performance.

Rhythm. • Continue rhythmic performance practice of previous period for repertoire composed earlier in the era, but be ready for more complex and irregular rhythms inherent in later Romantic music. Notice how all the musical elements are united in the connection of musical tension and release as related to strength of feeling. Emotions need to guide musical expression and are the basis all music-making, however, accuracy and appropriate control is still critical for success.

Texture. • Retain clarity of texture and sound even when musical material becomes thick and complex through a mixture of vertical and horizontal elements. Singers need to be aware of

24 their role in the texture and – even when using full, resonant sounds – remain sensitive to how their part interacts with others.

Timbre. • Utilize a strong and effective vocal technique to balance the regular use of instrumental accompaniments. Performers need to produce a sound more solisitic, operatic, fuller, and weighty, yet remain free, flexible, sensitive, rhythmic, and feelingful. • Remember that “loud is not thrilling, thrilling is thrilling,” especially as performing forces become larger (sometimes very, very large) and orchestras employ an even richer orchestral sound than the previous period. • Be aware that this was a period of dramatic growth for amateur singing societies, where an abundant amount of secular part-songs were composed for use in homes, schools, other public spaces, etc. In this case, ensembles were smaller and singing was lighter and more folk-like.

Dynamics. • Employ a wide range of dynamics that are regularly marked and explored, from ppp to fff. Singers need to be taught good vocal technique in order to produce such contrasting and rapidly changing intensities, as well as the subtle changes and minute gradations that music requires. • Note the many accents and other dynamic/articulation marks that add to musical intensity.

Tempo. • Be aware of and contemplate all tempo markings, but feel free to adjust them by consulting with your own sense of musicianship and let your feelings guide you. Extremes may be considered, and tempo rubato is common as an expressive device. • Use a metronome in your score preparation to reinforce your own feeling of internal pulse. Notate m.m. values on your scores and share these with your instrumentalists before the first rehearsal so that performers are ready for your tempos. For best preparation, consider rehearsing at a variety of tempos – including faster ones – to encourage utmost flexibility and freedom. Most importantly, be ready to justify your tempos and insist on any unique interpretative decisions that you may have devised. • Focus on your own conducting technique (use a baton and hold it comfortably), make sure it is clear to instrumentalists and don’t be afraid to be EMOTIONAL and EXPRESSIVE! Your conducting should reflect the style period and the importance of the conductor-as-artist. Strong ictus points, clear patterns, and consistent “travel” is crucial for instrumentalists to follow you, especially as you use abundant tempo rubato. Have a firm idea of what you want to hear from performers on all levels (tempo, rhythm, articulation, dynamics, etc.) and be able to explain (or better yet: sing!!) precisely what you’d like. Rehearse the instrumentalists to realize your interpretation. Listen carefully to all performers and use your eyes to communicate in order to achieve success: remember to give instrumentalists equal attention!

25 Text. • Emphasize the emotional nature of the text, practice it often by reading it expressively, and be sure it is well projected with intense feeling. To improve diction, consonant articulation must be crisp and clear, with an effort to place consonants in front of the beat with energy and airflow. If consonants are lazy, the choir will sound sluggish and slow; tempos between choir and orchestra will not align and total ensemble will suffer.

SOURCES

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Brown H. M., & Sadie, S. (eds.) (1990) Performance Practice: Music before 1600. New York: Norton.

Brown H. M., & Stein, L. K., (1999) Music in the Renaissance (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Dart, T. (1963) The Interpretation of Music. New York: Harper & Row.

Donnington, R. (1982) Baroque Music: Style and Performance. New York: Norton.

Dreyfus, Laurence. (1987) Bach’s Continuo Group: Players and Practices in His Vocal Works. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gardiner, John Eliot. (2014) Bach: Music in the Castle of Heaven. New York: Knopf.

Garretson, R. L. (1993 Choral Music: History, Style, and Performance Practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Haberlen, J. B. (1972) Microrhythms: The Key to Vitalizing Renaissance Music. Choral Journal 8(3), 11-14.

Larsen, J. P. (1988) Handel, Haydn, and the Viennese Classical Style (trans. Ulrich Kramer). Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press.

Neumann, F. (1978) Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. New York: Schirmer Books.

Noble, W. H. (1005) Creating the Special World. Chicago: GIA.

Philips, Kenneth H. (2016) Directing the Choral Music Program, (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford.

Reese, G. (1940) Music in the Middle Ages. New York: Norton.

Robinson, R. & Winold, A. (1976). The Choral Experience: Literature, Materials, and Methods. New York: Harper & Row.