Historical Style Periods, Musical Style Elements, Repertoire, and Performance Practice Checklist Compiled, Synthesized, and Developed by Dr. Jeffrey S. Gemmell, Millersville University It is the responsibility of performers, conductors, and music educators to be knowledgeable about historical style periods and apply this information to authentic performance practices. In this way, one participates in performances that are accurate and satisfying, especially when programming art music from the major eras of music history. MEDIEVAL ERA (c. 500-1450) Medieval times in Europe also were known as the “Dark Ages.” Three classes of people existed: the poor, or serfs; the nobility, who were wealthy landowners; and the clergy. There was no middle class until late in the period, when a middle class of tradesmen, merchants, and traders gradually evolved. The peasants were, as a whole, illiterate; no system of public education was known. Their status was maintained by the powerful religious and political body: the Roman Catholic Church. Unable to read, the peasants were kept “in the dark” about the value of education and how it could better their status in this life. They were led to believe that fulfillment came in life after death. This attitude, maintained for centuries, began to change only during the Renaissance, when enlightened thinking was reborn. Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Medieval Era Music was advanced by the church, where religion was the center of life and culture. Early in the era, monophonic chant dominated and was later codified by Pope Gregory as a standard for use by the church throughout Europe (Gregorian chant). Beginning in c.900, two-voice polyphony was introduced (organum), which later evolved into two significant types of polyphonic composition: the motet and the mass. Motets were written for unaccompanied choir, based on sacred, nonliturgical Latin text, and generally inserted into the regular church mass. The early mass was put together from various single movements by anonymous composers. Beginning in 1360, however, the entire Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei) was composed by one person, e.g., Guillaume de Machaut’s Messe de Notre Dame. Vocal music, where polyphony was performed usually by soloists, was the dominant from of music-making; organs, strings, and wind instruments gradually became more acceptable. Secular vocal musicians emerged in the south of France and were called troubadours. These singers and storytellers traveled from town to town entertaining people. In northern France they were known as trouvéres, and in German they were called Minnesingers. These minstrels sang in the vernacular, and the music was folklike. The linking of poetry, music, and dancing was common; this type of entertainment flourished in the feudal courts. 1 Melody. Early melodies were pentatonic in structure; later, eight church modes or scales were employed. Movement was mostly conjunct, with small skips and limited range. Harmony. There was no harmony in chant; later, organum used parallel fourths, fifths, and octaves. In late polyphonic composition, with complex added parts intended for soloists, melodic ornamentation occurred, yet open intervals still dominated. Tonality. Music was modal; each mode had certain characteristics of range, style, melodic formula, and tonal center. Ionian (major) and Aeolian (natural minor) were part of the modal system. Rhythm. The pace was steady, gentle, and unmetered in chant, with the eighth-note the pulse. Early organum was free and melismatic until the Arts Antiqua, when measured organum employed short and accented rhythmic patterns. In the Ars Nova, duple rhythm was introduced along with a system of proportional notation. Texture. Monophonic texture (a single line) existed before 900, and polyphony (two or more melodic lines) was dominant from 900 to 1600. Timbre. The sound of Medieval music was rather transparent. Both voices and instruments were folklike, and no “heavy” singing or playing was known. Dynamics. No intensity levels were marked in the music. Given the small ensemble sizes for both singers and instrumentalists, music making was probably rather moderately sounded, with little variation within pieces. Tempo. No indications of tempo were marked. Church music was typically slow paced, the tactus set by the speed of the human pulse (fifty to sixty beats per minute). Secular dance music moved at a lively pace. Form. Early sacred forms consisted of chants, organum, clausulae, and conductus. Later sacred forms included complete settings of the mass and motet. Secular writing included the minstrel song, caccia, balata, and dance forms. Selected Composers and Choral Exemplars of the Medieval Era Chant: Dies irae Chant: Various anonymous Mass settings (Kyrie, Gloria, etc.) Chant: Pange lingua Hildegaard: O virga ac diadema Song: Sumer Is icumen In 2 Checklist of General Medieval Era Performance Practice Guidelines Melody. • Emphasize linear nature of chant. • Use legato articulation, with smoothly flowing stepwise motion and abundant airflow to sustain spinning quality of line. • Shape lines according to melodic contour; arch-shaped dynamics. Harmony. • Highlight chant melody. • Balance dynamics of added harmonies (organum) and remember that later in period, complex polyphonic lines were intended for soloists. Tonality. • Use solfege to tune modal melodies and be sensitive to tuning intervals, especially half steps vs. whole steps, ascending and descending. • Sing with good intonation by embracing vocal lift, incorporating an inner smile, maintaining a steady air flow, and sustaining melodic lines with a feeling of forward motion. Rhythm. • Pace the free flowing, non-rhythmic motion and avoid any feeling of meter, however, consider shaping eighth notes in groups of two or three and use chironomy to shape these patterns artistically according to text. • For later rhythmic complexity in polyphony, use gentle feeling of pulse to group notes and align rhythms, but avoid any feeling of modern bar (hierarchy of beats). • Use subtle conducting technique, as necessary, to coordinate singing; emphasize thesis and arsis, with appropriate gestures to encourage breath management for shaping phrases. Texture. • Monophonic lines must be treated melodically, with appropriate shaping according to text declamation (syllabic stress); meaning is conveyed through overall melodic contour and dynamics (arch-shaped phrasing). • Be sensitive to texture and how harmonies are added; retain clarity of structure. Timbre. • Use appropriate vocal timbre with realization that choirs were generally small. Develop your interpretation and aural image by imagining the large, resonant cathedrals in which these chants were performed, remembering who was responsible for performing the chants (men and boys), and understanding the context of their original “performance” within worship services used as liturgical devices. • Sing with comparatively simple technique, compared to later styles, and emphasize clarity, transparency, and quality of pitch and intonation. 3 Dynamics. • Shape melodic lines dynamically according to expression and meaning of text, especially in terms of proper syllabic stress and arched-shaped phrases. • Keep interpretation sensitive and direct, almost “folklike” in general simplicity, but avoid overuse of dramatic dynamic shapes of later styles. Tempo. • Keep context in mind (see “Timbre” above), and use relaxed tempo to express the text with sensitivity. Tempo will depend upon acoustics of room (e.g., large cathedrals require slower tempos), and be careful not to use tempos that are too slow or two fast! • Appropriate tempo will encourage artistic shaping of lines with enough forward motion to sustain energy, pitch, breath flow, and melodic direction. Text. • Clarity and expression of text should predominate, with the singing providing an artful and varied means of expression. • Musical interpretation must reflect meaning of text in most sincere, simple, direct, and genuine way, with understanding that original performances occurred within context of worship service. RENAISSANCE ERA (c. 1450-1600) The Renaissance (“rebirth”) represents a time in western European history when humankind awoke from the darkness of the Middle Ages to a period of hope in life on this earth. No longer were people bound to religious beliefs that focused more on life after death than the present life. This enlightenment was fueled by the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. Sacred music, heretofore sung only in Latin was now sung in the vernacular, and commoners were welcomed to participate in singing. The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1450 and the printing of music made it possible to disseminate music on a greater scale. The Renaissance marked a period of intense musical growth, especially that of choral music. The “Golden Era of Polyphony” reached its peak in the music of the Roman School, headed by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525-1594). Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Renaissance Era The Renaissance was a period of intense growth in the melodic characteristics of musical composition. The music was primarily linear, each part being equally important. The term a cappella (literally “for the chapel”) is often associated with the Renaissance, though singing was not necessarily performed without accompaniment, except in the Sistine Chapel, where instruments were banned. The use of instruments or the organ