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Mercenary Narratives in American Popular Culture, 1850-1990

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Mercenary Narratives in American Popular Culture, 1850-1990 MANIFEST MERCENARIES: MERCENARY NARRATIVES IN AMERICAN POPULAR CULTURE, 1850-1990 by Charity Fox Bachelor of Arts, University of Pennsylvania, 2001 Master of Liberal Arts, University of Pennsylvania, 2004 A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 31, 2010 Dissertation directed by Gayle Wald Professor of English The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Charity Fox has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of August 3, 2010. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. MANIFEST MERCENARIES: MERCENARY NARRATIVES IN AMERICAN POPULAR CULTURE, 1850-1990 Charity Fox Dissertation Research Committee: Gayle Wald, Professor of English, Dissertation Director Thomas Guglielmo, Associate Professor of American Studies, Committee Member Antonio Lopez, Assistant Professor of English, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2010 Charity Fox All rights reserved iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As a scholar and a teacher, words are my stock in trade, but I find myself at a loss of words adequate enough to express my thanks to those who have helped me throughout my time at GW. Researching and writing can be isolating and solitary affairs, but I have been deeply blessed by caring advisors, wonderful colleagues, and a loving and supportive family. These brief acknowledgements can only scratch the surface of my gratitude. I benefited from working with a fantastic dissertation committee that challenged and supported me. I always felt a sense of ownership and control over my project because they encouraged me to find my own way through continuous questions and research. Gayle Wald especially encouraged me to follow my interests and instincts, redirecting my energies through perfect questions, and soothing anxieties with aplomb. She has provided me with an outstanding model of collegiality, productivity, and insightful and efficient feedback and mentoring. Tom Guglielmo and Tony Lopez have both shared their enthusiasm for my project and its many possibilities from the beginning. Tom continues to push me to be a better historian, encouraging me to make my literary tendencies ever more interdisciplinary. And Tony introduced me to William Walker, a discovery that deeply changed my understanding of American mercenaries and their long history within popular culture. James Miller has been a wonderful department chair, full of genuine warmth and incredibly helpful advice, and always bringing in a dose of reality beyond the microcosm of graduate school in our conversations. Melinda Knight created the Graduate Writing Preceptorship, the fellowship program that brought me to GW and supported my development as a scholar and as a teacher. Melinda has been an incredibly devoted mentor iv always willing to carve time out of her incredibly busy schedule to help me navigate all things academia, and I am proud to also call her my friend. I have been lucky to have truly wonderful colleagues in my American Studies and Writing Preceptor cohorts. Laurie Lahey, Joan Fragaszy Troyano, Amber Wiley, and I bonded from the beginning – thank you for “secret” happy hours where we could talk shop but usually ended up talking about everything else. To my preceptor writing group – Jennifer Cho, Clara Lewis, Jeannine Love, Anne Showalter, and Joan Fragaszy Troyano – thank you. Thank you for reading everything that I wrote, no matter how early the draft or how late the posting; for giving me your thoughtful feedback, incredible suggestions, and unfaltering encouragement; for letting me know when it was ok to let go and move on to the next step; for giving me a reason to leave the house during my writing year; and for enduring every step of this long, hot summer of mercenaries with me. I’m looking forward to working with you all for years to come. To my parents, Allen and Merlene Fox, thank you for your unconditional love and support. You’ve always fostered my intellectual curiosity, encouraged me to pursue my dreams, and given me perspective on those dreams. Thank you for the daily affirmations – I love it when a plan comes together too! Thank you to Amity Fox for being my sister and friend, for keeping me informed on family matters, and for always bringing me back to reality with a smile. And thanks, finally, to Brian Boettger – thank you for your love and support; for keeping me grounded and laughing throughout the whole process; for believing that I could do this at every step of the way; for your endless patience and enthusiasm; and for being the best part of my life. v ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION MANIFEST MERCENARIES: MERCENARY NARRATIVES IN AMERICAN POPULAR CULTURE, 1850-1990 This dissertation examines American mercenary narratives in television series, novels, memoirs, and other mass-media cultural products to compose a literary and cultural history of American mercenaries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Using literary, visual, and cultural analysis, I examine the cultural work performed in William Walker’s memoir The War in Nicaragua (1860); Richard Harding Davis’ mercenary romance novels Soldiers of Fortune (1897) and Captain Macklin (1902); early Cold War television series Soldiers of Fortune (1955-1957) and Have Gun, Will Travel (1957-1963), as well as Ernest K. Gann’s novel Soldier of Fortune (1954) and film adaptation (1955); and late Cold War television series The A-Team (1983-1987) and Airwolf (1983-1986; 1987). Mercenary narratives appear in popular discourse during times of contested social changes and international interaction, roughly parallel to times of war, crises in white patriarchal masculinity, redefinitions of American Exceptionalism, and revisions of Manifest Destiny. Within the fun, action, and romance that attract consumers, mass-media mercenary narratives communicate narratives of social control, order, and hierarchy. They offer a glimpse into historicized structures of feelings and understandings of the possible, thinkable, idealized, and heroic as presented from the assumed dominant point(s) of view, and provide a way to examine contemporary understandings of race, gender, and class relations constructed through a lens of benevolent dominance and control. Ritualistically consuming mass-media mercenary narratives creates collective prosthetic memories and vi heuristics for understanding (fictional and factional) American mercenaries and private military contractors. As paramilitary patriots, these mercenaries believe in the American project – life, liberty, pursuit of happiness, etc. – and project a benevolent, ambitious American spirit, but they enforce these beliefs through violent means or threats of violence made from outside the authority of the state apparatus. As a popular culture form, mercenary narratives provide a hegemonic and ritualistic guide for contemporary popular culture consumers traversing liminal periods. The American mercenary is always simultaneously a domestic and a transnational figure, one that enforces conservative understandings of acceptable race, gender, and class hierarchies in “other” and “foreign” spaces, such as other nations, borderlands, and liminal spaces within the United States where identities are flexible. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements iv Abstract vi Table of Contents viii Chapter 1 1 Introduction: The Cultural Work of American Mercenary Narratives Chapter 2 44 Manifest Roots: William Walker and The War in Nicaragua (1860) Chapter 3 92 Answering the Call of War: Richard Harding Davis’ Mercenary Romances – Soldiers of Fortune (1897) and Captain Macklin (1902) Chapter 4 144 Building the Frontier Empire: Mercenary Narratives in the Early Cold War – Soldier of Fortune (1954; 1955), Soldiers of Fortune (1955-1957), and Have Gun, Will Travel (1957-1963) Chapter 5 198 At Home in the Battlefield: Mercenary Narratives in the Late Cold War – The A-Team (1983-1987) and Airwolf (1984-1986; 1987) Epilogue 253 Bibliography 260 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: THE CULTURAL WORK OF AMERICAN MERCENARY NARRATIVES When I tell people that I have been researching representations of mercenaries in American popular culture, the next bit of conversation usually goes something like this: “Mercenaries. You mean like Blackwater?” “Yes, some like Blackwater, but also fictional mercenaries that came before Blackwater, like Have Gun, Will Travel and The A-Team.” “Oh, that kind of mercenary. That reminds me of [insert name of favorite childhood television series, comic book, action figure, etc.] Are you talking about my favorite thing too?” Aside from the constant and often impassioned suggestions for sources that absolutely must be included in my research, the part of these conversations that stands out is the reaction, “Oh, that kind of mercenary.” Mercenary contains an assumed negative understanding about the kind of person or character so labeled, and it is often purposefully employed – or avoided – for specific political and cultural reasons. In its most basic definition, the term “mercenary” could potentially be applied to anyone who works for a living, but the negative connotations and political foregrounding of the term come out especially when it is applied to those whose jobs are distasteful, militaristic in nature, and morally or ethically ambiguous. In this negative connotation, “mercenary” is strongly associated with medieval warfare – large roaming bands of wild men, raping
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