Attitudes towards English as a Lingua Franca
in Greek tertiary educational contexts
by
Roxani Faltzi
A thesis submitted for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics School of English Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
March 2017 To
my late godfather, Sotirios
and my beloved husband, Konstantinos
ii Abstract
As a result of globalization, English has spread to such an extent that non-native speakers far outnumber native speakers. English is often used as a lingua franca between people from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds and is undeniably the global language of business communication. The present study stemmed from an interest in the way English is perceived and used by Greek Business School students as well as their identity in relation to English. This thesis tackles these issues from an English as a Lingua Franca
(ELF) perspective and aims to give answers to questions that arise from that new sociolinguistic reality. Moreover, this study examines the factors that influence the students’ perceptions and the way they identify with English.
The participants were 561 undergraduate students from a number of Greek tertiary institutions but mainly from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, the
University of Macedonia and the Athens University of Economics and Business. They were 3rd, 4th, or final year students majoring in Business-related fields. The study adopted a mixed methods approach that involved data collection through questionnaires, semi- structured interviews and a social media research tool.
The results highlight that students embrace the role of English as the undisputable medium of global business communication and tool for their career advancement and personal development. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that students claim ownership of English, while using it for their own purposes. Also, though the students favour native speaker accents, they allow some space to non-native speaker accents. The study pinpoints the interpersonal element of international communication and shows that
iii intercultural experiences, gained through travelling, or participating in Erasmus programmes and internships abroad, are conducive to the formation of the students’ attitudes and identity in relation to English. The in-depth interviews proved insightful as they let students’ experiences unfold, providing more evidence of the factors that affect students’ attitudes and way of identification with English. The ELF use offered students the opportunity to develop an open-minded and cosmopolitan mentality, become more confident, and aware of the strategies and skills associated with successful international business communication.
Based on the research findings, this study offers pedagogical recommendations for incorporating a more holistic approach in the teaching of English for specific purposes (ESP) taking into consideration the role of English in international business communication.
iv Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Dr Areti-Maria Sougari for her most valuable guidance, her encouragement and continuous trust and patience during my candidature. I would also like to thank her for initiating me in the field of attitudes and ELF and for being next to me in this endeavour.
My sincere thanks are also extended to Dr Nicos Sifakis, my second supervisor, for his insightful comments on my thesis and his expertise that has proved valuable from the beginning of my research. Special thanks goes to Dr Marina Tzoannopoulou, the third member of my committee, for her attention to detail while reading my thesis and for being so kind and encouraging.
I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to the participants of this research and especially those who participated in the interviews and the social media part of the study. I also wish to thank the AIESEC members at the AUTH who allowed me to join their meetings. My gratitude and thanks also go to Dr C. Boutsouki, Dr T. Hatzigagios, Prof. L. Labrianidis, Prof. D. Mardas, Dr G. Zarotiadis and finally Dr F. Vouzas, for allowing me to distribute the questionnaire to their students. Special thanks goes to Dr Iris Papadopoulou for being so helpful with the questionnaire distribution, during the pilot and the final phase of the data collection. Also, I would like to thank the ESP instructors who shared their experiences of teaching ESP.
I also express my appreciation to Kostas Tzanas for his encouragement and his statistical advice throughout this research. Dr Eleftheria Tsirakoglou for providing her expertise in the back-translation of the questionnaire and for her support.
I also wish to express my most heartfelt thanks to …
Professors Henry Widdowson and Barbara Seidlhofer for offering me the opportunity to participate at the ELF 7 PhD workshop in Athens and for their insightful remarks on my research.
v Kaisa Pietikäinen and Miya Komori-Glatz, for the insightful comments and discussions about ELF and for creating this long-distance relationship since our meeting at the ELF 7 PhD workshop. Dr Bill Batziakas, for the ELF discussions and his help with references I had no access to.
My friends Froso, Lola and Sofia for being next to me during this challenging period. Chryssa, for her warm-hearted welcome and loving support during my stay in Edinburgh.
Ilenia and Stefania, for being part of such an enriching, supportive and loving bond that we have created. My cousins, Roxani and Vasilis, and my uncle, Vaggelis for all the inspiration and encouragement to follow my personal path.
My godmother, Pelagia, and my godfather, Sotiris, for their love and subtle guidance to pursue my own dreams. Above all, for being such loving role models and always a source of inspiration. My grandmother, Artemis, for her love, advice and for being young at heart. My family and especially my mother, Evaggelia, for loving me and for being an invaluable support all my life.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my husband, Konstantinos, who has fully trusted and supported this long journey, putting off his needs and wishes at most times, sharing all the ups and downs, just because he loves me. Thank you for stepping out of the comfort zone and embarking with me on this long quest of self-discovery and personal development.
Roxani Faltzi
Thessaloniki, March 2017
vi
Contents
Dedication ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements v List of Contents vii List of Tables xiii List of Figures xv Abbreviations xvi Transcription Conventions xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 The spread of English in the world 1 1.2 The rationale for the present research 2 1.3 Research questions 3 1.4 Structure of the thesis 5
Chapter 2 Globalization, English as a Lingua Franca and current challenges for teaching Business English 2.1 The globalization phenomenon and ELF 7 2.2 The global spread of English 9 2.2.1 Globalization of English in higher education 11 2.3 Political debates about the spread of the English language 15 2.4 Terminological considerations 18 2.4.1 EIL, ELF and definitions: The term used in this thesis 20 2.5 The ownership of English 24 2.6 The teaching of English and current realities 29 2.6.1 The politics of English language teaching 29 2.6.2 The need for a new approach to language teaching and learning 31 2.6.3 New challenges for ELT based on ELF research 33 2.6.4 ELF awareness in teaching and learning English 38 2.7 English for Specific Purposes 40 2.7.1 A definition of ESP and its classification 42 2.8 English for business purposes 44 2.8.1 ELF research in business contexts 45 Concluding remarks 50
vii Chapter 3 Exploring the notions of attitudes, motivation and identity 3.1 The importance of attitudes 51 3.2 Studies on attitudes towards English 53 3.2.1 Studies of NNS teachers’ attitudes towards English 54 3.2.2 Studies of learners’ attitudes towards English 58 3.2.3 A look into university students’ attitudes towards English 60 3.2.4 Factors affecting learners’ attitudes 65 3.3. Motivation 69 3.3.1 Definitions of Motivation 70 3.3.2 Motivation theories 70 3.3.3 The L2 Motivational Self System 71 3.3.4 New approaches evolved through an ELF perspective 74 3.3.5 Studies on motivation towards learning English 76 3.4 The relation between identity and attitudes towards ELF 78 3.4.1 The identity formation in relation to language learning and 80 attitudes towards ELF 3.4.2 Studies on identity in relation to ELF 81 Concluding remarks 86
Chapter 4 The context of the study 4.1 The role of the English language in Greece 87 4.1.1 Historical context 87 4.1.2 The spread and current status of English in Greece 90 4.2 The presence of English in Greece 91 4.2.1 English for tourists 91 4.2.2 English in advertising 92 4.2.3 English in newspapers and magazines 93 4.2.4 English on the radio and music 94 4.2.5 English on Greek television 96 4.2.6 English loanwords in the Greek language 97 4.2.7 Greeklish 98 4.3 English in the Greek educational system 99 4.3.1 English instruction at Greek state schools 99 4.3.2 English language certification 101 4.4 The spread of English in Greek tertiary contexts 102 4.4.1 Initiatives that support the spread of English in Greek tertiary 103 contexts (the Erasmus programme) 4.5 English instruction in the Greek tertiary education in business- 105 related fields 4.5.1 English language teaching at the AUTH 107 4.5.2 The University of Macedonia (UoM) 109 4.5.3 Athens University of Economics and Business 110 4.6 Internships at Greek tertiary institutions 111
viii 4.7 Looking at attitudes towards the role of English in Greece 113 4.7.1 Attitudes towards loan words 113 4.7.2 The language question 115 4.7.3 Attitudes towards Greeklish 117 Concluding remarks 118
Chapter 5 Research methodology 5.1 Aim and objectives of the study 119 5.1.1 The significance of the research 120 5.2 Research questions 121 5.3 Conceptual design 122 5.4 Participants 123 5.5 Quantitative instrument: The questionnaire 124 5.5.1 Questionnaire design 124 5.5.2 Translation issues 127 5.6 Pilot study 127 5.7 The main study 129 5.7.1 Distribution phases of the final questionnaire 129 5.7.2 Delivery modes of the questionnaire 130 5.8 Instrumentation: Statistical methodology 133 5.9 Qualitative instrument: The interviews 134 5.9.1 Design of interviews: Guidelines and the piloting of interviews 134 5.9.2 The interview guide 136 5.9.3 Interview process sampling 137 5.9.4 Method of interview analysis 139 5.10 The Facebook group and features of ethnography 141 5.11 Ethical issues 143 5.12 Difficulties encountered in the data collection process 144 Concluding remarks 145
Chapter 6 Quantitative results 6.1 Profile of the participants 146 6.1.1 Language skills 148 6.2 The role of English in students’ lives 150 6.2.1 Learning experience 150 6.2.2 Self-perceived competence in English 151 6.2.3 Self-perceived understanding of different accents 152 6.2.4 Self-perceived English communication 153 6.2.5 Use of English 154 6.3 Familiarity with social media 155 6.4 Intercultural experience 156
ix 6.4.1 Travelling abroad 156 6.5 Internship experience 158 6.6 A sense of belonging 159 6.7 Tendency towards an English variety 160 6.8 Tendency towards countries other than Greece 161 6.9 Questionnaire data analysis 162 6.9.1 Attitudes towards English 163 6.9.2 International Posture 164 6.9.3 Identity 165 6.9.4 Motivation to learn English 166 6.9.5 Intended Learning Effort 167 6.9.6 Attitudes towards ESP courses 167 6.9.7 Awareness of future needs 168 6.10 Impact of demographic characteristics on variables 169 6.10.1 The influence of travelling abroad 170 6.10.2 The influence of an Erasmus experience 172 6.10.3 The influence of an internship experience 172 6.10.4 The influence of the use of English during the internship 173 6.10.5 Gender differences 174 6.10.6 Expression of wish to have been born in another country 175 6.10.7 Willingness to live in another country 176 6.10.8 The influence of English use 177 6.11 The relationship between all dependent variables 177 6.12 The relationship between all independent and dependent variables 178 (Using the CHAID analysis) 6.12.1 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards English 179 6.12.2 CHAID analysis of students’ international posture 180 6.12.3 CHAID analysis of students’ awareness 181 6.12.4 CHAID analysis of students’ identity 182 6.12.5 CHAID analysis of students’ motivation 183 6.12.6 CHAID analysis of students’ intended learning effort 184 6.12.7 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards ESP 185 Concluding remarks 186
Chapter 7 Qualitative results 7.1 Data analysis 187 7.2 The interviewees’ profiles 188 7.2.1 Self-perceived competence in English 188 7.2.2 Travelling abroad 189 7.2.3 Internship experience 190 7.3 Attitudes towards English 191 7.3.1 English as a means of communication 191 7.3.2 Interpersonal aspect (leisure and friendships) 192 7.3.3 Instrumental role of the English language 193
x 7.3.4 Knowledge and update 196 7.3.5 Societal benefits and extroversion of Greece 196 7.3.6 Linguistic imperialism and fears for their L1 199 7.3.7 Psychological benefits and mentality 201 7.4 Attitudes towards English language learning 203 7.4.1 Negative attitudes towards ESP 203 7.4.2 Obsession with English language certificates 204 7.4.3 Negative attitudes towards ELT 206 7.5 Attitudes towards accents 207 7.5.1 Attitudes towards Greek-accented English 207 7.5.2 Attitudes towards NS accents 207 7.5.3 Intelligibility 209 7.5.4 Attitudes towards English accents depending on the context 210 (context specific variation) 7.5.5 Attitudes towards NNS accents 211 7.6 Identity 212 7.6.1 Link of English to NS culture and NSs 212 7.6.2 Ownership of English 213 7.7 ELF awareness 216 7.7.2 Shared non-nativeness 217 7.7.3 ELF communicative experiences 218 7.8 Mentality and international posture 221 7.8.1 Stereotypes 221 7.8.2 Mentality change 222 7.8.3 Common mentality among members of an international youth 224 organization 7.9 Analysis of social media data 227 7.9.1 ELF awareness 227 7.9.2 Preference for NS accents 228 7.9.3 Miscommunication incidents 228 7.9.4 NNS awareness 229 7.9.5 Delving into students’ Facebook profiles 229 Concluding remarks 232
Chapter 8 Discussion of findings 8.1 Discussion of findings 233 8.2 Research Question 1: What are Greek Business School students’ 234 attitudes towards English? 8.2.1 The role of communication 234 8.2.2 The instrumental role of English 237 8.2.3 Internationalization of higher education in Greece 239 8.2.4 Attitudes towards English language learning/ESP 241 8.3 Research Question 2: What is the students’ identity in relation to 245 English?
xi 8.4 Research Question 3: Which factors explain/influence their 257 attitudes and identity? 8.4.1 Factors that influence students’ attitudes 257 8.4.2 Factors that affected identity 262 8.4.3 Shared perspective and communities of practice 264 Concluding remarks 267
Chapter 9 Conclusion 9.1 Main conclusions drawn in relation to the need for the study 268 9.2 Contribution of the research 272 9.3 Implications of the research 273 9.3.1 Implications for ESP 274 9.3.2 Implications for ESP instructors and ESP teacher education 278 9.4 Limitations of the research 280 9.5 Recommendations for further research 281 Epilogue 283
References in English 284
References in Greek 331
Appendices 334
Appendix A: Final Questionnaire A1: Questionnaire in Greek A2: Translated Questionnaire in English Appendix B: Pilot Questionnaire Appendix C: Interview Guide C1: Thematic analysis framework (Interview codes) Appendix D: Material for Facebook group D1: Pictures uploaded on Facebook group D2: Videos and prompts used for Facebook group Appendix E: Data collection timeline Appendix F: Letter of permission for distribution of questionnaires Appendix G: Consent form for interviews Appendix H: Tables per variable Appendix I: Miscellaneous tables from Chapter 6 Appendix J: Interviewees' profile table
xii List of Tables
Table 4.1 Distribution of languages and their population within Greece 90 Table 4.2 Sample collection of advertisements on Greek television (April - June 92 2015) Table 4.3 Greece’s participation in the Eurovision contest since 2001 96 Table 5.1 List of University Departments that were contacted for the research 132 Table 5.2 Dependent variables of the study 134 Table 6.1 Sample profile 147 Table 6.2 Students with competence in languages other than mother tongue (L1)- 148 (N=391) Table 6.3 Competence in other foreign languages 148 Table 6.4 English language learning experience 150 Table 6.5 English language competence 152 Table 6.6 Self-perceived understanding of different accents of English 153 Table 6.7 Self-perceived English communication 153 Table 6.8 Frequency of English language use 154 Table 6.10 Frequency of social media use 155 Table 6.11 List of countries visited 156 Table 6.12 Internship statistics 159 Table 6.13 How students feel when they use English 160 Table 6.14 Preference for a variety 161 Table 6.15 Attitudes towards English 164 Table 6.16 International Posture 165 Table 6.17 Identity 165 Table 6.18 Motivation to learn English 167 Table 6.19 Intended learning effort to learn English 167 Table 6.20 Attitudes towards ESP courses 168 Table 6.21 Awareness of future needs 168 Table 6.22 Summary statistics for all variables 169 Table 6.23 Independent t-test results for the relationship between travels and the 171 variables under study Table 6.24 Independent t-test results for the relationship between participation in 172 an Erasmus programme and the variables under study Table 6.25 Independent t-test results for the relationship between participation in 173 an Internship programme and the variables under study Table 6.26 Independent t-test results for the relationship between use of English 173 during the Internship and the variables under study Table 6.27 Independent t-test results for the relationship between gender and the 174 variables under study Table 6.28 Independent t-test results for the relationship between wish for having 175 been born in another country and the variables under study Table 6.29 Independent t-test results for the relationship between wishing to live in 176 another country and the variables under study Table 6.30 Pearson Correlation test for the relationship of English use and the 177
xiii variables under investigation Table 6.31 Pearson Correlation test for the relationship between Attitudes towards 178 English and the dependent variables under investigation Table 7.1 Thematic analysis framework 187 Table 8.1 Greek Business School students’ use of English compared to the Danish 260 and German population
xiv List of Figures
Figure 6.1 Boxplot of all variables 170 Figure 6.2 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards English 179 Figure 6.3 CHAID analysis of students’ International posture 180 Figure 6.4 CHAID analysis of students’ awareness 181 Figure 6.5 CHAID analysis of students’ identity 182 Figure 6.6 CHAID analysis of students’ motivation 183 Figure 6.7 CHAID analysis of students’ intended learning effort 184 Figure 6.8 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards ESP 185
xv Abbreviations
AmE American English BrE British English BE Business English BELF Business English as a Lingua Franca CC Communicative Competence CEFR Common European Framework for Languages CHAID Chi-Square Automatic Interaction Detection CLT Communicative Language Teaching CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning CoP Communities of Practice EAP English for Academic Purposes EBP English for Business Purposes EFL English as a Foreign Language EIL English as an International Language ELF English as a Lingua Franca ELFA English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings ELT English Language Teaching EMI English as a Medium of Instruction ENL English as a Native Language EOP English for Occupational Purposes ESL English as a Second Language ESP English for Specific Purposes ETPs English Taught Programmes EU European Union ICC Intercultural Communicative Competence L1 First Language L2 Second Language LSP Language for Specific Purposes NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NS(s) Native Speaker(s) NNS(s) Non-Native Speaker(s) SE Standard English SDT Self Determination Theory SLA Second Language Acquisition RP Received Pronunciation UK United Kingdom USA United States of America VOICE Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English
xvi Transcription conventions (adapted from VOICE)
I: interviewer name: (e.g. Martha) interviewees’ pseudonyms
CAPS capital letters are used when for emphatic stress full stop in parenthesis (.) very brief pause in speech (up to a good half second) numbers in parenthesis (1), (2) longer pauses are timed to the nearest second and marked with the number of seconds in parentheses, e.g. (1) = 1 second, (2) = 2 seconds
mo:re lengthened sounds are marked with one colon “:” or more “:::”
@ all laughter and laughter-like sounds are transcribed with the @ and symbol, approximating syllable number (e.g. ha ha ha = @@@) <@> Utterances spoken laughingly are put between <@> tags
(no way) words and word fragments that cannot be reliably identified are put in parenthesis
[…] incomprehensible talk
Meeting words in bold indicate that they were uttered in English
xvii Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The spread of English in the world
On the crest of globalization, the English language dominates the world and has established itself as a lingua franca. Experts such as David Crystal (2012), author of
“English as a Global Language”, argue against any skepticism about the future fate of
English, since the world has drastically changed and English has consolidated its dominance as the language of the Internet, science and technological progress. What is more, English has invaded the globalized workplace and has well established its role as the world’s business language, marking the nature of intercultural and international business communication. According to the most common estimates, non-native speakers
(NNSs) of English far outnumber native speakers (NSs) thus making the teaching of
English a multibillion-dollar industry (Crystal, 2012). NNSs have started to shape the language, changing and adapting its forms and function with reference to their communicative needs. Consequently, the ownership of English has been questioned as it is no longer relevant to associate English purely with NSs, and issues have been raised regarding the discrepancy between the way English is taught and the way it is used in real communicative contexts. These developments have precipitated the need to understand this new sociolinguistic reality, exploring the stakeholders’ attitudes towards English and their identity in relation to it.
1 1.2 The rationale for the present research
The ubiquity of globalization calls for an international perspective and a more holistic understanding of people’s attitudes towards the world’s lingua franca. Recognizing the complexity of a situation created in the world with regards to the use of English by so many different people, in so many different contexts and for so many different reasons, it was considered necessary to carry out a study that would examine the use of English in a particular context, the Greek tertiary educational context. Moreover, due to this controversy over the issue of English as a global language, which revolves around social economic and educational issues, it is valuable to test the validity of those arguments made in the literature. Thus, there is a need to further investigate how and to what extent people affected by the phenomenon of English as a global language perceive and react to it. The main objective of this research is to investigate Greek university students' attitudes towards English and identity from a fresh perspective, namely in relation to the role of
English as a lingua franca (ELF). Employing both quantitative and qualitative means of investigation, this research aims to give answers to questions that arise from that new sociolinguistic reality. Since leading ELF researchers have convincingly argued for more
“qualitative studies with a strong ethnographic element” (Seidlhofer, Breiteneder & Pitzl,
2006, p. 21), qualitative research under the ELF perspective is becoming more frequent.
The present study attempts to answer to this call by focusing on the qualitative element with the help of interviews, use of social media and participant observation.
A number of reasons led to the choice of Greece as the research setting. First, the researcher has had extensive teaching experience there, particularly in English for specific purposes (ESP) teaching and teaching adults in multilingual settings (i.e. the
2 NATO Rapid Deployable Corps in Thessaloniki). She was well aware of the mismatch between the high number of language certificate holders and the lack of skills of the latter in real communicative situations. Therefore, the present research stemmed from an interest in “bridging” the academic world and the workplace and help Greek undergraduate students to be prepared for successful future communication in the workplace. Considering that English is the global language of business communication,
Business School students were chosen as participants for this research since it is more important to them not only to communicate successfully but also to form effective and productive business relationships.
Second, as will be explained in Chapter 4, English is a language that holds an important role in the Greek context. The significance of English in Greece springs partly from a range of unique socio-historical factors and partly from wider processes of globalization. These factors are taken into consideration, while trying to decipher the students’ attitudes and identity in relation to English. Third, the ongoing economic crisis and its repercussions for the Greek society (e.g. the high unemployment rates and the
Brain Drain) are expected to influence the students’ attitudes towards the use of ELF.
1.3 Research questions
The main aim of the research is to investigate Greek students’ attitudes towards English and the extent to which the use of English influences these perceptions. This generated three research questions (see more in Section 5.2) as follows:
1. What are Greek Business School students’ attitudes towards English?
2. What is Greek Business School students’ identity in relation to ELF?
3 3. Which factors influence their attitudes and identity in relation to English?
The study adopts a mixed methods approach and collects data through a variety of methods (i.e. questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and social media, see more in
Section 4.3). This research seeks to provide richer insights into Greek Business School students’ orientations, by exploring the reasons underlying their attitudes and the way they identify with English. The reasons for selecting Greece as the site for data collection are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
This study contributes to existing research on ELF attitudes by investigating
Greek students' attitudes towards English and identity in relation to the role of ELF.
Research on attitudes under the ELF perspective in the Greek context is very limited and concentrates on teachers (e.g. Sifakis & Sougari, 2005, 2010; Sougari & Faltzi, 2014,
2015; Sougari & Sifakis, 2007, 2010) and young learners (Hovhannisyan, 2014; Sougari
& Hovhannisyan, 2013). Little work, however, has been done in relation to the subject of identity. Moreover, apart from a few studies that focus on students’ motivation (e.g.
Kantaridou, 2004), and language learning strategy use, learning styles and multilingualism (e.g. Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009, 2011), there is a paucity of research in the Greek educational context regarding adult advanced learners of English particularly in the field of attitudes.
The present research will serve to increase awareness about the role of English in the Greek context and situate and appropriate English pedagogy at tertiary levels. It will also demonstrate the need to conduct further long-term research on this topic. Moreover, the significance of English in Greece springs partly from a range of socio-historical factors unique to Greece and partly from wider processes of globalization. This research
4 entailed and embraced a qualitative methodological approach, which is rare for a study on language attitudes and identity in the Greek context. It fulfills its original goal as it provides a full picture of students’ attitudes and gives voice to the way they relate to
English (i.e. their identity in relation to English). Finally, studies that focus on the business contexts, employing the Business English as a lingua franca (BELF) perspective, have recently started to grow, thus the present research adds to this gap by providing findings from an under-researched area.
1.4 Structure of the thesis
The thesis comprises nine chapters (including the introductory chapter):
Chapter 2 begins by laying out the background to this research and the theoretical dimensions of the research with regards to globalisation and the role of English today. It explores the intertwined notion of ELF in the business context and provides a critical review of current debates on English language teaching (ELT) in relation to ELF research.
Chapter 3 provides a literature review. It examines the relevant literature on attitudes, identity and motivation with particular emphasis on studies on university students. It also provides the basis needed with regards to the need for further study.
Chapter 4 presents the context of the present research. It delineates the role of English in
Greece dating back to World War II until nowadays. It shows the way Greek people are exposed to the language and explains the way they perceive language (both their mother tongue and English). This chapter also provides understanding of the participants’ wider social context.
5 Chapter 5 describes the methodology used for the present research. First, the aim and objectives of this research are outlined, and then the research questions are posed. This chapter gives an account of and rationale for each of the research methods employed. It then presents the data collection procedure, and the development of the research instruments. The chapter offers a detailed account of the analysis procedures and methodological frameworks followed throughout this research. A brief explanation of the ethics of the study, and the difficulties encountered in the data collection process is given.
Chapter 6 presents the quantitative results that arise from the questionnaire data analysis.
It begins with an outline of the respondents’ demographic characteristics and the statistical procedures that were followed, and then it presents the main results.
Chapter 7 presents the qualitative results drawn from the analysis of the interviews and the Facebook group comments. It begins with the thematic framework that was produced and introduces the research participants giving an account of the interviewees’ profile. It then proceeds with the analysis of results, which are presented in relation to each main theme that emerged from the analysis.
Chapter 8 discusses the findings in relation to the research questions posed in Chapter 5 as well as the previous literature.
Chapter 9 draws upon the entire thesis, providing a brief summary and critique of the findings. It begins with a brief synopsis of the results as discussed in the penultimate chapter of this thesis. The chapter also includes a discussion of the implications of the research in relation to ELT and outlines approaches to ESP teaching in Greek tertiary educational contexts and abroad. It concludes with a consideration of the limitations of this study and identifies future areas for further research.
6 Chapter 2
Globalization, English as a Lingua Franca
and current challenges for teaching Business English
This chapter briefly describes the theoretical background that has led to the genesis of the current research. It addresses issues regarding the status of English in today’s globalized world. The chapter discusses the so-called 'politics' of English language and presents some of the terms used to address the current realities of the global spread of English.
Moreover, it gives justification for the choice of the term ELF, as it is considered the most appropriate for this research. The chapter further explores the issues of language ownership that have arisen along with the reconceptualization of English and English language use based on current research findings. Finally, it draws readers’ attention to the new challenges posed to ELT, that is, the implications current changes have for the teaching and learning of English. The appropriateness of the current teaching approaches of English for today’s Business School undergraduate students is questioned under the scope of ELF. Following a brief outline of the origins of ESP, the chapter ends with a brief description of Business English as a Lingua Franca (BELF) and BELF research, which is closely linked to the current research.
2.1 The globalization phenomenon and ELF
As a phenomenon, globalization is not unique to the present age. It can be traced in different eras in the course of world history. The conquests of Alexander the Great, for
7 example, were arguably the most important for introducing western thought and society to the eastern world (McKay et al., 1991, p. 106-107). As a term, ‘globalization’ has become a catchword since the 1980s. Globalization is used as an umbrella term to refer to different things and spans a multitude of disciplines. That makes it a largely debated phenomenon, which allows for a variety of viewpoints depending on the scope of interest, be it economic, social, political, linguistic or other. It often invites strong reactions, either positive or negative, indicative of how people feel about it and in which ways it affects their lives. Many scholars, (e.g. Robertson, 2003; Scholte, 2005) proposed various definitions from different scopes of interest (cf. Al-Rodhan & Stoudmann, 2006 for a review of 114 possible definitions). While most conceptions focus on different aspects of growing interdependence of economic, cultural, technological and other aspects, what cannot be denied is that globalization refers to growing “networks of interaction” and “interconnectedness” (McGrew, 1992, p. 318).
As Rachman (2011) explains, globalization is all about the ongoing process of borderless countries that allow the escalation of international trade and freer movement of capital, goods, services and people. This process is “driven economically by international financial flows and trade, technologically by information technology and mass media entertainment, and very significantly, also by very human means such as cultural exchanges, migration and international tourism” (Fien, n.d.).
In fact, a growing number of companies do business internationally or transnationally. According to Robertson (2003), transnational corporations account for
70% of the world trade, perhaps 25% of total global output, certainly 80% of information technology trade and 90% of private research and development (p. 198). Moreover,
8 international organizations (e.g. the United Nations), the World Trade Organization, and transnational non-government organizations (e.g. NATO) are increasingly operating internationally. This generates “more international cooperation and consequently more dialogue and contact between speakers from different language backgrounds” (Wright,
2000, p. 95).
This research is mainly about the linguistic repercussions of globalization that come as a result of the interconnected nature of the business domain1 that necessitates international communication. The following section will refer to the expansion of English and the rapid change of its status as the world’s lingua franca.
2.2 The global spread of English
In the era of globalization, the role of English becomes a bone of contention. It seems like a chicken-or-the-egg situation in which one cannot really tell whether one of the major repercussions of globalization has been the unprecedented spread2 of English or whether
English fuels globalization. Though Chinese is nowadays the language with the most native speakers in the world, English is the most widespread language with more than
800,000,000 speakers of English as a first or second language (Dalby, 2004). If one adds those who speak it as a foreign language the number would be “somewhere between one- and-a-half and two billion” (Jenkins, 2006a, p. 2). At this point it is necessary to make a
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 A large part of the literature examines globalization from an economic aspect (Brady, Beckfield & Zhao, 2007).
2 For a discussion of the notions of "spread" versus "distribution" see Widdowson (1997, pp. 136-140). ! 9 brief historical reference to the historic events that lead to the expansion of English in the world.
The foundations of the English language expansion originated in the expansion of the British Empire itself, “in the period between the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603 and the later years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II at the start of the 21st century” (Jenkins, 2006a, p. 2). English has gained the status of a world language of communication by being not only the official language in English speaking countries
(e.g. the US, the UK) but also in colonies, where the language was spread by the British trade and established its status. The second threshold in the history of English was the
Second World War that generated global communication in English. English is the most popular foreign language in the curriculum (Crystal, 2003; McKay, 2002, p. 5), the universal language of diplomacy, science, aviation and trade. It is the “language that most people usually try first when talking to foreigners” (Dalby, 2004, p. 167).
Undeniably, English holds a unique position as the global language of communication. Scholars acknowledge this fact, irrespective of their stance3 towards it
(Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Crystal, 2012; McKay, 2002, Phillipson, 1992, and others). As
Dewey (2007) puts it, English is a unique language for the reasons that it “is different in fundamental ways: for the extent of its diffusion geographically; for the enormous cultural diversity of the speakers who use it; and for the infinitely varied domains in which it is found and purposes it serves” (p. 333). The next section will provide evidence for the pervasive role of English in higher education globally. Since the current research takes place in a higher educational institution, it is appropriate to examine the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3 A more detailed account about the politics of the spread of English can be found in Section 2.3 10 internationalization processes in higher education globally. The next section describes that in detail.
2.2.1 Globalization of English in higher education
Higher education has been dramatically influenced by globalization in recent years.
Particularly the promotion of student and staff mobility and the introduction of a number of international courses taught at universities around the world characterize post-Bologna
European higher education as multilingual and multicultural. Many researchers have expressed their criticism towards the EU’s policy following the Bologna process
(Phillipson, 2006; Seidlhofer, 2011; Van Essen, 2004). According to Phillipson (2006), those policies do not actually endorse multiculturalism since the term
‘internationalisation’, refers to the introduction of English as the language of instruction, in other words ‘English-medium education’ (Phillipson, 2006). Phillipson (2009) expressed his fears that the role that has been assigned to English could lead to a global monocultural identity.
Nevertheless, internationalization at the tertiary level is an increasingly significant educational priority (Dewey & Duff, 2009). It can be described as “a multifaceted process defined as ‘the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions – and even – individuals to cope with the global academic environment’”
(Altbach & Knight, 2007, p. 290-291, as cited in Doiz, Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2013, p. xvii).
Despite those criticisms, English has started acquiring the status of an academic lingua franca. Graddol (2006) notices that almost two thirds of the world’s 100 top
11 universities are located in English-speaking countries. Jenkins (2011, p. 927) marks that most conferences, seminars and workshops are conducted in English. The fact that
English is the dominant language of international scientific communication has resulted in academics and students being confronted with great challenges in disseminating their research in English (see more in Pérez-Llantada, Plo & Ferguson, 2011). It is also true that most academic journals “remain deeply grounded in the norms of British and/or
North American academic English” (Jenkins, 2011, p. 927). Proficiency in English has thus become an essential qualification for both students and academics for participation in the globalized academic world and career advancement.
The implementation of English as the medium of instruction (EMI)4 has naturally evolved to cope with the afore-mentioned diversity. Coleman (2006) notes, student and staff mobility, teaching and research materials’ access, graduate employability and
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL5), are among the reasons for adopting
EMI in Europe. Nowadays an increasing number of universities use EMI in their postgraduate or even undergraduate courses. Jenkins (2014) addresses the challenges to university management, pedagogy and social interactions posed by the internationalised academic environment. While tackling these issues, she searches for the proper definition of ‘international’ in higher education settings from the perspective of ELF in academic
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 For an overview of research into the introduction and implications of EMI see for example Smit, 2010, pp. 37-44, and Unterberger, 2014, pp. 20-33. Kirkpatrick (2014) also reviews and discusses EMI in East and Southeast Asia focusing on the university sector. For a brief overview of EMI in Greek higher education see Tzoannopoulou (2014a).
5 CLIL is a “form of education provision, according to which, non-language subjects are taught either through two different languages, or through a single language which is 'foreign' according to the curriculum” (Eurydice 2012, p. 39).
12 settings (ELFA). Through empirical research, Jenkins (2014) demonstrates the deeply rooted beliefs that stakeholders share about realising ELF in global higher education.
Also, her conversation with 34 postgraduate students revealed positive orientation to NS
English, which attests to the fact that NS ideology permeates much of EMI too.
The increasing adoption of EMI has been documented in Europe (cf. Wächter &
Maiworm, 2008) and Asia (Kirkpatrick, 2014). Many studies have addressed this new development (e.g. Başıbek et al., 2014; Costa & Coleman, 2013; Ghorbani & Alavi,
2014; Goodman, 2015; Pérez-Llantada, Plo & Ferguson, 2011; Pérez-Llantada, 2016;
Tzoannopoulou, 2014a; Verbik & Lasanowski, 2007) as different attitudes to the use of
English in higher education could influence either positively or negatively the adoption of
EMI. It could also have considerable impact on how students evaluate the English of the programme or even their own language behaviour (Giles & Coupland, 1991; Stahlberg &
Frey, 1996). For instance, Costa and Coleman’s (2013) survey of English-taught programmes (ETPs) in Italian higher educational contexts showed that ETPs are expanding. The same survey indicated differences among universities related to their geographical zones. According to these researchers, these differences in the status and universities’ profile reflect the clear-cut demarcation line between the wealthy North, the
Centre and less developed South. Emphasis was given on content rather than on language itself.
Ghorbani and Alavi’s (2014) study of 344 students and 36 lecturers at the Bojnord
University in Iran, showed that students and lecturers were positive towards implementing EMI at Iranian universities. The authors stressed the need to introduce and increase EMI at Iranian universities and expressed concerns about the brain drain among
13 Iranian students. According to them, Englishization is “a way to modernise, globalise and internationalise the country’s educational system” (p. 2). EMI could attract more Iranian students and prevent them from studying abroad. The results showed among others the participants’ willingness to share their “cultural and religious attitudes to the scientific world” and get to know other cultures (ibid, p. 10). The participants also mentioned that the implementation of EMI would internationalise universities in Iran and make them more popular, thus attracting students from all over the world.
Başıbek et al. (2014) investigated the attitudes of 63 Turkish lecturers towards
EMI and compared them according to the participants’ academic rank. The results indicated that lecturers in partial EMI programmes are more in favour of adopting EMI instruction. Overall they were positive towards EMI and agreed that English instruction can contribute to learners’ success on academic, social or business context of their future life (ibid, p. 1823). Lecturers saw English as a “’tool’ that makes their university an
‘elite’ one” (ibid, p. 1824) though they cannot reject the use of L1 as it would enrich students’ content knowledge. For this reason they embrace the idea of offering courses in
English and Turkish electively.
Goodman (2015) drawing on ethnography investigated the impact of EMI on pedagogy at a Ukrainian university. The study indicated challenges for both language and content instructors. Language instructors did not know the discipline-related content very well and content experts were concerned about their language competence. Other hardships included finding material in English as well as changes regarding the teaching mode that should take place (e.g. speaking pace, discipline, etc.).
14 Finally, in the Greek6 context, Tzoannopoulou (2014a) investigated the input presentation strategies of 4 Greek university lecturers using EMI for the teaching of their academic courses. The lecturers focused more on the content, showed preference for their own lecturing style and were reluctant to attend further training or collaborate with the
English instructor.
As regards the global role of English, this section has demonstrated that English spread and use pervades various contexts (e.g. business and academic). This leads us straight into a discussion of issues that arise from the global spread of English. The political debates about the global spread of English and the terminological confusion that this entails will be the subject of the following two sections.
2.3 Political debates about the spread of the English language
The expansion of English in the world has led scholars to the creation of a variety of terms, which, however, created confusion and evoked serious debates because they somehow carried political meaning (Canagarajah, 1999; Crystal, 2003; Pennycook, 2003;
Phillipson, 1992, 2008; Rajagopalan, 1999a, 1999b). Some of the proposed terms have positive connotations, while others have negative. For some, English is a “lingua tyrannosaura” (Swales, 1996) and works as an “index of difference” (Seargeant, 2008, p.
226), suppressing and undermining other languages and cultures, while for others it is the opportunity for “cooperation and understanding between peoples from different walks of life” (Modiano, 1999b, p. 27).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 Primary education is not the scope of this research; however, it is worth seeing more about the first official attempt to introduce CLIL in state primary education in Greece in Mattheoudakis, Alexiou & Laskaridou (2014).
15 In an attempt to show the reasons that led to the global spread of English, two main strands were formed in the literature. There were scholars (Pennycook, 1994,
Phillipson, 1992) who related to theories of ‘English linguistic imperialism’. Phillipson
(1992) in particular emphasized that “the dominance of English is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages” (p. 47). Rejecting terms that stress the superiority of one language over the other, such as dialect, variety and lingua franca,
Phillipson (1992) blamed imperialism and globalization for this “unequal division of power and resources” (p. 47) that is mostly associated with English. In a number of peripheral countries (Phillipson, 1992; Ramanathan, 1999), it acted as a gate-keeping tool in the society especially with regards to employability and educational opportunities.
Indeed, proficiency in English is considered an important criterion for someone to be employed or even to enter a university in the UK (Nunan, 2003; Phan, 2001) and other countries (e.g. Greece). Dendrinos and Mitsikopoulou (2004) accused foreign language departments and universities for promoting “the particular language, literature and culture of the metropolis”, while seeking to “develop native-like users of the target language who are cultural subjects” (p. 37).
On the other hand, other scholars (Crystal, 2003) adopted a positivist stance and in a way celebrated the worldwide spread of English. Following a historical overview of
English as a colonial language first, and then as the language of the US economy, Crystal
(2003) supported that the growth of new communication technologies (e.g. telephone, internet, and satellite TV), and the use of English as the official language in various international organizations, have contributed to its rapid dominance around the globe.
16 According to Crystal (2003), political, military and economic factors have further resulted to its global spread (p. 7-8).
Finally, there were others who took a neutral position in that longstanding debate and viewed English as a culturally and politically free language, which is merely used for communication (Widdowson, 1994; 1997). The idea of linguistic imperialism (Phillipson,
1992) was questioned (Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Canagarajah, 1999). In particular, researchers rejected allegations about the imposition of English language on passive subjects (i.e. non-native speakers, henceforth NNSs) by its custodians (native speakers, henceforth NSs) (Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Canagarajah, 1999). Brutt-Griffler (2002) outlined the agency and role of NNSs showing that English is not a world language because of imperialism only but also because of the struggle against imperialism. Brutt-Griffler
(2002) took into consideration the demographic change of NNSs who outnumber NSs and viewed the first as multilinguals. By presenting thorough accounts of colonial policies, Brutt-Griffler (2002) posits that multilingual speech communities are a central feature in shaping World English and that there was no planned effort to spread English on a wide basis.
Whether English is a “lingua divina” or a “lingua diabolica”, as Phillipson (2008, p. 250) asserted, remains a never-ending enigma that will probably continue raising a lot of controversies. At this point, it becomes necessary to sketch the terminological confusion that the English spread and use has created, and then provide the preferred term for this thesis.
17 2.4 Terminological considerations
Scholars have provided a variety of terms in order to define and categorize English under the scope of its global spread. These definitions are by no means equivalent though they describe the same phenomenon. They spring from different theoretical perspectives and backgrounds. An attempt shall be made to give a brief overview of the various terms used.
Traditionally, the terms that educators and policy makers employ to describe the context of English language use, are based on three models. A distinction is made between English as a Native Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL)7, and English as a Foreign Language (EFL). In the first case English is used and taught as the mother tongue, while in the second English is officially used as a second language in a country. It mainly refers to people who are immigrants in English speaking countries.
Finally, EFL is taught in countries, where English does not enjoy an official status.
Though still used by language practitioners, the above terms have been criticized for their drawbacks and inadequacies, because they fail to express current use of English in multilingual settings (McArthur, 1998, p. 43-46).
In an attempt to capture the full range and magnitude of English language use in the world, Kachru (1985, p. 12-17) proposed the three-concentric circle model of English based on the demographic realities of English language distribution as well as the new roles and functions that it acquired in different parts of the world. First comes the Inner
Circle, which consists of countries (i.e. the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia, and New
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 ESL includes the acronyms ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) and TESOL (Teaching English to speakers of Other Languages). TESL stands for Teaching English as a Second Language.
18 Zealand), where English is spoken as the first language. The Outer Circle, with countries such as India, the Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Malaysia, consists of ESL speakers and has developed institutionalized varieties of English. Finally, the Expanding
Circle (e.g. Korea, China, Taiwan, Japan, and Greece) consists of EFL speakers and has traditionally relied on norms of the Inner Circle for the teaching of English. Kachru’s
(1985) concentric circles represent "the types of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages" (p. 12).
Despite its significance as a threshold model of English, Kachru’s model has been criticized (Modiano, 1999b; Pennycook, 2003; Yano, 2009) for failing to capture the realities of multilingual communities, where the status of languages constantly shifts.
Proficiency variation that is evident in all circles has shattered Kachru’s long-established native/non-native speaker dichotomy (see more in Section 2.6). Even Kachru (2005) himself acknowledged that the concentric circles might be an oversimplification.
Seeking to describe the use of English in various contexts and illustrate its spread in colonial countries, linguists have come up with different terms8. Most of those terms were used against the traditional native/non-native speaker dichotomy (Kirkpatrick,
2007) and aimed at acknowledging the status of English language use in all contexts. The terms Englishes (Kachru, 1997), New Englishes (Bamgbose, 1982; Kachru, 1976;
McArthur, 1992, p. 688), World Englishes (Kachru, 1992), and World English (Brutt-
Griffler, 2002; McArthur, 2002a, b), emerged to refer to varieties of English in
“divergent sociolinguistic contexts” (Kachru, 1992, p. 2).
There were others who attempted to give terms of English under the perspective of its global spread. Some saw English as a kind of register used for basic communication !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8 For a thorough review and discussion of English terminology, see Erling (2004, 2005). 19 in specific contexts and opted for International English (Johnson, 1990; Widdowson,
1997). Similarly, Global English (Gnutzmann, 1999a), and English as an International
Auxiliary Language (Smith, 1976) stressed real communication among speakers.
Other attempts to define English include Mid-Atlantic English, a term that refers to “kinds of English, especially accents, that have features drawn from both North
American English and British English” (McArthur, 1992, p. 657). The terms English as a
European Language or Euro-English (Alexander, 1999; Viereck, 1996, Yano, 2009) capture the importance of English in the European Union. Yano (2009) notes that Euro-
English is an “amalgamation” of German, French and other Englishes, or a “pan-EU lingua franca … where language functions as a communication means between and among multiethnic, multicultural, and multilingual non-native EU citizens” (p. 248). The following part will discuss the reconceptualization of English that led to ELF. Then, it will present the preferred term for this thesis.
2.4.1 EIL, ELF and definitions: The term used in this thesis
As mentioned previously, the status change of English has called for its reconceptualization. The variability of terms and approaches reflects this need as well as the gradual awareness among scholars of the global spread of English. The term English as an International Language (EIL) (Jenkins, 2000; McKay, 2003; Modiano, 1999a,
2001a) has been used. The term referred to English used as a language of communication among both NSs and NNSs of English and its use was supported as the gateway for intercultural communication (Modiano, 2001a).
20 EIL captures all the positive endeavours to successful communication among people from various linguistic backgrounds and competences. EIL does not refer to a particular variety of English (Sharifian, 2009) and it should not be confused with
International English, which either suggests that it is a distinguishable unitary variety or limits itself to contexts, where English has an institutionalized or intranational role
(Seidlhofer, 2003). Though Modiano’s (1999a) conceptualization of EIL corresponds successfully to the current status of English, it does not clarify the kind of English that is and would be comprehensible to most English speakers. His definition of EIL excludes features such as Received Pronunciation (RP9) usage, extreme regional dialects and so forth.
EIL was sometimes used interchangeably with ELF10 (Jenkins, 2000) though this association was soon discarded. Berns (2009) holds that “[a]s a label ELF is intended to bestow recognition upon the English at the international level as used by non-native speakers as a legitimate variety alongside other more established world Englishes” (p.
192). Originally, “lingua franca” was a regional trade language (Ostler, 2010, p. 115) used in the Mediterranean from the 15th until the 19th century (Wansbrough, 1996).
According to Firth11 (1996), English is used as “a ‘lingua franca’- a ‘contact language’ between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9 According to the Oxford dictionary, RP is defined as the standard form of British English (BrE) pronunciation, based on educated speech in Southern England, widely accepted as the Standard elsewhere.
10 Though ELF is the preferred term in this thesis, in Chapter 3 it shall be used interchangeably with EIL as many researchers opt for that term.
11 Firth (1996) describes situations where English is used as a lingua franca; yet, he does not use the term ELF.
21 culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication” (p.
240).
The term ELF has been used extensively in the research literature (House, 1999;
Jenkins, 2007, 2014; Mauranen, 2003; Seidlhofer, 2004). Yet, there have been a lot of debates over definitions of ELF that aimed to describe a global phenomenon, a different perspective or a particular language use (see more about the ELF acronym in Mortensen,
2010). The Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE) definition is as such:
English as a lingua franca (ELF) constitutes an additionally
acquired language system which serves as a common means of
communication for speakers of different first languages. ELF is
currently the most common use of English world-wide. Millions of
speakers from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds use ELF
on a daily basis, routinely and successfully, in their professional,
academic and personal lives. (VOICE, 2013)
Though the above definition includes speakers from diverse linguistic backgrounds, it still has many conceptual problems. Whether ELF should be called a variety has been questioned (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011; Seidlhofer, 2006) though at the same time the same researchers view ELF as a “language system” (Jenkins et al., 2011). Moreover, there were suggestions for viewing ELF not as a language system in the traditional sense12 (see Matthews, 1997, p. 200) but rather as a way of using English in specific ways. As Seidlhofer (2009) suggested, “what is distinctive about ELF lies in the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12 According to Matthews (1997), a language system is a “system of a specific language in a specific time, seen in abstraction from its history; from its use on specific occasions and by specific individuals; from other systems of culture, knowledge, etc.” (p. 200). 22 communicative strategies that its speakers use rather than in their conformity to any changed set of language norms” (p. 211). In fact, the problematic nature of certain notions, such as ‘language’, ‘language system’, and ‘variety’ for ELF research has been discussed elsewhere (Baird, 2012, p. 11-13; Mortensen, 2013).
In the light of the above, Mortensen (2013) called for a “reified conceptualisation of ELF” (p. 30). The researcher built on a more recent definition of ELF by Seidlhofer
(2011), as “any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom
English is the communicative medium of choice, and often the only option (p. 7, italics in original) and suggested to define ELF as “the use of English in a lingua franca language scenario” (Mortensen, 2013, p. 36, italics in original). By “linguistic scenario” Mortensen
(2013) means the “linguistic resources available in a given communicative encounter between two or more speakers by virtue of their individual language repertoires” (p. 36).
Mortensen (2013) faces ELF encounters as “multilingual, multicultural, and multinormative speech events that are shaped by a considerable number of context factors”. In this respect, he proposes the adoption of a “wider, function-based view of
ELF . . . as the use of English in a lingua franca language scenario” (ibid, p. 42).
More recently, Jenkins (2015) advocated the re-theorisation of ELF and particularly a “more multilingual turn in ELF” (p. 61). Based on empirical data that explored the way negotiation and co-construction take place in ELF communication (e.g.
Cogo, 2012; Hülmbauer, 2013; Kalocsai, 2014), Jenkins (2015) is critical to what she defines as ELF2 theory and proposes that researchers should move on to what she calls the ELF3 stage. She suggests positioning ELF within multilingualism and proposes the term “English as a Multilingua Franca” with the following definition: “Multilingual
23 communication in which English is available as a second language of choice, but is not necessarily chosen” (ibid, p. 73). In other words, Jenkins (2015) suggests viewing ELF within a framework of multilingualism rather than focusing on ELF as the framework (p.
77). In this respect, Jenkins (2015) draws on the notion of translanguaging and adopts the stance that English is another linguistic code available for NNSs.
In an attempt to describe fully the concept and role of English that underpins the aims and objectives of the current research, the following definition has been put forward drawing on Mortensen’s (2013) and Jenkins’s (2015) suggestion: ELF is any use of
English in a multilingual scenario that also allows for interpersonal communication. This definition fully captures the diversity that characterises any ELF interaction as argued by other researchers (e.g. Firth, 2009; Jenkins et al., 2011; Jenkins, 2015; Seidlhofer, 2011 among others). It accepts that the very essence of ELF is multilingualism, thus viewing
ELF within a multilingual framework (Jenkins 2015) and acknowledges the interpersonal function of that kind of communication for the speakers involved. This definition allows speakers more space to familiarization with English. This makes them feel safer to claim ownership of a ‘language’ that ‘defines’ and is ‘defined’ by them. This realisation leads to the following section that addresses the issue of English ownership and the extent to which English belongs to NSs only or to all English users.
2.5 The ownership of English
What is noteworthy from the variety of labels used to describe English in the previous section is that most of these terms imply an awareness of the global use of English for communication. As Erling (2005) suggests, it might be that attention should not lie on the use of the most appropriate name, or the political meaning behind each choice, but rather
24 on “ensuring that ELT professionals around the world move their practice away from an ideology that privileges L1 (‘inner circle’) varieties” as has been suggested (p. 43). The discussion that follows concerns the issue of ownership and gives reasoning for its rise in the ELF research agenda. Its implications for ELT shall be tackled later in this chapter
(see Section 2.6).
While trying to define ELF, Jenkins (2014) signified its different nature from EFL and noted that the acronym EFL takes NS norms as standards, whereas ELF regards its users as not being constrained by NS norms. In fact, ELF users always manage to negotiate meaning in their interactional contexts (ibid, pp. 26-27). This realisation leads to the question of the “ownership of English” (Widdowson, 1994, 1997, 2003), which will be described in more detail in this section.
As today’s NNSs of English far outnumber NSs (Crystal, 2012; Graddol, 2000;
Widdowson, 1994) it has been suggested that the ownership of English (Widdowson,
1994, 1997, 2003) lies no longer exclusively to its NSs through its development as an international lingua franca (Canagarajah, 1999; Erling, 2004; 2007; McKay, 2002;
Nikula, 2007; Phan, 2008; 2009; Seidlhofer, 2009; Widdowson, 1994, 1997, 2003). To use Widdowson’s own words, the “very fact that English is an international language means that no nation can have custody over it. To grant such custody of the language is necessarily to arrest its development and so undermine its international status”
(Widdowson, 1994, p. 385). Parmegiani (2009) questioned the construction of language ownership as a NSs’ prerogative and suggested moving away from the ‘birthright paradigm’ … to an ‘appropriation model’ which is built on the assumption that speakers in multilingual settings own wide linguistic repertoires that can be used for their
25 interactions (ibid, p. 83). Likewise, Saraceni (2009, 2011) defies the link of English in the world to its “arbitrarily identified spatio-temporal and cultural centre” (Saraceni, 2011, p.
281). Basing their arguments on the dismantlement of boundaries between NSs and
NNSs, some proclaimed that anybody who uses the language could own English
(Saraceni, 2011; Shibata, 2011). Those arguments are described in detail in this section.
As previously explained, the gradual and constant change of the global use of
English has led to a reconceptualization of the Kachruvian circle model (see more in
Section 2.4) following the need to accommodate to the new developments. For instance,
Yano (2009) has argued that “English has developed into local varieties for intranational use” (p. 249) and demographic changes “challenge the boundaries of the Inner, Outer and
Expanding Circles, which are based on geographical factors” (p. 247).
Proficiency variation in English within ENL countries has shattered the traditional authentisization and standardness of what we used to call NS of English. Consequently, the native/non-native speaker dichotomy has proved to be problematic (Kachru, 2005;
Shibata, 2011; Yano, 2009). For instance, Kachru (2005) proposed that nativeness could take two forms instead of just one: that of genetic and functional nativenesss. The latter refers to speakers from ESL and postcolonial countries that appropriate English as a means of indexing their identity. That too has challenged the long-established native/non- native speaker dichotomy.
It has also been noted that the majority of NNSs use English not as a foreign language in order to communicate with NSs only, but also with other NNSs from all over the world. Yano (2009) moved on to suggest a substitution of the traditional native/non- native dichotomy by that of ‘individual proficiency’, which “will be judged not by being
26 a native speaker or not, but by the individuals’ level of cross-cultural communicative competence as an English-knowing bi-or multilingual individual” (p. 253).
Similarly, Pennycook (2003) denounced the “descriptive inadequacy” of the
Three Circle Model and its “exclusionary tendency” (p. 519-521). Modiano (1999) too criticized Kachru’s model for presenting a Eurocentric frame. Locating speakers in specific circles creates conflicts and dichotomies among speakers who could otherwise equally claim ownership of English as equally competent speakers. He proposed instead a centripetal circles model in which the inner circle is not formed by NSs of English, but by fully competent speakers of English (Modiano, 1999). Likewise, Jenkins (2006a) found
Kachru’s model problematic by questioning proficiency in international English. As she claimed, “[gi]ven that international English is not defined, what does it mean to be proficient in ‘international English’ other than the rather vague notion of communicating well?” (ibid, p. 21).
When faced with the problem of ownership or ‘wordliness of English’
(Pennycook, 1994), in other words who the custodians of this language are, attention should be drawn to what is in their custody as well as what the repercussions are. It is interesting to note that in relation to the ‘what’ issue, the standard (or Standard English) was chosen for ELT. Widdowson (1994) posits, Standard English (SE) “is not simply a means of communication but the symbolic possession of a particular community, expressive of its identity, its convention, and values” (p. 381). The preservation of SE is necessary for the “security of this community and its institutions” (ibid). Therefore, to preserve the language, the ‘custodians’ or ‘gatekeepers’, meaning the NSs of the language should allow membership only to those who comply with their rules. In other
27 words, SE is an ‘entry condition’ to gain ‘privileges’ and ‘access to the institutions which the community controls’ (ibid).
Also, research has recognized the dynamic nature of the English language
(Cameron & Larsen-Freeman, 2007; Hülmbauer, 2013, p. 52; Mortensen, 2013) since language “is being continually transformed by use” (Cameron & Larsen-Freeman, 2007, p. 230). Thus, a lot of ELF research presumably “interprets the lingua franca users’ ability to exploit the inbuilt virtuality of English (as of any language) for their purposes as an important element of their overall communicative competence” (Hülmbauer, 2013, p. 52).
The feeling of ownership of the English language that is becoming even more popular among ELF speakers “is bound to be reflected in the way the language is used and moulded according to interlocutors’ specific needs in various contexts” (Seidlhofer,
2009, p. 239). In some studies13, such as Nikula’s (2007), university students using
English in Finnish biology and physics CLIL classrooms claim ownership of English and ascribe to an identity as English users rather than English learners. It might be that we are witnessing the emergence of different types of discourse communities, either regional or global (Swales, 1990) considering the widespread global communication that is no longer based on face-to-face communication. Seidlhofer (2009) proposed the alternative of
Communities of practice (CoP) characterized by “‘mutual engagement’ in shared practices, taking part in some jointly negotiated ‘enterprise’, and making use of members’
‘shared repertoire’” (Wenger, 1998, p. 72ff as cited in Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 238).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13 Research into the ownership of English is extensive and shall be presented in more detail in Chapter 3 (see Section 3.4.2). 28 Given that “communities or secondary cultures are defined by shared professional concerns”, it comes as no surprise that language users “should be granted rights of ownership and allowed to fashion the language to meet their needs, their specific purposes…These purposes are twofold: they are communicative in that they meet the needs of in-group transactions, and they are communal in that they define the identity of the group itself” (Widdowson, 1994, p. 383). Moreover it is the “unstable nature”
(Widdowson, 1993) of language itself that leads to situations where adaptation becomes pertinent in order to “suit changing situations” (Widdowson, 1993, as cited in Jenkins,
2006, pp. 166-167). Nevertheless, research has shown that the concept of CoP, in
Wenger’s (1998) sense, might need further theorization in order to account best for the fluidity and diversity of ELF settings (Dewey, 2009).
The following section (2.6) touches upon the consideration of current research for
ELT. It begins with a brief discussion of the politics evolving around ELT followed by theories with regards to the need for a new approach to language teaching. Then, it addresses the new learning challenges for ELT based on ELF research and ends with the most recent ELF-aware propositions for teacher education.
2.6 The teaching of English and current realities
2.6.1 The politics of English language teaching
Globalization had a huge impact on language teaching (Block and Cameron, 2002;
Canagarajah, 1999; Cook, 1999; Davies, 1991; Jenkins, 2000). According to Phillipson
(1992), there seems to be a link between the “ELT profession” and “English linguistic hegemony”, which results to the “maintenance of English as a dominant language” (p.
29 73). Accordingly, as Block and Cameron (2002) put it, learners’ motivations for learning languages have changed along with their choices concerning them. Phillipson (1992) posits that the choice of English as the first language to be learned enhances English linguistic imperialism, contributing at the same time to relationships of dependence between a dominant Center and a dominated Periphery. Issues have been raised regarding the type of English that should be taught. Studies have shown that nowadays “it is Anglo
English that remains the touchstone and guarantor of English-based global communication” (Wierzbicka, 2006, p. 14).
Phillipson’s viewpoint was shared by Canagarajah (1999), though with a different approach to this threat. As Canagarajah (1999) postulates, people are not as passive as conceptualized by Phillipson (1992) and therefore cannot be dominated and suppressed as easily as the latter implies. The role of teachers and schools is of vital importance when it comes to questioning power (Canagarajah, 1999; Modiano, 2001b). Modiano
(2001b) stresses the importance of the strategies employed by teachers. The latter should be very cautious when selecting a particular teaching strategy and aware of its underlying implications for the learners. Modiano (2001b) concludes, “our responsibility now must be to both embrace the beast and at the same time to tame it, to allow the language to act as the interface for the global network, while at the same time taking action to protect minority tongues and cultures from extinction” (p. 345).
Despite the politics that revolve around the spread of the English language worldwide, researchers addressed the need to approach ELT from a different perspective.
The need for a new approach to language teaching and learning originated from the acceptance of the fact that today’s communication is mostly intercultural and this is
30 further discussed below. The following subsection (2.6.2) reports on language theories and research that addressed the intercultural character of communication.
2.6.2 The need for a new approach to language teaching and learning
Language theory and research increasingly acknowledge that the objectives of foreign language education can no longer be limited to the acquisition of linguistic competence only and that they should include intercultural communicative competence (ICC) (Sercu et al., 2005; Lázár et al., 2007).
This idea is not at all new and has been supported since the mid seventies (cf.
Smith, 1976). Since the demands of the globalization era have led to an increased socio- political and intercultural awareness (Abbott & Wingard, 1981; Brumfit, 1982; Byram &
Fleming, 1998; Canagarajah, 1999; Gnutzmann, 1999a,b; Holiday, 1994; Kramsch, 1993;
Quirk & Widdowson, 1985; Smith, 1981), researchers argued for more research “to raise learners’ awareness of the diversity of English” (Jenkins, 2006b, p. 174). With regards to
ELT, researchers should aim towards a pluricentric rather than a monocentric approach.
That would enable each learner’s and speaker’s English “to reflect his or her own sociolinguistic reality, rather than that of a usually distant native speaker” (ibid, p. 173).
The concept of Communicative Competence (CC) (Hymes, 1972) and accordingly the Communicative Approach (Canale & Swain, 1980; Van Ek, 1986) was negatively criticized as an option for the teaching of English since it promoted the NS model (Alptekin, 2002) and questioned the NNS teachers’ abilities (see McKay, 2002).
McKay (2003) prompted for an appropriate curriculum for the EIL classroom that would move beyond the communicative language teaching positioning. McKay (2002, 2003)
31 questioned the validity of communicative language teaching for both Outer and
Expanding Circle countries. As she explained, it is grounded in the teaching of the Inner
Circle countries’ culture and language. Holliday (2005) voiced similar concerns when he argued about the negative effect of native speakerism on EFL teaching/ learning contexts.
Likewise, Alptekin (2002) criticized the communicative approach arguing that one of its tenets is that language presented in the classroom should be as authentic as possible (p.
61).
Over the last decades, an increased concern with the role culture plays in language teaching has been observed (Byram, 1991a,b; 1997; Kramsch, 1993, 1998; McKay, 2002;
Risager, 2006, 2007) and more specifically cultural awareness (Byram, 1997; Littlewood,
2001; Tomalin & Stempleski, 1993; Tomlison & Masuhara, 2004). The most complete and thorough examination of cultural awareness though is found in Byram’s (1997) ICC model on which the framework of CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) is mainly based.
Byram’s (1997) well-known model identifies five different factors: Knowledge
(savoirs), Attitudes (savoir!être), Skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre),
Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire), and Political education including critical cultural awareness (savoir s’engager) (p. 34). Byram’s five ‘savoir’ categories or ‘components of intercultural competence’ provide a framework that urges the language learner to distance him/herself from the traditional procurement of the target language cultural and linguistic stereotypes.
‘Intercultural attitudes’ (Byram, 1997, p. 34), the foundation of intercultural competence, involve speakers’ willingness to depart from their own self and be open and
32 ready to suspend disbelief about others allowing at the same time a different viewing of themselves. A consensus emerged which gives importance to skills and knowledge that go beyond the vocabulary, or grammatical structure of the English language. Roberts
(1998) for instance argued for developing intercultural communication awareness as part of both everyday and professional life. Accommodation skills, cooperation, adaptation, negotiation of meaning, the ability to repair or code-switch and generally language and cultural awareness are among the most common skills that have been recently addressed in the literature (Baker, 2008; Canagarajah, 2005; Gnutzmann & Intemann, 2005; House,
2003; Jenkins, 2006b; 2007; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Knapp & Meierkord, 2002; Seidlhofer,
2004). ICC in language communication is fundamentally important and attention should be drawn to the particular skills an interculturally competent learner/user should display.
This entails changes14 both in teaching and learning English.
Having referred to the relevance of ICC for the teaching and learning of English nowadays, the following subsection will address and describe the challenges for ELT based on ELF research.
2.6.3 New challenges for ELT based on ELF research
English language communication is continuously changing while NNSs are rapidly increasing and communicative contexts that involve NNS-NNS interactions multiply.
There is thus a growing body of literature that discusses suggestions and implications for
ELT. The previously discussed ownership of English (see Section 2.5) has raised
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14 Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009, pp. 199-241) provide an overview of the challenges of incorporating intercultural competence into a curriculum in educational contexts.
33 researchers’ awareness of the need to redefine the traditional aims and objectives of the teaching of English (McKay, 2002). For instance, Sifakis (2004) distinguishes between two perspectives; one that “emphasizes matters of regularity, codification and standardness” and another that prioritizes the “process of cross-cultural comprehensibility between learners as a communicative goal in itself” (p. 239). The first perspective is what
Sifakis (2004) calls “norm- or N-bound perspective”, whereas the latter is the “C-bound” perspective.
It is exactly this dichotomy that characterizes theories concerning the teaching of
English, those that take the NS norms as the sole and only acceptable teaching principles, rejecting at the same time variability, and others that prioritize mutual intelligibility and comprehensibility. As Seidlhofer (1999) puts it, the EFL speech community should no longer be “norm-dependent” but “norm-developing” and ultimately “norm-providing” (p.
239). A distinction should be noted here between intelligibility15 and comprehensibility though a detailed explanation of these two concepts16 shall not be provided. Drawing on
Smith’s (1982/1992) tripartite paradigm those two terms can be defined as
“word/utterance recognition”, and “meaning of a word or an utterance” (locutionary force) respectively (Smith & Nelson, 1985, p. 334).
Similarly, rejecting the cultural specificity of English varieties for teaching EIL is key to attending to the needs that are brought by globalisation (Modiano, 2001a). Some !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15 There are different names for intelligibility and sometimes different aspects of it. Throughout this thesis the term “intelligibility” will be used and the definition adopted will be the one used by Munro and Derwing (1995a, 1995b): “[i]ntelligibility refers to the extent to which an utterance is actually understood” (Munro & Derwing, 1995b, p. 291). ! 16 A considerable body of research has provided explanations for these two concepts, however they will not be provided here as they are not the scope of this research (see more in Derwing & Munro, 1997; Munro & Derwing, 1995a,b; Smith & Christopher, 2001). With regards to attitudes towards NNS English and the intelligibility argument see Jenkins, 2007, pp. 83-87.
34 researchers (e.g. MacKay, 2002) suggested ways to raise students’ cross-cultural awareness. Similarly, others proposed switching to a more “C-bound route” (Sifakis,
2004) when considering real NNS-NNS communication.
What is more, it seems that a ‘paradigm shift’17 is most likely to occur due to differences that have emerged in the ways English language is understood and realized.
That ‘paradigm shift’, which is represented in ELF dissociates from the traditional foreign language paradigm (Jenkins, et al., 2011). Studies that discuss suggestions and implications for ELT reflecting this need for a paradigm shift are increasing. Yano (2009) proposes focusing on more “culture-general” lexical items rather than “culture-specific” ones (p. 53). Blommaert (2010) suggests a reorientation from a focus on “language as form and meaning” to more “phenomenological” concerns that concur with the centrality of language events and experiences (p.100). In relation to ELT, researchers have suggested many ways of raising learners’ awareness of the diverse and fluid nature of
English (e.g. Baker, 2009; Canagarajah, 2007; Honna, 2012; Maley, 2009; McKay, 2001;
Sifakis, 2004).
With regards to ELT, ELF should not be interpreted as a “single, universal model” (Sifakis, 2014a) or as a “monolithic version that should be taught in all contexts”
(Jenkins, 2011, p. 305). It should be seen as an opportunity for informing learners about the variability of English language (Jenkins et al., 2011, p. 305-306) and allowing teachers to actively involve themselves with critical thinking, development and growth
(Sifakis, 2014a).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17 The term was coined by the American philosopher and historian Kuhn (1962) according to whom changes in scientific knowledge and ideas are most likely to occur when historical convictions and perceptions are questioned, leading to an upside-down of traditionally held ideas.
35 A large body of empirical ELF research provides mixed evidence on the way
NNS-NNS communication not only runs smoothly but can also be very successful.
Though ELF research is not restricted to oral communication but includes written communication as well, most studies have investigated ELF use in its oral form. During the last 15 years research into ELF has developed considerably focusing on various levels that mainly described ELF: phonology (Jenkins, 2000, 2002), lexicogrammar (Seidlhofer,
2001, 2004, 2005; Cogo & Dewey, 2006; Mauranen, 2010), and pragmatics (Meierkord,
2002; Cogo & Dewey, 2006, Mauranen, 2009, for a comprehensive overview see Jenkins et al., 2011). In the phonological domain Jenkins’s (2000) work has been the most influential and centred on the construction of “a pedagogical core of phonological intelligibility for speakers of EIL” (p. 123).
In the area of pragmatics numerous studies have taken place analyzing mostly spoken interactions between NNSs of English. To name just a few, features of ELF that have been analysed include ‘convergence’ (Firth, 1996; Haegeman, 2002), the ‘letting it pass’ strategy (Firth, 1996) or other communication strategies like laughter and pauses
(Meierkord, 2002; Lesznyàk, 2002), and the use of L1 expressions in order to act in a polite and co-operative manner (Pölzl, 2003).
This empirical ELF research testifies to the successful communication in lingua franca contexts without reliance on NS norms. The findings attest to the fact that both
NNS-NNS and NS-NNS interactions are not only symmetrical but also successful (Cogo,
2009; Mauranen, 2009). Moreover, the participants can claim “ownership” of English as studies have shown (Erling, 2004, 2007; Nikula, 2007; Phan, 2008, 2009; Shibata, 2011).
On the basis of the pragmatic and intercultural skills, the accommodation and negotiation
36 strategies, and the various available linguistic resources (cf. Jenkins et al., 2011;
Seidlhofer, 2011; Mauranen, 2012), mutual intelligibility and eventually successful communication is ensured.
Nevertheless, ELF does not seem ready to be taken on board. Widdowson (2013) explains that best, “[o]ne reason why ELF is so often dismissed as defective or defiant is because it is the E in the acronym rather than the LF that gets focused on, and so it is evaluated as a kind of English rather than in terms of its lingua franca function” (p. 8).
Widdowson’s (2013) assumption is linked with discussion about SE (see more in Section
2.5).
As explained earlier in this chapter (see Section 2.2), globalisation has increased the implementation of multi-ethnic and multicultural elements to societies (Crawford,
2005) that gradually become more hybrid. Subsequently, it comes as no surprise that the needs of language learners have changed as well. In fact, there seems to be “a disparity between the pronouncements of [EU’s] policy . . . and the communicative requirements of the larger European community” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 134). As van Essen (2004) posits “[d]espite the various updates of such well known specification of English language teaching/learning objectives as the Threshold Level, the Council of Europe’s
(2001) Modern Languages Projects do not, as yet, seem to have taken the idea of EIL on board” (p. 2). That incongruity might reflect the long-established attitudes held by ELT practitioners as well as learners themselves that seem to favor for instance the NS norms18. In order to deal with the new realities, conventional attitudes and approaches to
ELT should be critically examined (see Chapter 3 for a literature review of attitudes).
The following section addresses and discusses the need to bridge the conceptual !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18 See Jenkins, (2007) for a more comprehensive view of the attitudes held towards English and ELF. 37 gap between the sociopolitical view of global English and the model of English proposed for the teaching profession so far (Jenkins, 2000; Pennycook, 1994; Saraceni, 2009;
Seidlhofer, 2001; Sifakis & Sougari, 2004).
2.6.4 ELF awareness in teaching and learning English
The importance of ELF research is that it “points to a possibility of a relationship between use and learning and its implication for teaching which are very different from those that inform conventional EFL pedagogy” (Widdowson, 2013, p. 193). More specifically, Sifakis (2014b) sees ELF as an opportunity for development and transformation. While discussing the challenges and opportunities for teacher education, he alludes to the necessity of teacher transformation (ibid). In an earlier study, Sifakis
(2010) found that Global English/ELF comes relatively low as a priority for in-service teachers. In fact, ELF research challenges certain beliefs and well-established convictions related to ownership and standardness/correctness. There is research that suggests that following the typical EFL approach the students’ life is identical with the user’s life. In this sense, the exposure to the language out of the classroom is minimal and the students strive for NS attainment.
On the other hand, following the post EFL paradigm, the student’s life is different from the users’ life in the sense that students are not only exposed to the language but are also competent users. Sifakis (2014a) argues that the post-EFL paradigm should be linked to ELF because ELF is related to actual students’ lives. He draws on Mezirow’s transformative learning theory and provides a 10-step road map. Essentially, “ELF-aware education is about development and growth. Awareness is not only about being informed.
38 It involves action and involvement on behalf of the teachers and co-construction of notions and is certainly more ELF-related. In their ELF-TEd project19, Sifakis and
Bayyurt (2015) attempt to overcome the interregnum20 that was created, in an Antonio
Gramsci meaning of the term. In this sense, they tried to find a practical solution recognising the fact that old teaching practices are no longer efficient and new ones have not yet been implemented and tested. The researchers suggested a more cosmopolitan view instead of the native-speakeristic attitude that characterizes current teaching practices. They moved on to propose an ELF-aware teacher education programme for in- service teachers that involved the latter in reading the relevant literature, reflecting on their perceptions, and developing ELF-aware lessons. ELF-aware instruction does not prescribe a particular teaching methodology or even a specific curriculum. It can be integrated or embedded within a traditional EFL curriculum, provided this integration is the responsibility of the teachers themselves.
A growing body of literature has discussed and suggested implications of ELF for language pedagogy (e.g. Seidlhofer, 2011). Seidlhofer (2011) proposed among others the necessity of shifting teachers’ perceptions such as viewing students as users rather than learners of English. Also, the need for teachers to raise awareness of ELF use in reality has been stressed by researchers (e.g. Kazamia & Joycey, 2016; Sougari & Faltzi, 2015).
While discussing ELF pronunciation negotiation strategies, Matsumoto (2011) suggested
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19 The project has been developed in collaboration between Dr. N. Sifakis and Prof. Y. Bayyuyrt. It started in 2012 and is about to be completed in 2017.
20 The term interregnum was used by Titos Livios for the first time in order to describe the situation in Rome that followed Romilos’s death. After his death, very few Romans could remember Rome before his reign. This resulted to a period of uncertainly and disorientation until the next emperor. Gramsci borrowed and adapted this term to refer to a situation where old practices are no longer efficient and new practices have not been invented yet.
39 that students should not only familiarise themselves with variations of English usage.
Teachers should also be able to raise “learners’ awareness of the global roles of English in the classroom” (ibid, p. 110). Matsumoto (2011) also proposed that learners should be provided “with opportunities for discussion of the differences between NS-NNS interaction and ELF interaction, and on differences in ELF speakers’ accents” (p. 110).
Similarly, other suggestions include the importance of online accommodation in NNS-
NNS interaction (Firth, 2009).
This section has demonstrated the challenges that ELT faces with regards to the global spread of English. Since this research takes place in a tertiary educational context, the delineation of the ESP field was rendered necessary. Therefore, an account of the historical development of ESP, along with attempts to establish its definitions follows
(Section 2.7).
2.7 English for Specific Purposes
This section will start with providing a brief account of the historical development and origins of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Being part of a more general movement of teaching, namely, Language for Specific Purposes (LSP), the origins of ESP go back centuries ago (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998) as interest in LSP can first be attributed to the communication needs of travellers and merchandisers in the Greek and Roman empires.
According to Hutchinson & Waters (1987), three main reasons have led to the emergence of the ESP movement. First, were the radical changes that came soon after the end of the Second World War. The “age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in
40 scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale” created a world
“unified and dominated by two forces; technology and commerce” (Hutchinson &
Waters, 1987, p. 6). The “demands of a Brave New World” initiated the need for a common language of communication (ibid). The appropriation of English as an international language came without surprise, since the USA was the economic and technological power in the post-war era.
Later on, the Oil Crises of the 1970s accelerated a flux of capitals and human expertise into the Arab countries. That created the need for learning English and for
“courses with clearly defined goals” (ibid, p. 7). The traditional teaching methods were no longer appropriate for the demands and realities of the international business world and so they induced a “revolution in linguistics” as Hutchinson & Waters (1987) call it.
Researchers shifted their attention to the learners’ needs. The focus of all studies was on the identification and analysis of the “linguistic characteristics of their specialist area of work or study’ for learning English” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p. 8).
Finally, the new developments in educational psychology were the third and last factor that had a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP. The researchers shifted their focus on the learners. The learners became of paramount importance and that led to a specialization in language learning that would increase learners’ motivation as well as the quality and pace of learning (ibid).
The development of ESP as a movement followed five stages according to
Hutchinson and Waters (1987): (a) the register analysis (Strevens, 1977; Swales, 1971;
Ewer & Latorre, 1969; West, 1953), (b) the rhetorical or discourse analysis (Fairclough,
1995; Widdowson, 1995), (c) the target situation analysis (Chambers, 1980, Munby,
41 1978) or needs analysis movement, (d) the skills-centered approach, and finally (e) the learning-centered approach (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). The move from the sentence level (register analysis), to the communicative value of discourse (rhetorical or discourse analysis) was the starting point for ESP as it prioritized purpose over practice for language use (Coffey, 1984). In fact, Widdowson introduced the idea of use and usage, in an attempt to distinguish between a purposeful use of a language and the emphasis on correct usage of the linguistic rules of a language.
The third stage marked one of the most important eras in the ESP development as it placed the learners’ needs at the centre of the syllabus attention and course design process. The fourth stage underlined the thinking process of language use, while the last one emphasized the learning process. The differences between the five approaches of
ESP development are eminent in the variability of definitions proposed for ESP. The following section gives a brief account of ESP classification.
2.7.1 A definition of ESP and its classification
Many attempts have been made in order to give the right definition of ESP (Anthony,
1997; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Strevens, 1988).
Apparently for some authors (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Johns & Dudley-Evans, 1998;
Kitkauskienè, 2006; Widdowson, 1997), the emphasis was placed on the professional or social needs and purposes of the learner. As Hutchinson and Waters (1987) claim, ESP constitutes an approach to language teaching rather than a product or a specific kind of language. The teaching and learning of ESP is considered “speciality-oriented”, thus the learners’ professional needs become central (Kitkauskienè, 2006, p. 89; Robinson, 1991).
42 Robinson (1991) addresses the need to “specify as closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English” (p. 3).
At this point a brief reference shall be made to the appearance of English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) and subsequently to English for Occupational purposes since both terms are relevant to the nature of this study. EAP21 emerged from the broader field of ESP and grew out to support the needs of the profoundly increased number of international students who studied in British or English-medium universities (Jordan,
1997; 2002). Those changes in higher educational contexts led to the escalation of
English language courses meant to support students in their study sojourns and internships mostly in English-speaking countries.
What determines EAP syllabus design is “whether or not the subject course is taught in English” (Dudler-Evans & St John, 1998, p. 34). Based on Dudley-Evans and St
John’s (1998) distinction between four types of situations, Greece falls within the 4th situation, where “all subjects courses are taught in the national language, but English may be important for ancillary reasons” (p. 35). With the increasing number of students taking courses in Business, Finance and Banking, “the area of academic Business English is beginning to assume much greater importance in EAP” (ibid, p. 31). The perspective of
EAP broadened after the 1980s to encompass the business context of communication
(Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998).
As the present research locates itself in the business tertiary context, it was necessary to draw attention to English for business purposes and ELF research in that
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21 EAP consists of two parts namely: English for General Academic purposes (EGAP) and English for Specific academic purposes (ESAP).
43 field. Thus, a description of English for business purposes follows (Section 2.8) and ELF research in business contexts comes next (Section 2.8.1).
2.8 English for business purposes
The expansion of international business has inevitably led to a burgeoning interest from companies, businessmen and company executives for successful communication. In order to communicate effectively in diverse business endeavours and other multilingual and multicultural contexts, they should either find a way to overcome the language barriers or use a common language of communication. In fact, studies have shown that “fluency in a globally dominant language, namely English, promotes trade between non-English speaking countries” (Ku & Zussman, 2010, p. 256). Though English is not the only language of international business, it plays a pivotal role in most contexts.
Teachers and stakeholders involved in the ELT industry gradually shifted their attention towards Business English (BE) and English for Business Purposes (EBP). The attempt to define Business English is most likely to fall through. Traditionally, EBP falls within the EOP category since “a business purpose is … an occupational purpose”
(Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998, p. 7). The term involves many aspects and reflects the communication needs that arise for stakeholders involved in business exchanges. Boyd
(2002) asserts that BE can be defined as either “a subfield that focuses on the development of communicative competence for business settings” or “in terms of the learners’ needs, especially as determined by their relationship to the business world” (p.
42). In that case, the acquisition of specific skills and development of communicative competence is deemed necessary, particularly in business situations where English is the
44 language of communication. In the following section, current strands in BE and the emergence of research on Business English as a Lingua Franca shall be dealt with in more detail.
2.8.1 ELF research in business contexts
The present research deals primarily with attitudes towards English in business contexts.
This section will first make reference to the emergence of Business English as a Lingua
Franca (BELF) and then will draw upon the literature on BELF communication research.
As English has become the working language of many international business firms,
Kankaanranta and Planken (2010) note that 70% of the English communication of internationally operating professionals can be characterized as BELF. The use of ELF for business communication has become the scope of investigation of various disciplines
(Bargiela-Chiappini, Nickerson, & Planken, 2007; Charles, 2007; Kankaanranta &
Louhiala-Salminen, 2010; Rogersson-Revell, 2007). The term English as a lingua franca in business contexts (BELF) has emerged to refer to English used as a “communication code” that is “neutral” for all speakers involved (Kankaanranta & Louhiala-Salminen,
2010; Louhiala-Salminen, Charles & Kanraanranta, 2005, pp. 403-404). According to
Louhiala-Salminen et al. (2005) “[i]t is shared in the sense that it is used for conducting business within the global business discourse community” (p. 403-404). Louhiala-
Salminen and Kankaanranta (2012) point out that BELF communication functions well in its context of use, where its users are experts in their field though they share no language other than English, without which their communication would have been impossible.
Studies on BELF communication have come to the conclusion that adherence to
45 NS norms and proficiency does not constitute an essential element in successful communication and can also become problematic for learners of BE (Ehrenreich, 2010;
Gerritsen and Nickerson, 2009; Kankaanranta & Louhiala-Salminen, 2010; Kankaanranta
& Planken, 2010). Kankaanranta and Louhiala-Salminen (2010) argued that
Business competence together with knowledge of business
communication and genre rules are clearly more important than, for
example, grammatical and idiomatic correctness… NS fluency is not a
relevant criterion for success in international business work, and in
addition, since most interactions take place between NNSs of English, it
might not even be desirable. (p. 207)
What is important for students of Business English is to become “flexibly competent”
(ibid, p. 208) or as Hanford (2010) puts it, “to dynamically manoeuvre within the communities of practice which business people inhabit” (p. 145). Successful communication and intelligibility is what students should strive for (Sougari & Faltzi,
2016; Tapia, 2010) as well as accomplishment of particular requirements (Kankaanranta
& Louhiala-Salminen, 2007) and strategic skills (Kankaanranta et al., 2015;
Kankaanranta & Planken, 2010). According to the Chief diversity officer in a global outsourcing firm “[l]ack of intelligibility is a detriment to all parties concerned and will assuredly limit that individual’s career advancement capabilities no matter how talented they may be” (Tapia, 2010).
BELF is about adaptation to specific contexts and specific users so that the business is successful and students seem to realize that (e.g. Faltzi, 2016; Nickerson et al., 2005, p. 343). Teachers and those involved in teacher training should address those
46 issues in specific contexts in order to support learners of BE and successfully prepare them to meet the demands of BELF communication. In fact, drawing on CC research,
Louhiala-Salminen and Kankaanranta (2011) placed BELF competence within the Global
Communicative Competence framework (GCC). The three layers that comprise GCC (i.e. multicultural competence, competence in BELF and Business know-how) overlap and are intertwined, and signify the importance of contextual knowledge for competence and language use.
Kankaaranta et al. (2015) studied the use of English in an international business school in a non-English speaking country. While reviewing three different strands of research into the use of English (i.e. Applied Linguistics, International Management research and Corporate Communication research), the researchers illustrated different uses of English as a shared language. In the international business literature, the “third stage of globalisation” (Friedman, 2007), signified an emerging swift of interest towards interpersonal communication. Kankaaranta et al. (2015) have come into the conclusion that Applied Linguistics focuses on the use of BELF through authentic business discourse; on the other hand, the other two strands of research conceptualise English as mainly ENL.
In international management research, terms such as “official language”,
“common company language” and “corporate language” are used interchangeably
(Kankaaranta et al., 2015, p.133). However, as Kankaaranta et al. (2015) have succinctly pointed out, the studies so far have not managed to “address its ontology” and the terms are ill defined leaving a huge conceptualisation gap (ibid).
47 Janssens and Steyaert (2014) proposed 3 different approaches to the concept of language in international management studies. Addressing the conceptualisation gap that
Kankaaranta et al. (2015) specified, they drew from sociolinguistics and cosmopolitan theory and labelled their approaches as: (i) monological lingua franca (MLF), (ii) monological multilingualism (MM22), and (iii) multilingual franca (MF). The MF differs from the first two in that it gives emphasis on the “bricolage of speakers’ multiple linguistic resources and it views language as ‘negotiated, situated practice’” (Kankaaranta et al., 2015, p. 133). This conceptualisation resembles BELF conceptualisation. Likewise,
Ehrenreich (2011) proposed that the language contact framework would help ELF research in business contexts to explore the hybridity as well as the relation of ELF to various Englishes (p. 38). Also, Cogo (2016) attributes the participants’ membership to the CoP not to their shared non-nativeness but to a multilingual international aspect, as well as on the knowledge of the practice.
The way research informs the teaching of English for Business School students is fundamental. The global spread of English and the subsequent increased needs of learners for NNS-NNS communication have led to a reconceptualization of ELT as previously mentioned (see Section 2.6.2). ELT should aim into helping learners perceive themselves as legitimate English users and not deficient English speakers as opposed to NSs
(Matsuda, 2003; McKay, 2003; Park, 2004). As Widdowson (1997) succinctly puts it, the learners’ aim should be to
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22 The first two approaches conceptualise language as a “discreet, unified, pre-existing system” (Janssens & Steyaert, 2014, p. 631). The MLF approach embraces the idea of one single language as a unifying code and a shared corporate language, while the MM favours parallel use of multiple local languages. These two approaches differ from the “social practice” view of the third approach (ibid).
48 “become members of expert communities and to communicate with
other members wherever they may be and whatever primary culture
they come from . . . to conform [not] to any national norms of general
use, but to co-operate as members in international modes of
communication”. (p. 144)
The chances for Business School students to be involved in a future intercultural exchange are many. It then becomes more than ever necessary to prepare them in order to successfully face the challenges that underpin international business interactions.
Trosborg and Jorgensen (2005) have argued that the successful accomplishment of a commercial activity is dependent on how competently business practitioners respond to the cultural sensitivities of their business partners in the globalized business environment.
It is then up to ESP practitioners to see the chance that their courses can offer to prepare students of non-linguistic majors for intercultural communication in study sojourns and even job opportunities abroad. Emphasis should be placed on the implications of research into ELF for the teaching of English for future business professionals. In order to take on board a different perspective in ESP teaching, a thorough investigation of the stakeholders’ attitudes at a local level becomes necessary. The guiding principles for ESP teaching should above all be “context-specific”, in other words, in line with the students’ socio-cultural actuality (Kumaradivelu, 2001).
Current research on ELF and ELT should be in line with the people involved in language teaching, meaning the learners themselves and their teachers. Conventional attitudes to English and approaches should be critically examined. As Mauranen,
Hynninen and Ranta (2010) have succinctly pointed out, “[t]he successful use of ELF
49 demands new skills from its speakers, native or non-native, compared to those which traditional language education has prepared people for” (p. 189). In the light of the above, delving into learners’ attitudes about English is rendered necessary for informing the learning and teaching context (Widdowson, 1994). That would help shed some light and bridge the gap of ELT pedagogies towards a better understanding of how English should be taught to particular groups of learners. The literature of studies regarding attitudes towards ELF, motivation, and identity will be the scope of the next chapter.
!
Concluding remarks
This chapter has addressed and outlined the current realities of the global spread of
English. It briefly explained how the globalization phenomenon has brought about linguistic changes namely the global use of English and the change of its status as the world’s lingua franca. Following a definition of terms, the traditionally held beliefs about the teaching of English were questioned under the scope of ELF. Particular emphasis was placed on tertiary education and English in business contexts, which is the focus of this research. As the chapter unfolds it gives a rough idea of the origins and the development of ESP and in particular BE. In addressing what the future holds for the Greek higher education and specifically ESP teaching, an investigation of the stakeholders’ attitudes is imperative. The studies on attitudes and identity in relation to ELF will be presented in the following chapter, and form the basis for the current research.
50 Chapter 3
Exploring the notions of attitudes, motivation and identity
Having looked at the growing awareness of ELF as a sociolinguistic reality, this chapter will sketch the formation of attitudes drawing on previous studies with emphasis on learners’ and more specifically on university students’ attitudes. Since attitudes are closely linked to motivation, the Chapter will also unfold the way motivation develops and review the literature on motivational studies with more emphasis on the tertiary education context, as this is the context of the present research. Then, it will present the literature of studies on learners’ identity in relation English since attitudes help the formation of identities and the interplay between these two research areas has been well attested.
3.1 The importance of attitudes
The word “attitude” derives from the Latin “aptitudo” and its origin dates back in the late
17th century. The word was used to denote the placing or posture of a figure in art
(painting or drama). The term is complicated and many scholars tried to define it (Ajen,
1988; Baker, 1992; McGuire, 1985). It can be “a disposition to respond favourably or unfavourably to an object, person, institution, or event” (Ajen, 1988, p. 4). Attitudes can also locate objects of thought on dimensions of judgment (McGuire, 1985). According to
Baker (1992), “attitude is a hypothetical construct used to explain the direction and persistence of human behavior” (p. 10). What characterizes attitudes is their latent nature, which makes it rather difficult to be directly observed (Baker, 1992). Nevertheless they
51 are very important as they “often manage to summarize, explain and predict behavior”
(ibid, p. 11).
In the applied linguistics field, language attitudes have become a recognized concern in as much as they represent important phenomena and ramifications worth attention. Baker (1992) identifies three main reasons for the importance in studying language attitudes. He mainly states that “[attitude’s] “close connection to individual construct systems, its value as an indicator of viewpoints in the community and its centrality in psychological theory and research for over sixty years attest to attitude as a central topic” (p. 10). People can make assumptions about others from their choice of language; accent or paralinguistic features (Giles, 1998) and at times they show a general presumption in favor of a particular language or dialect. Language attitudes can warrant a prestigious position to a language and determine its worldwide spread and use as in the case of the English language.
The increasing sociocultural and linguistic diversity of the world call for attention to issues such as language use, identity and the pervasiveness of English globally. The study of attitudes in language learning is important in that they are closely linked to motivation and identity. To be more specific, learners’ positive attitudes towards the target language group (e.g. English) can increase their motivation and are linked to their success in language learning (Dörnyei et al., 2006; Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Moreover, the study of language attitudes is important in that it does not only inform language education research but is also conducive to the successful implementation of language education policies (Show, 2007; Young, 2006).
52 In particular, the study of NNSs’ attitudes towards English is of utmost importance in view of the fact that any pedagogical change in English language teaching is highly unlikely if the notion of ELF is rejected by those involved with its teaching or learning (Jenkins, et al., p. 307). In other words, to implement an ELF-aware aspect for the teaching of English and BELF, the linguistic description (see more about ELF research in Section 2.6.3) and pedagogical guidance and implications do not suffice. The reaction of teachers and learners exerts a strong influence on the teaching/learning process. Therefore, studies on the attitudes of teachers are discussed in this section as well. Studies on in-service teachers are reviewed first, while research on practicing teachers’ attitudes is discussed later.
3.2 Studies on attitudes towards English
It is due to the role English plays in the world today that many studies have been conducted on attitudes towards English. These studies are necessary to understand the
“extent changes in the use of English, and its associated social practices, reflects shifts in attitudes towards ELF and ELF communities of speakers” (Cogo, 2010, p. 304-305).
Learners’ and teachers’ attitudes affect the teaching and learning process and as such should be seriously taken into consideration. In the following sections, the perceptions of
NNS teachers and learners are discussed, whereas particular emphasis is given on university students’ attitudes. The existing literature on university students’ attitudes shall be used in order to relate and compare the results of the present research.
53 3.2.1 Studies of NNS teachers’ attitudes towards English
Research has shown that learners’ attitudes are influenced by their teachers’ perceptions.
This subsection will provide a brief overview of studies on in-service and pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards English. This brief delineation of teachers’ perceptions is important for the present research, because it helps take into account the context from which the university students’ attitudes, identity and motivation have most probably evolved.
Studies on attitudes of practicing teachers towards ELF have explored various aspects such as: attitudes to ‘Euro-English’ (Murray, 2003), pronunciation (Jenkins,
2005, 200723; Sifakis and Sougari, 2005, Timmis, 2002; Zacharias, 2005), standard and informal spoken grammar (Timmis, 2002), and a possible change in the focus of ELT to the concern of the role of English as an international lingua franca (Decke-Cornill, 2003).
The majority of studies (Decke-Cornill, 2003; Llurda, 2004; Murray, 2003; Sifakis and
Sougari, 2005, 2010; Sougari & Sifakis, 2007, 2010) demonstrated that “British or
American norms have to be followed and native speakers are considered the ideal speakers” (Llurda, 2004, p. 319). They also revealed a “theory/practice divide” (Jenkins,
2007, p. 99). On the one hand, teachers “can conceive of ELF communication with its own demands in respect to appropriateness and intelligibility”, whereas on the other hand, “they do not consider it in their teaching and prefer to stay close to a traditional RP model” (ibid, p. 99).
As Sifakis and Sougari (2005) point out in their study of 421 teachers’ beliefs about pronunciation and their awareness of EIL related issues (e.g. the need for mutual
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23 A very thorough discussion of research into ELF attitudes and the way attitudes are linked to social differentiation and identity construction is found in Jenkins (2007).
54 intelligibility in NNS-NNS communication), this paradoxical situation might be attributed to the teachers’ view of themselves as “custodians of the English language in
Greece” (Sifakis & Sougari, 2005, p. 481). This view is reinforced by Hannam’s (2004) study of Greek teachers that showed preference and a feeling of comfort towards RP possibly coming from their familiarity with this accent through their childhood learning experience. More than 70% of the participants in Sifakis and Sougari’s (2005) research asserted that English belongs to its NSs. Primary school teachers valued the NS model more than secondary school teachers. Though this was not further researched it may relate to a preference for the NS model that is required for learners of a lower proficiency level. Regarding their pronunciation teaching practices, though, the teachers were more willing to focus on communication when considering NNS-NNS communication.
This finding possibly reveals an awareness of the inappropriateness of NS norms and the need to focus on intelligibility in ELF communicative contexts. Sifakis and
Sougari (2005) have also revealed the teachers’ “lack of awareness of issues related to the international spread of English” (p. 483), which according to the researchers is a possible reason for their norm-bound attitudes on pronunciation teaching.
Moreover, with regards to attitudes towards their own accents, the eight NNS teachers from Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Poland and Spain who participated in Jenkins’s
(2005) study revealed some interesting results. In the interviews conducted, the teachers were ambivalent with respect to their English accents (Jenkins, 2005, p. 537). Despite their admiration for native accents they seemed reluctant to adopt one. Also, the context of interaction played a significant role in forming teachers’ attitudes. Teachers expressed a “strong anti-EIL attitude” when they considered their profession as English teachers,
55 whereas they were more tolerant with English use outside the classroom context and even more tolerant with their students or the public (Yi-Shin, 2010, p. 146). Similarly, in another study in Turkey, in-service teachers were highly moderate in terms of their perceptions. According to the researchers this can only be interpreted as an indication that teachers do not see themselves as “decision-making agents of change” (Inal & Özdemir,
2015, p. 150).
Studies on pre-service teachers’ beliefs reveal that NS norms are preferred in
English language teaching (Coskun, 2011; Drljaca & Širola, 2010; Ozturk et al., 2010;
Kaur, 2014; Shibata, 2009; Shim, 2002; Uygun, 2013). Even though the “myth of the native speaker as the ideal teacher has been deconstructed” (Moussou & Llurda, 2008, p.
316), in a study of 102 pre-service teachers of English in Turkey, the overwhelming majority (90%) agreed on the importance of having a NS accent (Uygun, 2013).
Nevertheless, the percentage was smaller (70%), when it came to the goals of the learners’ pronunciation (ibid), which is a rather encouraging finding.
In Kaur’s (2014) study, the investigation of 36 Malasian trainee teachers towards
ELF and NNS accents showed that “NS accents take precedence over NNS accents” (p.
221). Emotionally loaded words were used more often with regards to Asian English accents. Moreover, NS accents were viewed as “superior” and “standard” when compared to NNS ones (ibid).
Furthermore, a study on Greek pre-service teachers’ perceptions revealed a reciprocal relation between intercultural experiences and the pre-service teachers’ self- beliefs (Sougari & Faltzi, 2015). In this respect, “the more diverse encounters they had
(in which English was employed), the more their self-beliefs were strengthened and vice
56 versa” (ibid, p. 165). Inal and Özdemir (2015) investigated the perceptions of Turkish pre-service and in-service teachers with regards to ELF and its implementation in English language teachers education programmes. ELF instruction and familiarity affected positively the teachers’ approach towards ELF. Pre-service teachers questioned the
“validity of the normative perspective of English language teaching and [we]re more critical of native-speaking teacher superiority” (Inal & Özdemir, 2015, p. 149). They placed more emphasis on intelligibility rather than native-like accuracy and seemed to embrace an ELF perspective more than the academia and in-service teachers.
Studies of pre-service teachers’ attitudes (Grau, 2005; Seidlhofer and
Widdowson, 2003; Shim, 2002) showed both an “approval for the conceptual shift from
ENL to ELF, and concern about what could be seen as a ‘reduced’ and ‘inadequate’ model” (Jenkins, 2007, p. 101). Most importantly, the studies seem to call for awareness raising programmes with regard to ELF targeted to pre-service teachers of English (Grau,
2003; Sifakis & Sougari, 2005). As Jenkins (2006b) puts it, “[t]eachers and their learners, it is widely agreed, need to learn not (a variety of) English, but about Englishes, their similarities and differences, issues involved in intelligibility, the strong link between language and identity, and so on” (p. 173).
In short, what the above studies have brought to the fore is that a theory/practice dividing line exists. Although there seems to be awareness of ELF existence and acceptance of the need to re-evaluate ELT, NS norms prevail and welcoming of ELF
‘practices’ in classroom is rejected. A departure from the norms is so much feared particularly in the language classroom. It remains to be seen whether studies on learners’ needs and attitudes will fragment the teachers’ reluctance to replace the NS teachers’
57 status quo and thus start changing their classroom practices and approaches to language teaching.
3.2.2 Studies of learners’ attitudes towards English
The previous section reviewed the literature on the main stakeholders’ perceptions and revealed their awareness of the necessity to incorporate within their familiar EFL/ESL territory, elements of ELF and of a new type of English evolving from the present global reality, as part of the English language teacher education programmes. This section will provide the literature on learners’ attitudes towards English.
The majority of studies on learners’ attitudes show a clear preference towards SE
(Jenkins, 2007; Prodromou, 1992; Timmis, 2002). They also reveal a dislike of NNS accents (Shim, 2002). Overall, learners’ attitudes reveal a tendency to adhere to NS
English norms and a resistance to ELF acceptability. For example, Matsuda’s (2003) study of 33 Japanese students’ attitudes towards ELF showed that learners were actually aware of the fact that English has become an international language, but at the same time they “believed that although English is used all over the world, it does not belong to the world. Rather English is the property of native English speakers (American and British, more specifically)” (Matsuda, 2003, p. 493; emphasis in original).
Karahan’s (2007) study of 190 primary school students showed that their attitudes were ‘mildly’ positive towards English language and culture. Moreover, although they recognized the importance of English their attitudes towards learning the language were not very high (ibid, p. 73).
58 In the Greek educational context attitudes towards English have been widely researched particularly in relation to motivation. All studies showed that young learners hold positive attitudes towards English and regard its competence as essential
(Hovhannisyan, 2014; Kiriakoulia, 2010; Manolopoulou-Sergi, 2001; Nikolaou, 2004;
Plainaki, 2010; Theodorou, 1996).
In Theodorou’s (1996) study, the questionnaire survey of 450 primary school children showed that learners were very positive to English and regarded its knowledge as a prerequisite. Manolopoulou-Sergi’s (2001) PhD research presented similar findings.
In addition, Manolopoulou-Sergi (2001) found that the 572 junior high school students were very negative toward English instruction at school. The majority of her participants found that lessons were boring and held unfavourable attitudes to the teacher and course books.
Moreover, Nikolaou’s (2004) participants in Greek upper secondary schools held positive attitudes towards English. Students who attended private foreign language courses also showed more positive attitudes towards the teacher and English instruction in general as opposed to Manolopoulou-Sergi’s (2001) findings.
Proficiency in English and age seemed to impact on young learners’ attitudes towards English as Hovhannisyan’s (2014) PhD research showed. More proficient learners held more positive attitudes and younger learners were more in favour of
English. Hovhannisyan (2014) posited that the notion of EIL had become part of the learners’ perception of English due to their everyday exposure to the language.
This section provided a brief description of the learners’ attitudes towards English since young learners are not the scope of the present research. Nevertheless, it was
59 important to give an overview of the studies conducted in the Greek educational context that mainly dealt with motivation. Since the present research examines university students’ attitudes, the next section will describe in more detail the studies on attitudes in the higher educational context.
3.2.3 A look into university students’ attitudes towards English
It comes as no surprise that all studies that explored university students’ attitudes towards English revealed that students were aware of the global status of English language today. The social and educational value of English language was well attested, while at the same time a lot of emphasis was given on its necessity for a future job.
Students’ perceptions towards English language instruction at the university were also investigated and revealed very negative attitudes and comments towards ESP. Students’ perceptions towards the attainment of SE grammar and NS pronunciation were explored.
Factors affecting attitude formation were dealt by fewer researchers and shall be analysed in a different section (see Section 3.2.4).
In Lafaye and Tsuda’s (2002) research, 48% of the 518 Japanese students at the
Humanities Department were positive towards English and accepted its international status. Students seemed to be aware of the necessity to learn English and the majority chose ELF for the kind of English they are aiming for. Their ELF awareness was partially expressed through their positive feelings towards other cultures and willingness to embrace communication with foreigners. Nevertheless, “the social perception of the use of English [was] not fulfilled by the students’ actual learning” (ibid, p. 149). In fact, students were negative towards ESP courses and strongly de-motivated. According to the
60 researchers, this finding could be attributed to the students’ adherence to NS norms.
Since it is “useless to strive to emulate native speakers” (ibid, p. 151) it is possible that this situation had created unrealistic goals and thus made students disappointed with their performances and consequently with learning English at the university. The researchers found their results contradictory as positive attitudes towards English, on the one hand, and negative towards ESP, on the other, seemed quite impressive.
Erling (2004), in her sociolinguistic study, reported that students’ opinions towards English were generally positive. The 101 German students formed 3 types- clusters; a US-friendly cluster (54%), a pro-British cluster (13%) and a lingua franca cluster (34%), depending on their preferences for a variety of English and their motivation for learning English.
Ardeo’s (2003) study of 123 adult university students taking ESP courses within the Basque Autonomous Community showed an overall positive stance towards English and “little or no prejudice against native speakers of English” (p. 121). Students were also positive towards EIL, showing how NNSs are aware of the necessity of English used as a means of communication.
In Turkey, the perceptions of 427 freshmen at two higher education contexts (i.e. the Dokuz Eylül University and the Izmir Vocational Institution of Higher Education) were investigated and manifested that 51% were negative towards ESP courses (Çakici,
2007). The main reasons were attributed to its compulsory imposition and the
“shortcomings in the curriculum, ineffective teaching methods and techniques used, poor materials, limited time allocated to the English course and the features of the foreign language teacher” (Çakici, 2007, p. 32).
61 Al-Tamimi and Shuib’s (2009) study of 81 petroleum engineering students revealed positive attitudes towards the social value and educational status of English and the students acknowledged its role as an international language. Likewise, positive feelings towards the use of English in social and educational contexts were found in other studies (Al-Quyadi, 2000; Buschenhofen, 1998) such as Al-Quyadi’s (2000) research of
518 students in Yemeni. Moreover, in Al-Tamimi and Shuib’s (2009) study more than half of the students were positive towards the western culture, which according to the researchers can be attributed to the effect of globalization (ibid). Nevertheless, some negative feelings were expressed towards the culture of English and were ascribed to the general negative feelings of the Arab world towards the British and American people as colonizers. Students’ interest for learning English was limited to its role in the engineering community since it represents the language of science and technology.
Similarly, in Babaroos’s (1988) study, English was seen as a tool for modernisation and a job prerequisite. It was also associated with an interest in English-medium faculties in the
Yemeni context.
Moreover, in Harrabi’s (2010) study, almost half (48%) of the 33 3rd year students concluded that English was important for them since “it facilitates research, ameliorates their marks and helps them to understand international seminars and conferences”
(Harrabi, 2010, p. 12). Yet, once again, students felt dissatisfied with their performance and lack of progress and that is probably attributed according to the researcher to the students’ high expectations for the ESP course. The discrepancy between university students’ expectations and the type of ESP instruction they received was also recorded in a study held in Japan by Widdows and Voller (1991).
62 In Bernat’s (2006) study, the participants recognized the international status of
English and the significance of learning the language. NS norms prevailed in the students’ perceptions especially regarding pronunciation. In fact, pronunciation was given primacy over grammar (ibid, p. 217). In like manner, despite acknowledging its role as the world’s lingua franca, the 190 adult learners in a study in Brazil (Friedrich,
2000) considered NS varieties - American more than British English - as more prestigious. At the same time they showed ignorance about the existence of other varieties of English and expressed their preference for acquiring native-like English accent.
Similarly, Yi-Shin’s (2010) study showed how the command of standard pronunciation is highly valued by learners. The 529 Taiwanese college students think that
English still belongs to its NSs and prefer to be taught by NSs instead of Taiwanese teachers of English. The participants’ attitudes towards EIL were heavily dependent on the context of English use. Thus, the students were strongly negative to EIL with respect to the teaching and learning English, whereas the notion of EIL was acceptable only when English was used for communication outside the classroom context.
Balint’s (2008) study of 79 2nd year students’ beliefs at a university in western
Japan showed that the students were highly motivated in relation to the English course at the university. They recognised the necessity of English language skills for their future jobs. Also, the participants’ self-perceived progress with their English was very low and they expressed the belief that “Japanese are not good at learning foreign languages” (ibid, p. 139).
63 Overall, university students exposed positive attitudes and held positive feelings towards English accepting its international role (Al-Quyadi, 2000; Al-Tamimi & Shuib,
2009; Ardeo, 2003; Balint, 2008; Bernat, 2006; Buschenhofen, 1998; Erling, 2004;
Harrabi, 2010; He & li, 2009; Hsiu-Ya, 2012; Kirkpatrick & Xu, 2002; Lafaye & Tsuda,
2002; Yu, 2010; Zeiss, 2010). The students also recognized the necessity of English for their future communication needs (e.g. Erling, 2004; Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002). In many studies the participants accepted the social and educational value of English. With regards to non-native English varieties, findings were ambivalent. In some studies in
Asian contexts, university students were negative towards other varieties of English (e.g.
He & Li, 2009; Kirkpatrick & Xu, 2002) or completely unaware of their existence
(Friedrich, 2000), whereas in others (Hsiu-Ya, 2012; Yu, 2010) attitudes were positive towards ‘China English’ as in Yu’s (2010) study and were also aware of different English varieties. In Hsiu-Ya’s (2012) qualitative study, students were negative towards
Taiwanese English grammar variation, yet they accepted its usefulness in certain communicative contexts. NS ideology seemed to prevail with reference to teaching and learning English (Hsiu-Ya, 2012).
An interesting and fundamental issue among these studies was also that most
English learners aspire for a NS accent and endorse NS English in general (Bernat, 2006;
Friedrich, 2003; Galloway, 2011; He & Li, 2009; Hsiu-Ya, 2012; Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002;
Yi-Shin, 2010; Yu, 2010). In He and Li’s (2009) study, only 25% of students expressed the wish to maintain their self-identity with a Chinese accent while speaking English.
Similarly, Kirkpatrick and Xu’s (2002) study of university students in Beijing did not want to sound like Chinese when speaking English. Studies that investigated attitudes
64 towards ESP showed that students were generally negative and very disappointed by the instruction (Çakici, 2007; Harrabi, 2010; Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002; Yu, 2010; Widdows &
Voller, 1991), whereas their motivation was mainly exam-oriented as in Yu’s (2010) study with the exception of Balint’s (2008) study.
In accordance with the third research question of this research (see 1.3), the following section will discuss the literature on studies that investigated the impact of specific factors on learners’ attitudes.
3.2.4 Factors affecting learners’ attitudes
The previous subsection looked into studies on university students’ attitudes and revealed acceptance of the international status of English along with recognition of its necessity for communication with people from other countries. It also showed, among other things, adherence to NS norms particularly in the formal context of English language learning.
A further concern for researchers looking into language attitudes is what determines and what defines them (Garrett, Coupland & Williams, 2003). This is important for the present research because one of the research foci is the identification of factors that determine students’ attitudes. Learners’ previous language learning experience (e.g. Dörnyei, 2005), their familiarity with the Second language (L2) culture, language or accents (e.g. Lippi-Green, 1997), the language’s vitality and prestige
(Friedrich, 2003; Shim, 1994) or the use of the language (Brumfit, 2001), along with other reasons can form certain attitudes. This section will provide a review of studies on university students that investigated the factors that influenced attitude formation. This will form the background upon which the current research was based.
65 In Galloway’s (2011) research, the investigation of university students’ attitudes in Japan showed that participants preferred native English, native English speaker teachers (NESTs) and native English teaching materials. Overall, their attitudes were influenced by familiarity with English varieties including their current use of English, participants’ pedagogical beliefs and motivation for learning English along with language experience. As Galloway (2011) indicated, “[s]tudents’ experience abroad and their experiences using ELF; their perceived future use of English and their ideas about identity as language users” were among the elements that constituted the participants’ attitudes (p. 260).
Similarly, in a study of 398 Chinese college students conducted by Yu (2010), a correlation was found between the length of English study time and students’ attitudes.
To be more specific, the longer students had studied English, the more likely they were to have positive attitudes towards English. Experience with NESTs and the students’ majors
(e.g. students majoring in social sciences were more positive towards English than those in science majors) were factors that contributed to their positive attitudes towards
English. The results also showed that experience with international students lead to higher attitudes towards the purposes for learning English; yet, this finding was not verified by the interview results. According to Yu (2010), the sample of students who had intercultural experiences was rather small and this is probably the reason why the questionnaire findings were not verified.
Likewise, Phan (2009) analyzed interviews of eight international MSc students in
ELT at an international university in Thailand and found an interrelationship between the context (of language learning, language teaching and use), the participants’ identity
66 formation and change, and their attitudes towards English (ibid, p. 205). However, the direction of this relation was not approached in this study. The fact that these students were ELT MSc students might explain why they all “self-identified” with English (p.
206). Also, their “shared ownership of English and their positive relation to it was an important factor in contributing towards their multiple identities according to the researcher (p. 206). Moreover, in Csizér and Kormos’s (2009) study, language learning experience (i.e. ESP courses) played a significant role in the formation of attitudes.
In another study of 250 European students, Zeiss (2010) explored self- perceptions, perceptions of linguistic imperialism, perceptions about pronunciation, grammar and idiomatic language use. The results indicated that there was no correlation between frequency of English use and perceptions. Zeiss (2010) indicated that ELF confidence, the self-perceived language user status and attitudes towards NS norms cannot be equated.
In some studies, globalisation seemed to be the leading force in attitude formation
(Al Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Erling, 2004) as social tendencies are indeed affected by globalisation (Al Tamimi & Shuib, 2009). The English-speaking world culture illustrated in movies and songs seemed to be of much interest for the participants of those two studies (i.e. Al Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Erling, 2004) and English definitely maintains its position as a symbol of modernization and progress and the sine qua non of any occupation (Al Tamimi & Shuib, 2009).
An analysis of 24 university students’ interviews in Taiwan (Hsiu-Ya, 2012) showed how native English speaker ideology affects attitudes towards Taiwanese English grammar variation with the latter being rejected by the respondents. Most students
67 thought it was necessary to learn and use ENL grammar for five main reasons: “English tests, possible use in the future, perceptions of the fundamentals of English, potential for causing problems for ELF communication, and oddness” (Hsiu-Ya, 2012, p. 60-61).
Balint’s (2008) study of 79 2nd year students’ beliefs at a university in western
Japan showed that the differences between academic fields were statistically significant.
The same results were found in another research in Turkey (Çakici, 2007) according to which the department and the type of school that the students had previously attended produced different responses (ibid, p. 32). According to Balint (2008), this can be informative for the instructors as they can “adjust according to the overall group to provide a more student-centred form of instruction” (Balint, 2008, p. 142). Gender made no significant difference in the attitudes of university students (Çakici, 2007; Yu, 2010;
Zeiss, 2010).
The sociolinguistic environment was a factor that according to Friedrich (2003) had most probably influenced students’ goal for “native-like command of the language”
(p. 180). The researcher linked the attitudes of her 100 MBA students at an Argentinian
Business School to the economic crisis in Argentina. Accordingly, she asserted that the students viewed native-like English as an opportunity for enhancing their employment prospects.
The studies discussed so far link attitude formation to the following factors: (a) familiarity with English varieties (Galloway, 2011), (b) context of language learning and teaching (Phan, 2009), (c) length of study time (Yu, 2010), (d) use of English (Galloway,
2011; Phan, 2009), (e) language experience (Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Galloway, 2011;
Phan, 2009), (f) majors (Balint, 2008; Çakici, 2007; Yu, 2010), (g) globalization (Al
68 Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Erling, 2004), and (h) native English speaker ideology (Hsiu-Ya,
2012). The last factor seems to be pertinent in other studies as well as in Galloway (2011) who asserts that familiarity with NS varieties of English influenced positively the students’ perceptions orienting them towards accepting NS English varieties only.
This section provided the literature on factors of attitude formation, as it is a major research question of the current research. Any change in ELT and a possible implementation of an ELF-aware pedagogy requires not only the exploration of attitudes but also an investigation of the factors that influence their formation. An understanding of what guides specific attitudes will lead to better steps taken with regards to ELT in a globalized era. In the subsection to follow, studies on university students’ motivations to learning English shall be examined. It will start with a short account of motivation theories found in the literature so far as motivation closely relates to attitudes and is one of this study’s objectives.
3.3 Motivation
Attitudes are closely linked to motivation as studies during the social-psychological24 period have shown. Therefore, this section investigates how motivation develops and reviews the literature on motivational studies in the tertiary education context, as this is the context of the present research. This section sets forth a conceptualization of motivation to learn a language that is more relevant to the current study. It begins with
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24 The social-psychological period (between 1959-1990) during which the socio-educational model was developed, was concerned with the social-psychological aspects of language motivation. Studies conducted during this period suggested that language learning is influenced by language attitudes, cultural conceptualisations and geopolitical considerations towards the L2 group.
69 the discussion of some of the most influential theories of L2 motivation. Then, it presents the studies on university students’ motivation towards learning English.
3.3.1 Definitions of Motivation
Although there is no clear consensus on the definition of motivation, researchers agree that motivation pertains to the “choice of a particular action”, the “persistence with it,” and the “effort expended on it” (Dörnyei, 2001, p. 8). Among the plethora of definitions of L2 motivation (e.g. Gardner, 1985; Williams and Burden, 1997), the most relevant to the present research is Ushioda’s (2003) conceptualization of motivation as a “socially mediated process” (ibid, p. 90). Ushioda (2003) posited that “learning is constructive rather than reproductive” in the sense that the main impetus to learn comes from the learner. Nevertheless, the social milieu plays a significant role thus making learning a
“social, cultural and interpersonal as well as intrapersonal process” (ibid, p. 91).
3.3.2 Motivation theories
For nearly half a century, Gardner and Lambert’s (1959) theory held a dominant role in
L2 motivation research. Gardner’s (1985) motivation theory was centered on three main aspects: the integrative motive/motivation, the Attitudinal/Motivational Test Battery
(AMTB), and the socio-educational model. Gardner and Lambert’s (1972) research in
Canada has been influential on the attitudinal field of L2 research. Originally the question they approached was whether attitude had any impact on the learners’ motivation to the new language. That was termed as integrative25 motivation (ibid) and was the central
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 The variable integrativeness refers to "a genuine interest in learning the second language in order to come closer to the other language community" (Gardner, 2001, p. 5). !
70 notion of Gardner’s motivation theory. Gardner and Lambert (1972) stated that integrative motivation, meaning the learners’ positive attitudes towards the target language and the exhibition of positive feelings towards the L2 culture and its people, plays a more important role in students’ L2 learning than instrumental26 motivation
(ibid).
The limitations of the socio-educational model were soon acknowledged and the cognitive-situated period followed, which was characterized by attempts to apply cognitive theories to educational psychology. The categorizations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as well as the Self Determination Theory (SDT) emerged in that period. This is a rather general psychological theory, which argues that intrinsic motivation and ultimately identity development are molded by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence and belonging (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan and Deci, 2002).
Recently, the process-oriented period endeavored to answer for the problematic situation caused by the absence of a clear L2 community, considering the present-day status of
English as the world’s lingua franca. Therefore, a critique to Gardner’s theory of motivation is analyzed below followed by the proposition for a new motivational framework.
3.3.3 The L2 Motivational Self System
The concept of integrativeness and its applicability in particular learning situations has been criticized in view of the social changes and impacts of globalization. In certain cases a clearly recognizable L2 community exists. Nevertheless, in light of the global spread of
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26 ‘Instrumentality’ was defined as “conditions where the language is studied for practical or utilitarian purposes” (Gardner, 2006, p. 249).
71 English, its establishment as a world language, and the constant changes in the world’s demographics it is not clear who owns the English language (e.g. Coetzee-Van Rooy
2006; Dörnyei, 2005; 2010; Lamb 2004; Yashima 2000), and “this lack of a specific L2 community undermines Gardner's theoretical concept of integrativeness” (Dörnyei, 2010, p. 75).
Ryan (2009) posited “the portrayal of the English-speaking community as essentially Anglo-American is becoming increasingly irrelevant to many learners” (p.
124). Various studies in a variety of contexts have reported on the difficulty that occurs regarding the lack of identification with NSs of English especially where learners have little or no contact with the L2 community (e.g. Lamb, 2004; Warden & Lin, 2000;
Yashima, 2000). The concept of integrative motivation is undermined by data showing that attitudes towards a vague, undefined L2 community correlate more highly with effort than attitudes to a fixed and readily identifiable L2 community (see Ryan, 2009). It could be the case that “an L2 community defined by either geographical location or cultural tradition situates the learner as an outsider looking in, the impostor struggling to establish a legitimate claim to membership” (Ryan, 2009, p. 131).
What is more, the dichotomy between integrative and instrumental orientation in the facilitation of L2 learning has received various critiques (e.g. Coetzee-Van Rooy,
2006; Lamb, 2004; Yashima, 2000) as it appeared non-realistic to separate the two concepts (Yashima, 2000). For instance, in a study with Japanese EFL learners a factor labeled ‘intercultural friendship orientation’ together with instrumental orientation were found to predict motivational intensity to learn English (Yashima, 2000). Also, as
Yashima succinctly pointed out we cannot talk about “integrativeness as an attitude
72 toward learning English without being influenced by its utilitarian value” (Yashima,
2009, p. 146). Similarly, Lamb (2004) argued, “meeting with westerners, using pop- songs, studying and travelling abroad, pursuing a career - all these aspirations are associated with each other” (p. 15).
Dörnyei (2005) proposed a different conceptual scheme within a ‘self’ framework called the L2 Motivational Self System. His theory tried to bridge research into self and language learning motivation studies aiming to explain phenomena observed in EFL contexts. Based on earlier works by Higgins (1987) and Markus and Nurius (1986),
Dörnyei (2005, 2009) emphasized the role of L2 learners’ self in creating and maintaining their motivation. Three components make up the L2 Motivational Self
System: the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience, which represent “the individual’s ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become and what they are afraid of becoming” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 99).
The ideal L2 self reflects the desired future images of the learners after attaining proficiency in the L2. Integrative and internalised instrumental (e.g. job stability, career enhancement, respect in the work environment) motives could easily fall into this category. The Ought-to L2 Self, “concerns the attributes that one believes one ought to possess to meet expectations and to avoid possible negative outcomes” (Dörnyei, 2009, p.
29). This aspect could be equivalent to “more extrinsic (i.e. less internalised) types of instrumental motives” and is more linked to negative feelings (e.g. fear of losing one’s job, failing tests or dissapointing parents and peers) (ibid). Finally, the L2 learning experience relates to the learner’s experience of language learning. The impact of the teacher, his/her peers, course materials and other parameters could fall into this category
73 (ibid). At this point, it could be argued that previous contact with L2 speakers in an intercultural setting might as well influence the learners’ motivation. The “linguistic self confidence” (Dornyei et al, 2006, p. 15) might imply that someone who had positive experiences might favour NNS varieties as well.
A number of studies (e.g. Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Ryan, 2009; Taguchi et al.,
2009) argued in favour of the Ideal L2 self concept over the concept of integrativeness.
An example of that can be found in Ryan’s (2009) study in Japan, which demonstrated that though integrativeness is found in many contexts, it is still part of a larger L2 self concept (p. 137). In the same research, the Intended learning effort aspect correlated more with attitudes towards L2 speakers rather than with attitudes towards English speakers.
Ryan (2009) explained that finding suggesting that English learners “regard the notion of an English-speaking community freed from the ties of nationality and locality to be a more powerful motivating factor than the static notion of a target language community implied in conventional interpretations of integrativeness” (p. 131).
3.3.4 New approaches evolved through an ELF perspective
Following an understanding that the socio-educational model needs to be re-approached and having looked at the recent proposal of a different conceptual scheme (i.e. the L2
Motivational Self System), this section will describe the new approaches that evolved through an ELF perspective. Dörnyei’s (2005), ‘World English Identity’ and Yashima’s
(2002, 2009) concept of ‘International Posture’ seem to grasp more aptly learners’ motivation towards English. Yashima (2002, 2009) proposed International Posture as an attempt to include more aspects of learners’ language motivation grasping at the same
74 time the complexities of globalization. Yashima (2002, 2009) defined this concept as
“interest in foreign or international affairs, willingness to go overseas to study or work, readiness to interact with intercultural partners [...] and a non-ethnocentric attitude toward different cultures” (Yashima, 2002, p. 57). What is more, Yashima (2002, 2009) rejects the integrative/instrumental classification of L2 motivation and suggests that international posture seems to be a more valid concept since it “tries to capture a tendency to relate oneself to the international community rather than any specific L2 group” (Yashima,
2009, p. 145). According to Csizér and Kormos (2009) international posture equates to students’ views of the role of ELF (ibid, p. 100). It appears that “in the minds of learners,
English may not be associated with particular geographical or cultural communities but with a spreading international culture incorporating (inter alia) business, technological innovation, consumer values, democracy, world travel, and the multifarious icons of fashion, sport and music” (Lamb, 2004, p. 3).
Ideal L2 self relates to international posture (i.e. students’ attitudes to the international status of English) as studies in Asian (e.g. Lamb, 2004; Warden & Lin,
2000; Yashima, 2000, 2002) and Hungarian (Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Kormos & Csizér,
2008) contexts have demostrated. In particular, for the Hungarian learners attitudes to international English were influenced by knowledge orientation (Csizér & Kormos,
2009). To be more specific, “English serves as an important tool for gaining knowledge about the world around them via information channels provided by globalised mass media such as the internet” (ibid, p. 107).
In the same study, age differences were significant in that the Ideal L2 self affected more the motivating behaviour of university students rather than the motivation
75 of secondary school children (ibid, p. 108). Moreover, the students’ L2 learning experience affected their international posture. The researchers explained that finding arguing that it is quite possible that ESP courses had managed to demonstrate better the importance of ELF in their future career (ibid, p. 109). Nonetheless, Csizér & Kormos
(2009) thought that the international posture scale might play a different role if other parts of the country (e.g. less cosmopolitan than the capital city that was researched) had been researched (p. 110).
3.3.5 Studies on motivation towards learning English
The previous sections demonstrated how the recent trends in globalization and the development of ELF have been taken on board the theoretical approaches to motivation.
This section will report on studies that have looked into the reasons why students learn
English taking an ELF perspective into consideration.
In all studies that were surveyed, the respondents were aware of the role of
English for their future career and acknowledged the importance of English proficiency as well as communication skills. The majority of studies that adopted the socio- educational model (Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Balint, 2008; Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002;
Nikolaou, 2004) showed that students’ motivation was mainly instrumental or in other words linked to their future profession. For instance, in Meihua’s (2007) study, the 202
3rd year Chinese university students’ motivation mainly linked to future career purposes.
Their attitudes along with their motivation correlated positively with their English proficiency.
76 In another study, it was interesting to note that 56% of the students were motivated by exams, a goal that according to the researchers “seems to detract from the social image of English as a useful means of communication, either socially or individually” (Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002, p. 149). Similarly, students’ interviews in Al-
Tamimi and Shuib (2009) showed that passing the exams and future career opportunities were strong motivational goals (p. 46).
Similarly, Yu’s (2010) study of 398 Chinese students showed that the respondents had a short and long-term motivation. Their short-term motivation was to pass standardised tests (e.g. TOEFL), whereas their long-term goal was to acquire strong communication skills in English.
In Kormos, Kiddle, and Csizér’s (2011) study, who explored the English language learning motivations of 518 Chilean learners, the motivation of the latter related more to the status of ELF. Other studies indicated that international posture affected motivated behaviour (Yashima, 2002; Yashima & Zenuk-Nishide, 2008) and correlated with Ideal
L2 Self (Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Ryan, 2009). Also, the learning context appeared to be very influential to international posture (Yashima & Zenuk-Nishide, 2008).
Studies focusing on L2 motivation in the Greek educational context showed that learners acknowledged the importance of English competence particularly for reasons related to job and future career. Regarding their motivation, Nikolaou (2004) found that his participants were instrumentally motivated though there were cases where integrative and instrumental motivation overlapped. This was probably due to the fact that Nikolaou
(2004) based his research on Gardner’s socio-educational model, which proved insufficient to explain phenomena observed in EFL contexts (see more in Section 3.3.3).
77 The emergence of the motivational factor ‘international travel and communication’ is evidence according to Hovhannisyan (2014) that the “Greek socio-educational context can no longer be defined as an EFL context” (p. 251). In Hovhannisyan’s (2014) study, young learners exhibited an interest for travelling abroad and communication with other
NNSs. This finding suggests that learners’ motivation relates to their wish for international communication (Hovhannisyan’s, 2014). Nevertheless, most studies in the
Greek context stressed that the pupils’ motivation to learn English related to the acquisition of certification of proficiency in English. Sifakis (2012) discusses the high status of these certificates both among young people and their families and terms this phenomenon “pistopoiitikokratia27”. Sifakis (2012) gives an overview of this mentality of the Greek society and critically reflects on the negative impact of this phenomenon on the quality of education (p. 321-333).
The following section will provide the literature of studies on learners’ identity in relation to English since studies on attitudes towards ELF have demonstrated both the complexity of this research area and its interplay with the speakers’ identity (see Jenkins,
2007). The relation between attitudes, motivation and identity will be well attested.
3.4 The relation between identity and attitudes towards ELF
Globalization plays a significant role for identity as it increases complexity in human identification and people search for new ways of self-representation. In an attempt to conceptualize identity one finds himself/herself in a bewildering situation. Identities in traditional societies were fixed and stable due to the more homogeneous spaces they
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27 Sifakis (2012) himself gives a rough translation of this term as “the dominance of certificates for their own sake” (p. 479).
78 inhabited. However, in the contemporary superdiverse globalized world it is more appropriate to consider identities as heterogeneous, dynamic, multi-faceted and constantly re-shaped.
Since discursive practices can shape identities (Gnutzmann et al., 2014), the use of ELF might impact on the speakers’ identity and more specifically their language identity. Some studies investigated the role of ELF in the formation of a Common
European Identity (e.g. Gnutzmann et al., 2014). Yet, they shall not be reported here, as they do not relate to the research focus of the present research. Approaching identity from a poststructuralist perspective in order to better account for the dynamic nature of ELF communicative contexts (Jenkins, 2007), some researchers viewed identity as a “process in which an individual can identify with multiple groups at different times and in different contexts and that these groups may not be complimentary” (Baker, 2011, p. 42).
The massive use of the English language globally and its adaptation is what makes it so unique in contrast to other European languages and that has actually resulted to removing NS ownership (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 139). This research investigates students’ identity in relation to ELF following Jenkins (2007) who postulated that ELF identity is the way “participants see themselves vis-à-vis ELF” (p. 109). The study of identity is important for attitudes because “identity will continue to play a critical role in
NNS English speakers’ orientations” not only regarding their accents but also towards
ELF (ibid, p. 231). Also, identity is closely linked to motivation. As Norton (2000) points out, “one aspect of identity in language learning is ‘how the person understands possibilities for the future’” (p. 5). With respect to that, this research entails the exploration of students’ identity along with their attitudes and motivation.
79 3.4.1 The identity formation in relation to language learning and attitudes towards ELF
Research on language learning in relation to identity has been extensive and poststructuralist theories of language have been taken on board by identity and language learning researchers (Norton & Toohey, 2011, p. 415). L2 identity research of the 1970s and 1980s discriminated between two types of identities: the social and cultural identity.
The social identity relates the individual with the social world (i.e. family, school, workplace, etc.) (Gumperz, 1982), whereas the cultural identity relates the individual to other members of the same ethnic group, sharing the same language and history (Valdes,
1986).
Identity issues are integral to understanding not only motivation (Lamb, 2005) but also attitude. In a way, learners’ own developing identities evolve along with motivation and international posture (Lamb, 2009). Identity is connected with attitudes towards ELF in view of the fact that it “is at the very heart of what language is about, how it operates, why and how it came into existence and evolved as it did, how it is learned and how it is used, every day, by every user, every time it is used” (Joseph, 2004, p. 224). This is in line with the very essence of the sociocultural approach to L2 learning (e.g. Norton,
2000; Pavlenko, 2002) that views language learners as users of the L2 rather than deficient learners.
The social turn on the way identity is perceived (e.g. Gumperz, 1982; Tajfel,
1974) led to the realisation that the social context also plays an important role in understanding identity. In particular, Bakhtin (1981, 1984, 1986) rejects the idea of a standard language independent of its speakers. He rather sees language in a dialectic
80 relationship with its speakers who are able to use the language for their own purposes and express their own meanings. Accordingly, language learning is a social process that people go through aiming at participation in specific speech communities.
Similarly, according to Weedon’s (1997) theory of subjectivity, the “self” is positioned in relation to the social context. To be more specific, the way we perceive others and ourselves is interconnected in a way that one affects the other. In this research thesis, identity is approached focusing on the participants’ perceptions of their relations to NSs and NNSs (either Greek or of any other origin). Following Pennycook (2010),
“[w]e need to understand how people position themselves towards it, how they locate it within their linguistic repertoire, how it contributes to shaping their identities and how they use it to participate in, or resist, aspects of globalisation” (p. 123). The next section will provide the literature of studies that investigated the way English speakers position themselves in relation to English and whether/ how English contributes to shaping their identities.
3.4.2 Studies on identity in relation to ELF
Virkkula and Nikula (2010) examined connections between identity and the use of ELF by Finnish trainees. The seven Finnish engineering students were interviewed before and after spending a period abroad. Focusing on their stories of language use and learning, the researchers applied poststructuralist theories of identity construction (e.g. Pavlenko &
Blackledge, 2004), Norton’s views on language learners’ identity construction and
Jenkins’s (2007) conceptualisation of ELF in relation to identity in order to study the discursive construction of identities. The findings showed that the interviewees drew on
81 different discourses in constructing their identities and emphasized on the differences between contexts of language use. New identity options that were different from those available in educational contexts were presented (Virkkula & Nikula, 2010, p. 252). Also, their perceptions had changed after their stay abroad and their new social and linguistic experiences. Students expressed a more positive self-image that positioned themselves as confident language users rather than unsuccessful learners (ibid, p. 265). At the same time “the educational discourses with their language learner positions started to lose their power [and] discourses of deficiency gave way to discourses of proficiency” (ibid). This was also expressed in their empowering experiences. Virkkula and Nikula’s (2010) study suggested a complex relationship between identity and ELF. Despite the study’s limited scope, it provided a longitudinal aspect and managed to provide insights into the complex relationship between identity and ELF, suggesting that ELF use is not only a matter of communication but also a matter of identification.
Dervin (2013) addressed language and identity in student mobility. The researcher explored the use of English and French as lingua francas in the daily life of 250 mobile students in Finland and France and investigated how the students present and construct themselves as lingua franca users. The results of the questionnaire and interviews showed that the students were aware of different types of English. Nevertheless, they assessed
ELF negatively and were “‘suspicious’ towards ELF users and fear[ed] becoming like them” (ibid, p. 123).
Toth (2010) argued that due to increased mobility the need for a common language of communication gives rise to ELF use, which could result in a new European identity (p. 127). Toth (2010) showed that “actual language use in ELF settings, a daily
82 practice all around the EU and specifically in Erasmus settings, goes more in the direction of multicompetence and languaging. ELF is a prime example of multicompetence in use: its users are constantly languaging” (p. 127). The sixteen exchange students that were interviewed showed negative attitudes towards ELF as in
Dervin’s (2013) study, though they were confident and successful ELF users. Dervin
(2013) argues that those negative feelings can only be explained within the standard language ideology context. However, the participants focus on successful communication and maintain that native-like competency is not their learning goal.
The majority of studies on identity are qualitative (Baker, 2011; Dervin, 2013;
Erling, 2004; Lamb, 2004, 2005, 2009; Toth, 2010; Virkkula & Nikula, 2010; Wang,
2012) with few quantitative ones (e.g. Erling, 2004, 2007; Dervin, 2013; Lamb, 2009;
Zeiss, 2010). Not all studies were conducted in a tertiary context (e.g. Lamb, 2004) however, their results are interesting to note for their possible comparison to the findings of the present study. Lamb (2004) for instance found that junior high school students in
Indonesia aspired for a bicultural identity, meaning a “global or world citizen identity on the one hand and a sense of local or national identity as an Indonesian on the other (ibid, p. 16). Lamb’s (2009) study of junior high school students in Indonesia followed a mixed methods approach (with both quantitative and qualitative data). The results showed how the students’ “shared enterprise” “gave them a sense of shared identity as current or future English users” (ibid, p. 239). Students’ choices for engaging themselves in independent learning resulted from their vision of themselves as competent speakers in the international community (Lamb, 2009, p. 243). In fact, “[u]nderstanding something new is not just a local act of learning. Rather, [it] is an event on a trajectory through
83 which they [ls] give meaning to their engagement in practice in terms of their identity they are developing” (Wenger, 1998, p. 155, as cited in Lamb, 2009, p. 243).
Also, in Erling’s (2007) study, the students’ reluctance to embrace their national identities (only 15% of German students reported that they feel connected to their country) allowed them to redefine themselves showing belongingness to European or global communities. Their English competence played a significant role in their redefining themselves as investment in English was seen as an investment in their own identity. Moreover, in Erling’s (2004) study, students seemed to “enjoy the fact that the language offers the ability to express hybrid identities” (p. 249) a belief in total contrast to Germany’s societal fears of the positive use of ‘Denglish’. Erling (2004) posited that her participants legitimized their voices as NNSs of English in global and European domains of ELF communication and expressed a “global identity” that “exted[ed] beyond associations with English-speaking countries” (ibid). According to her, it is more accurate to refer to layers of identity that include local, national or global identities.
Thinking of students as belonging to only one group would be sociolinguistically inaccurate.
In Wang’s (2012) study, the emergence of an ELF perspective among the participants, along with an EFL, is promising as it challenges previous arguments that
NNSs are permanent learners. It also “adds positive evidence to ELF researchers’ statement that ELF users should be acknowledged in their own right” (ibid, p. 51).
Nevertheless, the participants perceived themselves mainly as ENL learners (ibid, p. 50).
Defining students as learners or users is problematic because the distinction between the two categories is not clear. Zeiss (2010), for instance, attributes the
84 participants’ perceptions of themselves as both learners and users, to the “highly similar share of agreement” between the two concepts (p. 82). The “multifaceted” nature of students’ identities was further revealed in Tananuraksakul’s (2012) study of 38 undergraduate students majoring in BE. As Tananuraksakul (2012) noted, “[s]uch multiple identities reflected their emotional or psychological senses of selves, influenced by their perception of poor English and culture” (ibid, p. 95). Tananuraksakul (2012) further suggested that intercultural experiences could balance learners’ cognition and affect.
Other studies demonstrated how the use of code-switching or pragmatic strategies
(e.g. accommodation) can indicate the multiple identities of ELF users (Cogo, 2009). It seems that a lot of ELF research reveals consensus on the fact that ELF is not identity neutral. As Baker (2011) remarked, “[t]he uses of English to express identity and identification with other communities of ELF users may be more fluid and dynamic than the types of identities expressed through an L1, nonetheless, identity is seen as a salient feature” (p. 43).
Taking up multiple identities was the norm rather than the exception as in
Kalocsai’s (2009) research of students participating in an Erasmus programme. Kalocsai
(2009) found that the students were able to socialize into new communities of practice and create new forms that connected with their identities (p. 40). Similarly, Phan (2009) expressed the view that “English contributes dynamically to identity formation and a sense of belonging that is complemented but not compromised by a sense of global citizenship” (Erling, 2004; Phan, 2009, p. 205). Nevertheless, as explained in section
85 3.3.4, the participants in Phan’s (2009) study were ELT MSc students and their university background may have influenced their answers.
Concluding remarks
This chapter has provided the literature of studies on attitudes, motivation and identity.
Particular emphasis was given to research on university students’ perceptions and identity construction. Overall, as Mauranen & Hynninen (2010) succinctly point out, studies of teachers’ and learners’ attitudes towards English and ELF have shown an “attitudinal resistance to what is felt to be an imported genre, but at the same time tacit acceptance of it as a fact of life” (p. 4).
The studies discussed so far link attitude formation to a variety of factors.
Nevertheless, the wider social context can undoubtedly offer deeper insights into language attitudes. Hence, the current study will address more local issues in an attempt to comprehend the elements that can be conducive to young university students’ attitudes towards English in a specific socio-historical context. The next chapter will describe the context where the current research took place in an attempt to explain better the way university students’ attitudes were shaped and formed.
86 Chapter 4
The context of the study
The previous chapters provided the theoretical basis and the review of literature on attitudes towards English and identity issues in relation to ELF. The aim of this chapter is to describe the socio-educational context in which the study took place. The chapter will first sketch the historical context of English in Greece and briefly present the role English holds in the Greek society nowadays. As part of this study, inquiring about the role of
English in the Business School students’ lives and its repercussions for their identity construction necessitates outlining the domains of use in Greece (i.e. English in advertising, the media, and so forth). Moreover, following the national initiatives that supported the dissemination and increase of the English language, the educational context will be portrayed with particular emphasis on the Greek tertiary educational context.
Finally, attitudes towards the presence of English in Greece will be traced, with emphasis on the ‘language question’ in Greece, aiming to shed more light into the way Greek people’s attitudes are formed in relation to their mother tongue.
4.1 The role of the English language in Greece
4.1.1 Historical context
In order to describe the role of the English language in the Greek context, a brief historical account of the contact of Greece with English-speaking countries (i.e. the UK and the USA) was deemed necessary. The reasons that lead to its consolidation are also discussed in this section.
87 Long before Greece became an independent state, it was part of the Ottoman
Empire. The 18th century witnessed the ascent and prosperity of merchandise both within and outside the Ottoman Empire. As commerce expanded it generated great wealth, which was used for the education of Greeks. During this period a lot of young Greeks studied at Western European universities (Trudgil, 2000). As a consequence, they came into contact with the radical ideas of the European Enlightment (Clogg, 2002). The educated and influential members of the Greek diaspora, such as Adamantios Korais and
Anthimos Gazis, transmitted these ideas back to Greece forming a process that has been described as the Modern Greek Enlightment. As revolutionary nationalism grew across
Europe, the Ottoman Empire's power started to decline, the educational level was raised and the Greek nationalism and national identity began to assert itself.
The Greek movement of independence that followed was greatly supported not only by the Greek merchant diaspora but also by other Western European Philhellenes28
(Konstantinou, 2012). The British poet Lord Byron was one of the most influential and well-known supporters of the Greek cause. The War of Revolution29 (1821-1830) was deemed successful and the Greek rebels’ claims for independence were finally recognized by the Great Powers (Russia, Great Britain and France) with the Treaty of
London in 1828. Throughout those turbulent years, the Greek language along with the religious affiliation of the Orthodox Church constituted an adhesive element of the Greek
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28 However, Philhellenism has a much longer history, which goes back to the late Middle Ages. Writers and poets such as Shakespeare, Milton and Shelley had contributed to the growth of Philhellenism (see Spencer, 1954).
29 For more information on the Greek War of Revolution (or War of Independence) in English, see Dakin (1973) and/or Kyriakidis (1892).
88 national identity. The Orthodox Church, which was by far the most significant medium of higher learning, disseminated the Greek language (Koliopoulos & Veremis, 2010).
Ever since Greece became an independent state, Greek nationalism underwent significant changes. Greece’s government and administration principles were mainly based on the western prototypes (Koliopoulos & Veremis, 2010). In the aftermath of
World War II, Great Britain30 began to be more influential on Greece, while the USA started influencing Greek modernisation after the Greek Civil War (1946-1949)
(Bouzakis, 1991, p. 94). Also, a lot of funding for the government came from Great
Britain and the USA (Marantzidis & Antoniou, 2004) establishing more the bond between Greece and English-speaking countries. Thus, the English language became more prestigious after World War II, whilst until then French was highly esteemed as the language of diplomacy and the educated elite (Oikonomidis, 2003, p. 55).
The Civil War left Greece a legacy of political polarization. As a consequence,
Greece entered into alliance with the USA and joined NATO in 1952. Greece joined the
European Union in 1981 and in 2001 the country became a member state of the Eurozone by adopting the euro as its currency.
These historical and political facts that are described above, as well as the spread of globalisation31, whose impact should not be discarded, led to the dissemination of
English, encouraged English education and consolidated the role of the English language in Greece.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30 Foreign affairs with Great Britain and the USA are worth investigating though not the scope of this research (see more in Müller & Risee-Kappen, 1993; Stefanidis, 2007).
31 The impact of globalisation on the spread of English was extensively described and discussed in Chapter 1.!
89 4.1.2 The spread and current status of English in Greece
Greece is a predominantly monolingual country (99%). The de facto national language is
Modern Greek spoken by 10,700,000 speakers (European Commission, 2012). According to data from Ethnologue32 (see Table 4.1), the total number33 of living languages in
Greece is 23 and represents 0.32% of all living languages in the world. The diversity index (0.13%) shows that there is minimum linguistic diversity in the country.
Table 4.1 Distribution of languages and their population within Greece
Country Greece Living languages count 23 Percent 0.32 Indigenous languages 16 Immigrant languages 7 Total number of speakers 11,508,880 Mean 605,731 Median 30,000 Diversity index 0.134 Coverage 83%
According to Kachru’s model (see more in 2.4), Greece belongs to the Expanding Circle countries. Therefore, English does not have an official status, nor is it a remnant of colonization. Nevertheless, according to a survey (Brousali, 2007), in the Greek legislature there are plenty of articles and presidential or ministerial decrees, which recognize that English holds an “official” role in Greece. Also, most protocols, and international treaties are signed in both languages (i.e. Greek and English). Although it has a restricted range of functions in Greece, English is the first foreign language taught in the education system. It is the language employed in international trade and a
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32 For more information on Ethnologue (2015), visit www.ethnologue.com 33 Of these, 16 are indigenous and 7 are immigrant languages.
90 prerequisite for almost all jobs in both the public and private sector. Sifakis (2012) points out that it is even “legally guaranteed for certain professions in the public domain34” (p.
288). With regards to trade, both Greek and English appear in many laws and decisions
(Sifakis, 2012, p. 285). It seems that the English language enjoys a privileged position in
Greece. The Greek society35 is wrapped up with English in both cultural and economic ways.
4.2 The presence of English in Greece
Although the majority of Greek people travel a lot, they do not have to wait to go abroad in order to be exposed to English or use the language. In fact, English is present in their daily lives in Greece as analyzed in the following subsections. Moreover, the use of loanwords has become a norm for many domains such as advertising, newspapers, magazines and television.
4.2.1 English for tourists
English is the contact language that is used to attract tourists in Greece (Oikonomidis,
2003). Greece is a very popular country for tourism and in particular its capital, Athens and the islands in the Aegean and Ionian Sea. In tourist places, such as the center of
Athens and the majority of islands, Greek people experience using English in order to communicate with visitors from abroad.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 Translation provided by the researcher.
35 There is also an interesting article by Sougari and Iliopoulou (2013) that stresses the importance of English in the Greek society as seen through the eyes of immigrant school students.
91 Moreover, the majority if not all of city services in Greece are offered in English.
Instructions for bus or subway routes (in Athens only) for example, are given in both
Greek and English. All signs in Greece are written in both Greek and English. In many places, menus in restaurants and cafés are offered in English as well as most signs in shops and other premises (e.g. “toilet”, “open”, “closed”). One reason behind this choice lies in the difference between the Greek and Latin alphabet. Foreigners would find it very hard, if not impossible, to read signs written in Greek.
4.2.2 English in advertising
Greek Business School students and Greek people in general are constantly exposed to the English language through advertising36. Many signs found in shops37, supermarkets, buses and newsagents are written in English. This burgeoning use of English words in advertising was eminent since the 1940s and 1950s. Nowadays, advertisements on TV or magazines and newspapers are often partially or completely in English. There are numerous examples that testify to this situation (see for example Table 4.2 below). !
Table 4.2 Sample collection of advertisements38 on Greek television (April - June 2015)
Title/Product Slogan AEGEAN (airline company) “A star alliance member, για κάθε µακριά που θες να φέρεις κοντά”39 Vileda (cleaning sponge) “Vileda active fiber, makes my life easier” VODAFONE (telecommunications company) “Power to you” COSMOTE (telecommunications company) “Cosmote my internet, αλλάζει τον τρόπο που σερφάρεις”40 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36 A thorough analysis of English spread in Greece through advertising is found in Milapidis (2009). Also, Sifakis (2012) refers to the widespread use of English words and gives examples of Greek advertisements, trademarks, ad campaigns or shop signs (p. 293). 37 Actually English plays an important role in shop signs found in many European countries (Schlick, 2003). 38 The slogans appear in Table 4.2 as they were. Their translations in English are provided in footnotes. 39 “A star alliance member, for each and every one that is far away and you want to bring closer”.
92 KIA (cars brand) “Ανάρτηση multi-link”41 MERCEDES (cars brand) “µε πρόγραµµα welcome, all inclusive”42 AIM (toothpaste) “expert protection κατά της οδοντική πλάκας”43 Angel’s tattoo “elegant jewelry tattoo, είναι must”44 !
English words are abundant in women’s magazines, particularly in beauty, style or fashion-related topics. In a recent article about a Greek fashion designer the writer uses many English words mixed with Greek such as: “κλασσικά basic κοµµάτια” (basic classic wardrobe pieces), “το καθαρό design” (pure design), “ένα µεγάλο statement
κόσµηµα” (a big statement jewelery), “travel bag από καµβά” (canvas travel bag)
(Isopoulou, 2016). Sometimes we hear Greek TV presenters speak in English or mix
Greek and English words (e.g. the 2010 COSMOTE45 advertisement).
The presence of English in various advertisements implies that basic English competence is required. In a way, the effectiveness of many advertisements relies on
English competence. This practice reinforces not only the acceptance of the ubiquitous presence of English but also its further use in the society. The use of English adds more prestige and shows how trendy it is to speak English or sometimes to code-switch between English and Greek.
4.2.3 English in newspapers and magazines
English is increasingly prevalent in the Greek media and English borrowings are
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40 “Cosmote my Internet, it changes the way you browse”. 41 “Multi-link car suspension” 42 “With a welcome programme, all inclusive”. 43 “Expert protection, fights dental plaque”. 44 “elegant jewelry tattoo, it’s a must”. 45 Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tHytELufCg (Accessed 1/6/2015)
93 frequently used. This is evident even by the most popular channels’ names that are
English (e.g. Alter, Antenna, Star) (Milapidis, 2009, p. 480; Oikonomidis, 2003, p. 56).
The omnipresence of English in the media is a major influence on both the Greek language and the society. As James (2000) argues, “the most obvious impact that English makes on European life is undoubtedly via its presence in the public domains of the media, including the Internet, advertising, many forms of popular youth culture and popular entertainment” (p. 24). Drawing on data from a 2008 survey46, Sifakis (2012) mentions that many economics and lifestyle newspapers and magazines that have been established since the mid 1990s, had English or Greek titles written in Latin characters
(see more in Sifakis, 2012, p. 294).
Also, many Greek newspapers (e.g. Kathimerini and Ekathimerini) have their
English editions available and one can also read the news on their websites47. In Athens, tourists and foreign people living in the city can find many English language print media
(e.g. the Odyssey Magazine, Athens Plus, the Insider Magazine Athens, Life in Capital A,
Athens Guide, and Athens in Your Pocket).
4.2.4 English on the radio and music
There are many options for those seeking English-speaking radio channels, such as the
BBC World Service that can be received via many satellite TV installations or over the
Internet. In Athens there is also an English language radio station, the Athens
International Radio (AIR 104.4FM), a multi-language radio station, which broadcasts !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 46 http://dir.forthnet.gr/24-0-gr.html
47 Other online news in English appears in Economics.gr, Express.gr, the Greek Reporter, Athens News Agency and Athens News.
94 news and information in English and other languages48. Many radio stations broadcast songs exclusively in English, a phenomenon that is not surprising but rather recognized as a normal situation by most Europeans (Ammon, 1994, p. 1). In fact, the majority of popular vocal music worldwide is written in English regardless the composers’ linguistic backgrounds (Ammon, 1996).
Many Greek singers and music bands tend to compose their songs in English. One of the reasons why Greek music groups (e.g. Raining Pleasure49) write and sing in
English, is that they try to reach a wider audience and become world famous, as a newspaper article demonstrated (Kusteni, 2011). Kusteni (2011) stated in her article in
Eleftherotypia50 that among other reasons, music bands write and sing in English because it’s a “matter of taste” and because English is an “easy” language without technical difficulties. Singers and composers feel that it is easier to express themselves, dream and communicate their thoughts in English. Moreover, technological developments contributed to changes in the social organization of musical practices making the use of
English imperative as “the Greek language’s place in the global music village that was formed through myspace, youtube, facebook” was greatly challenged (Kusteni, 2011).
Television shows such as Greece has got talent (“Ελλάδα έχεις ταλέντο” in Greek) or Popstars, seem to promote singing in English as they broadcast, among others, the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 Among the languages that the radio station broadcasts are: German, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Bulgarian, Romanian, Polish, Tagalog and Albanian.
49 The band’s songs were broadcasted from various radio stations and some such as “Is That You?” and “Julies Birthday” were included in European music collections. In December 2001 they made a huge come back with their album “Flood: (coming of a) great quantity of water”, whereas their song “Fake” made a hit when used in telecommunications TV commercials.
50 Eleftherotypia is a well-known Greek newspaper.
95 audition of pop singer contestants, who sing songs in English. The Greek bands that have
English names and sing in English are actually numerous. Not surprisingly, since 2001, almost all songs that Greece nominated for the Eurovision contest51 used exclusively
English in their title as well as their lyrics (see Table 4.3). This is probably because of the need to make the songs known worldwide and have greater chances of succeeding in the song contest.
Table 4.3 Greece’s participation in the Eurovision contest since 2001 Year Music Group/Singer Language/s Song Title
2001 Antique English, Greek Die For You 2002 Mihalis Rakintzis English S.A.G.A.P.O. 2003 Manto English Never Let You Go 2004 Sakis Rouvas English Shake It 2005 Elena Paparizou English My Number One 2006 Anna Vissi English Everything 2007 Sarbel English Yassou Maria 2008 Kalomira Saranti English Secret Combination 2009 Sakis Rouvas English This Is Our Night 2010 Giorgos Alkaios & Friends Greek ΩΠΑ! 2011 Loukas Giorkas & Stereo Mike English, Greek Watch My Dance 2012 Eleftheria Eleftheriou English Aphrodisiac 2013 Koza Mostra & Agathonas Iakovides English Alcohol is free 2014 Freaky Fortune English Rise Up 2015 Maria Elena Kiriakou English One Last Breath
4.2.5 English on Greek television
Most movies are broadcast in their original language with Greek subtitles; unless stated otherwise, it can be presumed that a film will be run in its original language. However, children’s programmes and movies are an exception, and are usually dubbed. Moreover, a lot of TV programmes52 on Greek TV channels have an English title. There are a wide
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51 The 2016 song did not qualify to compete in the final contest, as “Utopian Land” was not announced among the top 10 entries of the first semi-final contest. Therefore, this song is not included in Table 4.3.
52 Indicatively, on June 25th 2015, there were 17 programmes that had either an English title or contained at least one English word. The programmes were the following: Rescue Me, Mad love, European poker tour,
96 variety of cable channels accessible in Greece (e.g. BBC World, CNN), that is broadcast in English. Greeks are exposed to the English language in many ways and the popularity of English terms and phrases is easily notable, even in Greek speaking talk shows and TV programmes, some of which are takeoffs of American or British versions. This illustrates that Greeks are familiar to the American/British culture and that English names do not sound strange to them but are rather considered modern and trendy.
Most TV news is delivered in Greek; however, the TV news presenters often pepper it with English phrases and vocabulary. For instance, we very often hear economic and business terms such as “spreads”, “Grexit”, “collaterals”, “IMF” in news related to the financial crisis in Greece. It seems that more and more Greek people become acquainted with the mixing of English and Greek and familiarize themselves with business and economic terms.
Α study on the use of English loanwords and code-switching occurrences in the
Greek media (Tatsioka, 2010) verified the existence of language contact phenomena on
Greek TV and showed that women in particular as well as proficient speakers and highly educated participants use more English lexical items (see more in Section 4.2.6).
4.2.6 English loanwords in the Greek language
The use of English loanwords, particularly related to technological advancements, shows that Greeks are familiar with those terms, due to their exposure to English in the media and the market world (Oikonomidis 2003, pp. 56-57). The reasons why English loans are used instead of the Greek equivalents are various. English is not only the language of
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Vice, Eco news, Hot seat, Copa America 2015, Dexter, Person of interest, The mentalist, Medium, Babalou, The Hour, Beach soccer, Dirty MEGAZHN, On ΕΡΤ, Φώτης-Μαρία live (Fotis-Maria live).
97 international business but also a language associated with high prestige (Oikonomidis,
2003). Its use is sometimes due to the lack of technology or science lexicon (e.g.
“computer”) or due to dominant cultural models (e.g. “rock”) (Anastasiadi-Simeonidi,
1996, pp. 81-88). Moreover, it allows more freedom of expression as its users can easily employ offensive and taboo words in English instead of Greek (Kusteni, 2011;
Oikonomidis, 2003; Tatsioka, 2008). For instance, one of Tatsioka’s (2008) participants found it easier to use the English loanword “gay” instead of the Greek equivalent
“because it is less of a taboo word” (p. 137). Also, according to Oikonomidis (2003), the use of loanwords can be explained in that English is the language used extensively in order to attract tourists as well as its being the contact language between the Greek and
American society, which is a global power (p. 61).
4.2.7 Greeklish
Technological developments and the omnipresence of the Internet have brought about many changes in language communication. As many words, abbreviations, acronyms and neologisms have grown up around technologically mediated communication, so the use of Greeklish has increased. Greeklish comes from the words Greek and English and is a form of the Greek language written using the Latin alphabet. It may be termed as “an electronic language (e-Language), since it exists as an unofficial written ‘language’ that occurs through social media, digitally mediated communication, and other electronic social networking technologies” (Laghos, Skordi, & Masoura, 2013, p. 160).
Studies on the use of Greeklish have reported a high rate of its use among Greek people, particularly where technology and the Internet (e.g. when sending SMS
98 messages, posting comments on Facebook, YouTube etc.) were involved (Koutsogiannis
& Mitsikopoulou, 2003; Laghos, Masoura & Skordi, 2013; Laghos, Masoura & Skordi,
2012; Spilioti, 2009). A study by Laghos et al. (2012) showed that the vast majority of messages (83.3%) posted on the Social Network Site and YouTube, were written in
Greeklish, whereas only 9.3% were written in Greek, followed by 6.9% in English. The reasons behind that choice concerned mainly matters of convenience (Laghos, Masoura
& Skordi, 2013). As the aforementioned study reports, it is due to technical difficulties and limitations as well as the use of social media that Greek people fall back on
Greeklish. Typing Greeklish is a flexible, easier and faster way than typing in Greek
(ibid).
Greeklish has become a focal point of linguistic and sociolinguistic research (e.g.
Androutsopoulos, 2000; Georgakopoulou, 1997). Nevertheless, since it is not the scope of the present research, attitudes towards this sociocultural and ideological phenomenon shall only be briefly mentioned (see Section 4.7.3).
4.3 English in the Greek educational system
4.3.1 English instruction at Greek state schools
The first foreign language that was introduced as a compulsory subject in the curriculum of Greek state schools was French. English was introduced in secondary schools in the mid 1950s, alongside French, and was taught 3 hours a week. In 1987, English language instruction was experimentally introduced in the fourth grade of primary school. Since
1992 the teaching of one foreign language (i.e. English) became compulsory in primary schools, while the second language could be either German or French depending on the
99 school. High-school children often have the option to learn a third language (e.g. Italian or Spanish).
The amount of English teaching time depends on the type of school. In line with
European developments in early language learning and the objective for multilingualism and plurilingual citizenry, in 2010 the “PEAP” programme was implemented experimentally in 1.500 primary schools. The programme entailed the introduction of
English in the 1st and 2nd grades of state “all day” primary schools for 2 hours per week and 4 hours from the 3rd grade onwards. One year later, the integrated foreign languages curriculum was developed within the framework of the New National Curriculum.
According to this curriculum, foreign language teaching, learning and assessment is expected to conform to the CEFR proficiency descriptors. A quite recent survey on foreign language learning in Greece (Dendrinos, Zouganelli & Karavas, 2013) showed that the majority of Greek students are at an Independent user level (i.e. B1/B2 according to CEFR) in English. According to the researchers, this finding could be attributed to language tuition outside school hours (i.e. in private courses or foreign language centres).
For most state primary schools, English courses vary between two to four hours per week depending on the grade. As mentioned earlier, in some pilot schools children start learning English in the 1st grade where they have two hours of English instruction per week while older pupils in the 3rd through 6th grade have four hours per week. For state lower secondary schools, students have three hours53 per week in the 1st grade and two hours in the 2nd and 3rd grade, while older Lyceum students have two hours of
English instruction per week. Recently, English language instruction was limited to two
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 53 Since 2014, all secondary school students are taught English for 2 hours per week.
100 hours per week for all grades of secondary education in Greece (i.e. lower and upper secondary schools).
4.3.2 English language certification
As previously mentioned, English language learning is given much importance in Greece.
Most children attend foreign language centres (frontistiria) in order to get more teaching support. Foreign language centres are mainly exam-oriented and aim to help learners obtain a language certificate (Mattheoudakis & Alexiou, 2009). A survey54 reports that there are 6.564 foreign language centres with the vast majority of students (448.822 out of 510.575) preparing for English language certificates. The majority of Greek learners of
English sit for the first certificate exams at the 2nd or 3rd grade of lower secondary school.
In fact, parents as well as children in Greece seem to underestimate and mistrust foreign language teaching in state schools55. Inevitably, this “is a result of their deep-seated belief that foreign language instruction equals foreign language certification” (Dendrinos, et al.,
2013, p. 17). Greek families spend a lot of money on their children’s education in order to get “the paper” (Sifakis, 2012, p. 324) or “the degree” as they call it, meaning an
English language certificate.
In addition, laws that define employment in the Greek public sector require the attainment of foreign language certificates. Similarly, C2 competency level certificates56
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54 http://www.esos.gr/article/frontistiria/510.575
55 Sifakis (2012, p. 327-329) gives a very thorough account of the reasons that have led to underestimating the role of foreign language learning in state schools.
56 The so-called “Eparkeia” was established (Law 2545/1940) more than 60 years ago when foreign language teachers were in high demand. !
101 give by law the right to their holders to teach the foreign language in question. Today, a legal battle is still on to determine whether a language competency certificate such as
Proficiency is enough to teach English at a foreign language school (frontistirio) or a university degree ought to be required.
Consequently the Greek society is characterized by “pistopoiitikokratia” and
“pistopoiitkolagneia57”, a phenomenon that has raised researchers’ concerns and has received a lot of criticism by many (Dendrinos, et al., 2013; Sifakis, 2012; Tsagari &
Sifakis, 2014). !
!
4.4 The spread of English in Greek tertiary contexts
The English language has a prominent role in the Greek tertiary educational contexts.
Higher educational institutions are obliged to abide by the law58 for publicity and transparency. Thus, all faculties and university departments offer information about faculty members, study programmes and other services on their website in the country’s official language (i.e. Greek) but also in English.
Students are offered the possibility for joint postgraduate degrees and joint
PhDs59, thus enabling them to use a language other than Greek, in most cases English. In addition, the organization of an entire or part of an undergraduate or postgraduate programme is possible in a foreign language, in the event it is determined by the General
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 57 The term literally means, “lust for certificates” and is meant to denote the obsession that characterizes Greek people towards the attainment of English language certificates.
58 Law 3549/2007, Article 18
59 Law 3255/2004, Article 4 and Law 43404/2005 Article 23
102 Assembly of a department.60 Those initiatives enhance students’ and academic staff’s mobility and promote cooperation between Greek and other higher education institutions
(Kyriazis, & Asderaki, 2008).
4.4.1 Initiatives that support the spread of English in Greek tertiary contexts
(the Erasmus programme)
European universities are becoming increasingly multilingual and intercultural especially due to international mobility programs61. Established in 1987, the Erasmus programme62 has become one of the best-known EU-level actions enabling more than 2 million students from across Europe to pursue part of their studies, lasting from three to twelve months, in one of the 4.000 higher education institutions from 33 participating countries.
Countries include the EU Member States but also Croatia, Iceland, Turkey, Liechtenstein,
Norway, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Eligibility for grants applies to all students and gives the opportunity to cover at least part of their living and travelling costs. Students do not pay tuition fees at the host university.
Higher education institutions across Europe co-operate in order to provide EU students with the opportunity to spend a part of their studies at a university abroad, experiencing not only academic life in another country but also life abroad in general.
Their experiences give students a better sense of what it means to be a citizen of a !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 60 Law 3549/2007, Article 17 ! 61 Though fervently supported, the Erasmus programme was also opposed with the main claim that “despite Europe’s commitment to multilingualism, has probably, in tandem with the Bologna process, accelerated Englishization” (Coleman, 2013, p. xiii).
62 All information about the Erasmus Programme is gathered from http://ec.europa.eu/education !
103 globalised Europe and the world in general. Students get to know other cultures, learn foreign languages and give prospects to their future lives as professionals and citizens of the EU. Studies have shown that they can improve language learning but also intercultural skills, self-reliance and self-awareness63.
Since 2008, the State Scholarship Foundation is the National Agency for the management of the Lifelong Learning Programme in Greece and consequently of the
Erasmus programme for tertiary education. Though the official language of instruction is
Greek, many courses are offered in English not only for the incoming Erasmus students but also for Greek students who wish to attend them. During the academic year 2005-
2006, 2.714 Greek students spent part of their studies abroad, while according to data from the State Scholarship Foundation, the AUTH64 sent 580 students to other European
Universities (Lakasas, 2007). During the same academic year the universities in Greece accepted 1.903 students from other countries. However, the number of incoming and outgoing Erasmus students is rather low compared to other European countries and as
Lakasas (2007) argues, that is “a clear indication that Greek Universities have not yet become internationalized at a time when inter-university cooperation is highly important”
(p. 1).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 63 For more information on studies conducted see http://ec.europa.eu/education/erasmus/doc922_en.htm and particularly the “2008 Study on the Impact of Erasmus on European Higher Education: Quality, Openness and Internationalisation”.
64 According to more recent data, during the academic year 2015-2016 the number of incoming Erasmus students was 638, whereas 724 Greek Erasmus students spent time abroad for their studies (data gathered from www.entrep.auth.gr). 104 4.5 English instruction in the Greek tertiary education in business-related fields
Foreign language competence is promoted by all universities in Greece, which include the teaching of foreign languages (i.e. English, German, French, and Italian) in their curriculum. With special reference to the School of Economics that pertains to the topic of this thesis, it is interesting to note what the Head of the School of Economic Sciences of AUTH stated among other things in his foreword65 to first-year undergraduates:
“Modern work environments require a knowledge of languages . . . so it would be wise to acquire these while you are working towards your degree: they will be of great assistance to you both during the course of your studies and in your later careers”.
Some departments offer a few core courses in English. Not only incoming
Erasmus students but also Greek students are eligible to attend those courses. Regarding postgraduate studies, a few university departments offer courses in English, such as the
Business Administration department at the AUEB, which offers the MBA International
Programme entirely in the English language. Since 2015, the AUTH offers an MBA in
English and a Masters in Logistics and Supply Chain Management. Courses are offered in Greek and English and the programme lasts for 3 academic semesters.
Each higher education institution is independent and entitled to formulate autonomous policies for accomplishing their educational goals. Likewise, each department enjoys considerable freedom to determine their own policies and administrative regulations (e.g. students are graded according to each university department’s grading scale). Nevertheless, this considerable diversity across sectors, poses significant challenges in terms of teaching and organisation. There is no single
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 65 The foreword was published online on the School of Economics website and was available during academic years 2012-2013 and 2013-2014.
105 model of provision or uniformity, and collaboration between Language Centre
Departments and the other academic Departments. Moreover, language courses may count toward graduate degree requirements in some programs, whereas in others they do not. The individual departments determine the required level of proficiency in foreign languages, and the method for demonstrating it.
According to a 2003 survey, foreign language courses are compulsory subjects for nine out of twelve universities in Greece and English is the most popular language among university students (Ypsilantis & Kantaridou, 2003) demonstrating the ubiquitous presence of English in the Greek tertiary educational context. In some departments foreign language grades contribute to the students’ grade point average, whist for others they do not. The afore-mentioned survey reported, “in only five out of the twelve universities grades count for the final degree” (Ypsilantis & Kantaridou, 2003 as cited in
Kantaridou, 2004, p. 120). It is worth mentioning here that the programme content changes very often and several departments report problems concerning lack of academic staff and funding in order to support foreign language teaching. Alongside the absence of a common curriculum for foreign language learning and teaching, there is an overall sense that several institutions tend to respond re-actively rather than pro-actively to problems that occur.
Absence of an established curriculum leads ESP instructors to determine their own course of action. The instructors themselves form the curriculum and provide detailed syllabuses. It is the ESP instructors’ sole responsibility to design ESP courses66 for different semesters and attend to any problems that need to be solved. Thus, ESP instructors are burdened by the extra role as syllabus and curriculum designers. The !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 66 Information gathered during personal communication with ESP instructors. 106 instructors use their own methodology in language teaching. They mainly concentrate on reading skills, vocabulary development, and translation, as well as writing, with less emphasis placed on speaking. It is worth mentioning here that due to the economic crisis many departments are under-staffed leading to numerous problems. In some cases language courses were not offered to students for a whole semester.
ESP teaching at the Greek higher institutions is a diverse situation that possibly requires initiating and maintaining dialogue with the government and major stakeholders about the study of foreign languages. It is vital to enable future university graduates to respond to current and future challenges and to the needs of increasingly complex markets. Thus, the proposal of a common framework based on the current changes in
ELT pedagogy and the status of English both globally and in Greece could prove very helpful towards that direction. The following three subsections will describe foreign language teaching in three Greek universities (i.e. AUTH, UoM and AUEB). Those are representative of Greek Business and Economics Departments in the Greek tertiary context and formed the main pool of this research’s participants.
4.5.1 English language teaching at the AUTH
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki was established in 1926. It aimed to offer higher education to Macedonia, Epirus67 and Thrace and to the thousands of refugees from Asia
Minor that settled in the northern regions of Greece. Foreign language teaching at the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67 Epirus and Macedonia were integrated in Greece after the Balkans War, 1912-1913 and Thrace became part of Greece in 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne.
107 AUTH began in 1957.68 However, it was not until 1992 that the Centre for Foreign
Language Teaching was actually institutionalised also becoming a member of the
European Confederation of Language Centres in Higher Education (CERCLES)69.
Foreign language courses are taught from one to six semesters; however, in most
AUTH departments courses last for four semesters. In most departments successful attendance is a prerequisite for obtaining the degree, thus the foreign language course is credited with extra points. In some departments, such as the Law School, successful attendance is also a prerequisite for admission to postgraduate courses. Finally, in some departments, foreign languages are also taught at a postgraduate level. Courses are assigned credit units that correspond to ECTS (European Credit Transfer and
Accumulation System) credits. Students may enroll in any of these courses provided that the course is listed in the programme of study of each School.
The teaching of the foreign language of specification is modelled on the language levels of students and corresponds to levels of proficiency as defined by the CEFR for
Languages of the Council of Europe (1996). The general aim is to familiarize students with the specific language of their subject of study in order to acquire the necessary language skills for successful communication. Those would enable them to understand better the foreign language texts from their subject of study. The main languages offered
(i.e. English, German, French, and Italian) aim to help students acquire the skills that will enable them to use academic language. Turkish and Russian language courses are also offered.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68Information gathered from the official websites of the Centre of Foreign Languages at the AUTH www.lance.auth.gr and http://www.auth.gr/en/units/8163
69 Confédération Européenne des Centres de Langues de l'Enseignement Supérieur
108 The School of Economic Sciences at the AUTH was established in 1928 and functions as part of the Faculty of Economic and Political Sciences since then. English is offered for 4 semesters; however, it is compulsory70 for the first two semesters. The teaching material varies from ready-made commercial material for the teaching of general English to a more tailor-made ESP material specifically designed for the students by the instructors themselves. Thus, ESP instructors are burdened by the extra role as syllabus and curriculum designers. The instructors use their own methodology in language teaching and mainly concentrate on reading skills, vocabulary development, and translation, as well as writing, with less emphasis on speaking.
4.5.2 The University of Macedonia (UoM)
The “Graduate School of Industrial Studies” was established in Thessaloniki, in 1948 under the auspices of the Ministry of National Economy. In 1990 it became the
“University of Macedonia, Economic and Social Sciences71”. At present, the University of Macedonia has about 10,000 students, emphasizing on economic, administrative and socio-political sciences. The university participates in European and international affairs and is the first Greek University certified as environmentally friendly (EMAS) and the first in Europe proclaimed the title of Friend of the United Nations. English is offered to all departments for four semesters, except for the department of Economics, which offers
English courses for 6 semesters. English is a compulsory course. All university departments follow the same syllabus. In the 1st semester, the English instructor teaches !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 70 According to the 2013-2014-study guide, in order to get the degree, students should successfully pass 32 core courses, 6 general elective and 10 special elective courses as well as the foreign language course of the 1st and 2nd semester. ! 71 Law Decree 147/1990 109 “Reading and Vocabulary for Academic purposes” and in the 2nd semester she focuses on writing for academic purposes. The aim of the 3rd semester is BE, while in the 4th semester students are taught oral presentation skills. In the two subsequent semesters of the School of Economics, students deal with extensive texts and learn how to write a research paper.
4.5.3 Athens University of Economics and Business
The Athens University of Economics and Business (AUEB) is the oldest one in the fields of Economics and Business. It was founded in 1920 under the name of Athens School of
Commercial Studies and in 1989 it assumed its present name. From 1955 onwards, it offers two programmes leading to two separate degrees: one in Economics and the other in Business Administration. Since 1999, it includes eight academic departments, offering eight undergraduate degrees, 28 Master degrees and an equivalent number of Doctoral programmes.
Since the academic year 2009-2010, Economic department students are required to choose among 3 foreign languages (i.e. English, French or German) and successfully attend the compulsory courses (I-IV) offered in the first four semesters. Courses V and
VI are not compulsory for degree attainment. Holders of B2 (e.g. Cambridge First
Certificate in English) and C2 level certificates are eligible to be exempt from attending language courses I-II and I-IV respectively. Though required for degree attainment, successful attendance of language courses is not awarded numerical grade but rather a
“pass” notice.
110 The School of Business Administration at the AUEB offers language courses72 for four semesters. The courses are elective and receive no credits. However, in the 5th and
6th semester students are offered English V (Business Correspondence and
Administration) and English VI (Business Terminology) respectively. These two courses are compulsory and receive 6 credits. In addition to the above, there are many courses offered in English, mainly (but not only) for international students who come to AUEB under the Erasmus program. A total of approximately 60 courses are offered in English, each one offering 6 ECTS credits. Many core courses at the AUEB require “good command” of the English language as a lot of the suggested bibliography is in English.
4.6 Internships at Greek tertiary institutions
In 1997, the Ministry of Education launched a co-operative education programme based on European funding. The programme aims at assisting undergraduate students in developing employment skills as well as attaining work experience. Moreover, it seeks to enhance employability by initiating and fostering partnerships between universities and various enterprises such as banks, accounting offices and companies. The guidelines for participation in internship programmes vary based on the department and university.
They usually last between two to six months. For instance internships offered by the
AUEB last 3 months and are run on a full-time basis. University faculty members supervise the students’ progress and help eliminate possible problems that may occur during internships. Internships are usually offered to 3rd and 4th year students who are eligible to apply based on specific requirements. The basic requirements for participation to the programme are foreign language knowledge (English in particular as some !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72 Students can choose among English, French or German. 111 departments indicate in their webpages) and computer literacy (e.g. Word, PowerPoint,
Excel, Internet). The successful completion and attendance of specific core courses is also mandatory.
A research that aimed at evaluating internships in Greece showed that “students considered that their personal skills had been well developed by their internships, with a corresponding improvement in their employability as graduates” (Mihail, 2006, p. 34).
Despite the minimal financial benefits (they ranged from 132-270 euros per month), the survey concluded that the majority of participants managed to “perceive key skills such as time management, communication skills, teamwork, ability to prioritize tasks and specialist knowledge” (ibid, p. 39).
Some Greek universities (i.e. AUTH, AUEB, National Kapodistrian University of
Athens, University of Piraeus, UoM, University of the Aegean) collaborate with AIESEC offering the possibility to undergraduate students for participating in internships abroad. AIESEC is the biggest international youth organization worldwide and is exclusively administered by students. It was founded in
1948 whereas in Greece it operates since 1956. Through its programme of international internships it enables students in their 3rd, 4th or final year of their studies as well as graduates, to live and work in one of the 83 country members for the duration of 2 to 18 months. The students familiarize themselves with the culture and way of life of the hostess country; collaborate with students from all over the world and learn how to apply their theoretical knowledge in real working conditions.
112 4.7 Looking at attitudes towards the role of English in Greece
The study of attitudes requires linking current attitudes to the socio-political context with regards to the issue of language. Newspaper articles were gleaned for clues to the way the press both shaped and interpreted the beliefs, sentiments and judgments of the Greek public. A number of TV advertisements, Greek movies and periodicals were also consulted. It becomes clear that English has a dominant role in Greece and its massive use (either of loan words or through code-switching between Greek and English) is well documented. Not surprisingly, English is very often accepted by the press as the “lingua franca”, thus establishing its role not as the first foreign language in Greece but rather as a world language.
4.7.1 Attitudes towards loan words
As previously described (see Section 4.2), Greek people are exposed to the English language to a great extent through movies, songs, advertising and the mass media in general. As a consequence, a lot of English loans are adopted. These practices reflect exactly those life experiences of young people in particular, and are considered threatening by some to the Greek language.
Certain issues should be taken into consideration. For instance, it should be acknowledged that certain age groups (e.g. above 60) are not accustomed to the use of technology, at least not to a certain extent. This fact only makes it rather difficult for them to follow the latest technological advancements, which are closely followed by the adoption of certain linguistic terms. Also, the spread of the English language has been
113 associated with globalization as well as the “Americanization”73 of the Greek society. As
Sifakis (2012) claims, “English is often associated with the ‘bad’ sides of globalization/Americanisation and homogenization of the planet” (pp. 317-318).
According to Sifakis (2012), the average user of Greek feels that not only his language but also his cultural heritage and history are threatened by the massive use of English and its influence on the Greek language (p. 318).
The fact that loan words pose a threat for the Greek language has concerned many
Greek researchers and linguists such as Kriaras and supporters of demotic Greek (see more about demotic in 4.7.2) such as Triantafilidis, Psiharis and Kalioris. Emannouel
Kriaras, one of the most well known Greek scholars of the Greek language and philology, had always been negative towards the massive use of foreign loan words in the Greek language. He always expressed his negative views towards that phenomenon claiming that certain steps should be taken by the Greek state in order to not let Greek be usurped by other languages. In one of his papers (Kriaras, 1985/ 2000a) he mentioned the need for the TV channels management to dub and translate foreign terms that are abundant on
Greek television. Apparently, the presence of English loans on Greek television is more pervasive 31 years after Kriaras’s prompt.
The issue of foreign words was actually part of the agenda since 1976 and came to a peak in the 1980s. The increase in the use of computers in Greece has led to an increase of computer terms. Thus, dictionaries and manuals were published and efforts were made to translate English terms into Greek even of screen instructions –the so-called ellinopiisi
(“ελληνοποίηση” in Greek). The Academy of Athens’ Office of Scientific Terms and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 73 Traditionally, the “Americanization” of the Greek society has ignited lots of controversy not only regarding language but also the lifestyle of young people in Greece.
114 Neologisms (1997) undertook this effort following the initiative of the private sector.
Strikingly, those endeavors had one main goal: to translate and adapt all loans into the
Greek language clearly showing that foreign words were regarded as threat to the Greek language. Nevertheless, in the years to follow, those linguistic practices seized.
4.7.2 The language question
It becomes pertinent to refer here to the attitudes towards the Greek language and in particular the “language issue” that took place in Greece. In many ways Greece elucidates the interplay of language and nationalism at their extreme (Trudgill, 2000). The
“Language Question” as it is more often called is a complex linguistic as well as political issue that dates back in the beginning of the Greek state after the Greek Revolution for
Independence. Since then, there has been a movement to return to classical Greek mainly in order to expel the influence of Turkish. Adamantios Korais, an expatriate Greek scholar developed a synthetic form of the language that was to be called katharevousa.
This form was linguistically ‘purified’ from any Turkish elements and included many grammatical aspects of the ancient Greek language. In fact, “Korais’s novelty also contributed to the creation of an identity based on the hope of a Hellenic renaissance
(Koliopoulos & Veremis, 2010, p. 12). According to Frangoudaki (2002, p. 101), Greece was typically diglossic74 until 1880 whereas in the 40 years that followed until 1920 the
Greek language situation was characterized as “transitional diglossia”. To the antipode of katharevousa was demotic, the form of Greek that had developed naturally over the years and was supported by many scholars and prominent literary figures such as Costis
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 74 Diglossia was a term used by Ferguson (1959) to describe the phenomenon of clash between two varieties.
115 Palamas “who trumpeted the cause of spontaneity and creativity over ancestor worship”
(Frangoudaki, 2002, p. 102).
The socio-political connotations of the diglossic situation in Greece shaped common beliefs of the following generations regarding language matters. The demotic vindicators fought for economic and social growth and justice and supported free education and other issues. On the contrary, the supporters of katharevousa defended the establishment of katharevousa as the official language of the Greek state, being the language of the elite. The incongruity between those two factions created feelings of uncertainty to the public as to which linguistic forms are correct, and whether one type of the language or another should ultimately be adopted. Greece’s diglossic history (i.e. the distinction between a high and a low variety) is still evident today in the widespread critique of native speakers’ “bad” uses of Modern Greek (Papapavlou, 2002). Sifakis and
Sougari (2005) made a link with the diglossic history of Greece and related the Greek teachers’ beliefs of English to the “norm orientation of Greek native speakers” (p. 472).
The need to speak Greek properly was one matter that seemed to preoccupy the Greeks’ thoughts. The attitudes towards speaking one’s mother tongue well still prevail in Greece.
A number of linguists, such as Georgios Babiniotis, expressed serious concerns about the
“quality of the language” used by young people (Babiniotis, 1994). Babiniotis claims that the extensive use of English loans could alienate the Greek language and disorient Greeks from preserving their linguistic and national identity. As such, no language should be allowed to dominate others, as that would be disastrous for the cultural polymorphism of our world (Babiniotis, 2001).
116 4.7.3 Attitudes towards Greeklish
The issue of language has always created heated debates in the Greek social and political life, and Greeklish (see more in Section 4.2.7) is no exception. The written word has always been the hallmark of Modern Greek creativity and a marker of Greek continuity.
In the words of Nobel-prize laureate, Odysseus Elytis, “The language given to me was
Greek; my house poor on Homer’s shores. My only care my language on Homer’s shores”.
Greeklish is not a variety of writing but constitutes a sociocultural phenomenon that has been hotly contested. In January 2001, forty distinguished members of the
Academy75 of Athens signed a letter raising their concerns against the rise and use of
Greeklish. The letter was released to the press76 and soon created a debate in the Greek media. A study by Koutsogiannis and Mitsikopoulou (2003) on social attitudes towards
Greeklish, as portrayed in the Greek press, concludes on the following three trends: “[t]he first, a retrospective trend, views Greeklish as a serious threat to the Greek language; the second, prospective trend, approaches Greeklish as a transitory phenomenon which will soon become negligible due to technological advances; the third, resistive trend, points to the negative effects of globalization and relates Greeklish to other communication and sociocultural practices” (Koutsogiannis & Mitsikopoulou, 2003, p. 1).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75 The Academy of Athens is the highest research establishment in Greece. It was founded in 1926 and operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. See more about Greece’s national academy at http://www.academyofathens.gr/en ! 76 An article entitled “Σήµα κινδύνου από 40 ακαδηµαϊκούς” (40 academics forewarn) was published in Kathimerini on 1/7/2001
117 Concluding remarks
This chapter presented the context of the study. It described the socio-historical situation in Greece that is closely linked to the spread and establishment of the role of English today. The presence of English in Greece today reflects a situation that echoes growing bilingualism. Being the first foreign language taught in the educational context English was presented with more emphasis on the tertiary level. Finally, attitudes to this societal situation were described in brief as they are considered extremely important in order to fully grasp the general attitudes of Greek people towards English. The following chapter will present the methodology that was followed for the present research.
118 Chapter 5
Research methodology
This chapter moves on to the design of the current study. First, the aim and objectives are outlined and the research questions are formed. The conceptual design is discussed and justified. The chapter discusses the development of the research instruments and the data collection procedure. The pilot phases of the study are then examined with reference to the research instruments and particularly how they helped inform the main study. The main study phases are presented, and the statistical methodology as well as the method followed for the analysis of the qualitative data are discussed in detail. The chapter ends with a brief account of the ethics, and the difficulties encountered during the research.
5.1 Aim and objectives of the study
Chapter 3 reported the few studies on learners’ attitudes in Greece the majority of which focused on motivation (e.g. Hovhannisyan, 2014; Kiriakoula, 2010; Manolopoulou-Sergi,
2001; Nikolaou, 2004). It also highlighted the dearth of research on ELT in the Greek tertiary and more particular the business context. To address this gap, this research examines the attitudes of Greek Business School students, investigates their awareness of the role of ELF, and their identity in relation to English. It also explores the factors that may explain why their attitudes and perceptions vary.
A further reason why Greek Business School students were chosen as participants for this research is due to their active engagement with the society and career preparation.
Undeniably, the spread of English as the language of international business has made it
119 more important than ever for future business professionals to be able not only to communicate but also to form effective and productive business relationships. This implies that language learning for Business students should give them the opportunity to develop certain interpersonal skills, thus helping them become more qualified for the job market.
Moreover, the age of transformation that takes place in the world nowadays makes the issue of identity even more important. With the growing concern over identity issues in relation to the extensive use of English among NNSs, the aim of this research is two- fold. First, by viewing students as future professionals it will build their profile in relation to their attitudes and their identity. Second, it will identify the factors that shape their perceptions. Further, it will attempt to provide answers as to whether English is a tool for communication or a language of identification for the Greek Business School students. In other words, it will show how Greek undergraduate students position themselves in relation to English.
5.1.1 The significance of the research
This research provides a more comprehensive picture of the attitudes of Greek students towards English and ELF in terms of possible variables that affect the construction of their attitudes. As discussed earlier (see Chapter 3), language learners’ attitudes not only affect their motivation and proficiency but also the successful implementation of language education policies (Snow, 2007; Young, 2006). In this respect, the findings are valuable for English education policy makers as well as language teachers by illuminating different affective variables in the language learning of Greek students.
120 More specifically, the findings of this research are expected to inform ELT and pedagogy reform in the Greek tertiary business context. First and foremost, there is lack of policy for ESP teaching and that requires certain steps that need to be taken.
Furthermore, English language skills are important in business circles. That implies viewing English language teaching from a different angle, one that would recognize that
English language learning is a lifelong learning task which provides the opportunity to develop certain skills and confidence in facing future business communicative experiences. It is important to strive for a change in the syllabus making it more appealing to and more suitable for transforming Business School graduates into successful business communicators.
This research not only adds to research in the language attitudes and identity issues in Expanding Circle countries but most importantly provides the incentives for drastic measures and pedagogical reforms in ELT at the tertiary context in Greece and abroad.
5.2 Research questions
As discussed earlier (Section 5.1), the present research examines the attitudes of Greek
Business School students, investigates their identity in relation to English and their awareness of the role of ELF. The objectives of the current research generated three research questions that formed the guide to the study. These questions are as follows:
1. What are Greek Business School students’ attitudes towards English?
2. What is Greek Business School students’ identity in relation to ELF?
3. Which factors influence their attitudes and identity in relation to English?
Previous studies have shown that motivation (e.g. Kormos, Kiddle & Csizèr, 2011), use
121 of English (e.g. Galloway, 2011; Phan, 2009) and intercultural experience (e.g. Galloway,
2011; Phan, 2009; Yu, 2010) affect attitudes. Also, studies have shown an interconnection between identity and the use of ELF experiences from abroad and
English competence. Since intercultural experience is broad, it became necessary to distinguish between different factors that constitute intercultural experience (i.e. travelling abroad, Erasmus experience, use of English) and examine each of them separately. Moreover, there are no studies that prove any impact of work experience on attitudes. The work experience is also investigated as a possible factor that may generate different attitudes among students. In addition, the research investigates Greek students’ motivation to learn English and BE and how they perceive the English education policies in the tertiary context. In relation to the research questions, students’ current use of
English and self-perceived future uses of English, language learning experience, intercultural experience and work experience will be explored.
5.3 Conceptual design
Attitudes and identity are abstract and multifaceted concepts. In designing this study, one of the major concerns was to maintain a link between previous research on attitudes and identity and at the same time move in a direction that might offer new perspectives. A lot of previous studies have been keen on adopting a quantitative approach in their research design. However, an adherence to objective analysis of quantitative data has its limitations. While acknowledging the value of making broad generalizations it is central to “particularise” (van Lier, 2005). A wider understanding can be obtained while paying attention to details, and that can be obtained only through qualitative data. This study
122 aims to bring together the strengths of both forms of research collection and avoid many shortcomings of previous studies in this area.
The present study called for a mixed methods research design (Creswell, 2009) in order to widen the scope of understanding and obtain richer data. The mixed methods design employs strategies of enquiry that involve collecting the data through a variety of methods (e.g. questionnaires, interviews, notes, participant observation, computer mediated communication and so forth). The philosophy behind this choice was to triangulate and explain the data (Creswell, 2009; Creswell, et al., 2003). When data are triangulated, both quantitative and qualitative data are complemented and interpreted together in order to address the research questions. Thus, qualitative data were collected via interviews and comments on a social media tool in order to explain and probe further into the results obtained through the quantitative method. Miles and Huberman (1994) pointed out that, “although words may be more unwieldy than numbers, they render more meaning than numbers alone and should be hung on to throughout data analysis” (p. 56).
Moreover, the research focus (particularly identity work) entailed the synergy of different methods in order to puzzle out the whole picture of attitudes and identity. Validity is increased through the convergence and corroboration of the findings (Dörnyei, 2007).
5.4 Participants
The main study involved 561 students (n=561). A total of 778 responses were obtained
(344 hard copies and 434 online questionnaires via Survey Monkey online survey tool).
Data cleansing followed with the use of screening tools (filters). Based on specific exclusion criteria (i.e. missing demographics, completion of less than 70% on the likert
123 scale items, year of study, schools) 217 responses were excluded from the final data set.
The participants (see more in Table 6.1, Section 6.1) were undergraduate students in their 3rd, 4th or last year of their studies, majoring in Economics, Business
Administration, Accounting and Finance, Applied Informatics and finally, Marketing and
Operations Management. Of these, 181 (36.9%) were males and 310 (63.1%) were females. They were drawn from a number of Greek tertiary institutions but mainly from the Aristotle University (AUTH) and the University of Macedonia (UoM) in
Thessaloniki. The vast majority of participants were under 25 years of age, although there was a small number outside this age group.
5.5 Quantitative instrument: The questionnaire
The data for this study were collected through various means, such as questionnaires, interviews, notes taken during interviews, participant observation during student meetings, and finally students’ comments in a social media group. The quantitative instrument (i.e. the questionnaire) shall be described in detail in the subsections to follow.
5.5.1 Questionnaire design
The questionnaire (see Appendix A for both the Greek and English version) consisted of six major parts: the first part addressed students’ attitudes towards English (items 1-30,
33-34); the second part delved into their identity in relation to the English language
(items 35, 43-48, 50-51, 53, 55), and their awareness of future English use (items 37-42);
124 the third regarded their motivation for learning English (items MOT 771-13); their attitudes towards the English course at the university (items 31-32 and AESP 1-6) formed the fourth part; the fifth involved their current use of English and preference for a variety of English; finally the sixth part elicited information about their English language learning experience, some background details and demographics.
The questionnaire contained closed, “yes/no” and open-ended questions. For the closed items, a five-point Likert rating scale was used (1: strongly disagree, 2: disagree,
3: neither agree/nor disagree, 4: agree, 5: strongly agree). Questionnaire items were drawn from various sources. Some were adapted from existing questionnaires in the field
(e.g. Erling, 2004; Yashima, 2000, 2009). Others were formulated based on assiduous readings of Greek newspaper and magazine articles (in either paper and/or online versions), relating to the study’s field of research. Hence, many items were the researcher’s own design originating from gauging the public’s general attitudes and viewpoints as voiced in mass media (e.g. newspapers, magazines, blogs, websites).
To be more specific, the first part of the questionnaire consisted of 32 items and aimed at eliciting the participants’ attitudes towards English (1-16), English as a lingua franca - International posture (17-30) and Business English (33-34). Items relating to general attitudes towards English language were based on existing questionnaires, such as
Erling’s (2004) and Yashima’s (2000, 2009) or were the researcher’s own design. 14 international posture items (i.e. items 17-30) were drawn from Yashima (2009) and employed in the questionnaire with minor adjustments.
The second part delved into the students’ identity/ownership (items 35, 43-48, 50- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 77 For the items see the questionnaire in Appendix A2. Items names MOT 1-7 and MOT 8-13 refer to the items under “I learn English because …” and “Moreover …” headings accordingly. Items names AESP 1-6 refer to the items under the heading “ESP courses at the university …”.! 125 51, 53, 55) in relation to English as well as their expectations for a future English use
(37-42). It consisted of 17 five-point Likert scale items. Some were drawn from Erling
(2004) and others were the researcher’s own design.
In relation to students’ motivation towards learning English 13 items (i.e. MOT 1-
13) from Taguchi et al. (2009), Ryan (2009) and Czizér and Kormos (2009) were adapted and used in the third part of the questionnaire.
The fourth part inquired about their attitudes towards the English course at the university (8 items). In the fifth part, the participants were asked to report on the regularity of their current use of English based on four 5-point Likert scale items (1: everyday, 2: 3-4 times/ week, 3: 1-2 times/week, 4: rarely, 5: never) as well as their self- perceived English comprehension and communication based on a 3-point scale (1: little,
2: well enough, 3: a lot).
The last part requested personal information such as gender, age, mother tongue, language background and previous English experience. Participants were asked to state their travelling experience(s) and participation in an Erasmus exchange programme. On the occasion that they had completed an internship during their studies they were asked to report on their exposure to English and the occasions and regularity of that exposure to the language. Questions regarding the respondents’ use of social (i.e. Facebook, Twitter, etc.) and professional networks (i.e. LinkedIn, Academia, etc.) were also used. The respondents had to mention their year of studies, their subject and affiliation (i.e. university) as well as whether they had ever enrolled in a subject course offered in
English. The participants were asked to note where they had lived mostly, meaning which city or town/village in Greece. Finally, they were asked to complete a short table
126 concerning their perceived competency level in English. The reason behind placing background information in the last part of the questionnaire was because it is believed that respondents tend to find questions probing personal information off-putting (Dörnyei
& Taguchi, 2010).
5.5.2 Translation issues
The questionnaire was initially written in English and then translated into Greek by the researcher herself. The reason behind this language choice was that the quality of the data increases if the questionnaire is filled out in the respondent’s own mother tongue
(Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010).
An accredited translator, with no prior knowledge of the research, translated it back into English. Back translation guarantees the equivalence between the source and target version and adds an additional level of quality check to the document translation. The questionnaire items were fine-tuned through extensive piloting to ensure linguistic and content validity (see more in Section 5.6).
5.6 Pilot study
The questionnaire (see Appendix B for the pilot questionnaire) was pilot tested for content and linguistic validity to ensure the psychometric quality of the study. According to Dörnyei (2007), “[p]iloting is more important in quantitative studies than in qualitative ones, because quantitative studies rely on the psychometric properties of the research instruments” (p. 75).
The piloting phase of the questionnaire took place in April 2013. An English
127 instructor at the UoM was contacted by email and an appointment was scheduled in order to get permission for the hardcopy questionnaire distribution. The instructor was conversant with the aim of the research as well as the content of the questionnaire.
Information was given regarding the researcher’s commitment to keep participants’ anonymity as well as the time needed for the completion of the questionnaire.
The researcher administered the questionnaire on a specific date set by the instructor. The instructor presented the researcher and informed students about the pilot study that would take place. Students were kindly asked by both the researcher and their instructor to freely express their reservations about certain items, make questions regarding any misapprehension of the questions or uncertainties that might arise. The completion of the pilot questionnaire lasted approximately 25 minutes, including few intervals for clarifications. A total of 24 students (N=24) completed the questionnaire.
Following the completion, students raised questions and objections to certain items. The researcher took notes during the whole procedure in order to consider all issues in the final version of the questionnaire.
Therefore, items 13, 40-42 and MOT5 became more straightforward to the participants. Specifically, the word technology was deleted from item 13, only to include that “English is the single most widely-used language on the Internet”. The phrase “in my free time” in items 40-42 was substituted by “out of the workplace” and item MOT5 was differently verbalized, because it was initially written in a rather ambiguous way.
The terms “native speakers of English” and “non-native speakers of English” were vague for the participants. Therefore, examples were given in parentheses (e.g. English,
American) for “native speakers of English” and “non-native speakers of English” (e.g.
128 French, Italian) for all items that included these terms.
Since a well-designed questionnaire collects the required data efficiently with a minimum number of errors, particular emphasis was placed on the wording of questions.
Specialized terminology was either omitted or further explained and words were kept as simple as possible. Special attention was given to the questionnaire layout to make it user-friendlier and avoid possible unwillingness to answer the questions. The same applied to both the hardcopy and the online questionnaire (see more in Section 5.7.2) as a well-designed screen layout was also considered in the latter.
Moreover, the pilot study highlighted some issues that arise from differences across languages. Items and scales that were employed in other languages and cultural contexts required adjustments and adaptations to be used in the current study. In order to make the questionnaire appropriate to the Greek context and coherent in the Greek language, a number of items (e.g. items 17, 18) were rewritten and carefully adjusted.
Finally, all items were tested for reliability. Internal consistency was measured with
Cronbach's alpha and specific items were deleted (i.e. items 36, 49, 52 and 54) in order to ensure a higher Cronbach’s alpha.
5.7 The main study
5.7.1 Distribution phases of the final questionnaire
The questionnaires were distributed in two phases; the first – and main – phase took place in May 2013 and the second in October 2013. The key reason for this two-phase approach was the difficulty encountered in receiving cooperation from tertiary institutions towards the end of the calendar year. Since they were entering the exam
129 period at this time, students found it easier to contribute to this research towards the beginning of the academic year, beginning of October. A further benefit of the two-phase approach was that it offered the opportunity to redress possible imbalances in the original sample population. Initial analysis of the first-phase data showed that there was a low number of students from the UoM; therefore, a further group of Economics students was included in the sample at the second phase. Moreover, due to the extremely low representation of some tertiary institutions (e.g. University of Piraeus, University of
Patras), responses gathered from students of those universities were not considered in the final analysis of data.
5.7.2 Delivery modes of the questionnaire
For this research two delivery modes for the questionnaire were used; an online and an offline one (hardcopy mode). The online questionnaire was used considering the advantages of online surveys. To be more specific, online surveys make deployment and return times faster and more possible than traditional methods. They are also more convenient for respondents, as they can answer questions on their schedule and at their own pace.
With regards to the distribution of the hardcopy questionnaire a specific procedure was followed. First, faculty members were contacted by email and meetings were scheduled in order to get their permission for a distribution of the hardcopy questionnaire during class time. The researcher provided faculty members with detailed and comprehensive information about the study, its aims and methods as well as the duration of the questionnaire completion. They became familiar to its content, which was
130 confirmed as not being harmful or in anyway intrusive. Finally, the anonymity of students was assured.
The researcher administered the questionnaires on planned dates. The university instructors introduced the researcher to students and presented the aim of the study to them. Some brief comments were made on the main purpose of the study concealing any information that might influence their responses. Clear instructions for the completion of the questionnaire were given and the participants were guaranteed their anonymity.
Questionnaires were filled out during class time as this can bring about a much- welcomed high response rate; yet, the shortcomings of that kind of administration should be mentioned (Cohen et al., 2007). For instance, due to the fact that this procedure can generate a sense of obligation to the respondents it was made clear to the students, by both the researcher and the academic staff that they were by no means obliged to complete the questionnaire. However, the participants’ aid and support for this research project was also stressed. Students not only felt comfortable and unthreatened, they were also very interested in the project and keen on completing the questionnaire. A few asked to be contacted by the researcher so as to be informed about the results of this study.
Completion time was approximately 15-30 minutes with an average of 20 minutes.
The same questionnaire was created using the Survey Monkey online survey tool.
That gave the opportunity to get easy and fast responses as explained earlier in this subsection. The procedure was the following. No access to the university students’ mailing lists could be provided for ethical reasons. Therefore, aid was sought from all the administrative staff (i.e. secretaries) working at the corresponding departments (e.g.
School of Economics, AUTH, School of Economics UoM, etc.). Prior to this, a formal
131 letter (see Appendix F), signed by the researcher and the main supervisor of this PhD study, was written seeking for permission to email the survey’s web link to massive mailing lists. First, the letter was sent by email to the Head of all departments in question
(see Table 5.1 for a list of the departments) and then permission was received from 11 out of the 15 university departments. The positive response to this request was forwarded by email to both the researcher and the departments’ secretaries. Subsequently the latter sent the survey’s web link to their students with a brief note that informed them about the study.
Table 5.1 List of University Departments that were contacted for the research Tertiary Institution Department(s) Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Economics University of Macedonia School of Economics Business Administration Accounting & Finance Applied Informatics Marketing & Operations Management Athens University of Economics and Business School of Economics School of Business Administration Athens University (EKPA) School of Economics University of Crete School of Economics University of Ioannina School of Economics University of Patras School of Economics University of the Peloponnese School of Economics University of Piraeus School of Economics University of Thessally School of Economics
An additional way of distributing the online questionnaire was accomplished using the social media. Therefore, the survey was posted on Facebook and the researcher’s social network was asked to share it with their networks too. In order to seek answers from particular university students, the instructions made clear that the survey was addressed to students majoring in Economics, Business Administration and other related fields.
132 Additionally, several Facebook group administrators were contacted in order to upload the web link to their closed group. To name just a few, Economics University of
Macedonia, AIESEC UoM in Greece, AIESEC AUTH, Economics society-UoM and other related groups were contacted in order to post the survey. The survey’s link was further emailed to the researcher’s contacts in order to forward it to their friends.
5.8 Instrumentation: Statistical methodology
For the statistical analysis of data, certain questionnaire items were grouped together in order to form seven different variables (Table 5.2). All items were tested for reliability and internal consistency was measured with Cronbach’s alpha78. In univariate analysis, for scale variables, results are expressed as mean and standard deviation, whereas minimum and maximum values and percentages are used for categorical variables. For bivariate analysis, differences in mean scores between two groups were tested using t-test for independent samples. The Chi-Square79 test of independence has been employed to examine if there is any relation between two categorical variables. Statistical correlations between two scale variables (e.g. Attitudes towards English and International Posture) were evaluated by Pearson correlation coefficient in order to identify the relationship between each pair of quantitative variables.
Multivariate analysis has been performed by the CHAID Analysis (Chi-Square
Automatic Interaction Detection). This is an analysis that determines how independent variables to fairly homogeneous samples can be best combined to explain the outcome in !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78 The Cronbach’s alpha value for each variable in enclosed in parenthesis following each variable name (see Table 5.2).
79 The Chi-Square test of independence formed part of the preliminary data processing, and is not included here.
133 a given dependent variable and is an optimal tool to discover any underlying relationships between variables under examination. One of the outstanding advantages of CHAID analysis is that it can visualize the relationship between the target (dependent) variable and the related factors with a tree image. A 5% significance level has been considered for detecting any statistically significant difference among variables. SPSS v.22 was used to analyze the data.
Table 5.2 Dependent variables of the study Variable name Items Attitudes towards English (0,771) 1-16, 33-34 International Posture (0,836) 17-30 Awareness (0,683) 37-42 Identity (0,630) 35, 43-48, 50-51, 53, 55 Motivation (0,703) MOT1-7 Intended Learning Effort (0,607) MOT 8-13 Attitudes towards English for Specific Purposes (0,613) 31-32, AESP 1-6
5.9 Qualitative instrument: The interviews
The role of interviews was vital in the research design of this study. They were meant to serve as a supplementary element to the quantitative instrument of the research design
Section 5.3). Given the nature of the questionnaire and the number of participants, there were areas that required clarification and a more in-depth exploration of the issues investigated in this research study.
5.9.1 Design of interviews: Guidelines and the piloting of interviews
The main role of interviews in this study was to cast more light on the questionnaire responses and compensate for any weaknesses or misunderstandings that came from the self-reported questionnaire items. After undertaking the quantitative analysis, 18 interviews were conducted with students. The interviews were conducted in Greek. 134 Based on the issues raised in the questionnaire, some guidelines were constructed that formed the rough outline of the interview (see Appendix C for a copy of the interview guidelines). The interview questions were initially written in English and then translated into Greek by the researcher herself for reasons explained in 5.5.2. An accredited translator back translated the questions into English, in order to ensure equivalence between the two versions.
Semi-structured interviews were opted as more appropriate to the nature of the research study as a means of gaining “empathic access to the world of the interviewee”
(Kvale, 1996, p. 125). Since the “interviewees’ lived meanings may be immediately accessible in the situation, communicated not only by words, but by the tone of voice, expressions and gestures in the natural flow of a conversation” (ibid.) particular attention was paid to the non-linguistic features of the interviews. Those in-depth interviews provided the researcher with all the data needed to “set the perspectives heard within the context of personal history or experience; where delicate or complex issues need to be explored at a detailed level, or where it is important to relate different issues to individual personal circumstances” (Lewis, 2003, p. 58).
The interview guide was quite flexible. Given that students were already aware of the nature of the study, this approach was chosen to give them freedom and autonomy. In this respect, they were allowed to talk freely about anything they felt it was important in relation to the study. They were also free to ask questions themselves during the interview. The interviewees were allowed to let their experiences unfold without being interrupted by the researcher (Kvale, 1996, p. 135).
The participants were encouraged to elaborate upon their perceptions with
135 particular emphasis on their personal stories and experiences of ELF interactions in order to obtain richer and more comprehensible data than those obtained through questionnaires. They were also free to introduce topics that were of importance for them.
Interview questions and prompts were trialled during 4 pilot interviews. Students were asked to comment on the appropriateness of the language used as well as any ambiguities they might observe. They were subsequently revised and attention was given to the order with which questions were asked, though order during interviews was sometimes violated due to the flexible nature of the interviews. The pilot interviews were conducted in Greek, as students appeared reluctant to use English. They actually felt rather relieved when told that they were free to choose the language of the interview. This point was taken into consideration for the main interviews.
It is worth mentioning here that prior to the main interview phase, time
(approximately 12 hours) was spent with some of the participants (25 students in total, 4 of which were interview participants) besides interviews, which lead to a number of insights into the way young university students and in particular members of international youth communities manage to communicate interactively by means of all linguistic and non-linguistic repertoires/means (e.g. L1, ELF, and body language).
5.9.2 The interview guide
The interview guide (see Appendix C) was prepared taking into consideration both the
“thematic and the dynamic dimensions” (Kvale, 1996, p. 130). In this respect, questions and prompts were used to ensure a natural flow in the conversation. The guide was partly based on Kvale’s (1996) nine question types including: introducing questions; follow-up
136 questions; probing questions; specifying questions; direct questions and indirect questions; structuring questions; interpreting questions and silence (pp. 133-135).
Several probes were used to “help the interviewer flesh out the question, as prompts for items the informant may have overlooked, or as subquestions derived from previous research” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 37).
Interviews were audio-recorded with a portable digital voice recorder (Olympus
DS-71) and an i-phone 4 after obtaining the interviewees’ permission. They were then transcribed, following an adaptation of VOICE transcription conventions (see p. xvii for the transcription conventions). Several prosodic features such as pauses, lengthened segments and laughter (also used in Jenkins, 2007) were included in the transcriptions because they offered insights that were unlikely to be provided by an analysis of content.
Prosody conveys attitude and affect (e.g. Gumperz, 1982) and as Cameron (2001) has pointed, “important contextualising information may be carried by small details that are easily overlooked because they have little or no referential content” (p. 154).
5.9.3 Interview process sampling
A series of semi-structured interviews (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 134) were scheduled to follow the administration of the questionnaire. Semi-structured interviews were more appropriate for the purposes of this study. On the one hand, they entail a necessary interview guide with some pre-prepared guiding questions, while on the other hand they allow freedom for the interviewee to “elaborate on issues raised in an exploratory manner” (ibid, p. 134).
From the total number of participants (N=76) who expressed the wish to participate
137 in an interview besides the completion of the questionnaire, eighteen were selected following “purposive sampling” strategies, since “the main goal of sampling [was] to find individuals who can provide rich and varied insights into the phenomenon under investigation” (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 126). The participants were chosen based on a preliminary analysis of the questionnaire responses in terms of various factors
(intercultural experiences, experiences of ELF communicative situations, internship experiences etc.). They were contacted by email or phone call, according to the personal details they had provided the researcher with. The interviews took place on appointed and arranged dates and places according to the participants’ convenience.
The researcher managed to establish rapport between herself and the interviewees and explained the process as well as the main purpose of the interview in a thorough manner. As power relationship and the interviewer control are important (Richards,
2003), attention was given to these matters. For instance, previous encounters with some of the students and familiarization with the AIESEC80 organization (see more in Section
4.6) prior to the interviews proved very helpful. Students were more willing to talk about their experiences at this organization and share their thoughts and feelings. At more sensitive questions that probed further their emotions, the researcher’s understanding of her role in that process was that of a person they would share an understanding as well as their feelings. In this sense, the researcher acted more like a ‘traveler’, to use Kvale and
Brinkmann’s (2009) metaphor, travelling along with her participants.
Students signed a consent form (see Appendix G), which was previously signed by the researcher. The aim of research was explained as well as the topics that would be !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 80 AIESEC is a global, non-political, independent organisation that is run by students and recent graduates of higher educational institutions (see more about AIESEC in www.aiesec.org). Some of the participants of this study were AIESEC members.
138 under discussion. The research topics were found very interesting by most participants, a fact that contributed a lot not only to their eagerness to participate in the interview but also to the relaxed atmosphere during the interview process which allowed them to elaborate more on the topics in question. It seemed that most if not all of them enjoyed it a lot and expressed the interest to be informed about the outcome of the study.
Interviews lasted approximately 20-45 minutes and students talked openly and substantially about the topics raised. The length of interviews was determined by the participants’ desire to speak to the researcher. Four interviews lasted more than 1 hour and 15 minutes, while three were only 15 minutes long (see Table in Appendix E).
Quantitative and qualitative methods were not collected at the same time due to students’ busy schedules. A sequential approach was therefore adopted, involving the collection of quantitative data (i.e. from questionnaires) first, with their results informing the second form of data collection.
5.9.4 Method of interview analysis
The data were analysed based on a three-stage procedure suggested in the literature
(Creswell, 2009; Miles & Huberman, 1994). The first step in the interview analysis was note taking. The recordings were listened to several times and the interviewees’ profiles
(see Appendix J) were constructed. Key concepts were identified and codes were created and attached next to the text (Appendix C). A list of codes/categorical labels had been created prior to fieldwork, based on both the research questions and conceptual interests of the study. However, the data-driven coding and context-driven coding led to various adjustments. Though similar codes were used in all interviews, each interview provided
139 richer data leading to the creation of new codes (Table C1, Appendix C). Thus, the codes were redefined as the analysis moved forward, with new codes being added and others being removed or rephrased (for a complete list of final codes see Table C1 in Appendix
C).
The interview data was then analyzed based on theory-based themes and any recurrent themes that arose, following an ad hoc form of interview analysis. The conceptual framework that was followed was mainly built upon the theoretical positions of Braun and Clarke (2006). As stated in a previous section (see 5.9.2) specific prosodic features were included in the transcripts as they provided richer insights into the participants’ attitudes and identity than the referential content alone. Kvale (1996) notes
“[a] postmodern approach forgoes the search of the true fixed meanings and emphasizes descriptive nuances, differences, and paradoxes” (p. 226). !
It should be noted that the way interactional sociolinguistics and the newer discipline of sociolinguistic ethnography approach the analysis of prosodic features overlaps. Therefore, prosodic features were interpreted within the specific interaction and not according to any “known” generalizations about the workings of prosody (also in
Jenkins, 2000). Any interpretative claims were treated with caution by the researcher.
Prosodic features such as pauses, laughter, and emphasis provided nuances for the participants’ attitudes. For instance, pauses show hesitation and may indicate that a particular issue is problematic for an interviewee, whereas laughter may signal embarrassment. Those features suggest that sometimes participants were unable to explain their perceptions or that they were aware of certain stereotypes. More attention was paid to emphatic stress (signaled variously by extra syllable length or loudness)
140 along with pausing, as more reliable indications of speaker meaning.
To ensure reliability and definitional clarity as Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 64) suggest, another person other than the researcher herself was asked to code the first 10 pages of transcribed data. Each interpretation was then reviewed to ensure that both analysts had used the same codes for the same blocks of data. The same procedure was followed a few days later to check internal consistency as well. The rationale behind this approach (i.e. the qualitative) was simply that the role of the interview data was conducive to the research in that it explained in more detail the quantitative findings drawn from the analysis of questionnaire data.
5.10 The Facebook group and features of ethnography
As more and more people use social network sites to interact with each other and share ideas, a social media network (i.e. Facebook) sounded as an interesting and innovative way to obtain more ethnographic information about the participants’ perceptions and identity.
A private group was created on Facebook by the researcher, named I-SWOT about
English. The acronym I-SWOT (“I Share WOrthy Thoughts”) was used as a pun for the purpose of intended amusement of the participants due to their familiarity with the business term SWOT81. The group was created aiming to work as a prompt for the exchange of ideas and thoughts about ELF. For that reason, videos and pictures were uploaded once or twice per week for the duration of one month. A total of six photos and eight videos were uploaded during February-March 2014 (see Appendix D for the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81 A SWOT analysis (alternatively SWOT matrix) is a structured planning method used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved in a project or a business venture.
141 material uploaded on the group’s page). The researcher sometimes raised questions as prompts for the initiation of discussions.
The members (13 out of 18 interviewees) were added to the group by the researcher and were informed by message to their inbox about the purpose of this data collection method. The five participants who were not added in the Facebook group as members were either unwilling to participate or did not have a Facebook account. The Facebook group members were free to discuss anything they liked without any restrictions as to the language used or even the non-linguistic signs (such as “like”). They were also free to withdraw from the group at any time.
The comments that were obtained were considered as part of the ethnographic features of the research and were utilised by the researcher as such. In fact, the present research incorporated many features of ethnography to a certain extent. By means of field observation, prior and during the data collection procedure, the researcher had the opportunity to talk with many university students and faculty members and observe students during coffee breaks or during meetings. Notes were taken during those meetings as well as during interviews. The participants’ Facebook profiles were also observed for the duration of three months. This added additional information to the delineation of their attitudes and identity formation.
Moreover, unlike other studies, the media played an important role in that they provided information about the formation of attitudes in the Greek society. A lot of research was conducted following the reading of the three most popular newspapers in
Greece and finding out what the public had to say about the issues examined.
142 5.11 Ethical issues
Ethical issues were seriously considered in this study, which abides by the recommendations on good practice published by the British Association of Applied
Linguistics (BAAL, 2006). As mentioned in sections 5.8.1 and 5.8.2, permission to conduct the study was obtained from the university faculty members who allowed the researcher to proceed with the questionnaire distribution during class time. Permission was also sought from the Head of the School for the online questionnaire distribution.
The permission was communicated to the relevant department secretaries who then forwarded the survey’s web link to all students (see Appendix F for a copy of the letter of permission in both Greek and English).
Attention was given to the participants’ rights to anonymity, confidentiality and privacy and included informed consent as suggested (Dörnyei, 2007). The purpose of the study was explained in the participants’ mother tongue. The respondents were also informed that participation was voluntary. They were assured that a withdrawal or refusal to participate would by no means affect or have any negative consequences to their university studies and progress. They were allowed to act independently and freely decide whether to participate or not. To maintain confidentiality and protect the identity of the respondents, the questionnaires were anonymous.
As for the interviews, pseudonyms were used for all interviewees and no identifying details that might reveal their identity were included in the transcribed data.
Interviews were conducted privately with no third person intervening or overhearing the conversation. At the end of the explanations about the nature of the study and the procedure to follow, they were asked to sign a written consent, which was also signed by
143 the researcher herself (see Appendix G for an example of the consent form in both
English and Greek). Participation to the research imposed no mental or physical harm on the respondents. The results of this research have been available to some of the participants who had the opportunity to comment on them.
5.12 Difficulties encountered in the data collection process
According to a recent survey (Bocar, 2013), cooperation of the respondents is the most difficult problem that student researchers encounter. Indeed, there were many obstacles as to the questionnaire retrieval. It was very hard to approach university faculty members and get their permission for the questionnaire distribution during class time. The majority was negative to this idea. Since the researcher was not familiar with the respondents, access to students was limited and very difficult to obtain. Administrative staff was not very supportive as well, despite the rather few encouraging exceptions.
One of the challenges encountered during the interview process was recruiting the participants (by means of email or phone calls) and the arrangement of appointments with them. All appointments were arranged based on the interviewees’ own convenience with regards to the place where the interviews were held and the meeting time. That required a lot of flexibility on behalf of the researcher. Live video interviews over the Internet (i.e.
Skype) proved very helpful in cases where interviewees were not in town.
144 Concluding remarks
This chapter addressed the methodology followed for this PhD research. In order to gain an in-depth description of Business School students’ attitudes and identity, this research triangulated multiple data sources (i.e. questionnaires, interviews, notes, Facebook group comments). The variability of participants as to their educational background and intercultural experiences was very promising. Though more participant observation would give a better description of the study in question, it was not possible due to time restrictions.
145 Chapter 6
Quantitative results
This chapter provides a detailed description of the questionnaire results. Firstly, the background information on the participants is presented. Following the descriptive statistics, the chapter presents the quantitative results obtained from the analysis of both bivariate and multivariate statistical methods, that were used to explore the data.
6.1 Profile of the participants
The main study involved 561 students who were in their 3rd, 4th or in their final year of studies (see more in Section 5.4). Of those, 63% were female, while 37% were male (see
Table 6.1). The bulk of participants was studying at the UoM in Thessaloniki, followed by those studying at the AUTH and students at the AUEB. Twenty students came from other universities in Greece (Table 5.1 in Chapter 5). There were 54 students who did not indicate their institution (i.e. missing information). The majority of participants were studying Economics (59.5%), while 16.7% were students of Business Administration at the UoM and AUEB. Other departments were as such: Accounting and Finance, Applied
Informatics and Marketing at the UoM (see Table 6.1).
146 Table 6.1: Sample profile
Mean = 22.08 UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT AGE SD = 2.49 N % N % GENDER AUTH 125 24.7 ECONOMICS 303 59.5 N % BUSINESS MALE 181 36.9 UoM 339 66.9 85 16.7 ADMINISTRATION ACCOUNTING AND FEMALE 310 63.1 AUEB 23 4.5 61 12.0 FINANCE APPLIED TOTAL 491 100 OTHER 20 3.9 42 8.3 INFORMATICS TOTAL 507 100 MARKETING 8 1.6 YEAR OF Mean = 4.03 OTHER 10 2.0 STUDY SD = 1.47 TOTAL 509 100
PLACE OF RESIDENCE N % ATHENS 28 6.0 THESSALONIKI 172 37.1 OTHER URBAN AREAS 57 12.3 SUB-URBAN AREAS 143 30.9 RURAL AREAS 59 12.7 ABROAD 4 0.9 TOTAL 463 100
Regarding their place of residence, most participants were raised in Thessaloniki
(37.1%), followed by those from sub-urban areas (30.9%). This is interesting because the place of residence defines the language instruction that these participants had received, therefore influencing a lot their English language learning experience. In small cities and villages learners have limited opportunities for English language use, however tourist places are an exception. Moreover, the frequent turnover of teachers in the Greek school system and sometimes the lack of a teacher constitute some of the problems that most of the times result in limited language instruction. Some of those issues will be demonstrated more clearly in Chapter 7 where a few participants reported on the limited
147 opportunities for better English instruction due to the fact that they had lived in smaller cities or villages in Greece.
6.1.1 Language skills
This study shows that Greek Business School students have a wealth of foreign language skills. The majority of students (63%) report that they are competent in other language(s) besides English, whereas 3% (N=16) are bilingual in Greek and other languages. This means that more than half of the respondents have learned at least two foreign languages.
Students were asked to list the languages besides English and their mother tongue(s) that they speak.
Table 6.2 Students with competence in languages other than mother tongue (L1) -(N=391) N % L1 + English + 1 foreign language 308 55 L1 + English + 2 foreign languages 70 12.5 L1 + English + 3 foreign languages 13 2.5
It seems that more than half have learned at least two foreign languages, while only 2.5% know at least four languages. Table 6.3 below summarizes the top ten foreign languages (in a descending order) spoken by the Greek Business School students.
Besides English, the most common foreign language is German, spoken by 29.1% of the students. French is the second most popular language spoken by 16.3% of students, while 9.6% know Italian. Other foreign languages include the following: Spanish,
Russian, Albanian and Turkish (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 Competence in other foreign languages N % GERMAN 163 29.1 FRENCH 91 16.3 ITALIAN 54 9.6
148 SPANISH 32 5.7 RUSSIAN 20 3.6 ALBANIAN 7 1.2 TURKISH 4 0.7 OTHER82 23 3.2
The results are in accordance to the Special Eurobarometer (386) survey83 on
Europeans and their languages, according to which the German language came second, mentioned by 34% of Greek people. The popularity of German – as shown by both the results of this study (Table 6.3) and the Special Euro barometer (386) survey – is interesting. It possibly relates to the association between Germany and economic prosperity as Germany is one of the wealthiest economies in the Eurozone and worldwide. Greek people probably get the impression that German competence results to access to countries that flourish economically, which in turn leads to better career opportunities.
Students’ knowledge of Italian can be explained by the fact that Italy is a popular holiday destination for Greek people and has also attracted a lot of Greek students in the past in order to pursue their studies. Italian has also been reported to be a “nice” language, easy to learn and easy to gain a certificate as well. It is also interesting to note, how Albanian and Russian are becoming more popular probably because of the past influx of immigrants from these countries.
This survey contradicts fears expressed in discussions about foreign language education in the European Union, according to which motivation for foreign language
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 82!Other foreign languages include the following: Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Georgian, Greek, Polish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Serbian and Swedish. ! 83 The survey was conducted in spring 2012. Greek people were asked to report on the most useful languages for their children to learn.
149 learning might decrease due to the use of English internationally. This is definitely not the case for Greek Business School students. Several respondents mentioned in their interviews (see Chapter 7) that English competence nowadays is a prerequisite and a given, meaning that a knowledge of another language(s) would be an asset particularly in order to increase their employability.
6.2 The role of English in students’ lives
6.2.1 Learning experience
Almost one third of the participants (29%, N=144) started learning English at the age of
8, followed by 18.5% (N=92) who started at the age of 9, while 17.1% (N=85) at the age of 10 and finally 12.7% (N=63) participants started learning English at the age of 7. The rest learned English either earlier, starting at the age of 3 and there were very few who started after the age of 10.
The data in this study reflect the general pattern of language learning in Greek state schools, where children usually start learning their first foreign language (i.e.
English) around the age of 9 (see Section 4.3.1). However, children normally start learning a foreign language in foreign language centres, which may coincide or precede language instruction at school. This means that the majority of students (60.2%) had received between 8-10 years of English language instruction before entering university.
Table 6.4 English language learning experience
English learning starting age Mean = 8.81 SD = 1.98 English tuition N % • School and foreign language centre 232 46.0 • Foreign language centre 136 27.0 • School, foreign language centre and individual courses at home 69 13.7 • Individual courses at home 21 4.2 150 • School and individual courses at home 17 3.4 • Foreign language centre and individual courses at home 17 3.4 • School 12 2.4
Regarding the educational context where they had their English education, almost 46% of the participants (N=232) had courses both at school and at a foreign language centre, followed by 27% (N=136) who stated they had learned English at a foreign language centre only. A few participants (13.7%) reported receiving their English education at their school, the foreign language centre and through private courses at home, whereas private courses only were attended by 4.2% (N=21). The fact that very few students reported having learnt English at school comes as no surprise. It actually reflects the common perception according to which the English subject holds a very low status (see
Section 8.2.4). Also, most of them were exposed to NS teachers. More than half of the participants claimed that their English instructor was from an English-speaking country, with Great Britain being the most popular one (28.6% Ν=160).
6.2.2 Self-perceived competence in English
Students were asked to judge their proficiency in English either with ‘Basic’,
‘Intermediate’, ‘Advanced’ or ‘Proficient’. The majority of participants believe that their
English language skills are at an advanced level (Table 6.5). Not surprisingly there seems to be a discrepancy with regards to comprehension and production skills. The participants report that their comprehension skills (i.e. listening and reading) are better than their production skills (i.e. communication, speaking and writing).
151 Table 6.5 English language competence COMPREHENSION SKILLS SPEAKING SKILLS
LISTENING COMMUNICATION SPEAKING N % N % N % Proficient 128 25.8 Proficient 106 21.4 Proficient 73 14.7 Advanced 260 52.4 Advanced 260 52.5 Advanced 239 48.3 Intermediate 90 18.1 Intermediate 109 22.0 Intermediate 155 31.3 Basic 18 3.6 Basic 20 4.0 Basic 28 5.7
TOTAL 496 100 TOTAL 495 100 TOTAL 495 100
READING WRITING SKILLS N % N % Proficient 125 25.3 Proficient 79 16.0 Advanced 249 50.4 Advanced 241 48.9 Intermediate 100 20.2 Intermediate 148 30.0 Basic 20 4.0 Basic 25 5.1
TOTAL 494 100 TOTAL 493 100 !
6.2.3 Self-perceived understanding of different accents
Participants were asked to report on their level of understanding when communicating with people with different accents (Table 6.6). More than half of the students (58.2%) claim they understand Greek people speaking English to a great extent. Europeans were rated higher than the other categories as being well enough understood by the participants (63.5%), while people from other linguistic backgrounds84 were the least understood (38.7%). Moreover, the Americans seem to be more understood than the
British, possibly because Greeks are most exposed to the American language through films and songs.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 84 In the category ‘people from other linguistic backgrounds’, Europeans, Americans, NSs of English and Greeks were excluded.
152
Table 6.6 Self-perceived understanding of different accents of English A little Well enough A lot TOTAL85 N % N % N % N %
Native speakers of English 87 16.8 299 57.8 131 25.3 517 100 Non-native speakers of English 63 12.2 282 54.4 173 33.4 518 100 An American 60 11.6 262 50.8 194 37.6 516 100 A British 139 26.9 270 52.3 107 20.7 516 100
A Greek person speaking English 29 5.6 187 36.2 301 58.2 517 100 A European 30 5.8 327 63.5 157 30.5 515 100 People from other linguistic 146 38.7 16 43.5 67 17.8 377 100 backgrounds
6.2.4 Self-perceived English communication
When asked to report on how well they believe they communicate with different people
(i.e. NSs of English, NNSs of English, etc.) most students reported that they communicate best with Greeks (M = 2.47, SD = .62) and least with people from other linguistic backgrounds (M = 1.78, SD = .72). Europeans were rated quite high (M = 2.16,
SD = .57), while British (M = 1.87, SD = .70) were the ones they had the worst communication with, following people from other linguistic backgrounds.
Table 6.7 Self-perceived English communication A little Well enough A lot TOTAL
N % N % N % N %
Native speakers of English 127 24.6 292 56.6 97 18.8 516 100
Non-native speakers of English 66 12.8 317 61.4 133 25.8 516 100
An American 93 18.1 264 51.3 158 30.7 515 100
A British 165 32.0 252 48.8 99 19.2 516 100
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 85 The number of total observations (N) may be different for each item due to incidental missing responses.
153 A Greek person speaking English 35 6.8 206 39.9 275 53.3 516 100
A European 50 9.7 334 64.9 131 25.4 515 100
People from other linguistic 144 39.1 162 44.0 62 16.8 368 100 backgrounds
6.2.5 Use of English
As has been demonstrated in section 6.2.2, students are rather advanced in English and for most of them English plays an important role in their lives, both in- and out of the classroom. An illuminating example of that is the fact that they travel a lot and use
English for communication. This will be extensively demonstrated further in this
Chapter (see 6.4.1). The following section of the questionnaire was designed to elicit how much the students use English in their private lives (Table 6.8).
A rough look at the data shows that the participants are exposed to the language through listening (M = 4.43, SD = .90) and reading (M = 3.37, SD = 1.25) more often than they actually produce it through speaking (M = 2.59, SD = 1.00) and writing (M =
2.92, SD = 1.16). The table below illustrates how often students use English in their lives. The vast majority of students (65.1%) are exposed to English through songs and movies on a daily basis. Fewer students read English while reading books, magazines and newspapers or while browsing the Internet (25.8%). What is interesting to notice is the fact that students rarely have the chance to use the language with other people (i.e. spoken interaction).
Table 6.8 Frequency of English language use Every day 3-4 times/week 1-2 times/week Rarely Never Total
N % N % N % N % N % N % Listen to English 341 65.1 99 18.9 56 10.7 25 4.8 3 0.6 524 100
Read in English 135 25.8 110 21.0 119 22.7 135 25.8 25 4.8 524 100
154 Speak English 38 7.3 51 9.7 131 25.0 266 50.8 38 7.3 524 100
Write in English 67 12.8 92 17.6 132 25.2 195 37.3 37 7.1 523 100
6.3 Familiarity with social media
A large scale European survey86 conducted in February 2014, showed that the average active social media penetration rate in European countries is 40%. Greece was ranked
26th with 41% of Internet users being monthly active social media users, logging on at least once per month. The present research shows that the vast majority of students
(93.1%) report using social media on a daily basis (72.6%), whereas only a few are not familiar with social media (6.9%). That finding possibly confirms that the average age level of social media users is low.
Table 6.10 Frequency of social media use (N=492) N % Every day 358 72.6 3-4 times/week 43 8.7 1-2 times/week 26 5.3 Rarely 31 6.3 Never 34 6.9
Most of the participants connected to the social media use Greek (N=308), while
83 students mention English as the language of communication. German and French were mentioned 3 times, while Italian and Spanish were mentioned 3 times respectively as the languages used in CMC along with Greek. 14 students mentioned that they use Greeklish alone or combined with English words while communicating on social media platforms.
When asked to report on whether they had created a profile in an academic or professional network (such as Academia, LinkedIn, etc.), only 21% of the respondents
(N=103) claimed they had a profile of such kind. The low percentage possibly shows that !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 86 http://www.statista.com/statistics/295660/active-social-media-penetration-in-european-countries/! 155 students are not familiar with such networks since they are still studying. Professional networks are mainly addressed to graduates seeking for a job or establishing their profile.
The participants were possibly not aware of those networks’ potentials for their future career. Of those who hold profiles in academic or professional networks, 74 students claimed they use English for their communication, whereas 11 use English and Greek and
12 use only Greek. One student reported using Greeklish. These results show the acceptance of English as the main language of communication in international contexts, such as a professional social network (e.g. LinkedIn).
6.4 Intercultural experience
6.4.1 Travelling abroad
The majority (73.4%) of Greek Business School students does a lot of travelling particularly during semester breaks and holidays. The ten most visited countries87 are the following: Italy, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, the UK, Turkey, France, the Czech
Republic, Austria and Belgium.
Table 6.11 List of countries visited Continents Regions Countries
Africa Northern Africa Egypt (7)88, Morocco, Tunisia (2) Southern Africa South Africa
America Northern America USA (1889), Canada (1) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87 The ten most visited countries appear in bold in Table 6.11
88 The numbers in the parentheses indicate the number of students who reported on having travelled to the specified country. When no number is mentioned, this means that only one student had travelled to the equivalent country (eg. Only one student had travelled to Morocco).
89 Of those 8 students mentioned that they visited America without designating the country or region. Therefore, that number was included in those having visited the USA.
156 Central America Cuba, Mexico (2) South America Brazil, Argentina
Asia Eastern Asia China Southern Asia India South-Eastern Asia Singapore, Thailand Western Asia Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus (13), Georgia, Israel (5), Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey (75)
Oceania Australia Australia
Europe Eastern Europe Bulgaria (78), Czech Republic (42), Hungary (28), Poland (4), Romania (6), Russian Federation (8), Slovakia (5), Ukraine Northern Europe Denmark (4), Estonia, Finland (4), Lithuania (2), Latvia (2), Norway (2), Sweden (8), United Kingdom90 (77)
Southern Europe Albania (2), Andorra, Bosnia, Croatia (6), FYROM (14), Italy (139), Malta (6), Portugal (5), Serbia (14), Slovenia, Spain (84)
Western Europe Austria (37), Belgium (28), Brussels (3) France (74), Germany (89), Liechtenstein, Luxemburg (4), Monaco (3), Netherlands (24), Switzerland (14)
It appears that students travel extensively in Europe with Italy being the most popular destination. The neighbouring countries (i.e. Bulgaria and Turkey) are very popular for young students possibly because of their proximity to Greece. The UK is 5th in the list of the top ten countries.
Students travel mostly for recreational purposes (76%) but also for educational reasons (12%). A few students claim they travel in order to gain experience (3%) or to become acquainted with the culture (3%). Other reasons include school trips (i.e.
Comenius, Euroscola), family or business reasons, or participation in Erasmus and internship programmes.
Students claim to use English (75%) most while abroad, while German is used by
5%, French and Italian by 4%. Some students mentioned they used Greek (5%), though !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 90 Some students had written the cities (e.g. London, Liverpool) or used ‘Great Britain’, ‘Ireland’ etc. to indicate the place they had visited. Their answers were grouped together and the abbreviation UK was used instead.
157 it was not specified whether Greek was used with Greeks only. Other languages used while travelling include Spanish, Dutch, Armenian, Russian and Swedish. Though
English-speaking countries are not the most popular destinations for travelling, the pervasiveness of English as the commonly accepted language of communication is obvious. The participants report on that in their interviews, and this shows that students have some opportunities for English language use particularly with NNSs when abroad.
Very few students (8% N=40) had lived abroad due to their participation in an
Erasmus exchange programme. Of those, ten had the experience of living in Italy, six in
Germany and the rest in Spain (N=6), Portugal (N=4), Belgium (N=2) and other countries (i.e. the Czech Republic, England, Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Turkey, Holland and Finland). Twenty-seven students (5%) had lived abroad for
6 months or more. Of those only one student had stayed in an English speaking country
(i.e. England) for the duration of six months.
6.5 Internship experience
Less than one fourth of the participants (17% N=83) had taken part in an internship programme. Of those, 73 did their internship in Greece, while the rest mentioned working in Egypt, England, Germany, Spain, Malta, Serbia and Turkey. The students worked in various sectors91 during their internship. Those are summarized in Table 6.12.
Financial accounting was the most popular followed by finance, information technology, marketing and banking. English was used by 55% (N=42) of the interns during the internship, while more than half of them used it on a weekly basis. The majority of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 91 The sectors appear in alphabetical order. The numbers in the parentheses indicate the number of students who reported on having worked in the particular sector. When no number is mentioned this means that only one student had participated in the equivalent sector.!
158 young interns were asked to read documents written in English while communication involved mainly written communication, such as emails and reports. Oral communication (e.g. small talk with colleagues and phone calls) was rather limited.
Table 6.12 Internship statistics Sector Frequency of English use N % Applied Informatics Every day 13 27.7 Banking (6) Several times/ week 14 29.8 Consulting Few times/ week 15 31.9 Database management Rarely/ Never 5 10.6 Educational Finance (16) Purpose of English use Financial Accounting (42) Conversing with colleagues (10) Housing loans Reading documents (36) Investments Reading bibliography (13) Information technology (14) Writing reports (20) Law Writing/responding to emails (24) Logistics (3) Participating in meetings (9) Marketing (8) Making phone calls (13) Outsourcing Other (4) Production management Programming Registry Sales Secretarial support
6.6 A sense of belonging
Students were asked to report on how they feel when they use English. The table below shows a tendency of the students to feel more connected with native and non-native speakers of English, a finding that shows their awareness that English serves as a tool of connecting people from all over the world. Fewer students (N=168) feel more European when they use English, while only 8.7% feels less Greek, showing that students do not feel any kind of threat to their mother tongue when using English. Table 6.13 highlights group affiliations and relationships. It seems that peers become much more important, while parents still retain some influence as indicated by almost half of the students
(49.5%) who disagree feeling distant from their parents and older generations.
159
Table 6.13 How students feel when they use English Agree/ Neither Disagree/ absolutely agree agree/nor absolutely disagree disagree
N % N % N % More connected with my friends 45 8.4 168 31.5 320 60.0 More distant from my parents and older generations 123 23.1 146 27.4 264 49.5 More connected to NESs 330 62.1 128 24.1 74 13.9 More connected with people across the world 346 65.0 126 23.7 60 11.2 More European 168 31.5 187 35.2 177 33.3 Less Greek 46 8.7 110 20.6 377 70.8 More like a citizen of the world 262 49.3 150 28.2 119 22.4 More connected with people from my field 244 45.8 173 32.5 116 21.8
The present study shows that not only technology but also English makes Greek
Business School students feel closer to people from all over the world (65%), while nearly half of the respondents agree to the fact that they feel more cosmopolitan (49%). It also appears that professional affiliation is a central component of connecting people as
46% claim they feel more connected to colleagues and fellow students. This highlights group affiliations and relationships and indicates that peers become much more important when it comes to the use of English. Distance from parents and older generations is a feeling reported by almost one fourth (23.1%) of the respondents, a finding that was further illustrated in some students’ interviews92 who asserted that a generation gap is evident due to English language competence and use of English words on a daily basis.
6.7 Tendency towards an English variety
The participants were asked to show their preference for three different categories in relation to the culture portrayed (Table 6.14). They were allowed to give more than one !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92 However, these results are not presented in the Results Chapter, as they did not represent the majority of students’ answers.
160 response (i.e. multi-response variable). Though this violates a critical assumption in statistical analysis, meaning the independence of responses, the main goal was to indicate or not a tendency towards a culture. Thus, all responses that appeared were calculated and percentages are given based on the number of times that each response was mentioned.
The results show a tendency towards the American variety when it comes to watching films. However, when students read novels they seem to prefer those that depict the Greek culture and way of living. The participants show no specific preference for the
American or British literature as they receive almost the same percentage. When it comes to music, the students seem to prefer Greek music (36.2%), followed by American music
(30.3%) and British (29.0%). It appears that all three cultures are almost balanced in the students’ preference. The results manifest the enormous influence of Hollywood films that come first in the participants’ preference, leaving behind the Greek and British films.
Table 6.14 Preference for a variety
I like … films I like … books I like … music N % N % N % British 208 21.3 British 136 19.0 British 272 29.0 American 414 42.4 American 138 19.3 American 284 30.3 Greek 279 28.5 Greek 272 38.0 Greek 340 36.2 Other 64 6.5 Other 68 9.5 Other 36 3.8 I don’t watch ... 12 1.2 I don’t read … 101 14.1 I don’t like … 6 0.6
6.8 Tendency towards countries other than Greece
The participants were asked whether they would like the idea of having been born in another country. The bulk of students (87% N=464) was negative to that. Of those who were positive, 64 reported the country they would like to have been born elsewhere. The results showed that they have a preference for European countries as they were
161 mentioned more times (see Table 6.8.1 in the Appendices). Two students expressed the desire to have been born in any country that offers more job opportunities without specifying the country.
Moreover, almost half of the respondents (45% N=241) would welcome the possibility of living in a country other than Greece. In particular, 216 students reported on the country(/ies) or region(s) they would like to live. Once again, European countries surpassed other countries or regions since they were mentioned 288 times (see Table
6.8.2 in the Appendices). Five students made comments without mentioning a country.
For instance, one student wrote “many other countries unfortunately” and another one wrote, “as long as I am given the chance for a good and prosperous job”. Also another student wrote a comment that was also mentioned in the interviews. He specifically stated that “home is where your heart is, it’s ok here too”. These findings are interesting as they reflect the high percentage of young Greek people who immigrate to other European countries due to the economic crisis in Greece (see more in Section 8.2.2).
6.9 Questionnaire data analysis
In this section, the results obtained from the analysis of the responses to the items comprising the attitude scales will be presented. As explained in detail in the statistical methodology (see Section 5.8), for the purpose of the present study, the sets of items that were investigated are as follows: “Attitudes towards English” (items 1-16, 33-34),
“International Posture (items 17-30), “Identity” (items 35, 43-48, 50-51, 53, 55),
“Awareness” (items 37-42), “Motivation” (items MOT 1-7), “Intended Learning Effort”
(items MOT 8-13) and finally “Attitudes towards ESP” (items 31-32 and AESP 1-6).
162 Using SPSS 22 statistical package, frequency tables were created for all sets of items (see
Appendix H). Accordingly, the 4 maximum and 4 minimum percentage frequencies93 for each category (e.g. Attitudes towards English) are illustrated in tables in the subsections to follow. Items are ordered on the basis of those who agree or strongly agree (the percentage frequencies were added) with an item. An understanding of the main tendencies following a conceptual approach is necessary in order to grasp the participants’ viewpoints and subsequently interpret the results.
6.9.1 Attitudes towards English
Table 6.15 presents the items that received the maximum and minimum score respectively in relation to students’ attitudes towards English. The results show that
Business School students acknowledge that English holds an important role nowadays
(95.9%) as well as the fact that it is the global language of communication (91.9%).
Moreover, they agree to the fact that it is the first language used on the Internet (87.9%).
That finding is in accordance to a Eurobarometer study in 2012, which investigated
Europeans and their languages. According to that study, Greeks were the only EU citizens who were more likely to use foreign languages 94 on the Internet mostly.
Moreover, competence in English is a necessary requirement in order to get a job
(84.7%).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 93 Sometimes only the first 2 maximum and minimum percentage frequencies are presented (e.g. Table 6.18). This is due to the small number of items that pertained to those categories.
94 Since English is the first foreign language in Greece, it becomes clear that the respondents referred to English as the language used on the Internet.
163 Table 6.15 Agree/ Strongly Attitudes towards English agree N % In today’s world, English is important 538 95.9 English is the single most widely-used language on the web 512 91.9 English is the main language of communication for people from all over the 490 87.9 world English is an essential prerequisite for employment 472 84.7
Specialized university courses should be taught in English 226 40.7 English is a threat to multilingualism in Europe (n95) 210 38.0 English is a threat to multilingualism across the world (n) 203 36.4 I would not object to English becoming a second official language in Greece 175 31.3
Fewer students agreed on a possibility of taking specialized courses that would be taught in English. However, the frequency percentage was still high (40.7%), which shows that the idea of English medium instruction in the Greek universities is welcomed by nearly half of the respondents. Moreover, students do not agree with the widespread assumption that the English language posits a threat to other national languages and multilingualism.
Finally, almost one third agrees to the establishment of English as a second official language in Greece. This means that opinions are very diverse to this subject that remains not only a linguistic but also a political issue.
6.9.2 International Posture
With regard to the students’ international posture (Table 6.16), the results show that the bulk of students (91.6%) are very eager to be acquainted with other cultures, which indicates their openness to foreign customs and habits. A very large percentage (79.5%) agrees that English competence helps them be updated with world news. Moreover,
74.7% of students express the willingness to make new international friends, a finding that further supports their openness to different cultures. More than half of the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 95 Lowercase letter “n” in the parethesis is used to denote a negative item.
164 respondents welcome the idea of finding a job abroad.
Table 6.16 Agree/ Strongly International Posture agree N % I would like to acquire knowledge of diverse cultures 513 91.6 (Knowing) English helps me keep up to date with the latest world news 445 79.5 I would like to make friends with international students studying in Thessaloniki 419 74.7 I would like to work abroad 366 65.7
I am not much interested in news about other countries (n) 32 5.7 I avoid talking with people from other countries if possible (n) 29 5.1 I find it hard to comprehend the values and customs of different cultures (n) 27 4.9 I do not trust foreigners (n) 23 4.1
On the other hand, very few students (N=32) agreed that they are not interested in news about other countries. Also, only 5.1% stated that they avoid talking with foreigners and
4.1% that they do not trust people from other countries.
6.9.3 Identity
Communication seems to be the target goal for Greek Business School students and what
they really like about English. This language provides them with the opportunity to share
their feelings and thoughts with all over the world, and this is exactly what makes it
irresistible. Nearly half of the participants (48.3%) agree to the importance of attaining a
native-like accent, while they do not give importance to grammar mistakes as long as
they manage to communicate.
Table 6.17 Agree/ Identity Strongly agree N % I feel happy when I am able to speak about my country in English, with 488 87.1 foreigners I like the fact that I can communicate with people from all over the 479 85.7 world through English It is important for me to speak English with a native-like accent 270 48.3 I do not mind making mistakes in grammar when I speak English, 264 47.1 provided that I can communicate efficiently.
The use of the English language is a threat to my culture (n) 134 23.9 I like mixing Greek with English words whilst conversing with someone 117 21.0
165 in Greek English is part of my identity. 84 15.1 English is a threat to my identity (n) 54 9.8
! On the other hand, they seem to care less about English being a threat to the Greek culture or their identity. Nevertheless, very few students feel that English is part of their identity. It appears that identity is a very delicate issue and questions like these do not seem to capture the participants’ real thoughts about this matter. The interviews proved more useful to that direction as students were more relaxed to elaborate on the issue in question.
6.9.4 Motivation to learn English
Table 6.18 below shows the maximum and minimum frequency percentages concerning motivation. Greek Business School students think worldwide communication is the most important reason for learning English as well as life-long learning development. This makes sense since the participants are in their early 20s and already competent in
English. However, they acknowledge the importance of life-long improvement a finding that is also verified by the interview data. Nevertheless it should be noted that the item96
“I learn English because I want to get a certificate of competency in English (e.g.
Proficiency, IELTS, TOEFL, KPG)” (see Table H4 in the Appendices) received a very high percentage (84.6%), which shows the tendency and the general positive attitude towards English language certification in Greece. Students consider family and peer influence the least important motive to learn English.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 96 Due to the small number of items that pertained to the “Motivation” category, only the first two maximum and minimum percentage frequencies are presented in Table 6.18. 166
Table 6.18 Agree/ Motivation to learn English Strongly agree I learn English because… N % ... I imagine myself being able to communicate efficiently in English with 488 87.4 people from other cultural and linguistic backgrounds. ... it is necessary to improve my English at any stage of life 481 86.2
... my family expects me to know the language 239 42.7 ... my friends consider it important 185 33.3
6.9.5 Intended Learning Effort
The students’ motivation to learn English was measured by their learning effort. Thus, the majority agrees that they would like to improve their Business English skills. This comes as no surprise if we take a look at their attitudes towards Business English (see
Table 6.19). More than half of the respondents (57.1%) claim to make an effort in order to learn English or improve their skill. Their willingness to engage in learning activities that would enhance their English competence is further illustrated with the very low percentages of those who claim the exact opposite.
Table 6.19 Agree/ Strongly Intended learning effort to learn English agree N % I would like to improve my Business English skills 487 87.0 I learn English besides attending the university ESP courses 318 57.1
I already know English, therefore ESP courses are not useful to me (n) 99 17.8 I would not attend Business English seminars, even if they were free (n) 26 4.7
6.9.6 Attitudes towards ESP courses
When asked about English courses at the university, the vast majority (90.7%) agreed on the necessity of Business English for international business communication. Its necessity for communication with Anglophones received a somewhat lower percentage (89.7%), which basically means that students regard international communication as slightly more
167 important than communication with NSs only (see Table 6.20).
Table 6.20 Agree/ Attitudes towards ESP courses Strongly agree N % Business English is essential for international business communication 509 90.7 Business English is essential for communication with Anglophones (e.g. 502 89.7 English, American…)
ESP courses at the university have prepared me to communicate in my 204 38.3 future workplace with people from all over the world ESP courses at the university have prepared me to communicate in my 204 38.3 future workplace with native speakers of English
On the other hand, students did not think that ESP courses had prepared them for successful communication in their future workplace. That finding reveals a general disappointment about ESP courses, which was more elaborately deciphered in the students’ interviews (see Chapter 7).
6.9.7 Awareness of future needs
Students agree more to the future possibility of using English either in their free time
(63.8%) or in the workplace (54.2%) with native rather than with non-native speakers of
English. This possibly reflects an influence of their previous English language tuition, which focused on preparing successful speakers of English in order to communicate with
NSs.
Table 6.21 Agree/ Strongly Awareness of future needs agree N % Outside the workplace, I will use English in the future mainly with native 355 63.8 speakers of English (e.g. British, American..)
At work, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English 303 54.2 (e.g. British, American...)
47 8.5 Outside the workplace I will not need to use English (n)
I will not use English at work (n) 45 8.1
On the contrary, very few students agree that they would not use English at work (8.1%)
168 or outside the workplace (8.5%), which implies that they are aware of its usefulness in their future life. Nevertheless, they seem to be stuck in the EFL mentality, which expects communication to be mainly with NSs of English rather than with NNSs.
6.10 Impact of demographic characteristics on variables
In order to investigate the factors influencing attitudes, international posture, identity and motivation, independent samples t-tests were conducted to test if mean scores for different questions (e.g. travelling abroad) differed significantly. The demographic characteristics that were looked into were as such: (1) travelling abroad, (2) Erasmus experience, (3) Internship experience, (4) use of English during internship, (5) gender, and (6) use of English. This study also tested whether the students’ expression of wish to have been born in another country or to live in another country had any influence on the variables under investigation.
The table below shows a summary of the statistics for all variables involved in this study (Table 6.22). The mean score for the “International Posture” variable is the highest, whereas the “Identity” variable has the lowest one. The “Attitudes” variable has the smallest dispersion of scores as shown by the low standard deviation (SD = 0.44), whereas the largest spread of scores lies within the “Intended Learning Effort” (SD =
0.60).
Table 6.22 Summary statistics for all variables Minimum Maximum N Mean SD Score score Attitudes 561 3.58 0.44 2.28 4.72
International posture 561 3.81 0.51 2.00 5.00
Awareness 561 3.62 0.56 2.00 5.00
169 Identity 561 3.28 0.47 1.73 4.64
Motivation 561 3.62 0.58 1.57 5.00
Intended learning effort 560 3.55 0.60 1.83 5.00
Attitudes towards ESP 561 3.48 0.52 2.00 5.00
Figure 6.1 illustrates the distribution of the scores of all factors concerned, in the form of seven boxplots. By observing the symmetrical boxplots for “Attitudes”, “International
Posture”, “Identity” and “Motivation”, we can see that the datasets are normally distributed. Those for “Awareness”, “Intended Learning Effort” and “Attitudes towards
ESP” are fairly symmetrical.
Figure 6.1 Boxplot of all variables
!
! 6.10.1 The influence of travelling abroad
Independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare the seven variables under investigation (i.e. attitudes, international posture, awareness, identity, motivation, intended learning effort, attitudes towards ESP) with the factors that were established in
170 the early stages of this research. Table 6.23 displays the inferential statistics for the relationship between travelling abroad and the number of variables under investigation.
With regard to attitudes towards English, there was a statistically significant difference in the mean score between the students who had travelled abroad (M = 3.61, SD = .42) and those who had not (M = 3.49, SD = .45); t(502) = 2.81 p=0.005. Regarding International
Posture, there was a significant difference in the scores of those students who had travelled, (M = 3.87, SD = .52) and those who had not (M = 3.62, SD = .46); t(502)=5.00 p<0.001. Finally, the overall score of the identity variable changed based on travelling (M
= 3.32, SD = .47) or not (M =3.17, SD = .44); t(502)=3.27 p=0.001. This means that there is an association between travelling abroad and the three variables mentioned above.
Table 6.23 Independent t-test results for the relationship between travels and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means t- Travelling abroad N Mean SD p value Attitudes towards Yes 371 3.61 .42 English No 133 3.49 .45 2.81 .005 Yes 371 3.87 .52 International Posture No 133 3.62 .46 5.00 <0.001 Yes 371 3.65 .55 Awareness No 133 3.54 .61 1.94 .053 Yes 371 3.32 .47 Identity No 133 3.17 .44 3.27 .001 Yes 371 3.63 .58 Motivation No 133 3.59 .55 .70 .482 Intended Learning Yes 371 3.54 .60 Effort No 133 3.55 .59 -.24 .809 Attitudes towards Yes 371 3.44 .49 ESP No 133 3.44 .48 -.056 .955
171 6.10.2 The influence of an Erasmus experience
The results of the Independent t-test showed a statistical significance for the International
Posture and the Awareness variable, which means that there is an association between an
Erasmus experience and these two factors only. To be more specific, the students who had participated in an Erasmus programme had a higher mean score (M = 4.33, SD = .45) as opposed to those who had not (M = 3.76, SD = .49); t(502) =7.09 p<0.001. Regarding
Awareness, there was a significant difference in the scores of those who had participated in an Erasmus programme (M = 3.80, SD = .54) and those who had not (M = 3.60, SD =
.56); t(502)= 2.15 p=.032.
Table 6.24 Independent t-test results for the relationship between participation in an Erasmus programme and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means Erasmus t- p N Mean SD experience value Yes 40 3.59 .48 Attitudes No 464 3.58 .43 2.61 .794 Yes 40 4.33 .45 International Posture No 464 3.76 .49 7.09 <0.001 Yes 40 3.80 .54 Awareness No 464 3.60 .56 2.15 .032 Yes 40 3.39 .51 Identity No 464 3.27 .46 1.59 .113 Yes 40 3.71 .65 Motivation No 464 3.61 .57 1.11 .267 Intended Learning Yes 371 3.71 .54 Effort No 133 3.53 .60 .28 .060 Attitudes towards Yes 371 3.58 .54 1.89 .059 ESP No 133 3.43 .48
6.10.3 The influence of an internship experience
The results of the Independent t-test did not reveal any statistical significance between any of the variables and participation in an Internship programme, which means that there
172 is no association between them (see Table 6.25).
Table 6.25 Independent t-test results for the relationship between participation in an Internship programme and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means Internship t- p N Mean SD experience value Yes 83 3.60 .47 Attitudes No 418 3.57 .42 .44 .660 Yes 83 3.84 .49 International Posture No 418 3.80 .52 .77 .440 Yes 83 3.54 .57 Awareness No 418 3.63 .56 -1.33 .183 Yes 83 3.29 .41 Identity No 418 3.28 .48 .17 .861 Yes 83 3.60 .63 Motivation No 418 3.61 .56 -.07 .941 Intended Learning Yes 83 3.65 .60 Effort No 418 3.52 .60 1.81 .071 Attitudes towards Yes 83 3.49 .50 ESP No 418 3.43 .49 .93 .352
6.10.4 The influence of the use of English during the internship
The use of English during Internship seems to be somehow associated with International
Posture as that was the only significant difference found for this variable (see Table
6.26). There was a significant difference in the mean scores of students who used English during their internship (M = 4.02, SD = .39) and those who did not (M = 3.74, SD = .43); t(74) =2.88 p=.005.
Table 6.26 Independent t-test results for the relationship between use of English during the Internship and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means t- p Use of English N Mean SD value Yes 42 3.66 .51 Attitudes No 34 3.57 .48 .73 .466
173 Yes 42 4.02 .39 International Posture No 34 3.74 .43 2.88 .005 Yes 42 3.59 .60 Awareness No 34 3.59 .51 -.03 .976 Yes 42 3.38 .45 Identity No 34 3.26 .37 1.34 .184 Yes 42 3.72 .71 Motivation No 34 3.50 .55 1.44 .154 Intended Learning Yes 42 3.82 .65 Effort No 34 3.57 .54 1.81 .074 Attitudes towards Yes 42 3.46 .49 ESP No 34 3.57 .49 -.95 .344
6.10.5 Gender differences
The t-test results for gender showed that there is an association between gender and intended learning effort. It appears that female students scored higher (M = 3.62, SD =
.60) than the males (M = 3.41, SD = .57);!t(489)=-3.82 p<0.001 regarding their intended learning effort. There was also a statistically significant difference in the scores of male
(M = 3.70, SD = .57) and female students (M = 3.59, SD = .55); t(489)= 2.11 p=.035 with regards to Awareness.
Table 6.27 Independent t-test results for the relationship between gender and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means t- p Gender N Mean SD value Male 181 3.61 .40 Attitudes Female 310 3.57 .45 1.17 .240 Male 181 3.82 .53 International Posture Female 310 3.81 .50 .37 .712 Male 181 3.70 .57 Awareness Female 310 3.59 .55 2.11 .035 Male 181 3.33 .51 Identity Female 310 3.26 .43 1.77 .078 Motivation Male 181 3.55 .58
174 Female 310 3.66 .57 -1.95 .051 Intended Learning Male 181 3.41 .57 Effort Female 310 3.62 .60 -3.82 <0.001 Attitudes towards Yes 181 3.44 .48 ESP No 310 3.44 .49 .02 .987
6.10.6 Expression of wish to have been born in another country
Students were asked whether they would like to have been born in a country other than
Greece. In relation to attitudes towards English the test revealed a significant difference in the mean scores of students who were positive to the idea (M = 3.72, SD = .43) and those who rejected it (M = 3.55, SD = .43); t(531)=3.00 p=.003. That shows an association between attitudes and willingness to have been born in another country.
Table 6.28 Independent t-test results for the relationship between wish for having been born in another country and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means Would you like to t- have been born in N Mean SD p value another country? Yes 69 3.72 .43 Attitudes No 464 3.55 .43 3.00 .003 Yes 69 3.86 .47 International Posture No 464 3.80 .52 .83 .408 Yes 69 3.61 .61 Awareness No 464 3.62 .56 -.16 .872 Yes 69 3.34 .53 Identity No 464 3.26 .46 1.18 .240 Yes 69 3.72 .56 Motivation No 464 3.60 .57 1.72 .085 Intended Learning Yes 69 3.54 .67 Effort No 464 3.54 .59 -.02 .988
Attitudes towards Yes 69 3.52 .47 1.48 .140 ESP No 464 3.43 .49
175 6.10.7 Willingness to live in another country
Table 6.29 illustrates the relationship between the participants’ wish to live in another country and the variables under study. With regards to attitudes towards English, there was a statistically significant difference of the mean score between the students who wished to live in another country (M = 3.68, SD = .43) and those who did not (M = 3.49,
SD = .42); t(531)=5.00 p<0.001. With regard to International Posture there was a significant difference in the scores of those who wanted to live abroad (M = 3.98, SD =
.48) and those who did not (M = 3.67, SD = .50); t(531)=7.16 p<0.001. Finally, the overall score of the students’ identity changed based on willingness to live abroad (M =
3.37, SD = .49) or not (M = 3.19, SD = .43); t(531)=4.58 p<0.001. This means that there seems to be an association between willingness to live abroad and the three variables (i.e.
Attitudes, International Posture and Identity).
Table 6.29 Independent t-test results for the relationship between wishing to live in another country and the variables under study Τ test for equality of means Would you like to t- live in another N Mean SD p value country? Yes 241 3.68 .43 Attitudes No 292 3.49 .42 5.00 <0.001 Yes 241 3.98 .48 International Posture No 292 3.67 .50 7.16 <0.001 Yes 241 3.66 .56 Awareness No 292 3.58 .56 1.77 .077 Yes 241 3.37 .49 Identity No 292 3.19 .43 4.58 <0.001 Yes 241 3.67 .58 Motivation No 292 3.57 .56 1.92 .055 Intended Learning Yes 241 3.58 .62 Effort No 292 3.51 .58 1.33 .183 Attitudes towards Yes 241 3.47 .48 1.23 .221 ESP No 292 3.42 .49
176 6.10.8. The influence of English use
Pearson correlation coefficients were computed, in order to assess the relationship between the seven variables under investigation and the English use by the participants.
There was a positive correlation between the use of English and attitudes towards English
(r(524)=0.201, p<0.001), as well as between use of English and International Posture
(r(524)=0.385, p<0.001). Increases in the use of English were correlated with an increased individual mean score in rating Attitudes towards English and International
Posture. A correlation was also found between the use of English and Awareness of future English use (r(524)=0.255, p<0.001) as well as Identity (r(524)=0.307, p<0.001) and Intended learning effort (r(524)=0.208, p<0.001) (Table 6.30). No correlation was detected between the use of English and Motivation as well as Attitudes towards ESP.
Table 6.30 Pearson Correlation test for the relationship of English use and the variables under investigation Pearson coefficient p Attitudes towards English +.201 <0.001 International Posture +.385 <0.001 Awareness of future English use +.255 <0.001 Identity +.307 <0.001 Motivation +.018 .682 Intended Learning Effort +.208 <0.001 Attitudes towards ESP +.069 .112
6.11 The relationship between all dependent variables
In order to measure the linear correlation (dependence) between all dependent variables
(i.e. Attitudes towards English, International Posture, Identity, Awareness, Motivation,
Intended learning effort, and Attitudes towards ESP), a Pearson correlation coefficient
177 was computed. The results showed an association between Attitudes towards English and all the other dependent variables (see Table 6.31). A strong correlation between Identity and International Posture (r(561)=0.405, p<0.001) and also between Identity and
Attitudes towards English (r(561)=0.465, p<0.001) was found.
Table 6.31 Pearson Correlation test for the relationship between Attitudes towards English and the dependent variables under investigation
Attitudes towards English (N=561) Pearson coefficient p International Posture +.272 <0.001 Awareness of future English use +.382 <0.001 Identity +.465 <0.001 Motivation +.384 <0.001 Intended Learning Effort +.302 <0.001 Attitudes towards ESP +.359 <0.001
The analysis showed that all variables were positively correlated with each other apart from two. The results indicated that there is no relationship between Motivation and
International Posture (r(561)=0.070, p=0.097) (see more in Table 6.32 in Appendix I).
6.12 The relationship between all independent and dependent variables (Using the
CHAID analysis)
A series of predictor variables (i.e. travelling abroad, Erasmus participation, internship participation, work experience, use of English during work experience) were studied in order to test whether splitting the sample (n=561) based on these predictors would lead to a statistically significant discrimination in each dependent variable (i.e. Attitudes towards
English, International posture, Identity, Motivation, Intended learning effort, Attitudes towards ESP). The CHAID model was used for that purpose as explained in the
178 Methodology chapter (see more in Section 5.8). The results are presented in the subsections that follow.
6.12.1 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards English
The CHAID analysis for attitudes towards English produced the tree-like structure below
(Figure 6.2). The “travelling abroad” node was identified by CHAID as the best predictor around which to begin segmenting the sample (p<0.05). The remaining variables are not listed in the classification tree, as no significant differences were detected to the behaviour of response in the model. Students who had travelled abroad had a higher overall mean score (M = 3.606) as opposed to those who had not.
Node 0 Mean 3.581 Std. Deviation .0435 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.580
Travelling abroad
Adj. P-value=.049, F=3.900 df1=1, df2=779
YES NO
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.606 Mean 3.509 Std. Deviation .427 Std. Deviation .453 n 344 n 119 % 74.3 % 25.7 Predicted 3.599 Predicted 3.531
Figure 6.2 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards English
179 6.12.2 CHAID analysis of students’ international posture
The tree classification for students’ international posture (Figure 6.3) showed that the
“participation in an Erasmus programme” was selected by CHAID as the strongest correlation (p<0.001) to sub-divide data into the next level. Students who had no Erasmus experience were split into those who had travelled abroad and those who had not
(p<0.001). Travelling abroad produced the most differentiating groups of respondents among those who had not participated in the Erasmus programme. The students who had travelled had a higher overall mean (M = 3.832) as opposed to those who had not (M =
3.614).
Node 0 Mean 3.818 Std. Deviation .514 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.799
Participation in the Erasmus programme Adj. P-value=.000, F=66.702 df1=1, df2=779
NO YES
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.771 Mean 4.328 Std. Deviation .494 Std. Deviation .455 n 424 n 39 % 91.6 % 8.4 Predicted 3.755 Predicted 4.263
Travelling abroad Adj. P-value=.000, F=28.785 Df1=1, df2=712
YES NO Node 3 Node 4
180 Mean 3.832 Mean 3.614 Std. Deviation .492 Std. Deviation .466 n 306 n 118 % 66.1 % 25.5 Predicted 3.819 Predicted 3.609 Figure 6.3 CHAID analysis of students’ International posture
6.12.3 CHAID analysis of students’ awareness
Participation in an Erasmus programme (p<0.05) was the strongest node as seen from the
Figure 6.4 below. This means that it was the variable that affected the students’ awareness more than any other independent variable. Students who had participated in an
Erasmus programme abroad had a higher overall mean score (M = 3.799) as opposed to those who had not (M = 3.623).
Node 0 Mean 3.638 Std. Deviation .562 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.613
Participation in the Erasmus programme
Adj. P-value=.009, F=6.773 df1=1, df2=779
NO YES
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.623 Mean 3.799 Std. Deviation .562 Std. Deviation .542 n 424 n 39 % 91.6 % 8.4 Predicted 3.597 Predicted 3.784 Figure 6.4 CHAID analysis of students’ awareness
181 6.12.4 CHAID analysis of students’ identity
The CHAID analysis of students’ identity (Figure 6.5) showed that “travelling abroad” was the most distinguishing variable that differentiated the respondents into two groups
(p<0.05). Students who had travelled abroad scored higher (M = 3.331) as opposed to those who had not (M = 3.186). No further splits were made as no other variables discriminated well on the dependent variable (i.e. Identity).
Node 0 Mean 3.294 Std. Deviation .472 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.287
Travelling abroad
Adj. P-value=.006, F=7.535 df1=1, df2=779
YES NO
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.331 Mean 3.186 Std. Deviation .474 Std. Deviation .451 n 334 n 119 % 74.3 % 25.7 Predicted 3.316 Predicted 3.215 Figure 6.5 CHAID analysis of students’ identity
182 6.12.5 CHAID analysis of students’ motivation
The analysis showed that the sample was first segmented by the variable “participation in an Erasmus programme” (p<0.05). This node was further split with the “use of English during Internship”, being the second best predictor. This means that those students who had not participated in an Erasmus programme were influenced mostly by their use of
English during their Internship (M = 3.736) as opposed to those who had not used
English at all (M = 3.589).
Node 0 Mean 3.611 Std. Deviation .578 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.620
Participation in the Erasmus programme Adj. P-value=.018, F=5.656 df1=1, df2=779
NO YES
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.601 Mean 3.726 Std. Deviation .570 Std. Deviation .652 n 424 n 39 % 91.6 % 8.4 Predicted 3.605 Predicted 3.780
Use of English during internship Adj. P-value=.040, F=6.148 df1=1, df2=712
YES NO Node 3 Node 4 Mean 3.736 Mean 3.589 Std. Deviation .720 Std. Deviation .555 n 33 n 391 % 7.1 % 84.4 Predicted 3.786 Predicted 3.590 Figure 6.6 CHAID analysis of students’ motivation
183 6.12.6 CHAID analysis of students’ intended learning effort
The “use of English during internship” was the variable selected by CHAID as the strongest correlation to subdivide data into the next level (p<0.001). This node was further divided with “Participation in the Erasmus programme”, giving the most differentiating group of respondents. As Figure 6.7 shows, the students who had not used
English during their internship were mostly influenced by their participation in the
Erasmus programme (M = 3.774).
Node 0 Mean 3.543 Std. Deviation .598 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.547
Use of English during internship Adj. P-value=.000, F=22.882 df1=1, df2=779
YES NO
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.797 Mean 3.521 Std. Deviation .658 Std. Deviation .588 n 37 n 426 % 8.0 % 92.0 Predicted 3.891 Predicted 3.517
Participation in the Erasmus programme Adj. P-value=.000, F=13.287 df1=1, df2=718
NO YES Node 3 Node 4 Mean 3.498 Mean 3.774 Std. Deviation .587 Std. Deviation .550 n 391 n 35 % 84.4 % 7.6 Predicted 3.493 Predicted 3.772 Figure 6.7 CHAID analysis of students’ intended learning effort
184 6.12.7 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards ESP
Figure 6.8 shows that “Participation in the Erasmus programme” produced the most differentiating group of respondents (p<0.05). Thus, the students’ attitudes towards ESP were mostly influenced by their participation in the student exchange programme.
Students with Erasmus experience scored higher (M = 3.593) as opposed to those who had not participated in the programme (M = 3.422). No other variables are listed in the classification tree as no significant influence to the behaviour of response in the model was noticed.
Node 0 Mean 3.436 Std. Deviation .0492 n 463 % 100.0 Predicted 3.434
Participation in the Erasmus programme
Adj. P-value=.001, F=10.993 df1=1, df2=779
NO YES
Node 1 Node 2 Mean 3.422 Mean 3.593 Std. Deviation .485 Std. Deviation .543 n 424 n 39 % 91.6 % 8.4 Predicted 3.417 Predicted 3.619
Figure 6.8 CHAID analysis of students’ attitudes towards ESP
185 Concluding remarks
This chapter presented the quantitative results and provided a general picture of the
Greek Business school students’ profile. The factors (i.e. intercultural experience, use of
English, work experience) that influence all the variables under investigation (i.e. attitudes towards English, International posture, identity, motivation, intended learning effort, attitudes towards ESP) were examined. However, qualitative methods are needed in order to get a deeper understanding of the findings. Thus, the next chapter provides the qualitative results that not only confirm the majority of questionnaire results but also explain better the complexity of the findings.
186 Chapter 7
Qualitative results
This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the qualitative results. Firstly, the thematic framework of interviews is explained. Then, the interviewees’ profile is described. The interview results are presented based on the themes that emerged from the analysis of the interviews. An analysis of social media data follows focusing on the themes that emerged.
7.1 Data analysis
The method of analysis (see more in Section 5.9.4) was a qualitative approach of thematic analysis. The conceptual framework of the thematic analysis was mainly built upon the theoretical positions of Braun and Clarke (2006). It is a method used for
“identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (themes) within the data (Braun & Clarke, p. 79). In the analysis of interviews, large themes were identified and a thematic analysis framework was produced including “Attitudes towards English”, “Attitudes towards learning English”, “Attitudes towards accents”, “Identity”, “ELF awareness”, and finally
“Mentality and international posture” (Table 7.1). The thematic framework was adjusted several times; subcategories were renamed, deleted or added.
Table 7.1 Thematic analysis framework 1. Attitudes towards English 1.1. English as a means of communication 1.2. Interpersonal aspect (leisure and friendships) 1.3. Instrumental role of the English language 1.4. Knowledge and update
187 1.5. Societal benefits and extroversion of Greece 1.6. Linguistic imperialism and fears for L1 1.7. Psychological benefits and mentality 2. Attitudes towards learning English 2.1. Negative attitudes towards ESP 2.2. Obsession with English language certificates 2.3. Negative attitudes towards ELT 3. Attitudes towards accents 3.1. Attitudes towards Greek-accented English 3.2. Attitudes towards NS accents 3.3. Intelligibility 3.4. Context-specific variation 3.5. Attitudes towards NNS accents 4. Identity 4.1. Link of English to NS culture and NSs 4.2. Ownership of English (part of their life/ expression of emotions) 5. ELF awareness 5.1. Shared non-nativeness 5.2. ELF communicative experiences 6. Mentality and international posture 6.1. Stereotypes 6.2. Mentality change 6.3. Common mentality among members of an international youth organization
In the following section (7.2) the interviewees’ profile will be described with regards to their English competence, their travels abroad and their work experience.
7.2 The interviewees’ profiles
This section provides some background information about the interviewees’ competence in English, their travelling experience and finally their work experience.
7.2.1 Self-perceived competence in English
The language background of the students does not differ greatly. The interviewees evaluated their English competence as very good or fluent. More than half of the participants (N=11) reported that they are advanced or proficient in English (C1-C2 level
188 according to CEFR), while seven claimed that their level was upper-intermediate. This possibly highlights two facts: (a) that university students in Greece enter university with a high command of English due to private language schooling, and (b) that English is the first foreign language taught in Greece and the language everyone is expected to know at a minimum B2 level (see more about (a) and (b) in 4.3.1). However, it is striking to notice when analysing the sample that students had totally different opportunities for language use. The fact that opportunities to speak English were rare for some students may explain why some situations in which they used English were described as emotionally demanding (see more in 7.2.3).
7.2.2 Travelling abroad
All students apart from three had travelled abroad. The majority reported having travelled to more than three countries, while only one student said she had visited nine countries.
The interviewees seemed to favour Great Britain (N=8), and neighbouring countries (i.e.
Bulgaria, Cyprus, FYROM, Italy, Serbia, Turkey, Ukraine). Other countries, where students had travelled, were Austria, France, Germany (equally popular with Italy and
Bulgaria), Portugal and the USA. The main reason behind their travelling was leisure.
However, three participants had completed an internship abroad (see more in 7.2.3) and three reported they had visited Great Britain in order to improve their English competence.
189 7.2.3 Internship experience
Out of the eighteen interview participants, six had completed an internship programme in
Greece or abroad. Those who experienced working in Greece had either none or very limited opportunities for communication in English. Their exposure to and use of the language was restricted to written communication via emails. There was only one case where a student reported on a very short incident of oral communication in English.
Maria experienced her oral skills in English as poor and referred to her inadequate language learning experience mentioning the lack of access to English outside school and the grammar-heavy instruction at the private language centre. Maria assumed her position as a poor language user (Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004). As she explained in the interview, while talking with a French client of her company she “had to hang up”, because she “was shocked by the contact”. The very fact that she had to use English with someone in a work context was very daunting and shocking for her.
Three out of those six interviewees with work experience had completed their internships in Belgrade and Ukraine, through the AIESEC International internships and
Volunteer abroad programme. The programme involved working on various projects with other young people for the duration of approximately 2 months. Two more students were members of this international youth organization (i.e. AIESEC). The reason why this is mentioned in the study is because membership in that organization offered students tremendous opportunities to apply and develop their professional working skills in a multi-cultural environment either in Greece or abroad. As an example, it is worth noticing one participant’s experience. Even though Antonis had not travelled abroad he reported on having interacted with other NNSs in many ELF contexts. While being an
190 AIESEC member he engaged himself in various roles. Those included being part of teams and working on international projects. What is more, Antonis had the chance to communicate with Erasmus students. Among his duties were profiling the candidates for the internship and global citizen programme, handling visa and logistics and being responsible for reception service. Moreover, while being part of a team, the participant was responsible for attracting and ensuring funding in order to assist the programme with the specific requirements.
The interview data will now be analysed in relation to the six main themes in the framework mentioned earlier (Table 7.1). The interviews generated a very rich set of individual accounts.
7.3 Attitudes towards English
When discussing their attitudes towards English students made references to a number of conditions and points that make English a very important language for them. Each of these will now be discussed in turn.
7.3.1 English as a means of communication
The interviewees revealed that English is the indisputable common way of communication around the world. Not surprisingly, all students mentioned the communicative role that the language holds worldwide. Zoe expresses that perfectly in the extract below.
Extract 1
Zoe: Generally speaking, English: is (.) a way of communication (.) with anyone (.) … I believe English is the de facto language of communication… it is the basic way of communication to me (.)
191
The word “communication” is repeated three times indicating the emphasis on the way
English functions as “the language of communication”. Another participant (Extract 2) brings up the interpersonal role in students’ lives. The repetitive use of
“COMMUNICATION” and “COMMON CODE” emphasizes not only the communicative role of English but also the fact that it is a “CODE” that everybody shares
(“COMMON code”). This reveals an awareness of the function of English as the world’s lingua franca, which will be presented in more detail later in this chapter.
Extract 2 Marianna: Eh::: (2) first of all eh:: (3) interpersonal relationship and COMMUNICATION (.) if you don't if you don't know English you cannot communicate with people (.) it also means […] BASICALLY it means COMMON COMMUNICATION CODE that connects different people (.) with different mother tongues it is a COMMON code
7.3.2 Interpersonal aspect (leisure and friendships)
Almost all participants mentioned travelling as one of their motives to learn English.
Apparently, young people travel a lot nowadays, and that makes them realise the necessity for a common language of communication. As mentioned before (see 7.2.2) almost all students have travelled abroad, thus this statement comes as no surprise.
Moreover, it is verified by the descriptive results in the previous chapter, which showed, that the bulk of students were ardent travellers (see 6.4.1).
Moreover, seven participants out of eighteen emphasized the social role of
English since it made communication with foreign friends possible and also allowed them to meet people from all over the world and create special bonds with them. The participants who brought up the issue of friendship were all girls and had many ELF experiences especially abroad. Their narratives included many ELF communicative
192 incidents and drew attention to the emotions and feelings that can emerge when someone creates special bonds and relationships. It appears that English competence allows them to meet people and at the same time cultivate this close and fascinating type of human bond that helps people lead a more fulfilling life. Zoe (Extract 3) takes English competence for granted and links it with the establishment of new friendships.
Extract 3 Zoe: I can develop friendships with people who are not from here (2) for me it is (.) it is as if (.) all matters are solved when you know this language. . . I mean even my friends (.) that (.) I mean I take it for granted that since you can speak the language (.) you have plenty of them …
Another participant, Phaedra, was very enthusiastic when she mentioned a friend’s wedding she was going to attend in Slovakia together with another friend from
Kirgizstan. Having friends from abroad and being able to communicate with people from the entire world was considered exciting.
7.3.3 Instrumental role of the English language
All interviewees mentioned the instrumental role English holds and emphasized its significance for career opportunities. Students described English as a “tool”, a
“necessity”, a “key” and a “prerequisite” for a future job. English competence is a
“privilege”, to use Kostas’s words, because it promotes competitiveness. Another participant referred to it as “the ultimate asset” for everyone.
It is interesting to note how some participants mentioned the importance of
English in relation to their field. Some even linked the Economics Science to English.
Kostas for instance, referred to the history of economic thought and argued that the
“origins of the Economics Science” lie in Great Britain, while mentioning the work of 193 Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, often cited as “the father of Modern Economics”. The participant attempted to explain how English is associated with major changes in the economy and the role it played in the global sphere.
When asked to explain what English means to them as Business School students, the majority referred to the importance of BE terminology for their future job.
Alexandros (Extract 4) claims that “all business terminology” is based on English and after a pause he describes it as the “key” for a future job. By referring to a future job as the career that someone “would like to follow” he differentiates it from any job that is meant to provide only for the basic needs. In fact, what the participant wishes to communicate here is that English competence unlocks all possibilities for a promising career. That is something that several students agreed on.
Extract 4 Alexandros: For me, as a Business School student, it is a language upon which almost all business terminology is based (2) and (.) for your future career (.) the career you would like to follow (.) it is a key language for anyone who wishes to work abroad (.) because in Greece there is neither any future nor perspectives for that job…
When asked about the possibility of Greek universities becoming international, the majority was positive to that and showed their interest in improving their BE skills.
Some participants sounded a bit reluctant at the beginning of their interviews as they thought the idea of EMI would have a negative impact on their L1. Despite their initial doubts they accepted it as they recognized the benefits. Ifigenia (Extract 5) for example, hesitates at the beginning when asked whether the implementation of English in Greek universities would affect the Greek language. With the pauses and the hesitation marker
“eh” she shows her initial doubts. However, they are soon cast away when she admits that she “might like that” change. She then explains why she would welcome EMI in
194 higher education. What is most important for the participant is that students would become more acquainted with English and Business terminology. Ifigenia then repeats her doubts once again with longer pauses and hesitation that is obvious in the lengthening of words and repetitive use of hesitation marker “eh”. She concludes admitting that this change would be a “chance” and that she would like it.
Extract 5 Ifigenia: (02.13) eh: (.) maybe yes but (.) I might like that (.) because we would::: have a more substantial contact with English language with regards to our field of study (.) we would learn terminology (2) ok it might::: (.) have an impact (.) what you mean (.) to Greek but I think I would like that (.) it would be a chance
For one participant, knowing BE terminology is imperative. Antonis noted that having an excellent command of BE terminology is “the biggest bet”. He explained that further, saying that it is of utmost importance for anyone to be able to express himself/herself in business matters. By that he meant that one could be successful in his/her job on the condition that he/she has excellent business skills. The participant describes that best in the extract that follows.
Extract 6 Antonis: Through English I can (.) learn things (.) because globalization affects everything now, it all operates through globalization (2) so (.) for someone who is a student (.) like me (.) he is actually able to either go abroad or learn things that come from abroad (.) due to English language (.) and also develop his skills (.) and possibly his knowledge Interviewer: What do you mean when you say develop his skills? Antonis: Skills that concern someone’s profession (2) matters that can later help me in a job quest (.) skills that refer to (.) the business (.) the work language (.) that applies to businesses (.) even to public sectors that operate at an international level and so forth (.) at the same time (.) I mean skills that concern communication (.) and interaction with people from all over the world.
What is worth mentioning in the above extract is the possibility of working abroad. Almost all students mentioned in their interviews that not only would they
195 welcome a job abroad but also they would actively seek it. They mentioned that finding a job in Greece is highly unlikely, let alone one that would offer the possibility for a promising career. Also, several students brought up the economic crisis issue, which was discussed in a rather heavy atmosphere. The socio-economic and political situation in
Greece during the years of crisis had certainly affected their attitudes and probably fuelled their wish for working and living abroad (see more in 8.2.2).
7.3.4 Knowledge and update
Another point that was referred by the interviewees was that people are able to update their general knowledge. Antonis (Extract 6) notes that English can develop someone’s knowledge as he could “either go abroad or learn things that come from abroad”. Several students raised the idea that English provides unlimited access to knowledge. The main language on the Internet is English and, with international television networks available, anyone can watch the news from all over the world and “keep updated”. Moreover, the participants seemed aware of the fact that English “prevails in academic and business journals” and some even noted that it is the “key to the world of science”.
7.3.5 Societal benefits and extroversion of Greece
An important theme that emerged was that of extroversion of Greece and Greek economy. While conducting in-depth interviews with Business School students, many participants repeatedly referred to ideas associated with the development and
“extroversion” of the Greek society and economy. These repetitions indicated that these ideas are important and recurring themes in their lives. Nikos, for example, mentioned
196 that English could work as a “bridge that will manage to connect Greece with countries abroad”. In particular, they focused on the significance of “extroverted” entrepreneurship, that is to say, internationalization, as that would enhance competitiveness of Greek enterprises, economy and production in international markets. This can be seen in the case of Antonis (Extract 7).
Extract 7 Antonis: Because today the world we live in and the world economy works with businesses and economy (.) we must all accept that if you're not an extrovert, you cannot work and function (2) as there is no longer (.) Greece (.) (…) doesn't exist (.) it exists (3) Europe (.) America (.) along with Europe (.) and then the WHOLE WORLD (.) in my field, I mean business talking (.) I can tell there are no limits (.) there are no boundaries (.) once you create a webpage (.) you can accept clients from all over the world (.) as long as you have the mentality and cleverness to accept them
What Antonis is trying to communicate above is the gravity that extroversion holds as it is a prerequisite in order to be at least functional and competitive in today’s world. It seems highly unlikely for the participant to “work and function” unless someone is an “extrovert”. The emphasis on “WHOLE WORLD” indicates an acceptance of globalization and the way international markets operate as “there are no boundaries”. The repetition of synonyms one after the other (“there are no limits (.) there are no boundaries”) gives more weight and value to what the participant says.
Similarly, Antonis indirectly raises the issue of accepting otherness claiming how this “mentality” shows “cleverness”. Presumably this kind of behaviour or mentality is inextricably linked to development and economic growth. The participant elaborated on that when asked about his views on English becoming a second official language in
Greece. Extract 8 illustrates that in a very explicit way. Antonis (Extract 8) is positive to the establishment of English as a second official language in Greece. He refers to
197 professional and communication networks that Greek people would enter and mentions the possible change in their mentality. He actually emphasizes the dual effect of such a change in people’s mentality at both a social and professional level. When asked to elaborate on that, he commented on conservatism that is inherent in Greek people and a sense of introversion that “holds Greece back”. In fact, what he believes is that the
Greeks are “VERY introvert” and doubtful when it comes to professional and social matters.
Extract 8 Interviewer: In 2001 a Greek Commissioner in the European Union proposed English to become a second official language in Greece. What is your opinion about that? Antonis: I am in favour of this view as I think that:: (.) this way Greece could get into different communication (2) frameworks among people but also into:: (.) professional frameworks as (.) the young (.) could get to know things (.) which come from abroad and gradually adopt a different way of thinking BOTH professionally AND socially Interviewer: What do you mean when you say “a different way of thinking”? Antonis: I mean to get away from the narrow framework (.) of Greece and (.) frames of a tradition as delivered to us thousands of years ago and many times (.) in the future this framework holds Greece back Interviewer: So do you think we are introvert? Antonis: Yes, we are VERY introvert Interviewer: Would that change with English language? Antonis: It would change because (.) it’s only when current generations are nurtured in such frameworks that they can get away (.) from (.) problems that originate from people’s introversion here Interviewer: What kind of problems? Antonis: Problems that mainly concern feelings of distrust (.) concerning professional matters (.) but also a kind of distrust which (.) concerns social matters (.) and matters concerning social acceptance
Moreover, when the participants were asked whether they would welcome the internationalization of higher education in Greece, they reported that it would “improve our education” and that better knowledge of English would be valuable for their future job. Nevertheless, they stressed the need to facilitate and support Greek students with more and specialized language courses in order to meet the demands of an EMI. The 198 demands/problems that would arise from an EMI were not insurmountable but easily solved on the condition that both the government and the university would collaborate towards that objective.
Some participants sounded more enthusiastic with the idea of internationalizing the Greek higher educational institutions. They stressed the need to adapt to a new reality that accepts globalization as an asset and embraces multiculturalism. Some were more enthusiastic than others and emphasized the fact that the internationalization of higher educational institutions would lead to the advancement and growth of Greek economy.
Moreover, they referred to the fact that “we would be able to export our education” as it would “attract students from all over the world”.
7.3.6 Linguistic imperialism and fears for their L1
Many interviewees mentioned that English is part of their lives and that they are exposed to the language on a daily basis. When asked whether this use and exposure to English makes them feel a threat for their mother tongue they were all negative to that. However, four participants (Nikos, Phaedra, Zoe and Martha) raised their concerns in a less obvious way. In particular, they mentioned that “Greek comes first” and as such it should not be neglected. The participants valued their mother tongue and expressed the belief that knowing one’s own native language well is of primary importance. In fact, many were particularly worried about the extensive use of Greeklish. For instance, Phaedra claimed that though she uses Greeklish a lot, in social media, text messaging etc., she feels that this could threaten her mother tongue. Likewise, other participants (e.g. Costas) agreed
199 on that issue and voiced concerns as to the fact that English has invaded our lives and has become an “imperative need”.
Moreover, objections were raised as to a possible establishment of English as a second official language in Greece. Though some were very positive to that, other participants were more cautious due to a possible downgrading of their mother tongue.
Chloe’s (Extract 9) emphatic use of the word “RESERVATIONS” as well as the hesitation marker “Eh” and the pause at the beginning are possibly signs of her cautiousness towards the possible change of a policy. She has a high regard of her mother tongue and the Greek origin of many scientific words makes her proud.
Extract 9 Chloe: Eh::: with some RESERVATIONS yes (.) I would welcome that Interviewer: What would your reservations be? Chloe: The kind of reservations about (.) the Greek language coming second (.) because Greek is (.) OK it's something that only WE have and that as you can see is used by others (.) even the fact that many words (.) for instance psychological terms (.) I mean they would use these words (.) and I was shocked by the fact that those words were Greek and I didn't know them
For Chloe, denying the Greek etymology of words in science carries the risk that future generations will not recognize words of Greek roots and their importance. She also showed her enthusiasm and proudness of that, as well as her fear that unfamiliarity with words of Greek origin might lead to denial of Greek ethnic identity. Nevertheless, the participant was rather contradictory when she referred to higher education in Greece.
Extract 10 shows how the emphasis on “UNIVERSITIES” communicates her positive thoughts towards English-medium education, as that would help students a lot. While speaking about other countries’ educational systems, Chloe (Extract 10) mentioned how
English medium education had helped young people learn the language “VERY WELL”
200 without spending their parents’ money for years of English language tuition.
Extract 10 Chloe: Eh::: I don't know about that (.) if as a law (.) as (.) as a rule is (.) I really cannot judge what the repercussions would be for the society but compared to what I have seen (.) in Greece (.) they could cultivate English (.) at schools (.) mostly at UNIVERSITIES (.) I mean I met people (.) who went to state schools and they had courses taught in English (.) and they actually had a VERY good command of the language without having to pay YEARS of English language courses (.) which is something that ALL Greeks do (.) as well as at schools (.) I mean this was a HUGE difference between Greece and their countries (.) yes
7.3.7 Psychological benefits and mentality
Many students revealed the impact that English competence had on the their own self and also the psychological benefits. For instance, they noted that knowing English made them feel “reassured” and “safe” in the sense that they could communicate wherever they were.
As Zoe indicates below (Extract 11), the “fear” of miscommunication is minimized through knowledge of English. It seems that English competence alleviates fears and insecurities.
Extract 11
Zoe: ... it is exactly what I said before (.) that since I know English (.) I don’t have the fear of finding myself in a completely unknown place (.) and feeling (.) let’s say (.) helpless
Zoe explained later in her interview that she felt able to “stay” in any country in the world for some time, be able to order food, make her way through the world, and generally “feel at home”.
Moreover, while talking about the effects of EMI in Greece, Phaedra mentioned the benefits it might have for Greek students.
Extract 12 Phaedra: It is a good thing (.) it is a good thing because (.) obviously young students will come from abroad (.) there will be multiculturalism, you will exchange ideas (.) you will open your horizons (.) learn other languages (.) is there anything better than that?
201
The participant insisted a lot on the socio-emotional consequences that intercultural experiences might have on young students. She mentioned many times during her interview how exchanging ideas and meeting people from all over the world can “open your horizons” and eventually turn Greek students into more open-minded and extroverted people.
In the extract below, another student, Marianna, gives a very good example of that. When asked whether she would like Greek universities to become international she accepted the idea with great enthusiasm as her emphatic “VERY MUCH” manifests. She underlines the open-mindedness that would result as well as a willingness to accept otherness. For Marianna this change might also result to “the elimination (.) of racism” an issue that was brought up by other participants as well. Finally, it would ameliorate the country’s “image” abroad as “this is something that Greece is lagging behind”.
Extract 13 Interviewer: Would you like that? Would you like the idea of Greek universities becoming international? Marianna: VERY MUCH (.) That would affect not only Greeks but also other people coming to Greece (.) and if (.) and there are many (3) consequences (.) let’s say advantages (.) such as (.) eh:: our people becoming more OPEN-MINDED AND WILLING TO ACCEPT (.) and also to the elimination (.) of racism (.) certainly to our image abroad as well (2) it is basic (.) in fact this is something that Greece is lagging behind (.) though it has opportunities to improve (.) however Greece does not exploit those opportunities Interviewer: So you believe that it would improve our image in the world, possibly becoming more extroverted? Marianna: Yes exactly (.) extroverted (.) and is also something that the external environment WANTS let’s say (.) AND Greece wants that (.) Greece wants (.) wants extroversion (.) it’s something that is missing (.) and through the English language (.) it is it’s a KEY let’s say to materialize that
202 The participant’s repetitive pauses and emphasis on specific words (“OPEN-MINDED” and “WILLING TO ACCEPT”) indicate a willingness to sound more assertive and serious about her beliefs. Moreover, the use of the English word “extroversion” instead of the Greek equivalent possibly shows an attempt to stress the role of English as the
“KEY” language that would “materialize” Greece’s goal to become more extroverted.
The country’s need to become more extroverted was a recurring theme that emerged from the in-depth analysis of a number of interviews (see 7.3.5).
7.4 Attitudes towards English language learning
The interviews revealed two sub-themes regarding the students’ attitudes towards English language tuition. The two sub-themes mainly evolved around negative feelings towards
English instruction in the Greek universities and an obsession with language certificates.
These issues will be discussed in more detail below.
7.4.1 Negative attitudes towards ESP
With regards to English language learning at the university, students revealed general lack of motivation to attend the course as well as devaluation of ESP courses. Some interviewees such as Zoe, Agape, Martha and Chloe explained how students do not seem to take the course seriously possibly because (i) they already know English, and (ii) they do not know what the course entails. The majority of Greek students as Martha states,
“are only interested in passing the exams” and as attendance is not obligatory their goals are mainly exam-oriented. In general, almost all participants expressed disappointment from the university as a whole and disappointment about the way courses are delivered.
203 7.4.2 Obsession with English language certificates
The interviewees noted that English language certificates hold a significant role particularly for young learners since they are used as yardsticks for measuring the results of learning efforts. However, they regarded certificates as a necessary evil, since the
“PAPER is a prerequisite” for a future job, or a Masters degree abroad. Surprisingly though, the students addressed a very important issue. They brought up the ‘obsession’ with foreign language certification in Greece and criticized the absence of attention to the actual learning process. For Antonis (Extract 14), certification has “no value in professional life” and it is “WRONG now” since people “DO NOT NEED certificates” to prove their competence in English. Referring to his experience as an AIESEC member, he stated how the everyday contact with foreigners had helped him learn the language of
Business as well as English terminology fluently. He admitted that the attainment of any certificate (i.e. “Lower” or “Proficiency”) might not be enough to demonstrate the ability to speak and understand the language fluently. As he emphatically states, Proficiency holders “might not have any IDEA” of how to use English.
Extract 14 Antonis: . . . An employer can easily tell if someone can speak English well or recognize that someone who holds an English certificate might not have any IDEA of how to speak English (2) because speaking (.) is different from knowing (2) on the other hand I believe that (.) OK (.) Lower or Proficiency might constitute good learning goals when you are a kid (.) but they don't have any value beyond that (.) because if anyone wants to continue his studies abroad (.) those certificates have absolutely NO value (.) you need OTHER certificates which are (.) recognized by specific universities . . . Real skills have nothing to do with certificates I believe (.) because (.) taking me as an example (.) I didn't learn English through the certificates I got (.) I learned English while SPEAKING . . . you learn English as well as other languages I think (.) while SPEAKING them (.) not studying them
204 As Antonis states, using a language is the one and only way to actually learn it. To use his own words, “you learn English as well as other languages I think (.) while
SPEAKING them (.) not studying them”. The emphasis on “SPEAKING” shows how the participant understands the central role that interaction holds in communication. By
“SPEAKING” he does not only refer to receptive and productive skills. He also refers to real communicative situations where interlocutors learn to interact, and through interaction manage to learn the language even better. Moreover, he seems to suggest that the process of language learning is continuous and individual and as such it involves more than the attainment of a competency certificate that is arbitrary to some extent.!!
Other students expressed the same thoughts during their interviews. For instance,
Alexandros (Extract 15) notes that even the way people learn English is not the right one.
When asked to think about what his communicative experiences with foreigners had taught him, he was very revealing.
Extract 15 Alexandros: Competency level in Greece is not what it should be I mean (2) nowadays we learn the English language from a very young age (.) the use of English but we don't learn it PROPERLY (.) we learn it mainly to get a certificate (.) what the Greek citizen (.) student (.) high school student (.) is interested in is only the certificate and NOT the proper use of the language (2) you can see people with a higher degree in Greece (.) Proficiency (.) who cannot communicate (.) properly with any Anglophone
What can be deduced from the interviewee’s answer is, above all, the distinction he poses between the attainment of a certificate and “the proper use of the language”. He does not equate success in English language examination to real and proper use of the language.
Additionally, Alexandros reflects a common misconception of Greek people. The use of the word “degree” to refer to a certificate demonstrates a paradox. On the one
205 hand, Greeks think very highly of English language certificates and in particular the
“Proficiency”, which is a “higher degree”. This is probably because it certifies eligibility to its holders for legal employment as language teachers in the private sector. On the other hand, Greek students recognize that the certificate alone is insufficient for the accomplishment of successful real life communication in English.
7.4.3 Negative attitudes towards ELT
Maria mentioned the grammar-heavy instruction at the private language centre and complained about the limited opportunities for real English use. Referring to an ELF experience, Chloe (Extract 16) admits that the secret of English competence lies on its use. The repetition of “you can’t learn” suggests the interviewee’s certainty and indisputable belief that the way people learn English does not ensure fluency and competence in real life communicative situations. The use of the metaphor “when you actually live the language” corroborates her argument that English competence lies on its use specifically in ELF communicative contexts.
Extract 16 Chloe: These things (.) even if you have the Proficiency certificate (.) I personally didn't have it (.) you can’t learn these things (.) I mean you can’t learn (.) how can I say that (.) more specific (.) more specific things (.) you can’t learn how to express these things (.) you can’t learn them through vocabulary (.) you learn specialized vocabulary but it’s when you actually live the language that you learn them even more
Likewise, Antonis claimed that “till now English is a language that (.) continues to be learned OUTSIDE of the school (2) ESSENTIALLY”. Once again, the participant tried to communicate that natural and authentic communication represents a far better way of learning the language rather than classroom practices.
206 7.5 Attitudes towards accents
7.5.1 Attitudes towards Greek-accented English
Several interviewees revealed ambivalent attitudes towards their own accents of English.
When discussing Greek-accented English in particular, they expressed two opposing views. Some showed a lack of confidence and shyness due to bad experiences. For instance Maria, who was brought up in a small town near Thessaloniki, referred to the
English language education she had received and actually blamed it for her “bad” English and “bad accent”. As she said, she was very disappointed by that situation and stated her wish to improve her English competence in the near future.
Moreover, they seemed particularly worried about how others perceived their accents. One participant (Martha) scoffed at Greek-accented English when she assumed that it was similar to a villager’s accent. Martha’s negative remark indicates that stereotypes continue to prevail when it comes to language accents. Adherence to the accepted and ‘received’ pronunciation concerns mother tongue as well as a foreign language such as English. On the other hand, others expressed very positive feelings towards their Greek accent possibly signalling ELF awareness. As Phaedra pointed out,
“it’s charming to have your own accent”. These views will be further presented and discussed (see 7.5.5).
7.5.2 Attitudes towards NS accents
Native speaker accents were highly regarded by more than half of the participants. They expressed their beliefs either directly or indirectly. Some (Agape, Dimitris, Kostas,
Martha, Melina, Petros) explained their love for NS accents because “the beauty of every
207 language lies in its proper use” (Martha) and it is important because it is the very sound of the language. As Thomas explained, he objects to people who usually impose sounds of their own language on the target language. To use his own words, “I expect from a foreigner to speak Greek well so the same goes for me when I speak English”. This realization raises the issue of standardness and purity of a language that causes adherence to NS norms.
Other students were unable to offer clear reasons as to why they prefer a NS accent. Agape (Extract 17), for example, illustrates rather uncertain feelings. Though she bashfully admits that she is fond of the British accent, she seems reluctant to adopt it as she feels that it would be hard to attain. The repetition of the word “beautiful”, which is uttered two times to describe the British accent, creates a sense of emphasis. Her pauses and laughs indicate that she is unable to offer concrete reasons for her attachment to NS norms. Her uncertainty for the adoption of a NS accent as well as her embarrassment is revealed through her laughs when she admits that it might not suit her to speak with a
British accent (“it’s hard on the one hand <@> but:: I don't know if it would (.) suit me
”). There is also a suggestion in her use of the word “suit”, that the adoption of a
NS accent might alienate her from herself and possibly other NNESs though this remains her goal.
Extract 17 Interviewer: You previously mentioned beautiful accent (.) could you explain that? Agape: this beautiful accent that you have when you speak because <@> we Greeks have our own accent that::: (.) people abroad find very (.) cute but:: (2) they have this beautiful accent:: (.) English people (.) I mean this Interviewer: you mean the kind of Hugh Grant accent? Agape: <@> yes yes Interviewer: Was this what you had in mind? Agape: yes Interviewer: do you like that? 208 Agape: I like it yes Interviewer: would you like to have a native speaker accent? Agape: it’s hard on the one hand <@> but:: I don't know if it would (.) suit me Interviewer: ok (.) but would you like that? is it important for you? Agape: no it’s not important as long as you can communicate
Other participants displayed similar views about themselves or other Greek people, as they explained how adopting a NS accent might make them sound “weird”. Indeed, the above extract crystalizes the irony that although the participants aspire for a NS accent in their majority they feel uncertain as to whether it would be appropriate for them. It seems that they are particularly worried about how others would perceive that, meaning a NNS speaking English with an American or British accent. As one participant said, “I think that Greek people feel they sound stupid when they speak with a NS accent”. Not surprisingly, intelligibility was given prime attention as the sole thing that matters in
English communication. This will be the focus of the following section.
7.5.3 Intelligibility
A major theme that arose was that of intelligibility. Despite their aspirations for a NS accent, the majority of participants (particularly those with many intercultural experiences) valued intelligibility more. Even though Grigoris, for instance, admits that a
NS accent is somehow important, he values intelligibility more as shown in Extract 18 below.
Extract 18 Grigoris: I don't regard accent as THAT important (.) I just think that it's more important to be able to get one’s message across (2) to UNDERSTAND what someone says and to be able to give an answer.
209 The emphasis (“THAT important”) expresses a contradiction. On the one hand the participant believes that a NS accent is important, whereas on the other hand he emphasizes that it's more important “to COMPREHEND” and ultimately communicate signifying his preference for mutual intelligibility.
7.5.4 Attitudes towards English accents depending on the context (context- specific variation)
Some participants (Antonis, Chloe, Martha, Maria, Marianna, Phaedra) mentioned the role of context for the adoption of an accent. They stressed the need to be “more careful” when it comes to using the language in the workplace, particularly when writing in
English (e.g. emails, reports). For some, such as Marianna (Extract 19), a NS accent can even give anyone “a different sense of trust” and “another STATUS as a person”. It is also interesting to notice how the participant perceives a NS accent as a “PROPER” one.
Her stress on “STATUS” is indicative of a common perception that a NS accent can equate to an educated and prominent person. The strength of the participant’s feelings is illustrated by the frequent use of emphasis on specific words (see Extract 19).
Extract 19 Marianna: It differs between people (.) eh:: some might have a problem and others might not (.) I personally (.) believe that (.) there is a slight possibility that it affects others (.) it affects your image (2) and in a work context IT CERTAINLY plays a role TOO (.) that is because speaking English (.) speaking with a beautiful accent (.) gives a different sense of trust and (.) makes your interlocutor pay more attention to what you are saying (.) to accept what you are saying (.) it gives you another:: another STATUS as a person (.) not VERY MUCH but up to a point YES it does (.) it plays a role (.) to have a PROPER accent
Interestingly though, a sophisticated accent could more easily convince the possible interlocutor of the validity of one’s saying. This could be explained by the fact
210 that the RP was used among higher-class Britons. Therefore it often signalled high social status and correlated with intelligence and higher education. Marianna is probably subconsciously aware of that, which is why she thinks that a “PROPER” accent (by
“PROPER” she means the RP) is the one and only accent that could indicate a higher status. On the other hand, other British accents (such as Cockney) might imply a lower status or lower academic intelligence and are thus rejected.
On the contrary, Phaedra seems to disagree when she states that a person’s “not so good accent” cannot prevail over his/her ideas and work. She adds that an employer must be really “narrow minded to choose a local” instead of a person whose accent is not very good. However, what almost all interviewees seem to agree on is that informal contexts provide more freedom for “mistakes” and NNS accents.
7.5.5 Attitudes towards NNS accents
Additionally, while discussing about accents, the participants commented on the accent differences among NNSs of English. For Chloe, NNS accents are “intriguing” and
“interesting” as well as the people’s cultural traits. Phaedra (see Extract 20) explains best why it is so interesting to have different accents.
Extract 20 Interviewer: Is it important for you to have a native speaker accent? Phaedra: No (.) No (.) because when I went abroad I realized that accents are BEAUTIFUL (.) and each one of us speaks with a different way (2) trying to understand (.) what others say is nice (.) people looking at you <@> puzzled (.) LAUGHING with what you say (.) that breaks the ice too (.) they’ve told me many times that I have a weird accent (.) and some of them had a weird accent too according to me (.) Interviewer: So do you speak English with a Greek accent? Phaedra: Yes Interviewer: How did others find that?
211 Phaedra: Well (.) I think they LIKED it (.) in the end they all liked it (.) you somehow realize that you don't need to have the PERFECT accent to speak (.) I mean the Italian guy spoke with an ITALIAN accent (.) the French with a FRENCH accent …
The laughs and pauses indicate the way Phaedra views various NNS accents. For the participant, NNS accents are “BEAUTIFUL” because they help “break the ice” and make people more interesting. They seem to add to a communicative ‘game’ that aims not only at communication but also at getting to know people better and familiarize oneself with
“divergence”. As she noted, having a NNS accent is “funny”, “interesting” and
“intriguing” and is something that everybody “LIKED” as interlocutors realized that a NS accent is not a prerequisite for communication. As Phaedra puts it, “you somehow realize that you don't need to have the PERFECT accent to speak”. The emphasis on
“PERFECT” shows that Phaedra indirectly accepts the supremacy of a NS accent, yet she rejects it since communication can be successfully accomplished without it.
7.6 Identity
7.6.1 Link of English to NS culture and NSs
While trying to decipher the interviewees’ thoughts and feelings towards English used as a common language of communication, many interesting findings came up. Their perceptions were opposing and indicative of a concern about two things: first, the origins of English language, and second, its connection to a culture. There were students (Agape,
Melina, Thomas, Petros, Penelope, Zoe, Phaedra, Costas) who indirectly identified NSs as American, British or Australian thus connecting the language with NSs only. On the other hand, there were those who stressed that English is no longer connected to one and only culture but belongs to everyone who uses it. As Alexandros puts it:
212 Extract 21 Alexandros: English is spoken in many countries from the vast majority of population, as a first or second foreign language (.) so I believe that the cultural (.) elements (.) of England’s (.) or any other society’s language (.) have been altered
It is very interesting to note that only two participants, Dimitris and Ifigenia explicitly stated that English is connected to a NS culture.
7.6.2 Ownership of English
According to Cameron (1997),
whereas sociolinguistics traditionally assumes that people talk the way they
do because of who they (already) are, the postmodernist approach suggests
that people are who they are because of (among other things) the way they
talk. (p. 49)
Following the postmodernist tradition, identity is something people do in social activities, not something they are (Antaki & Widdicombe, 1998). Accordingly, the participants’ identity in relation to English is not examined on the basis of what they claim but rather on what they actually do. This means that more emphasis was given on the students’ narratives of their experiences with English either abroad or on a daily basis. For instance, the daily use of English has familiarized students with the language thus making it part of themselves. Phaedra explains that perfectly below:
Extract 22 Phaedra: user (3) I have USED the language abroad for a very long time (2) so much that there were times when I was with my family (.) and I would wake up in the morning and unconsciously say (.) good morning instead of good morning (.) but ok:: (.) yes and now whenever I talk to people from abroad (.) we NATURALLY talk in (.) English (.) the movies I watch are most of the times with English subtitles (.) so I’m not just a learner
213 Phaedra was asked whether she defines herself as a learner or user of English. The emphasis on “USED” adds to her initial claim that she defines herself as a “user” of the language. The participant gives a personal example that shows the way English had invaded her thoughts and how she could unconsciously and “NATURALLY talk in (.)
English” with her foreign friends. According to Phaedra, using English is natural and is done unconsciously.
Likewise, another interviewee (see Extract 23) defined herself as user of English, though her initial reservations expressed by the repetition of “learner or user” and her pause before her answer, imply that she was quite uncertain.
Extract 23 Interviewer: Marianna do you regard yourself as a user or learner of English? Marianna: user or learner (2) I think user (.) if you had asked me the same question one year ago (.) when I had not gone to (.) when I hadn’t done any internship (.) I would I would have told you I’m a learner Interviewer: why user now? Marianna: user because (2) I use the language more in my everyday life (.) I have done a second internship (.) I use it every day (.) I also have friends from all over the world so we communicate very often (.) a day doesn't pass without speaking English even for 15 minutes
As Marianna explained, the everyday use of English, through her internship participation and the frequent contact with friends from abroad, had changed her whole belief about herself in relation to English. The repetition of the word “use” and her pause before her explanation (“user because (2) I use the language more in my everyday life”) strengthen her initial uncertainty to give a specific characterization to herself. However, her life itself provided her with the answer and eventually managed to explain why she feels more a user rather than a learner of English.
Similarly, many other students testified that they frequently “think in English” or
214 sometimes even “dream in English”. They do not need to “do the translation” as Antonis for instance claimed when he mentioned that he always keeps university lecture notes directly in English. The participant explained that when someone is “used to a way of thinking or a way of communication (.) you no longer need to do the translation (.) whatever you listen to is directly (.) translated in your mind (.) or to put it simply when you THINK (.) you THINK directly in English”. The repetition and emphasis of
“THINK” illustrates the fact that using English has become part of Antonis’s way of thinking. As he explained, thinking in English is a natural and unconscious process that has developed through years and has eventually become a “habit”. These assumptions underlie the belief that English is situated in the students’ not only linguistic but also cognitive repertoire.
In addition, many students reported using offensive or taboo words in English, as it seemed easier for them. They also use English to express their emotions and feelings.
Zoe (see Extract 24) gives the example of music when she claims that an English song can express her exactly the same way a Greek song can, provided she understands the lyrics. Thus the key seems to lie on comprehension. Since the participants are able to understand the language they are able to use it in their own way and for their own reasons.
Extract 24 Zoe: English is a way of communication as well as expression (.) for example music (.) if you can understand the lyrics (.) a foreign song can express you exactly the way a song with Greek lyrics
Other participants discussed how English had helped them know themselves better.
Referring to her intercultural experiences, Chloe (Extract 25) mentioned that it was
215 through English that she managed to find out who she was and express her feelings and sentiments, talk about her country and everything that revolves around her.
Extract 25 Chloe: I can tell that it was MAINLY through what I’ve done (3) that I learned this (.) exactly what you are asking me (.) that (.) I’ve known myself (.) meaning HOW I can actually express myself and show who I am through the English language (.) and say who I am and express my feelings (.) my COUNTRY and everything that derives from that
Her stress on “MAINLY” strengthens her argument that it was the use of English that worked as a catalyst and became the means to get to know herself and tap into the attributes she possesses. The emphatic use of “HOW” indicates that Chloe perceives
English as a means to explore her inner feelings and express not only her own thoughts but also her ideas about her country. For Chloe the use of English does not threaten her identity. As she claims, “you are still the same person (.) you just try to express what you feel and who you are through this language”.
7.7 ELF awareness
Several participants showed ELF awareness. In particular, they alluded to the “global spread of English” and the fact that it is “the language that connects everyone”. They also commented on a potential future ELF use for interpersonal and business reasons. For example, many students mentioned that English enables communication with friends from abroad or helps them make new ones from various countries. Martha (Extract 26), for example, talks about her experiences abroad and mentions how English performed as a “link” that connected her with people from all over the world “regardless the language, religion, race, anything”. Referring to other NNSs (“a Chinese guy, an Australian, an
216 American”), she showed her awareness of the role of ELF as a medium of communication that connects people worldwide.
Extract 26 Martha: English is now a link that connects all continents, countries, regardless the language, religion, race, anything (.) I mean (.) I believe it connects us all . . . For example when I was at the hostel, it connected me with a Chinese guy, an Australian, an American, it connected me with anyone (.) from Morocco (.) anywhere . . . I mean (.) I believe English language is a link (.)
7.7.2 Shared non-nativeness
While discussing their intercultural communicative experiences the participants were asked to report on the problems they had faced as well as the ways they managed to deal with those problems. Some of the problems they had faced were grammatical and lexical.
Finding the appropriate word was difficult at some points particularly when it happened to be a business term. Accents were hard to understand at some points too, however, those problems did not hinder communication. The students used body language and various accommodation strategies in order to achieve understanding while interacting with one another.
As Phaedra states, “at the beginning we were not used to it and we had to
REPEAT some words (.) so as for the other person to understand (.) but it was (.) nice”.
In fact, the majority mentioned that the key to successful communication was actually
“accommodation”. At the beginning it takes some time to adjust but then “things run smoothly” and “one understands each other”. The students’ experiences revealed that they feel more comfortable with NNSs. It is possible that they feel more secure or less threatened to express non-understanding and thus engage in situations where they negotiate meaning with their NNS interlocutors.
217 7.7.3 ELF communicative experiences
Referring to problems in their communication in English, the participants explained how communication was eventually accomplished and in which ways those problems were overcome. For example, Antonis explains how problems were usually solved with
“explaining further”, “body language” or even signs. While explaining how people can be resourceful in their communication, the participant laughed a lot. Those laughs reveal his light-hearted understanding of communication breakdowns. Many other interviewees shared this belief. Moreover, he seems to be aware of the difficulties that communication entails and realizes how important it is to “know [one’s] limits”. Knowing your limits and your imperfectness creates a carefree feeling that is not only revealing but also conducive to deeper relations.
Extract 27 Antonis: These problems are usually solved (2) with an explanation (.) <@> that takes some time (.) explanation or very often body language (.) or even signs how can I say that? @ (.) I mean (.) <@> the means you use to express yourself and communicate are (2) you don't know their limits but (.) they usually start from vocabulary and sometimes they end up to an acceptance (3) not really acceptance I mean it’s more like (.) someone accepting it the way it is (.) and he is like (.) ok (.) well done (.) most of the times without realizing it (.) because he is trying to understand you and realizes that (.) you cannot express yourself and he is like (.) OK (.) it's ok (.) let’s move on
Furthermore, almost all participants recalled making mistakes during their oral communication in English. It seems that the students acknowledge the deviation from the norm but on the other hand, this does not mean that communication is obscured. Phaedra
(Extract 28) explains that best in the extract below. The repetitive use of “mistakes” (3 times) and the emphasis “MISTAKES” is indicative of that realization. Phaedra seems to accept that mistakes can occur but “in the end NOBODY JUDGES you because nobody
218 speaks perfectly”. Almost all participants seemed to agree on this absence of judgment, which reveals a trait of shared non-nativeness.
Extract 28 Phaedra: it has happened some times to make spelling MISTAKES (.) grammatical mistakes (.) some times I don't EVEN know it's a mistake (.) because I may have learned it wrong when I learned English (.) but in the end NOBODY JUDGES you because nobody speaks perfectly (.) you may correct something someone says (.) something SO OBVIOUS (.) but nobody actually deals with it (.) you just need the gist in order to communicate. !! As Phaedra asserted, people may correct an “OBVIOUS” mistake just for the sake of it.
She actually stressed that these mistakes hinder communication in the slightest. What the participant claimed further in her interview was that “mistakes make people come even closer”. With this statement she implies that mistakes can create and foster feelings of closeness to people. Once again, the emphasis on and repetition of “PERFECT”, which is used to characterize both English and accent, indicate an acceptance of what constitutes proper English and a realization that NS accents are “beautiful” and perfect. However, the participant differentiates herself clearly from NSs of English claiming and embracing a NNS identity. She explains that mistakes bring intimacy and make people feel more comfortable. As such, establishing rapport seems to be very important when human communication and interaction are involved.
Similarly, Penelope’s statement below (Extract 29) reveals a move towards a deeper understanding of this matter. The interviewee clearly endorses NS norms, which is evident in the repetitions of “American” (5 times) and the statement “I speak very good
English even though I am not American”. Nonetheless, her pause and the question in the end (“I would like more MY accent to show that (2) you know what?”) reveal her second thoughts and express the wish to differentiate herself from others through her accent. Her
219 need to strengthen her individuality in a world characterized by diversity is eminent in her words. Apparently, her accent becomes the vehicle to accomplish that maintaining balance between her Greek identity and her native like accent that is being ‘coloured’ by special traits and features.
Extract 29 Penelope: (Ahh) (.) If you had asked me some time ago (.) I would have told you that I would like VERY MUCH to have an American accent . . . but now I think that (.) ok (.) the American accent is nice (.) very nice indeed (.) I would like to have an accent close to the American but (.) I would like more MY accent to show that (2) you know what? (.) I am not American (.) I speak very good English even though I am not American (.) to show (.) to stress my individuality as a person (.) the fact that I am from another country (.) that’s what I would say now (.) that I would like a nice accent but not one that would place me with all the rest (.) I would like to be the Greek girl (.) <@> that (.) has actually a very good and nice accent
A further trait of shared non-nativeness and differentiation from NSs is found when Phaedra claims that not many NSs of English learn foreign languages and that “you can’t JUDGE if you haven’t tried once in your life to learn a foreign language (.) see how difficult that is”. This statement shows that she fully comprehends the difficulty in learning a foreign language. Her point is, of course, that only other NNSs can understand this.
Extract 30 Phaedra: Mistakes bring people closer (.) if someone spoke PERFECT English with this PERFECT accent (.) I would honestly feel a little shy to speak (.) whereas if someone makes a mistake and another person makes a mistake too we say ok and no one mentions it and no one gives importance to that Interviewer: It also adds some colour to all this Phaedra: Yes (.) because it wouldn't have been nice for all of us to speak perfectly because I am not English (.) I am not OBLIGED to speak English perfectly (.) I would basically say that I’m doing them a FAVOUR when I learn their language (.) it has many advantages since it enables me to communicate with everyone but I don't know MANY English or American who learn foreign languages (.) I mean you can’t JUDGE if you haven’t tried once in your life to learn a foreign language (.) see how difficult that it
220 The emphatic use of “JUDGE” relates to the fact that even though mistakes exist in NNS interactions, remarks are never condemnatory since everyone is allowed to make mistakes, especially people who have put so much effort into learning a foreign language.
7.8 Mentality and international posture
7.8.1 Stereotypes
A very common theme that emerged from the analysis of the interviews was the belief that Greek people have a lot of stereotypes and that they are prejudiced against foreigners. For instance, Thomas mentioned that the Greeks are characterized by
“xenophobia” and Chloe indirectly claimed that Greeks are not open-minded and have many phobias; that clearly referred to xenophobia. Another participant’s remarks were contradictory. While being negative when asked whether the Greeks are xenophobic, his further remarks conceded to this point (see more in Extract 12).
The interviewees appeared rather strict towards their compatriots as they made reference to many negatives that originated from a stubbornly “stereotypical way of thinking”. Some of the interviewees embraced a different way of thinking as opposed to their colleagues or other Greeks. For example, they mentioned that they have deliberately travelled a lot in order to meet people and learn about other cultures. They also stated that they feel “cosmopolitan”. In fact, Thomas and Antonis used the expression “home is where the heart is”97 to emphasize a cosmopolitan view of the world and their homeland.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 97 The Greek expression was “όπου γης πατρίς” (opou gis patris); the equivalent in Latin is “ubi bene ubi patria”. 221 7.8.2 Mentality change
When asked to comment on their feelings when using English in an intercultural environment, Antonis emphasized the notions of interaction and socialization. For this participant, English helps “to learn and know new cultures (.) to INTERACT with different cultures and show diversity”. It is through interaction, which is actually emphasized by Antonis (Extract 31), that people familiarize themselves with diversity and embrace “a different way of thinking” which is “more open”, “with different horizons and different terms of acceptance with regards to diversity”. By this remark he means that people can unconsciously learn how to adapt to diversity and English can be the means to that goal, being the common language of communication that brings closer people from diverse backgrounds.
Extract 31 Interviewer: Did using English as a means of communication with people from all over the world mean anything for you? Antonis: Look (.) on the one hand it introduced me to a world (.) I hadn’t met before (.) I mean (.) anyone who (.) grows up here in Greece and does not get in contact with people from abroad (.) doesn't know (2) I can say that (.) English language helps him to learn and know new cultures (.) to INTERACT with different cultures and to show diversity (.) even accept it in the end (.) and learn to think with a (.) different way of thinking a little bit more open (.) with different horizons and different terms of acceptance with regards to diversity . . . the last thing I would say (.) which is probably fundamental for my field (.) is that the way someone expresses himself in English and whether he actually knows English (.) shows whether the society he comes from has given him the basic skills (.) to accept diversity and harmonize with anything that is unfamiliar
Moreover, Chloe (Extract 32) referred to how her ELF experiences had helped her turn into a “more extroverted” person. In particular, the choice of metaphor and her emphasis on “GET STUCK” strengthens her argument that after her ELF experiences she no longer feels the same person. She actually admits that she finds meeting people and using
English to communicate with them very “interesting”. The participant emphatically
222 mentions that her internship experience helped her “REALISE” that she had changed her perspective about the world and her own self. For instance, prior to her internship she thought she was not capable of doing projects and collaborating with other people. She was also very shy and unwilling to use English fearing a lot the possibility of miscommunicating.
Then, she realised that she became a lot more confident and that having confidence was a very important quality in her job. Chloe claimed that she became more open-minded and more resourceful when communication problems occurred. Later on she speaks very enthusiastically about having friends from all over the world. The laughter and pauses as well as the repetition of “weird” and its synonym “strange” that characterized the whole situation, indicate that for her it is quite extraordinary to have met friends worldwide.
Extract 32 Interviewer: Is this what those experiences have taught you? Chloe: Yes (.) and also to have to use some codes and BECOME more extroverted since I will no longer GET STUCK when I meet a foreigner (.) this (.) as soon as I hear something in English I turn around (.) or something like that (.) now MORE THAN EVER (.) it becomes interesting for me all this (.) yes Interviewer: You previously mentioned that you could express your feelings through English during your internship (.) do you still do that? I mean do you have friends that you still manage to communicate? Chloe: Yes (.) I do also now (.) it’s just that through (.) this internship let's say (2) I REALISED it and even though there wasn't anything before that (.) now there is (.) yes (.) because I have made friends in MANY places Interviewer: Do you feel as if you are a bit cosmopolitan? Chloe: <@> yes it’s kind of strange because (.) eh::::<@/> @ yes (.) I do feel (.) totally different now (.) I listen to world news and (2) whereas some time ago I used to say that my whole world is Greece (.) now I don't see it like this (.) and that goes for everything (.) for countries that (.) had never occurred to me before that they would be like this (.) now I HAVE LEARNED (.) I have learned yes (.) and some stereotypes and thoughts I had CHANGED (.) yes it’s weird (.) for instance last year I received birthday wishes from Greece <@> this year I had birthday wishes from every single continent (.) yes it was weird (.) it is a beautiful feeling <@/>
223 Chloe feels “totally different now”, she is interested in world news and is no longer confined to her nation. She enthusiastically embraces the fact that she is ready to open up and share her thoughts with people from all over the world. As she says, “I used to say that my whole world is Greece (.) now I don't see it like this”. The repetition of “learned” and the emphatic use of it once as well as the emphasis on “CHANGED” indicate once again that the internship gave her the incentive to learn a lot about herself, the world and through these experiences redefine her own sense of self.
7.8.3 Common mentality among members of an international youth organization
In addition, eight students who had more ELF communicative experiences due to their participation in AIESEC not only talked about a different mentality that English brings but they also differentiated themselves from their colleagues who were not members of
AIESEC. They discussed how their experiences had raised their awareness of ELF usage.
As Marianna (Extract 33) enthusiastically stated, AIESEC is “a NEW world” that urges people to get out of their comfort zones and push their limits. It is interesting to note that Marianna repeats the word “environment”, which shows that she regards it as different from the general Greek context. The emphasis on “NEW” indicates that this organization proved to be a revelation for her. The repetitive use of “develops” and the emphasis used once indicates the importance she gives on the organization’s role to her personal development.
Moreover, the repetitive and emphatic use of “COMMON” referring to the values and vision of AIESEC demonstrate Marianna’s possible feelings of belonging to the
224 AIESEC organization. At the same time she differentiates herself from other students saying, “ALL university students should take advantage” of AIESEC, not only “for their own interest BUT also for the society”. The use of 3rd person plural pronoun shows that her advice concerns not herself but others. Furthermore, she believes that self-developing can lead to a society transformation and in a way she stresses it with the emphasis on
“BUT” indicating that these self-development and society development are two different things.
Extract 33 Marianna: “to me AIESEC (.) is a NEW world I have entered and this means that it urges you to push your limits (2) it urges you to make real whatever you have learned either at the university or in your daily life (.) it’s (2) an environment (.) that develops you (3) when you give something to this environment (.) when you offer some of your personal time it DEVELOPS you (.) when you offer something to it (.) to this organization (.) it AWARDS you (.) triple and quadruple (.) it’s an organization that (.) connects (.) different people together (.) it has a COMMON vision (.) COMMON values (.) through English language of course (.) and it is something that (.) personally I believe that (.) ALL university students should take advantage of (2) for their own interest BUT also for the society
In addition, it was not just their claims but also their actions that showed how AIESEC members share common codes and characteristics. Speaking English or using the language interchangeably with Greek makes students identify with other members of the group. AIESEC members manage to interact with each other using a shared medium98 of communication, one that involves a lot of code switching particularly with business terms. Those participants’ remarks and comments indicated that they are identified and accepted by others in the group, whereas in the opposite case other individuals are identified as the outsiders. Similarly, Agape explained that speaking English or code
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 98 I borrow the term ‘medium’ here from Gafaranga’s (2000) conversation analytic model for bilingual interactions.
225 switching “comes out naturally” for her though her friends or classmates found it weird.
The participant described an incident that shows the fact that she feels different from her colleagues who are not members of AIESEC.
Extract 34 Agape: I was talking with some students about that (.) <@> and they were like (.) WHAT meeting do you have? call it MEETING <@/> Interviewer: So your colleagues find it weird? Agape: well (.) @ at the beginning yes (.) <@> when:: I:: started speaking <@/> but then:: they got used to it
This is apparent in the emphatic use of “WHAT” and “MEETING” which give more strength to the way she differentiates herself from the others. By that she tries to explain that the English use of the word “meeting” made a big impression to her colleagues and they even scolded her in a way. Her laughter indicates a realization that she finds it weird.
For Agape, using English happens completely naturally therefore she distances herself from anyone who doesn't seem to realize that.
Later, the interviewee explained that she started using English terms while being an AIESEC member, and that code switching was a common and everyday practice among members of this organization. The strength of these assumptions was also confirmed by the ethnographic observations that took place during three of their meetings.
226 7.9 Analysis of social media data
The respondents were invited to comment of Facebook posts (i.e. videos, pictures etc.) uploaded for the duration of one month. While comments99 were very limited and not detailed, the themes that emerged verified some of the questionnaire and interview findings. In this respect, the comments provided only a strong sense of the ‘flavour’ of what students think about English with a clear focus on oral communication and pronunciation. The main themes that emerged are presented below.
7.9.1 ELF awareness
The participants’ ELF awareness was deciphered from their comments about the regularity of communication breakdowns in English interactions, their preference for intelligibility over native-like fluency and the recognition of the existence of many
English varieties. While commenting on a video100 Zoe stated that English is “a common language but people who use it have such different accents that makes them [i.e. NSs] unable to communicate successfully even in simple everyday interactions-theoretically- they are unable to move from one floor to another”. In this respect, Zoe recognises the existence of English varieties and comments on the difficulty that even NSs face when they use the language. Moreover, the students seemed to imply that accommodation is a necessary skill that ensures the success of any communication in English.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 99 The comments appear in their translated version unless otherwise stated. They were all translated from Greek to English by the researcher. Any use of emoticons or punctuation is shown in this thesis as they appeared on Facebook. Italics are used for any words written in English by the students themselves.
100 The video was uploaded on Facebook from YouTube. It showed two young men in an elevator facing problems with a voice recognition machine due to their strong Scottish accents. The men found it impossible to get to the eleventh floor of the building because the voice recognition machine could not recognize the word “eleven” uttered in a strong Scottish accent (see Appendix D for a link to that video).
227 7.9.2 Preference for NS accents
Regarding their views about pronunciation, students’ comments revealed their preference for NS accents claiming that they have higher status. For instance, Zoe remarked about the British RP: “maybe it sounds a bit more ‘impressive’ but most of the times it’s difficult to follow them [i.e. BrE speakers] due to their eloquent speech. American accent is easier”. The choice of the words (‘impressive’) testifies that NS accents are still embraced with awe. It also signifies the participant’s inner wish to sound like a NS, though it seems that this is unattainable and will remain a wishful thinking. American accents are again regarded as easier and more comprehensible as both the interview and questionnaire data have proved. Nevertheless, students seemed to realise that focusing on intelligibility ensures the success of any interaction in English. One participant (Zoe) commenting on a cartoon picture wrote the following: “Simple language is always more helpful! :) Simple and comprehensible as we usually say”.
7.9.3 Miscommunication incidents
The prospect of successful communication seemed to attract students’ attention as they expressed their worries. Maria for example, demonstrated her nervousness through her comment on a cartoon picture (see 2nd picture clockwise in Appendix D): “He stressed me. No one would like to be in his shoes”. Unsurprisingly Maria had a quite negative experience with using English (see more in 7.2.3) and this might have affected her whole attitude towards the use of English. Miscommunication is serious particularly with regards to the workplace. Students expressed their reservations to the effectiveness of oral communication when problems arise. Oral communication is more difficult and
228 accents can cause problems. A student commented that when someone speaks at a quick pace it could be difficult for his/her interlocutors to comprehend, revealing understanding of pragmatic strategies for effective communication in ELF settings.
7.9.4 NNS awareness
Students revealed their awareness for a differentiation between native and NNSs of
English. Zoe’s remark (“Native speakers’ accent sounds ‘funny’ as we probably sound funny to them too”) indicates a realisation of being ‘different’ from NSs. Nevertheless the problem of different accents is not treated as a problem by the participant but rather as something “funny” that might add colour to the conversation and reveal some of the interlocutors’ personal characteristics.
7.9.5 Delving into students’ Facebook profiles
Due to the limited number of students’ responses on the Facebook uploads, a lot of interest and attention was driven to the participants’ Facebook profiles. An observation of their profiles, their status updates, posts and comments they wrote on their friends’ posts was expected to reveal a lot of interesting information. It appeared that some students wrote some of their status updates exclusively in English as the following examples show.
“Waiting for the storm to come…” (Phaedra)
“Let’s solve this mystery” (Phaedra)
“Impatiently waiting for the next one” (Kostas)
“These moments that no matter what are precious…” (Zoe)
229 “Making your life more unique…!” (Zoe)
“My brain is begging for knowledge” (Marianna)
In some cases they used quotes by famous writers or poets for their status updates. Also, they used English particularly when they uploaded song video clips (Phaedra: “I’m waiting for you, autumn! <3”). The fact that most songs were in English was possibly the reason that affected their language choice. The English language was also used for business terminology. Students used words such as “capital controls”, “site”, “plan B”
(Kostas) as well as words that are commonly used in English (e.g. “Wi-Fi”, “Internet” etc.).
It rarely happened that they would post an article (from a magazine, newspaper etc.) in Greek, while their comment would be in English. Phaedra, for instance, wrote commenting on an article about bullying: “what if no one stopped to help while you were getting bullied? Bullying starts and ends with us…”. The reason behind this choice might possibly lie in that English sounds “easier” and “more comfortable” to use for expressing inner thoughts and feelings, as some students had remarked in their interviews. It might also be the case that the English language is “trendy” and “hot” and appeals more to this young generation of Greek students.
Code switching between Greek and English was used a lot by many. Phaedra, for instance, wrote in one of her posts “το international babe έχει γενέθλια”[the international babe has her birthday]. Her comment was obviously addressed to a Greek friend who had probably many friends from abroad. That is possibly the reason why Phaedra called her
“international babe”. The fact that Phaedra was an AIESEC member could also be another reason why it was so natural for her to code switch between Greek and English,
230 as code switching was a common practice among members of this international youth organization (see more in 7.8.3).
Those who used English for the majority of their comments and posts were students who had travelled a lot, completed an internship abroad and subsequently had many foreign friends. Comments on their friends’ posts were exclusively in English as in the examples: “Just now”, “Speechless” (Marianna), “summer mood is on” (Marianna).
Having many friends from abroad was possibly the reason why they used English in most cases. On the contrary, students (e.g. Maria) who had not experienced spending time abroad and communicating with foreigners at this extent used Greek for almost all of their comments and status updates.
The analysis of students’ comments on the Facebook group as well as the observation of their posts, comments and status updates as they appeared on their
Facebook profiles, offered some valuable information. The data showed that the students use English a lot on social media, either exclusively or in code switching incidents. They seem to be very familiar to English and feel confident to use it in order to express their feelings, thoughts or communicate anything they want not only with their international but also with their Greek friends. It also appears that their communicative experiences play a significant role and affect the way they use the language. The exploration and observation of their Facebook profiles added an ethnographic element and made this research even more interesting as it revealed Greek Business School students’ attitudes as well as practices in situ.
231 Concluding remarks
Chapter 7 presented the interview data and the analysis of social media comments. The interviews aimed at investigating the individuals’ perceptions of ELF communication and
English language in general as well as their identity in relation to that language. Apart from some questions and prompts used by the researcher, the participants were free to articulate their thoughts and opinions about English in the world and in Greece. Their narratives of their experiences with English and ELF communicative situations were particularly useful in that they helped describe certain themes in more detail. The participants’ comments on Facebook proved very insightful as well. In chapter 8 that follows both quantitative and qualitative results will be discussed.
232 Chapter 8 Discussion of findings
The previous two chapters presented the analysis of quantitative data (Chapter 6) and qualitative data (Chapter 7). This chapter discusses the results in relation to the three research questions and the previous literature in the fields of attitudes and identity. The findings show that quantitative and qualitative means of investigation complemented each other and provided unequivocal results. The quantitative results provided information about the participants and their attitudes and identity as well as the factors that impact on them. However, the interview results provided deeper insights and an indication of both prominent themes and the language that students use to discuss these issues.
8.1 Discussion of findings
The present research sought to examine the use, and status of English through the eyes of
Greek Business School students, and to find out how they perceive the role of English in
Greece. It gives an overview of how Greek students encounter, know, and use English, with insights into their attitudes towards English, their identity and the way they envisage themselves in relation to the future of English. In this section, the results will be discussed with regards to the research questions posed in the Methodology Chapter (see
5.2). The first research question addresses the students’ attitudes towards English, the second explores their identity in relation to English, and the third question delineates the factors that influenced the students’ perceptions and identity.
233 Also, when examining language attitudes it is very important to examine the wider social context as it influences them to a certain extent (McKenzie, 2008, p. 64).
Therefore, the Greek context and the position of English language in Greece (see more in
Chapter 4) will be taken into consideration in the discussion of findings.
8.2 Research Question 1: What are Greek Business School students’ attitudes towards English?
8.2.1 The role of communication101
The participants of this research hold very positive attitudes towards English and stress its communicative role. They recognise its role as the world’s lingua franca and emphasize its necessity for their future communication. This finding is in accordance with other studies (e.g. Al-Quyadi, 2002; Al-Tamini & Shuib, 2009; Erling, 2004;
Harrabi, 2010; He & Li, 2009; Hsiu-Ya, 2012; Yu, 2010; Wang, 2012; Zeiss, 2010 and others, see more in 3.2.3) as described and discussed in the Literature Review of this thesis. Most of the Greek Business students believe that English symbolises global communication and internationalisation and is the most important feature in today’s communication (see Table 6.15). The high percentages of students’ international posture
(see Table 6.16) attest to that as well, and reveal willingness for international communication and openness to different cultures. This finding is further strengthened by the high percentage (73.4%) of students who revealed having travelled abroad and having
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 101 Throughout this research there is no explicit distinction between written and oral communication, nevertheless when participants recalled their communicative experiences in English they referred to communication in its oral form.
234 used English for their communication while abroad (75%). Similar findings102 were shown in Hovhannisyan’s (2014) research of young learners in Greece, whose motivation related to their wish for travelling abroad and communicating at an international level.
The statistical results of the present research did not confirm any correlation between international posture and motivation (see Section 6.11).
Moreover, the majority (87.9%) agreed to the fact that English is the first language used on the Internet. That finding is in accordance to a Eurobarometer study in
2012, which investigated Europeans and their languages. According to that study, Greeks were the only EU citizens who were more likely to use foreign languages103 on the
Internet than use them for anything else. These findings were verified by the interview results. As in the questionnaire results, international communication for both interpersonal and business reasons was a main concern for the participants of this research (see Extracts 2, and 3 in Chapter 7). Also, delving into the students’ Facebook profiles proved very interesting as it demonstrated the way students used English on
Facebook to communicate with their international friends. Building new friendships and establishing relationships with them would have been impossible without the use of ELF.
In addition to this, the majority of interviewees remarked on the feelings of
“reassurance” and “safety” generated by their English competence (see more in Section
7.3.7). For instance, Zoe indicated that the fear of miscommunication abroad is minimised through knowledge of English. This finding confirms a recent study (Cogo, !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 102 For instance, Csizér and Dörnyei’s (2005) research of secondary school children in Hungary revealed a range of reasons for learning English such as travelling abroad, making friends from abroad and understanding the lyrics of English songs (p. 21). ! 103 Since English is the first foreign language in Greece, it becomes clear that the respondents referred to English as the language used on the Internet.
235 2016) on BELF that revealed among other things how this sense of reassurance was linked not only to the common language of communication but also to the similarity of the participants’ profile and situation. Likewise, some interviewees of this study revealed that sharing a common mentality was conducive to a sense of reassurance (see Section
7.8.3).
The importance of English competence that enables global communication should be sought at an additional level. It is worth to indicatively mention here what Kriaras
(1991/ 2000b) remarked at a Comparative Grammatology conference,
“we modern Greeks must become aware, both individually and as Greek
people, of the need to overcome the intellectual and scientific isolation to
which we modern Greeks are condemned to a certain extent by the privilege
that we speak a language that was spoken in an earlier form by the creators of
the ancient Greek culture and civilization. Our present language no longer
facilitates our communication with other European peoples”. (Kriaras, 2000b,
p. 315)
What happens in Greece is one example of what happens in many other parts of the world in which English originally had no role, but now Greek people need it in order to communicate with the rest of the world. Foreign languages in general are very important for the present generation of Greeks since the Greek language is one of the least widely spoken languages outside of Greece as European surveys (Eurostat, 2010, European
Commission, 2006), and surveys carried out in Greece (e.g. Androulakis, 2008) have demonstrated.
Notwithstanding this, English competence will help Greece become more
236 “extroverted” and connected to the rest of the world as some of the interviewees noted
(e.g. Section 7.3.5 and Extracts 8 and 13). In the same way, this illustrates how periods of social, cultural, and economic change can ignite deep concerns within individuals.
Changes of this kind can bring about fears for cultural and linguistic endanger. Identity issues in relation to English shall be discussed later in this chapter (see Section 8.3).
8.2.2 The instrumental role of English
Students accepted the role of ELF based primarily on its instrumental value. This finding coincides with previous research (Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Balint, 2008; Lafaye &
Tsuda, 2002; Meihua, 2007), and derives from its communicative function (also in
Hovhannisyan, 2014; Yu, 2010) and its function as a highly valued commodity for their future career path (e.g. Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Meihua, 2007) (see Table 6.18). The students’ motivation revolved around global communication and life long learning of
English (see Table 6.18). There were a few cases in the literature though (e.g. Al-Tamimi
& Shuib; Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002; Yu, 2010) that demonstrated a short-term goal among the long-term motivation aims. The students’ short-term motivational goal was defined as exam-oriented in this study. This is not surprising as ESP courses are in most cases obligatory for the attainment of the university degree (see Section 4.5). Similarly, the interviewees of this research attested to that finding, which will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter (Section 8.2.4).
Also, more than half of the respondents in the questionnaire results welcomed the idea of finding a job abroad and all interviewees addressed the instrumental role that
English holds for their future business career either in Greece or abroad. The
237 respondents’ wish to live in another country (see Section 6.8) attests to that finding as well, and possibly shows that many young Greeks consider the idea of immigrating to other countries due to reasons brought about by the economic crisis in Greece. The interviews confirm these findings (see for example Extracts 4 and/or 5 in Chapter 7).
Undeniably, the socio-economic environment had an impact on students’ attitudes. The situation that many interviewees (e.g. Maria, Martha, Phaedra, Alexandros) described is in line with the phase of profound social and political crisis in Greece. Since
2009, the quality of social welfare has changed dramatically for the majority of the Greek population. The social and political instability brought about by the government’s austerity measures and the extremely high unemployment rates has led to an escalation of migration. The number of young Greeks seeking employment and a new life abroad is growing rapidly and is known as the “Greek Brain Drain” (Hadjimattheou, 2012). It seems quite obvious as according to a survey conducted by Focus Bari for Pantheon
University, young Greeks aged between 18 and 24 were thinking of emigrating. The same poll showed that 53% might emigrate and 76% considered emigration as “the best way to cope with the country’s financial crisis” (Chrepa, 2012). This new migration wave has mostly affected the highly educated populations as Labrianidis and Vogiatzis (2013, p. 11) have shown in their research of 2.850 young Greek students/researchers. The researchers lament on these findings arguing that the Brain Drain104 is detrimental for the economic growth and future development of Greece.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 104 The concept of ‘brain drain’ is used to denote the permanent emigration of highly skilled people and is often referred as a synonym of human capital flight in the sense that when people “emigrate from the country they were educated and trained, that capital also leaves, that is, it is lost by the country of origin and gained by the destination country” (Wächter, 2006, p. 53). !
238 The crisis has found its expression in negative feelings105 and attitudes towards the Greek political system and the pro-austerity parties. Moreover, it has created a growing feeling of mistrust towards the European Union and Greece’s participation in the
Eurozone. Nevertheless, some participants argued for the need to move beyond the past wrongs and reverse the situation to their advantage. It is only through the
“Europeanization of Greece and Greek economy” to use one interviewee’s (i.e. Kostas) words that the country will be “ready for international markets”. There is indeed space for social transformation and redefinition, and the potentiality to bring forward an open- mindedness that would emerge from the depth of the crisis and move forward to a modern, competitive and extroverted Greece.
8.2.3 Internationalisation of higher education in Greece
Speaking of social transformation and the potentiality of Greece becoming more competitive and extroverted, the students of this research embraced a possible uptake of
English-medium education in Greece. Though the frequency percentage (see Table H1 in
Appendix H) was not one of the four highest, it was still high as nearly half (49.6%) of the respondents agreed to English becoming one of the official languages of tertiary education and more than one third (34.2%) had ambivalent thoughts about that.
The questionnaire results were researched more in-depth in the students’ interviews, which provided richer data verifying the positive attitudes towards the internationalisation of higher education in Greece (see Section 7.3.5). This finding could
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 105 Due to the recent changes in the economic and political scene in Greece (i.e. the post-capital controls era) these feelings are expected to be more negative. After the imposition of capital controls by the Greek government in June 2015, the economic activity is grinding to a near halt and the price of these measures is becoming increasingly apparent.
239 first be explained by the great value Greeks attach to higher education, which corresponds to self-fulfilment, social recognition and advancement, as well as economic prosperity (Dimaki, 1974).
Traditionally the Greek family makes a lot of sacrifices for the children’s education either abroad or in private colleges in Greece in case of failure to pass the national university-entrance exams and enter the public universities for free. Many graduates continue their studies abroad most commonly at a postgraduate level.
Considering that the English language prevails not only in the majority of private colleges in Greece as the language of instruction but also as the academic lingua franca in the world (Jenkins, 2014), it is not surprising that students welcomed the idea of English- medium education in the Greek universities. As they stated, English competence and particularly the excellent command of BE skills (see Extracts 5 and 6), would enable them to be more ready for studies abroad and it would also make them more competitive in the job market. Some (e.g. Chloe) even mentioned the financial alleviation that this measure would bring to the majority of Greek families who suffer from the deep economic crisis, as they would spend less from their annual budget on their children’s
English education (Extract 10).
Nevertheless, an important issue that some interviewees raised was the difficulties that students might face when the language of instruction is not their mother tongue (see
Section 7.3.5). In fact, this issue, meaning the problems students face when they are not familiar with the language of instruction, was raised in other studies (Jenkins, 2014;
Shohamy, 2013; Tzoannopoulou, 2014b). Their academic achievement can be thus put in peril, resulting in major inequalities and lower achievements. Shohamy (2013) was
240 critical towards EMI given the various problems that might arise. Language rights and discrimination among students are among some. In fact, some interviewees voiced concerns about their ability to attend the courses in English. Nevertheless, the possible success and competitive advantage in the future job market is what prompted students to welcome English-taught components in their discipline.
8.2.4 Attitudes towards English language learning/ESP
English as a subject matter was realised differently and separately throughout this research. In fact, English as a school subject/university course and English language learning are viewed differently in this research as well as in others (e.g. Ranta, 2010;
Ryan, 2009). For instance, younger learners in Ranta’s (2010) study, expressed awareness that the idealized and ‘real’ native English that they are taught in the ELT classrooms does not reflect the English used for international communication outside the classroom context. Despite acknowledging the essential role of BE for international communication (e.g. Table 6.20 and Extracts 4, 5 and 6), students106 were negative and showed their dissatisfaction both with English as a school subject and with English language instruction at the university (see Table 6.20 and Section 7.4.1). This finding is in accordance with previous research (e.g. Harrabi, 2010; Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002; Yu,
2010, see more in Section 3.2.3) on university students’ attitudes towards ESP.
Evidence of that can also be found in the contradiction between the students’ responses about ESP attendance in the questionnaire (see Table 6.19) and their actual attendance. Surprisingly, though very few students rejected ESP courses claiming that they already know English, the majority of them did not attend ESP courses at the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 106 In their interviews students were allowed to talk freely also about their language learning experience. 241 university. In fact, the low attendance rate at ESP courses is a common practice among students as ESP instructors admitted at the informal interviews conducted by the researcher prior to this research. Therefore, the students’ disappointment with ESP courses is not to imply that ESP courses had actually failed to fulfil their mission as no classroom observation or material assessment was performed. Given the low attendance rates, the students could not form a clear opinion about the courses and their dissatisfaction could be attributed to their misconceptions that are possibly associated with their previous language learning experience. This was further explored in the personal interviews with students. The interviews proved very interesting as some of the students made negative remarks about the exam-oriented motivation of their classmates and admitted that they are not fully aware of what the courses entail. For instance Agape expressed strong regret about not having attended these courses as they realised their importance. They also recommended many changes with regards to ESP teaching.
The majority of suggestions for future changes in ESP teaching came from students who had an internship experience. This is not surprising as experience of a work context, particularly an international one, possibly made them realise the necessity of intercultural and business skills. Compared with other studies that showed students’ dissatisfaction with ESP, the present research makes an additional contribution in that it gives voice to students with internship experiences and shows how important these experiences are. To be more specific, students with work experience seem to be more aware of the global communication needs of their future career and more ready to embrace changes in English language instruction. Students suggested being exposed to
242 real-life communicative contexts and argued against the most widely used instructional strategy (i.e. the lecture method).
Furthermore, the fact that the majority of studies are similar in their findings with regards to attitudes towards ESP might mean that educational reforms are much needed not only in Greece but also abroad. Perhaps it is high time that ESP embraced an ELF perspective, one that would ensure positive outcomes and prepare better the future employees.
Another interesting finding was the significant role that Greek people ascribe to
English language certificates (see Section 7.4.2). The obsession with language certificates or “pistopiitikokratia” as Dendrinos et al. (2013) and Sifakis (2012) call it (see Section
4.3.2), was eminent in the questionnaire data. In particular, the item “I learn English because I want to get a certificate of competency in English” in the questionnaire received 84,6%.
This finding was not unexpected and reflects the deep-rooted belief among Greek parents and students that foreign language instruction equals certification. In fact, the obsession with foreign language certificates-particularly English certificates- justifies the existence of 6.564 foreign language centres in Greece. Not surprisingly only 2.4% of the questionnaire respondents reported having learnt English at school only (see Table 6.4).
The English subject in schools holds a very low status among parents and learners.
Parents’ lack of trust to the quality of instruction at Greek public schools urges them to turn to private language tuition, which almost exclusively orients to preparing students for certification exams. The attainment of language certificates becomes the ultimate goal and acts as the only yardstick for students’ competence and success. Evidence of the
243 importance of English language certificates was also traced in the proclaiment in the
English language policy of the Economic department of AUEB that allowed students with B2 or C2 level certificates to be exempted from English courses (see more in
Section 4.5.3).
Surprisingly though, students alluded to certificates in their interviews as a necessary evil since the “paper”, as they called it, though a prerequisite for their future job or continuation of their studies, it does not suffice for the accomplishment of real life business communication in English. This paradox between the value they attribute to
English language certificates and their stigmatizing of them as insufficient can only be explained by their obvious realization that learning English is a life-long learning process
(see Extracts 14 and 15). This is a rather encouraging finding as although students commented on the importance of certificates, which possibly stems from the Greek public sector’s job requirement for foreign language certificates, some voiced concern and suggested changing the learning goals in view of the future international communicative needs.
When asked to refer to their English language learning experience, some interviewees mentioned that lessons were teacher-centered and grammar-heavy, with much of the instruction conducted in Greek. There was little or no opportunity for practicing or applying skills that are necessary for successful future communication in
English. Thus, despite spending about eight to ten years of English instruction (see more about the respondents’ learning experience in Section 6.2.1) as soon as they became young adults they still lacked the confidence and the necessary skills to use the language.
The internship experience provoked this realization as some were suddenly expected to
244 communicate effectively in a business context. For instance, Maria, whose learning experience was very limited in the small town that she grew up, was shocked by the demands for English use in her work context. As she remarked, she never managed to respond to that challenge in a positive way due to lack of confidence and skills. On the contrary, students with internship experiences abroad showed more self-confidence. This is probably the reason why ELF communicative experiences play such a significant role in the formation of different identities and attitudes towards English and accents.
8.3 Research Question 2: What is the students’ identity in relation to English?
Attitudes and identity interrelated in this research (see Table 6.31) as well as in others
(e.g. Galloway, 2011) since the students’ views about their identity as language users had affected their attitudes and vice versa. Consequently, this research investigated the way
Greek Business students relate to English. In other words, it tried to explore what kind of identity Greek Business School students construct in relation to English.
The questionnaire results revealed that the majority of students embrace the idea of communicating their thoughts and feelings with the rest of the world using English
(see Table 6.17). Following Gal (2013), who suggested exploring what speakers think about the “interpersonal significance of knowing or not knowing English” (p. 179), the interview results (e.g. Extracts 3, 24 and 25) verified this idea of interpersonal involvement. Many students talked about expressing their feelings more easily in
English, building rapport, sharing humour and promoting solidarity with their interlocutors as other researchers have argued (Cogo & Jenkins, 2010; Kalocsai, 2011;
245 Phan, 2009). Likewise, others highlighted an interpersonal element in the use of ELF in intercultural business meetings (also in Poncini, 2002; 2013). !
Moreover, this research, following the postmodernist tradition, tried to explore whether students claim ownership of English, and examined identity the way it is performed. The students’ narratives proved very interesting as they demonstrated how speakers of English (i.e. the interviewees) do not only relate to the language but also take ownership of English and appropriate it for their purposes (e.g. Extracts 22 and 25). The subliminal and natural use of English in the everyday life signified their identification with the language and the way it facilitated various purposes such as self-exploration or communication of their own feelings. In this sense, students were able to reflect on their multiple linguistic and cultural memberships and negotiate their identity as non-native language users.
A lot of ELF research testifies that “ELF users cannot be categorized as
‘permanent’ learners but users of English in their own right” (Seidlhofer, Breiteneder &
Pitzl, 2006, p. 20). Participation in international exchanges and activities that involve
ELF communication allows interlocutors to step into the role of ELF users communicating in a meaningful and effective way (e.g. Lamb, 2009; Vettorel, 2013;
Virkkula & Nikula, 2011). In Vettorel’s (2013) study that took place in an Italian school setting, the primary school children interacted with their peers from other European countries using English as the shared lingua franca. Several ELF communication features
(e.g. pragmatic strategies, code-switching to signal cultural identity etc.) characterized the children’s communicative exchanges, who managed to “stretch their linguistic resources for self-expression and communication” (ibid, p. 147). Rothoni (2015) provided
246 empirical data of the literary practices of young Greeks highlighting the creative and personally meaningful ways in which teenagers use English in everyday life in order to meet their personal needs and goals.
Other studies (Canagarajah, 1999; Erling, 2007; Phan, 2008, 2009) coincide with the findings of the present research. For instance, in Phan’s (2009) study, students
“enjoyed multiple positions with respect to English and identified themselves with
English in diverse ways…their taking ownership of English seemed to permeate and facilitate all these purposes” (p. 212). Likewise, in Nikula’s study (2007), students claimed ownership of English by the way they were using it in Finnish Biology and
Physics CLIL classrooms, and mostly ascribed to an identity as English users rather than learners. In this research, students see themselves as ELF users though at the same time traits of their identification as English learners are also evident. Research has shown (e.g.
Zeiss, 2010) that the learner/user categorical distinction is problematic. The findings of the present study can perhaps be explained by the students’ expressed wish to engage in life-long learning (see more in Section 8.2.4 and Extracts 14 and 15 in Chapter 7), which is promising rather than negative. As the author of the bestseller book “Mindset” argued, people who see their skills as dynamic and changeable are able to continually grow their abilities and soar to great heights (Dweck, 2012).
Very few students (9.8%) perceived the use of English as a threat to their identity
(see Table 6.17). It is rather a language “deforeignized to become common property” as
Widdowson (2013, p. 192-193) remarked. This was further explored in the interviews since the questionnaire results did not prove very insightful. Students were asked whether
247 they agreed or not with Anna Diamantopoulou’s107 suggestion108 for English to become a second official language in Greece. The reason why this question was chosen was because Diamantopoulou’s proposition had evoked serious concerns and reactions.
Though she revised her initial suggestion with a new statement (20 November 2001), according to which “the official state has to ensure that citizens become fluent in languages” and that “English should be made available as an instrument of communication, learning and work for everybody”, the revised proposal was still condemned by the majority of MPs, the Church and various societies, academics, linguists and readers. The interviewees though negative to that proposal, did not view it as a threat to their identity. As they claimed, they just saw no point in adopting English as a second official language in Greece.
Apparently, the students in this research do not confine themselves strictly into black and white situations. Greece has historically tried to emphasize its cultural differences and uniqueness compared to the outer world. Isocrates expressed this thought109 in the following:
For your superiority which distinguishes you from other countries does not consist
in military science nor in the goodness of your constitution or the continuity of
your ancestral laws but in that which distinguishes men from other living !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 107 Anna Diamantopoulou was the Greek European Union Commissioner in 2001. Her name was deliberately not mentioned in the interview question so as to avoid any positive or negative dispositions.
108 In her interview (Kathimerini, 18 November 2001, p. 8) Diamantopoulou stressed the need for less “work languages” in the E.U. and revealed her fear for Greece’s language exclusion (γλωσσικός αποκλεισµός). Diamantopoulou moved on to suggest the adoption of English as a second official language.
109 The same idea was also expressed in Panegyricus (IV, 47 f.): “Our city has so far surpassed the rest of mankind in wisdom and its expression that her disciples have become the teachers of the world, and the name of Greek no longer denotes a race but a kind of intellect and men are called Greek rather because they share our education than because of community of blood” (as cited in Webster, 1948, p. 104-105).
248 creatures and Greeks from barbarians; you are better educated than the rest in
thought and its expression. (cited in Webster, 1948, p. 104)
Nevertheless, it appears that the students of the present research realize that by developing a somewhat dynamic notion of identity and accepting that the similarities across cultures far exceed their differences, Greek people will become more empowered.
The realization of multiple identities will allow them to behave more appropriately and consciously in specific situations. To develop this idea of multiple identities one should travel and engage themselves in as many intercultural communicative situations as possible. Those experiences become immensely important and allow young adults to see the world through different lens. This takes into account the interesting consequences of people interacting in a lingua franca. In this sense, cultures and languages exist in harmony and boundaries are diminished.
An interesting and fundamental issue among previous studies was that most
English speakers want to sound like NSs. Almost half of the respondents in this study’s questionnaire revealed a clear favouring of NS accents (see Table 6.17 and Extracts 17 and 29). What is interesting to note though, is that their comments about their own and other non-native or native English accents revealed ambiguity. To be more specific, interviewees feel that NNSs’ English is not “perfect”, “nice” and “beautiful” because of their foreign accents revealing positive attitudes towards NS accents. On the other hand,
NNS accents are more “interesting”, “colourful” and “intriguing”. While many were
ELF-aware they seemed to be positive towards NSs and NS accents. Their lexical choices demonstrated that they hold NS accents in high esteem even though they believe they are unattainable for them (e.g. Agape). Yet, this does not create sentiments of failure to
249 young students. It is interesting to explain this ambivalence here. The findings also reveal that although some students want to sound like a NS, they wish to sound Greek at the same time unlike other studies (in Asia), where students did not want to maintain their local accents in English (e.g. Ren, Chen & Lin, 2016). Such inconsistency may be due to the fact that they take pride in being Greek. It seems that the Greek identity as expressed in their Greek accent is a fact that not only makes them feel proud as Greek but is also a sign of their wish to remain “distinct” from non-Greeks and other cultures.
For the participants of this study, their preference towards NS accents may originate from their interest in Anglo-American cultures as well as their exposure to these cultures through the Internet, movies, songs, and so forth. It could also be explained by the prestigious role that English traditionally enjoyed in Greece especially after World
War II (see more in Section 4.1.1). The respondents largely claim to speak AmE due to the high levels of exposure to it, though BrE was seen as more formal and better suited to formal contexts. Their familiarity with the American culture and accent is also evident in their claims about their self-perceived understanding of accents (see Table 6.6). While
37.6% of students report that they understand American accents a lot, only 20.7% claim the same about British people. Similarly, the questionnaire results revealed a tendency towards the American variety with regards to films and music as opposed to the British variety (see Table 6.14), which again manifests the influence of Hollywood films and
American music industry. It may also imply the influence of the USA to the Greek modernisation after the Greek civil war, as Bouzakis (1999, p. 94) has argued (see more in Section 4.1.1).
250 Interestingly though, a sophisticated accent could more easily convince the future interlocutor of the validity of one’s saying, as some of the interviewees’ comments indicated. This could be explained by the fact that the RP was used among higher-class
Britons and its association with high status (Trudgill, 2001). Therefore, it often signalled high social status and correlated with intelligence and higher education. Marianna is probably subconsciously aware of that, which is why she thinks that a “PROPER” accent
(by “PROPER” she means the RP) is the one and only accent that could indicate a higher status. On the other hand, other British accents might imply a lower status or lower academic intelligence and are thus rejected (Trudgill, 2000).
In fact, people tend to evaluate language varieties in a hierarchical manner, valuing Standard varieties higher than non-Standard, as studies in Korea (Shim, 1994) and Argentina (Friedrich, 2003) have shown. For instance, in Friedrich’s (2003) study, the students’ goal for NS accuracy interrelated with opportunities for enhancing their employability. According to Friedrich (2003), the socio-linguistic environment (i.e. the economic crisis in Argentina) explained this finding.
It might also be the case, then, that the Greeks still influenced by discordant thoughts as to which is the right way to speak, are being harsh on any adoption of an
“improper” form of English (meaning NNS English). To quote Sifakis (2012),
“views on standard language and proper expression, of either the
mother tongue or the foreign language, are particularly acute in
Greece. Perhaps this makes the possibility to accept that a language
can be equally effective as a communication tool among non native
speakers, without the rigidity of a standard language”. (ibid, p.
251 321110)
Probably the reason for adherence to NS norms does not lie exclusively on what
Phillipson (1992) calls “linguistic imperialism” (p. 47). It might be the case that the
Greeks have an inner inclination towards speaking a “proper” form of a language that is rooted in the socio-political background of the language question in Greece (see more about the language question in Section 4.7.2). It is quite likely that this norm orientation of Greek speakers relates to the diglossic history of Greece as other researchers have remarked (i.e. Sifakis & Sougari, 2005, p. 472). This is not surprising, as a country’s socio-political and socio-linguistic background impacts on the people’s perceptions and affects their beliefs.
Nevertheless, students who had more ELF communicative experiences stressed the importance of intelligibility in English interactions (see Section 7.5.3) and seemed to be more confident as opposed to those who had limited experiences of communication in
English. These interviewees have reached a point where they no longer consider imitation of NSs as a dead-end solution in order to communicate effectively in international contexts. Likewise, evidence for more favourable orientation to ELF and intelligibility can be found in Jenkins (2007) or Kalocsai (2011, 2014). The narratives of “ELF experienced” students made reference to a number of accommodation techniques (e.g. repetition, body language) that were useful during their interactions with other NNSs of
English (see Sections 7.7.2 and 7.7.3). Similarly, in other studies (e.g. Ke & Cahyani,
2014), the students commented on the importance of intelligibility over the attainment of
NS grammar.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 110 The translation is the researcher’s responsibility. 252 Overall, the interviewees emphasized the importance of successful communication that is not based on grammar attainment. In other words, they seem ready to embrace - though not actually worded by the participants themselves - a new reality.
This means that they would not need to reach a native level of competence and as soon as they got rid of this barrier they would be more confident, especially in the workplace. In fact, advocates of ELF are open to models of non-native English and emphasize communication over grammatical perfection. They also stress the significance of building relationships and working towards shared understanding. This means that specific communicative goals are set rather than sterile grammatical drills, sometimes allowing for some non-standard forms as long as communication is accomplished.
The majority of interviewees is aware of the potential ELF use in their future personal lives or career path. This finding though, contrasts with the questionnaire results according to which most students believed they would use English with NSs mostly (see
Table 6.21). Also, the students’ narratives unveiled equilibrium between their lingua- cultural identities and new group identities as in other studies (Ehrenreich, 2009, 2010,
2011). These findings are in contrast to the deficit position that some researchers (e.g.
Byram, 2008; House, 2002) have adopted, in which ELF is culturally and identity neutral and using a lingua franca is viewed as impoverished and simplified that “diminishes them as human beings” (Byram, 2008, p. 198).
Almost all Greek business students believe that NNS-NNS communication is much easier, more comfortable and provides safe space for more self-development and identity transformation. Participants with more experience of ELF communicative situations viewed English as a vehicle for emotional expression, knowledge
253 dissemination and exchange of views with other NNSs of English. Those students stressed the important role of friendships and talked about a different kind of self that they developed through their contact with foreigners. It seems that ELF communicative experiences allowed specific students to redefine themselves, be more confident of their communicative skills, as well as become open-minded and extroverted. As they claimed, extroversion is key not only to personal development but also social and societal transformation.
In skimming through the findings, the reader will notice an unspoken wish to belong to a community of practice among the students with more ELF communicative experiences, particularly during their internships. These students recognize themselves as being part of a global community that travels a lot, uses the Internet and social media, uses English for their communication (sometimes Greeklish as well) and has many friends from abroad. It seems that ELF experiences create not only challenges but also meaningful opportunities to form new social bonds and connect with their identities as others have found (e.g. Kalocsai, 2009). Kalocsai (2009), for instance, investigated the way Erasmus students socialized into new communities of practice. Byram’s (2008) notion of “intercultural citizenship” is more relevant for the Greek students in this research. The skills they have developed through their experience of ELF communicative exchanges, as well as their competence and stance to ELF use, allow them to renegotiate their identity and identify with other “intercultural citizens” or citizens of the world who possess similar abilities and mentality.
Also, many reported using Greeklish, which Sifakis (2012) relates to the need for differentiation that the youth cultures express. In fact, some of the interviewees of this
254 research expressed this “collective identity” that transcends borders and is easily recognizable and accepted by young people (Sifakis, 2012, p. 316). In relation to identity it can be deduced that language choice (e.g. English loan words) during interviews or code switching manifests the expression of this “collective identity” that differentiates these students from others. The actual language use (e.g. via code-switching) must not be underestimated. Hall (2012) argues that “[i]n our use of language we represent a particular identity at the same time that we construct it” (p. 34). This kind of “we/they” implicit expression of identity possibly indicates the need to participate in a cosmopolitan community, a cosmopolitan way of thinking, whose ‘members’ see no boundaries and claim no language.
The need to express a collective identity is not surprising and can be easily explained. BBC’s survey ‘Who do we think we are?’ interviewed 2.571 UK adults asking them to report on whether they felt more or less connected to others than a decade ago.
The findings showed that more people in the UK felt that ties and links to the global community were stronger rather than weaker (Easton, 2014). The key to understanding this finding is technology, according to the chief executive of Ipsos Morri, which carried out the poll. Moreover, the social anthropologist Kate Fox explained that “[t]he human brain is wired to live in small close-knit tribal groups, [t]he dynamics of those groups is what we are able to recreate with new technology. We’re recreating tribal social dynamics with Facebook, Twitter and Mumsnet” (Easton 2014).
With regards to their Greek accent it appears that it does not hinder or infringe them in any way. Instead, they feel freer because they have a choice to differentiate themselves from other NNSs, while at the same time reconnecting to their roots and
255 traditions and reassessing their heritage. The students grow and become more mature in an organic and holistic way, making the conscious decision to reach the balance between the multitude of languages available for communication and identification. One participant, Phaedra, mentions using other languages (e.g. Turkish) apart from English. In fact, Greek students’ language learning is striking (see Section 6.1.1) and explains why elements of other languages (apart from their L1) could coexist in their communication.
This corroborates Jenkins’s (2015) theorization of translanguaging and possibly strengthens her arguments for adopting “English as a multilingua franca” as a more appropriate term than ELF. Likewise, Cogo’s (2016) participants report on using various languages from their linguistic repository when necessary.
It appears that the more the world is flat or global, to use Tom Friedman111’s metaphor, the more and more people want to be different as some Greek students among the interviewees revealed (e.g. Penelope, see Extract 29, Chapter 7) that they were trying to appear more individual and find their differences among themselves. It seems that students are part of a global village but at the same time they are revising themselves through their linguistic traditions, meeting the challenges of different expectations from others and themselves.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 111 In his book “The World is Flat, 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century”, Friedman (2007) uses the metaphor of a flat world to describe in simple and practical terms the next phase of globalization, emphasizing much of the world’s complexity.
256 8.4 Research Question 3: Which factors explain/influence their attitudes and identity?
In addition to building the students’ profile in relation to their attitudes towards English and identity, this research has also provided insights into the factors that influence these attitudes and the way Greek Business School students relate to the English language.
Each of these factors will be discussed in turn starting from the associations that were formed between the students’ attitudes and their intercultural experiences.
8.4.1 Factors that influence students’ attitudes
Travelling abroad is associated with Attitudes towards English and International Posture
(see Section 6.10.1). This was further confirmed by the CHAID analysis that showed how this factor was the best predictor for Attitudes towards English (see Section 6.12.1) and the second strongest variable that influenced International Posture (see Section 6.12.2).
The influence of travelling abroad to students’ attitudes was demonstrated in other research (e.g. Galloway, 2011) as well. Travelling abroad made students more positive towards English. It is very possible that through their travelling experiences students meet people from other countries and realise not only the necessity of English for global communication but also the fact that it poses no threat for their L1.
The Erasmus experience correlated strongly with International Posture (see section 6.10.2), which was also verified by the CHAID analysis (see section 6.12.2,
Figure 6.3). The influence of the Erasmus experience can perhaps be the easiest to explain. Participation in an Erasmus programme creates many opportunities for intercultural communication, which possibly makes students more open-minded and
257 aware of the international communication needs. This might also explain why their awareness of their future communication needs is better predicted by their Erasmus experience.
The students’ motivation towards learning English and their attitudes towards
ESP are strongly affected by their participation in an Erasmus programme. The CHAID analysis showed that this factor (i.e. participation in the Erasmus programme) was the most influential to Motivation (see Section 6.12.5, Figure 6.6) and Attitudes towards ESP
(see Section 6.12.7, Figure 6.8) and the second most influential to Intended learning effort (see Section 6.12.6). Again this might imply that students who had an Erasmus experience not only become more motivated to learn and/or improve their English, but are also more positive towards ESP. It is very possible that this experience familiarised them with future international communication and made them realise the importance of
English for international business communication.
No association was found between the Internship experience and the variables under investigation. This was further verified by the CHAID analysis. However, the use of English during internship and the context of internships influenced a lot students’ perceptions and identity as the qualitative results showed. This finding will be explained further in this section.
The use of English during internship revealed a correlation with International
Posture (see Table 6.26). However, it wasn't verified by the CHAID analysis, which might mean that though there is an association between them the direction is not clear. In other words, it is not clear whether it is the use of English during internships that had affected International posture or the students’ open-mindedness that urged them use
258 English mostly. The CHAID analysis proved that the use of English during internship had affected students’ Intended learning effort (see Figure 6.7) and less their motivation (see
Figure 6.6). Finally, the use of English during internship seems to act as a motivating factor for students. The CHAID analysis showed that it affects more the Intended learning effort and it is the second best predictor for their motivation. This finding might denote two things. First, that the experience of using English during their internship made students realise the necessity of being competent in English. Second, those students may have noticed their inefficiencies, which urged them to become more motivated and strive more to improve their English skills.
In relation to the use of English, the questionnaire results showed that Greek students are exposed to English on quite a regular basis (see Table 6.8, Section 6.2.5).
Nevertheless, in comparison with other studies (Erling, 2004; Preisler, 2003) that investigated the English use in the Danish population (Preisler, 2003) and among students of English in Berlin (Erling, 2004), Greek business students hear English at least once a day (65.1%), which is, less than the average Dane (80%). Though Greeks do not have many opportunities to speak English, they hear English quite a lot (see more in Table
8.1). Presumably this is because movies are not dubbed into Greek and so Greeks are exposed a lot more to English than Spanish or Italians for instance. The fact that Greek students do not practice very often their oral English skills through speaking is probably the reason for their lack of confidence and their incompetence for successful communication in English as explained before (see 8.2.4).
259 Table 8.1 Greek Business School students’ use of English compared to the Danish and German population At least once a day At least once a week Greek Freie Danish Greek Freie Danish students Universität population students Universität population Hear English 65.1% 6.3% 80% 10.7% 67% 93%
Read in English 25.8% 23.8% 50% 22.7% 76.8% 88%
Speak English 7.3% 12.5% 9% 25% 76.5% 27%
Write in English 12.8% 19% 4% 25.2% 60.5% 12%
Moreover, Greek Business students use the Internet a lot as well as social media (e.g.
Facebook) (see Table 6.10). The use of English (in written form) in social media is remarkable. This was evidenced in their Facebook comments as well as the observation of their profiles (see Section 7.9). The Facebook use provides them with many opportunities for exposure to English. A large scale European survey112 showed that the average active social media penetration rate in European countries is 40%. Greece was ranked 26th with 41% of Internet users being monthly active social media users, logging on at least once per month. However, the majority of this study’s participants (72.6%) claimed that they use social media on a daily basis.
When trying to test whether the extent of English use played any role in the attitude formation, the results were very interesting. The use of English was strongly associated with Attitudes towards English, International Posture, Awareness of future
English use, Identity, and Intended learning effort (see Table 6.30). Nevertheless, this was not verified by the CHAID analysis. This finding may imply that the relationship between the use of English and the afore-mentioned variables may not be a linear one. In
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 112http://www.statista.com/statistics/295660/active-social-media-penetration-in-european-countries/
! 260 other words, it is not clear whether the use of English affects the students’ attitudes,
International Posture, Awareness of future English use, Identity and Intended learning effort or the variables in question influence students’ use of English. The direction of affect between the factor (use of English) and the variable under investigation is not clear.
Nevertheless, there is a distinct link. To be more specific, it is interesting to note that the use of English is implicitly embedded in “travelling abroad” and “participation in an Erasmus programme” as English is the language that was mostly used in their interactions (see Section 6.4.1). The impact of the use of English on students’ attitudes was found in previous research (Galloway, 2011; Phan, 2009), though another study’s
(Zeiss, 2010) findings did not reveal any correlation between the frequency of English use and the students’ perceptions.
The interviews uncovered yet another aspect of the use of English. From the point of view of some interviewees, it appears that the subliminal use of English has made it part of their lives and at the same time it affects their perceptions. By viewing English as a means to communicate with others, make friends and keep updated about world news, they manifest their strong positive attitudes towards English. Likewise, Yu’s (2010)
Chinese participants stressed that English competence provides access to information.
Nevertheless, it is still not clear whether it is the use of English that affects their attitudes or their positive lean towards English makes them use the language more often.
Participation in the Erasmus programme, travelling abroad and the use of English during internship seem to have affected more the variables under investigation as the
CHAID analysis of quantitative data revealed. If an umbrella term could be used for
261 those three factors, it could be experiences of intercultural communication in ELF contexts, to match previous studies. The results showed that students with more intercultural experiences or opportunities for ELF communication take a different stance.
This finding was evident in both the statistical results (see Section 6.12) and the interview data (Chapter 7) of the present research.
Similarly, experience abroad and ELF experiences influenced students’ attitudes towards English as other studies have shown (Galloway, 2011; Phan, 2009; Yu, 2010).
The literature also demonstrated how globalization had affected students’ attitudes (Al-
Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Erling, 2004). The impact of globalisation was evidenced in that research as students were exposed to English language on a daily basis and realised its necessity for their current and future communication at an international level. Experience with international students had also affected the students’ motivation in Yu’s (2010) research though this finding was not verified by the interview results.
8.4.2 Factors that affected identity
Travelling abroad is associated with Identity (see Section 6.10.1). This was further confirmed by the CHAID analysis that showed how this factor was the best predictor for
Identity (see Section 6.12.4). The most influential factor that influenced Awareness was the Erasmus experience as the CHAID analysis showed (see Section 6.12.3, Figure 6.4).
This finding can perhaps be explained as the Erasmus programme experience creates many opportunities for intercultural communication, and that possibly makes students more aware of their future international communication needs.
When trying to test whether the English use played any role in the attitude
262 formation, the results were very interesting. The use of English was strongly associated with Awareness of future English use and Identity (see Table 6.30). Nevertheless, this was not verified by the CHAID analysis. This finding suggests that there is no linear relationship between Identity and the use of English, in other words, it is not clear that the
English use may affect identity. Nevertheless, the use of English is implicitly embedded in Travelling abroad (see Section 6.12.4) and Erasmus experience (see Section 6.12.3) that statistically proved their influence towards identity.
Similar findings are demonstrated in Ehrenreich’s (2011) research. The participants in Ehrenreich’s (2011) study identified themselves with the use of English and remarked on the fact that English had become a “second nature” to them (p. 22).
Though the interviewees in the present research did not explicitly characterize English as
“our English” as one TechComp’s manager in Ehrenreich’s (2011, p. 22) study put it, they still provided enough evidence of identification with the way they used English.
Despite not verbalizing it, both their narratives and the way they used the language (e.g. code-switching instances, use of English loan words) during their interviews attested to that. Moreover, the way some participants talked about NNS accents signalled affinity with other NNSs with the same ‘shortcoming’. Clearly, the experience of using English in various contexts had a significant impact on the positions adopted.
Moreover, Virkkula and Nikula’s (2010) study demonstrated the impact of internships abroad on engineering students’ self-image and identities. Though the participants positioned themselves discursively as unsuccessful learners signalling the power assigned to NSs (p.261), their perceptions in that study changed after their stay
263 abroad. The interviewees’ communication difficulties had diminished and students were able to actively participate in English language use.
Also, seeing themselves in a more favourable light compared to NSs was a clear indication of a shared non-nativeness among the students in the present study. Any deviation from NS norms was an identity statement rather than a problem. It seems that the reality of globalization allows university students, as well as teenagers in other studies
(e.g. Csizèr & Dörnyei, 2005), to form a wide community of practice expressing their interests and ideas more often in English than in their L1 as English becomes part of their communicative medium that transcends boundaries and cultures.
8.4.3 Shared perspective and communities of practice
Both the survey and interview data indicate that there is something of a mismatch between travelling abroad and the intercultural experiences the respondents developed. In particular, travelling abroad emerged as a necessary but not sufficient condition for the development of a different mentality. Almost everyone has travelled, but on the other hand it is rarely the key or determining factor in an intercultural and open-minded student profile. Following Blommaert’s (2010) suggestion for emphasising the language events and experiences rather than focusing on language as “form and meaning” (p. 100), the emphasis on students’ narratives of their intercultural experiences proved really helpful.
One of the things they revealed was the students’ wish to overcome miscommunication problems. This stemmed from their own wish to communicate and focus on the similarities with their interlocutors rather than their differences.
The students’ comments in their interviews have come to remind us that there is
264 no black and white issue with English. English is used as a means of communication and that involves all kinds of colours. It entails different accents, lots of “mistakes” according to NS norms and so forth, which by no means hinder communication. On the contrary, they add all rainbow colours and make ELF interactions more cheerful and interesting.
It is not surprising that when students mentioned their ELF experiences and referred to communication breakdowns they all sounded very excited by their experiences. Their laughter and absence of seriousness with which they handled those communication problems is indicative of their attitudes. After all, acknowledging differentiation is fair for everyone who has ever tried to learn a foreign language as they reported. The need to ignore evidence of mistakes is powerful; to do otherwise would fuel discrimination and cause uneasiness to interlocutors. Ironically, speaking of mistakes and trying to use “perfect” English would not only hinder communication but perpetuate problems as interlocutors would never feel comfortable enough to communicate and shape their relations. In other words it is a privilege to ignore any inconsistencies and mistakes.
The intercultural experiences of ELF use offered a glimpse into the obstacles and challenges associated with the effort to communicate in an ostensibly diverse context.
The students allowed themselves to be vulnerable and make mistakes. What is more, they chose to see the good when others see the bad. Misjudging situations is in fact based on previous experiences and deeply rooted beliefs. However, what they managed to do was to let go of all their judgments and misconceptions and accept all possibilities. Instead of being obsessed with details, focusing on faults and trying to control the outcomes (i.e. their production of English) they concentrated on having positive and empowering
265 feelings. In Virkkula and Nikula’s (2010) research, the interviewees expressed similar thoughts in their empowering experiences. In this way, they became more trusting and empathetic (see Phaedra’s comments in Extracts 28 and 30) and eventually more content and happy.
An interesting finding was the emergence of a shared perspective. In this sense,
AIESEC members identified with other members positioning themselves in more favourable terms when compared to non-members. The students’ expressions conveyed a sense of proximity between members of AIESEC. This sense of belongingness can be more constructively understood under the SDT theory of Ryan and Deci (2002) (see more in 3.3.2). Presumably relatedness involves feelings of security created in a warm and welcoming interaction with other people in that ‘community’. This security can enhance the exploratory spirit in all humans and, as Markezinis (2011) has succinctly pointed out, allow people to dream, explore themselves and create their future. In this study, members of AIESEC envisaged themselves as members of a global community that shapes a mentality, which in its turn affects their self-exploration and dreams about their future life.
For these particular participants, their ELF experiences were not only empowering but also enlightening as they helped them become more open-minded and develop a different mentality. As Henderson and Louhiala-Salminen (2011) stated, in global professional contexts “using one dominant language for communication does not mean that common ground is automatically established, although it is recognized that common ground is indispensable for the building of trust” (p. 16).! Therefore, using a common lingua franca does not suffice. Common ground is established when
266 interlocutors share the same mentality and openness or awareness and not just the same language.
In an era when Forbes magazine declares, “the ability to collaborate is the new competitive advantage” (Satell, 2015), Greek business students seem to be fully aware of the need to focus on similarities rather than differences between themselves and others in their international communication. ELF communication in business contexts requires communication, full immersion in a collaborative manner, respect and trust for each other’s skills and personal traits. A collaborative and open mindset is endorsed and strengthened by their identification with English.
Concluding remarks
This chapter discussed the findings in relation to the socio-political context of Greece. It also provided a comparison of the findings in relation to other studies. The findings confirm those from other studies yet provide further insights. This study has revealed a number of factors that influence students’ attitudes and identity in relation to English.
Additionally, it demonstrated a strong interpersonal aspect that affects the students’ attitudes towards English and overall their mentality. The following final chapter will focus on the implications of this research for ESP as well as the its limitations. Finally, it will suggest areas for further research.
267 Chapter 9
Conclusion
The final chapter of this thesis reaffirms the need for the present study and draws on the main conclusions. Alluding to the findings, it provides implications for pedagogy and
ELT with particular reference to ESP teaching in tertiary contexts. A summary of the limitations of this study follows. Problems, drawbacks and challenges encountered during the study are then presented. The chapter ends with recommendations for further research.
9.1 Main conclusions drawn in relation to the need for the study
In today’s rapidly changing world, economic development, technology and globalization have all helped blur the lines of old boundaries to such an extent that old rules, processes and practices need to be re-examined. Accordingly, it is imperative that empirical work is done in order to catch up with the constant reshaping of the world’s sociopolitical order and the gradually changing landscape of work. The present study stemmed from an interest in preparing Greek students for successful future communication at the workplace. Considering that English is the global language of business communication, it is important that future graduates become aware of what BELF communication entails, but also acquire the necessary communication skills for their future workplace.
Following Phan (2009) who claimed that the NNS “voices must be heard, not assumed”, it is important to fully grasp how NNS students perceive English so as to offer
268 more accurate implications for ESP teaching. Research in the Greek context with regards to learners’ attitudes is limited and focused primarily on motivation (e.g. Hovhannisyan,
2014; Manolopoulou-Sergi, 2001; Nikolaou, 2004). Moreover, studies on adult users of
English with a good proficiency level were scarce.
This lack of studies was found problematic and demonstrated the need for an in- depth research study on Greek students’ attitudes. The aims of this study were to provide various insights into the way English is perceived by Greek Business students and whether and how they relate to English, answering Saraceni’s (2008) call for more attention to the function of English.
In answer to the first research question (see Section 5.2) that focused on the investigation of students’ attitudes towards English and ELF, the findings demonstrate that students believe that English serves as the main communication language and that
English is an undisputable tool for their connection with the rest of the world, their scientific update and their professional development. Students embrace the opportunity for the internationalization of higher education in Greece and refer to the need for an extroverted mentality. Locating this research in the socio-economic context of Greece proved interesting as it brought the role of the debt crisis to the fore. The students stressed the repercussions of the crisis for their future job prospects. They also underscored the negative aspects of the obsession with obtaining English language certificates in Greece and recognized the importance of cultivating the competence and skills associated with successful international business communication. What is notable about this finding was the students’ unconscious awareness of Widdowson’s (2003) distinction between language as an object and language as a subject. The first category
269 refers to the use of English in worldwide communication that is characterized by diversity and hybridity, whereas the latter implies the formal study of English and possibly the necessity to stick to grammatical standardness. Consequently, this awareness as well as the students’ negative attitudes towards ESP allow for a nuanced consideration of issues surrounding diversity in BELF communication. Therefore, some tentative suggestions are made based on the premise of these findings (see Section 9.3).
The second research question (see Section 5.2) explored students’ identity in relation to English. What became apparent from both the questionnaire contradictory statements and the interview data (particularly on issues that pertain to NS accents), was a complexity and ambiguity that might simply substantiate the way Greek Business
School students make sense of the diversity and complexity of today’s world. Students noted that they neither want to assume a NS identity nor wish to express only their L1 identity. The findings substantiated the way English use had helped them develop it as part of their identity. Students expressed their feelings and claimed ownership of English, while using it for their own purposes. English facilitated their self-exploration and contributed to the building of a new self as NNS users. Though students expressed the wish to sound like NSs, intelligibility was given priority over following NS standards.
The students did not downgrade NNS accents but they found them interesting as they added colour to ELF communicative situations. They rather wished to stand out as individuals characterized by a specific mentality that allows space for different accents and coloured voices. Different accents and mistakes were not only welcomed in the students’ conversations but created an interesting amalgamation and a kind of “collective identity” (Sifakis, 2012) that ELF-experienced students performed.
270 Moreover, what is interesting to note from the incongruity in students’ questionnaire responses (see Section 6.9.3) is the fact that identity is a very delicate issue and questionnaire statements do not suffice for capturing the participants’ real thoughts about the issue. Therefore, this research focused among other issues, on the users’ own stories of language use and their own sense of their communicative experiences rather than on the language-use situations as such. Nevertheless, the participants’ specific choice of words and unaware use of English during interviews or while commenting on
Facebook posts provided more evidence to the way they actually perform their identity.
In fact, while they claim that they do not view English as part of their identity, their frequent use of the language and their code-switching provided evidence that it is not just a means for communication but rather part of their linguistic repertoire and their own being. This became clearer when they referred to the interpersonal significance of using
English. In this thesis, arguments about identity were based on analyzing and making sense of what the participants said about using English and how they positioned themselves in relation to English.
In an attempt to answer the third research question (see 5.2), this research also tested the parameters that can influence students’ attitudes towards English and BELF as well as their identity. ELF experiences were found to be the most influential to students’ attitudes and identity. The ELF use through intercultural experiences offered a glimpse into the obstacles and challenges associated with the effort to communicate in a diverse context and offered the opportunity to students to develop a different mentality and become more extrovert and open-minded. The respondents recognized the importance of cultivating the competence and skills associated with successful intercultural business
271 communication. Students with ELF experiences exposed familiarity with interactional and linguistic strategies (e.g. repetition, clarification, accommodation). Interestingly, these participants revealed that they go through a process of reflection and self- understanding that resembles Kvale’s traveller metaphor in the sense that “[t]he journey may instigate a process of reflection that leads to new ways of self-understanding as well as uncovering previously taken-for-granted values and customs” (Kvale, 1996, p. 4).!!!
!
9.2 Contribution of the research
The present research adds to our knowledge as it sought to gain holistic insights into language attitudes and emphasizes on the complex relations both among and within language attitudes, identity and context of English use. The ELF field of enquiry should be seen as “a vehicle for a more grounded and holistic treatment of language more generally, which can engage with and inform wider areas of linguistics” (Baird, Baker &
Kitazawa, 2014, p. 173). Baird et al. (2014) are right when they view ELF communication as involving a number of “interrelated complex systems” (p. 183).
As globalization has triggered shifts into perceptions of English, this research is important because it gives voice to university students’ perspectives and personal experiences. The findings of this research provide useful insights for any changes in pedagogic practices that are likely to occur in order to adjust to new perspectives and make courses more relevant to the future graduates’ needs. The outcomes of this research are timely and expected to shape upcoming university reforms contributing largely to forming a syllabus in ESP in Greece. Moreover, this research locates English language attitudes in the Greek social, economic and political context, while trying to justify the
272 incongruity of students’ answers. The study provided hints of the influence of the Greek socio-political past that seems to be recorded in the collective unconscious of the present generations. This discussion reinforces a better understanding of Greek students’ perceptions and the way they identify with English.
The present study is important also because it enlightens the incongruous and hard to explain identity issues with the help of in-depth interviews. Moreover, the use of social media data gave a more innovative glimpse into attitudes and identity research in the under-researched Greek context. At the same time, this study enlightens the interpersonal function of ELF communication answering Saraceni’s (2008) call for ELF research’s attention to the function. Also, it sheds more light into the work context and shows how it can influence students’ attitudes and identification with English. Internships abroad and membership in youth international organizations involve exposure to situations where participants are confronted with key issues arising in today’s work environments. Those situations involve taking up specific roles and duties that follow a daily agenda and require specific skills. The following sections will provide implications for ESP teaching as well as teacher education. It will also comment on the study’s limitations and offer suggestions for further research.
9.3. Implications of the research
Based on the research findings, this section will provide some implications for pedagogy and more specifically for ESP teaching in Greece and abroad. Though not in a prescriptive manner, it will discuss recommendations for incorporating a more holistic
273 approach in the teaching of ESP taking into consideration the role of English in international business communication.
9.3.1 Implications for ESP
The findings of this research indicate that measures should be taken in order to reverse the whole situation with regards to ESP teaching. Negative attitudes and feelings towards
ESP demotivate and discourage students from attending relevant ESP courses. In this case students are deprived of the opportunity to enhance their language skills and attain skills needed for their future international business communication. Universities should perhaps better promote the importance of ESP courses so as to attract students’ attention as well as inform them about the differences between ESP courses and English as a school subject in order to avoid any misconceptions. Moreover, this research has shown how Greek young students reposition themselves and the way they make their remote voices heard through their membership in communities of practice that they create in the sphere of a shared mentality. Maybe the key to a new approach and paradigm shift in
ELT and ESP pedagogy lies in Jameson’s (2007) argument for “an expanded concept of cultural identity” that would “reduce the past privileging of nationality; highlight components directly related to business, such as economic class and vocational affiliation; enrich intercultural business communication studies and show how culture not only connects people but also defines them as unique individuals” (p. 200).
In addition to that, one of the most important findings of this research was the emergence of a shared mentality among students who had real life communicative experiences during their internships. To be more specific, the students’ different
274 mentality or ethos was not taught but rather built through their experiences. Considering the advantages that real life communication had for the development of certain skills and attitudes, suggestions could be made for adding a “naturalistic” learning component in the teaching of ESP. Suggestions are made, though not in a prescriptive manner, for a more naturalistic learning approach, one that would be based on students’ immersion in real life BELF scenarios.
Other scholars have referred to the importance of exposure to the use of English in business communication for the future professional life (Kankaanranta et al., 2015, p.
136). Moreover, “[t]he overall competences needed in today’s global business professions require a complex synthesis of experience, knowledge, skills, traits and attitudes (cf. Cardy & Selvarajan, 2006 in Kankaanranta et al., 2015, pp. 136-137).
A holistic approach is therefore needed for business and economics education.
Traditional courses based on lectures should perhaps be limited. The watchword should be cooperative learning where students learn from each other and interactive teaching. A different approach to language teaching, one that would include blended learning could be refreshing. 21st century skills (e.g. IT knowledge) should be taken into consideration.
A combination of e-learning modules with traditional methods of teaching, group work, e-group113 work, case studies and research projects would bring an innovative perspective into ESP teaching. For instance, project work would contribute to the development not only of specialized language skills but also interpersonal skills. In fact, when companies are assessing job candidates they are looking for people who are not only proficient in a particular function but also have the personality that fits the demands at the level of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 113 By e-group work the researcher means group work that is facilitated by Internet use. Students from different countries, or universities could work on the same project using Skype or other web facilities for their communication.
275 professional communication. Since the landscape of work is not fixed but constantly changing, key work skills are redefined and more attention is given on personality traits and skills. In international work contexts, problem-solving skills, accommodation strategies, flexibility, open-mindedness and intercultural awareness are among the skills required for today’s globalized workplace.
Through this interactive way of learning, students would gain confidence in the use of English and set of competences in dealing with various work situations. While participating in authentic BELF scenarios emphasis should be placed on verbal communication and intercultural issues answering the students’ need for more real-life interactions in English. Those would include from making small talk and introducing oneself to dealing with misunderstandings and solving problems. Phone communication is also a very interesting subject theme as future graduates should be prepared to make and receive phone calls, arrange appointments or deal with complaints over the phone to name just a few. Presentation skills should also be part of the teaching agenda as future graduates should be able to deliver high impact presentations to international audience
(e.g. presenting their ideas, summarizing, using virtual aids or handling questions in an efficient manner). Finally, business meetings and written communication (e.g. emails, effective report and letter writing, etc.) are suggested topic themes since they form an integral part of business reality.
Speaking of internationalisation of higher education in Greece involves many aspects that should be taken into consideration. Using English as the medium of communication or increasing English teaching instruction would surely not suffice.
Internationalisation of higher education should mean confronting students with global
276 changes, infusing them with the microbe of curiosity for global surveys and cases, with different attitudes and diverse situations. Inviting academics as well as university students from other nations, could be a first step towards this direction. Greek university students would not need to envision their future communicative experiences and the problems they might encounter. Teaching and learning would come from first hand experiences rather than second hand or fabricated ones (e.g. using videos in the classroom depicting intercultural interactions in English). The possibility of organising Skype meetings and interactions with academic members and students from various backgrounds should be embraced. Now that technology comes into play, ESP instructors can employ state-of- the-art communication tools, which are so essential not only for the students’ personal but also for their future professional life. Through an innovative university course in English, one that would be driven by global awareness, students could become holistic thinkers.
An international and hemispheric perspective needs to be brought to this programme. In sum, it could be argued that the real-life practice and academic scholarship combine to provide relevant training for future graduates in all business subjects, including Business communication and Corporate communication (see also Pullin, 2015).
Moreover, the students’ comments on ESP courses and BE, point to the need for making ESP courses more meaningful and relevant to the students’ needs. That entails employing data collection methods, such as needs analysis surveys or audits in order to plan the materials and tasks that are relevant to the students’ discipline-related communicative needs (Arnó-Macià & Mancho-Barés, 2015). ESP would benefit a lot from a focused needs analysis research.
277 The findings of this research should become known to stakeholders and university teachers since attitudes play a significant role in the implications of ELF research for
ELF-oriented English teaching in tertiary education in Greece and abroad. No matter how effectively researchers demonstrate the communicative advantages of an ELF approach, unless these advantages are seen as such by those most closely involved, i.e. English language learners, instructors and NNS users in general, then any change is highly unlikely. In this respect, attitudes towards ELF and individuals’ own perceptions of their implications for them will inevitably be the principal determining factors.
9.3.2 Implications for ESP instructors and ESP teacher education
Previous researchers have come up with various implications for English language learning and teaching. Some stated the need to redesign the curriculum including more non-native models of different varieties of English (Lafaye & Tsuda, 2002) or one that would “meet the learners’ needs and expectations” (Çakici, 2007) being “relevant to their vocations in the future” (ibid, p. 34). There were also propositions for increasing ESP course hours (Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Çakici, 2007). Moreover, Erling (2004) suggested that university courses should place more emphasis on the communicative function of English rather than on teaching a particular form. Furthermore, researchers
(e.g. Kankaanranta et al., 2015; Pullin, 2015) asserted that skills that enhance intercultural understanding should be prioritized.
The teaching of ESP requires particular skills on behalf of the instructors since the objectives of the course diverge from the traditional objectives of state and private schools. Thus, the instructors’ aim should not be limited to helping learners achieve the
278 skills needed in order to pass some types of examination (see Nikolaou, 2004) but rather to enable them to communicate with other NNSs and NSs in international business communicative contexts. Learning specialist language or business terminology is one thing as some interviewees suggested. Notwithstanding this, in intercultural communicative situations students should aim at achieving their full potential for effective communication, employability and freedom to express their identity.
It is highly important that ESP instructors embrace an understanding of the current role of English today and the changes required in their teaching. Though ENL can remain as the primary model for pedagogy as a point of reference there is need for teachers to raise awareness of ELF use in reality (e.g. the notion of language variation in
ELF and the role of English in today’s world). An ELF-aware approach to ESP teaching is unquestionably important, one that would incorporate the lingua franca model into
Business English. Also, instructors should focus on techniques used in diplomatic relations, taking into consideration the cultural and linguistic demands of international business communication. Moreover, instructors themselves should aim at instilling the interest for questioning the established ideologies (e.g. focus on grammar-heavy teaching of English, attainment of NS accents). They should be able to instil a consideration of the importance of respect to diversity as well as positive attitude to accommodation techniques. Jenkins (2014), drawing on her own empirical data, calls for a “change of mind-set so that the accommodation of international students’ English language needs us not seen as ‘dumbing down’, but as the incorporation of a genuine international perspective” (p. 202). This requires for instance focusing on intelligibility and the adoption of a more open-minded perspective. Students who had more ELF
279 communication experiences were able to value accommodation skills in intercultural communication. In other words, instructors should move away from a product-based to a process-based approach (Maley, 2010). Seidlhofer and Widdowson (2009) argued that the distinctive nature of ELF lies in “the communicative strategies that its speakers use rather than in their conformity to any changed set of language norms” (p. 37-38).
This research calls for a shift in perspective in terms of both teacher education and development, and traditional ELT where English is taught based on norm-bound theories.
Also, it is expected to inform and actively involve relevant national stakeholders (i.e. government representatives, ESP instructors, employers, employees etc.) in discussing future policy options. One of its main goals is to contribute to policy learning and encourage the national and international dialogue with regards to internships.
9.4 Limitations of the research
The main limitations for this research study can be summarized as follows:
Even though a great number of studies in the attitudinal field of research make use of
English language proficiency tests for a number of reasons, such as the link between ability in a language and attitude toward it (Baker, 1992), no competence test was used in the present research. The reason behind this choice lies in the discrepancies found when measuring proficiency using the prevalent NS norms (Galloway, 2011, pp. 43-44). Given that this research examines attitudes and identity from an ELF perspective it was more appropriate for the purposes of the study not to use a proficiency test.
Another limitation of this research is that, the Facebook group comments could not be used to the anticipated extent as very few comments were made and discussions
280 were limited. However, access was permitted to the participants’ Facebook profiles and the researcher managed to obtain a lot of ethnographic information that proved helpful in the analysis of students’ attitudes and identity.
Finally, this research does not capture any change in attitudes. Attitudes, in nature, are not static but change (Baker, 1992). However, due to the limited time for data collection, this study can only describe the attitudes of participants within a specified time frame. Future longitudinal studies on attitude change could definitely enhance the understanding of attitudes of Greek Business School students towards English.
9.5 Recommendations for further research
As previously mentioned (see Section 9.4), longitudinal studies on attitude change would enhance our understanding of students’ attitudes towards English also in terms of the factors that influence them. Future work could involve the exploration of attitudes and identity of the same interviewees for two or three consecutive times following the first interview. As Mauranen and Hynninen (2010) have argued “attitude measurement does not capture speakers’ immediate experience or reflection on a recently ended or still on- going situation; talking to people in the middle of their courses, whether they are students or teachers taps their experience while it is still fresh” (p. 2).
In a further step, which was, however, beyond the scope of the present research, the interviews could serve as linguistic data and be subjected to discourse analysis in its own right. Future research on students’ identity is also desirable.
Clearly, further research will be required to expand the discussion of these findings in other countries, university departments or other educational contexts (e.g.
281 vocational institutes). It might also be interesting to see whether students in private universities reveal the same attitudes and identify with English in similar ways.
A future area of research could also be a case study that would involve classroom observation and assessment of materials used for ESP courses at the Greek university.
That would provide richer insights into the actual learning experience of students in the
Greek tertiary context.
The next stage of this research could be an experimental confirmation of the study’s implications. A new Business course could be designed and tested for its effectiveness with questionnaires and interviews examining students’ attitudes and identity prior to and after the course.
Continued research on speakers’ attitudes and orientations to ELF may involve a combination of qualitative data (e.g. focus group interviews) on attitudinal orientations and identity and corpus data. The latter can provide a clearer glimpse into the speakers’ communicative practices. Moreover, focus group interviews would suit well this aim
“since the lively collective interaction may bring forth more spontaneous expressive and emotional views” (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009, p. 150).
282 Epilogue
Nikos Kazantzakis, a well-known Greek author, once said: “You have the brushes, and the colours, you just paint Paradise and get in”114. Looking at this research through the prism of this phrase, the Greek Business School students have revealed among other things that they manage to turn their life experiences - embodied in their linguistic repertoire - into a pallet of skills and emotions ready to be used for their own purposes. It is, therefore, my personal wish for this PhD thesis to act as a step or food for thought for future graduates to change by themselves.!
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! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 114 The original phrase in Greek was “Κρατάς ένα βουρτσάκι µε µπογιές, ζωγραφίζεις τον Παράδεισο και µπαίνεις µέσα” (Kazantzakis, 1961, p. 337). The translation belongs to the researcher.
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333 Appendices
! !
334
Appendix A Final Questionnaire
335 A1 Questionnaire in Greek Ρωξάνη Φαλτζή Υποψήφια Διδάκτορας Τομέας Θεωρητικής και Εφαρμοσμένης Γλωσσολογίας Τμήμα Αγγλικής γλώσσας και φιλολογίας, Α.Π.Θ.
ΕΡΕΥΝΑ ΓΙΑ ΤΙΣ ΣΤΑΣΕΙΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΨΕΙΣ ΤΩΝ ΦΟΙΤΗΤΩΝ ΓΙΑ ΤΗΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ Το ερωτηματολόγιο αυτό είναι ανώνυμο και θα χρησιμοποιηθεί για την έρευνά μου στο πλαίσιο της διδακτορικής μου διατριβής. Θα εκτιμούσα ιδιαίτερα αν απαντούσες σε όλες τις ερωτήσεις.
Τα παρακάτω περιγράφουν καταστάσεις και απόψεις με τις οποίες κάποιοι άνθρωποι συμφωνούν και άλλοι όχι. Σε κάθε ερώτημα ακολουθούν 5 πιθανές απαντήσεις (κλίμακα Likert) ΔΑ = Διαφωνώ απόλυτα Δ = Διαφωνώ Ο/Ο = Ούτε Διαφωνώ /ούτε Συμφωνώ Σ = Συμφωνώ ΣΑ = Συμφωνώ Απόλυτα Βάλε ✔ σε αυτό που περιγράφει καλύτερα τις απόψεις σου.
Η αγγλική γλώσσα... ΔΑ Δ Ο/Ο Σ ΣΑ
1 … μου αρέσει 1 2 3 4 5 2 … είναι σημαντική στη σημερινή εποχή 1 2 3 4 5 3 … δεν θα με πείραζε να γίνονταν δεύτερη επίσημη γλώσσα στην Ελλάδα 1 2 3 4 5 4 … είναι η πιο χρήσιμη γλώσσα μετά την ελληνική 1 2 3 4 5 5 … δεν είναι πιο σημαντική από άλλες γλώσσες 1 2 3 4 5 6 … είναι το διαβατήριο για μία καλύτερη κοινωνική θέση 1 2 3 4 5 7 … είναι το διαβατήριο για μια καλύτερη ζωή 1 2 3 4 5 8 … είναι προαπαιτούμενο για να βρει κανείς εργασία 1 2 3 4 5 9 … είναι το διαβατήριο για να κάνει κανείς φιλίες με ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 10 … είναι η κύρια γλώσσα που επικοινωνούν άνθρωποι από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 11 … απειλεί την πολυγλωσσία στον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 12 … απειλεί την πολυγλωσσία στην Ευρώπη 1 2 3 4 5 13 … είναι η κύρια γλώσσα του διαδικτύου 1 2 3 4 5 14 … πρέπει να γίνει μια από τις επίσημες γλώσσες στην τριτοβάθμια εκπαίδευση 1 2 3 4 5 15 … εξυπηρετεί την ανάγκη για μία παγκόσμια γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 16 … δεν αντιπροσωπεύει απαραίτητα μία συγκεκριμένη κουλτούρα 1 2 3 4 5
Η άποψή σου για τις παρακάτω καταστάσεις … ΔΑ Δ Ο/Ο Σ ΣΑ
17 Θα ήθελα να κάνω φιλίες με φοιτητές από άλλες χώρες που σπουδάζουν στη Θεσσαλονίκη 1 2 3 4 5 18 Αποφεύγω να μιλάω με ανθρώπους από άλλες χώρες αν μπορώ 1 2 3 4 5 19 Δεν θα με πείραζε να μοιραστώ ένα διαμέρισμα με έναν φοιτητή από άλλη χώρα 1 2 3 4 5 20 Δεν εμπιστεύομαι ανθρώπους από άλλες χώρες 1 2 3 4 5 21 Θα ήθελα να μάθω για άλλες κουλτούρες, ήθη και έθιμα 1 2 3 4 5 22 Θα ήθελα να συνεχίσω τις σπουδές μου στο εξωτερικό 1 2 3 4 5 23 Θα ήθελα να εργαστώ στο εξωτερικό 1 2 3 4 5 24 Θα απέφευγα μια δουλειά που απαιτεί να ταξιδεύω συχνά εκτός Ελλάδας 1 2 3 4 5 25 Είναι σημαντικό να συμμετέχω σε ένα ευρωπαϊκό πρόγραμμα ανταλλαγής (πχ. Erasmus) 1 2 3 4 5 26 Παρακολουθώ ειδήσεις για ξένες χώρες στο διαδίκτυο (πχ. BBC, CNN…) 1 2 3 4 5 27 Μου είναι δύσκολο να κατανοήσω τις αξίες και τα ήθη ανθρώπων άλλων πολιτισμών 1 2 3 4 5 28 Δεν με ενδιαφέρουν πολύ τα νέα για άλλες χώρες 1 2 3 4 5 Το γεγονός ότι γνωρίζω αγγλικά μου δίνει την ευκαιρία να ενημερώνομαι διαρκώς για νέα από 29 όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 Είναι σημαντικό να συμμετέχω σε ένα ευρωπαϊκό πρόγραμμα ανταλλαγής, για πρακτική άσκηση 30 στο εξωτερικό 1 2 3 4 5
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Η άποψή σου για τις παρακάτω καταστάσεις … ΔΑ Δ Ο/Ο Σ ΣΑ Τα business english είναι απαραίτητα για επικοινωνία σε εμπορικές συναλλαγές με ανθρώπους 31 από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 Τα business english είναι απαραίτητα για επικοινωνία σε εμπορικές συναλλαγές με 32 αγγλόφωνους (πχ. Άγγλους, Αμερικανούς...) 1 2 3 4 5 33 Ορισμένα μαθήματα ειδικότητας στο πανεπιστήμιο πρέπει να διδάσκονται στην αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 34 Οι άνθρωποι χρειάζονται μία παγκόσμια γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 35 Η ελληνική γλώσσα θα απειληθεί αν η αγγλική χρησιμοποιείται εκτενώς στο πανεπιστήμιο 1 2 3 4 5 36 Στο μέλλον πολλές ελληνικές λέξεις θα αντικατασταθούν από αγγλικές 1 2 3 4 5 Στη μελλοντική μου εργασία θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους που έχουν 37 μητρική την αγγλική γλώσσα (πχ. Άγγλους, Αμερικανούς..) 1 2 3 4 5 Στη μελλοντική μου εργασία θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους οι οποίοι δεν 38 έχουν ως μητρική την αγγλική (πχ Γάλλους, Ιταλούς...) 1 2 3 4 5 39 Στη μελλοντική μου εργασία δεν θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 Εκτός εργασιακού χώρου θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους που έχουν 40 μητρική την αγγλική γλώσσα (πχ. Άγγλους, Αμερικανούς..) 1 2 3 4 5 Εκτός εργασιακού χώρου θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους οι οποίοι δεν 41 έχουν ως μητρική την αγγλική (πχ Γάλλους, Ιταλούς...) 1 2 3 4 5 42 Εκτός εργασιακού χώρου δεν θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 43 Η μητρική μου γλώσσα απειλείται από τη χρήση της αγγλικής 1 2 3 4 5 44 Η κουλτούρα μου απειλείται από τη χρήση της αγγλικής 1 2 3 4 5 45 Μου αρέσει να χρησιμοποιώ αγγλικές λέξεις όταν συνομιλώ με κάποιον στα ελληνικά 1 2 3 4 5 46 Είναι σημαντικό για μένα το να έχω προφορά κάποιου που η μητρική του γλώσσα είναι η αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 Μου αρέσει το γεγονός ότι μπορώ να συνδεθώ με ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο μέσω της 47 αγγλικής γλώσσας 1 2 3 4 5 48 Είμαι ικανοποιημένος/η με την προφορά μου στην αγγλική γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 49 Οι άνθρωποι μπορούν να ανήκουν σε πολλές ομάδες εκτός της κουλτούρας ή της εθνότητάς τους 1 2 3 4 5 Αισθάνομαι χαρούμενος/η όταν μπορώ και μιλώ για τη χώρα μου στα αγγλικά με ανθρώπους 50 από άλλα μέρη 1 2 3 4 5 51 Η αγγλική γλώσσα απειλεί την ταυτότητά μου 1 2 3 4 5 Όταν ακούω Έλληνα/ Ελληνίδα να μιλάει αγγλικά με βρετανική/ αμερικάνικη προφορά νομίζω ότι 52 κάνει επίδειξη 1 2 3 4 5 53 Η αγγλική γλώσσα είναι κομμάτι της ταυτότητάς μου 1 2 3 4 5 54 Η ελληνική κουλτούρα είναι ανώτερη από άλλων χωρών 1 2 3 4 5 55 Δεν με ενοχλεί να κάνω λάθη γραμματκής όταν μιλώ αγγλικά, αν καταφέρνω να επικοινωνήσω 1 2 3 4 5
Μαθαίνω αγγλικά γιατί ... Δ.Α. Δ. Ο/Ο Σ Σ.Α. ...φαντάζομαι τον εαυτό μου να χρησιμοποιεί την αγγλική γλώσσα για να επικοινωνήσει με 1 αγγλόφωνους (π.χ. στη Μ. Βρετανία, στις Η.Π.Α.) 1 2 3 4 5 ...φαντάζομαι τον εαυτό μου να μπορεί να επικοινωνεί αποτελεσματικά στην αγγλική γλώσσα με 2 ανθρώπους από άλλα πολιτισμικά και γλωσσικά περιβάλλοντα 1 2 3 4 5 3 ...η οικογένειά μου περιμένει από μένα να γνωρίζω τη γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 4 ...οι φίλοι μου πιστεύουν πως είναι σημαντικό 1 2 3 4 5 5 ...το μάθημα των αγγλικών είναι υποχρεωτικό για τη λήψη πτυχίου 1 2 3 4 5 6 ...θέλω να πάρω ένα πιστοποιητικό γλωσσομάθειας (π.χ. Proficiency, IELTS, TOEFL, ΚΠΓ) 1 2 3 4 5 7 ...είναι απαραίτητο να βελτιώνω τα αγγλικά μου σε οποιοδήποτε στάδιο της ζωής μου 1 2 3 4 5
Επίσης ... 8 Δεν θα παρακολουθούσα Business English σεμινάρια, ακόμη και αν ήταν δωρεάν 1 2 3 4 5 9 Θα ήθελα να βελτιώσω τις δεξιότητές μου σε σχέση με τα Business English 1 2 3 4 5 Παρακολουθώ/ θούσα τα περισσότερα μαθήματα αγγλικής γλώσσας και ορολογίας στο 10 πανεπιστήμιο 1 2 3 4 5 11 Κάνω ότι καλύτερο μπορώ για να μάθω αγγλικά στο πανεπιστήμιο 1 2 3 4 5 12 Ασχολούμαι με την εκμάθηση αγγλικών εκτός πανεπιστημίου 1 2 3 4 5 13 Γνωρίζω αγγλικά, επομένως το μάθημα των αγγλικών δεν μου προσφέρει κάτι 1 2 3 4 5
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Το μάθημα αγγλικής γλώσσας και ορολογίας στο πανεπιστήμιο ... Δ.Α. Δ. Ο./Ο Σ Σ.Α. … με έχει προετοιμάσει για να επικοινωνήσω στον μελλοντικό εργασιακό μου χώρο με 1 ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 … με έχει προετοιμάσει για να επικοινωνήσω στον μελλοντικό εργασιακό μου χώρο με 2 ανθρώπους που έχουν μητρική γλώσσα την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 3 … πρέπει να βασίζεται σε παραδείγματα επικοινωνίας αγγλόφωνων 1 2 3 4 5 4 … πρέπει να γίνεται από αγγλόφωνους καθηγητές 1 2 3 4 5 5 … ανταποκρίνεται στις ανάγκες και στους στόχους μου 1 2 3 4 5 6 … θα έπρεπε να διδάσκεται περισσότερα εξάμηνα 1 2 3 4 5
Όταν χρησιμοποιώ αγγλικές λέξεις/ εκφράσεις αισθάνομαι Δ.Α. Δ. Ο./Ο Σ Σ.Α. 1 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με τους φίλους μου 1 2 3 4 5 2 πιο απομακρυσμένος/η από τους γονείς μου και τις μεγαλύτερες γενιές 1 2 3 4 5 3 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με ανθρώπους από αγγλόφωνες χώρες 1 2 3 4 5 4 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 5 πιο Ευρωπαίος/α 1 2 3 4 5 6 λιγότερο Έλληνας/Ελληνίδα 1 2 3 4 5 7 πιο πολύ ώς πολίτης του κόσμου 1 2 3 4 5 8 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με ανθρώπους της ειδικότητάς μου (συνεργάτες, συμφοιτητές) 1 2 3 4 5
Όταν διαβάζω ένα μυθιστόρημα προτιμώ Μου αρέσουν οι Όταν ακούω μουσική μου αρέσουν τα εκείνο που απεικονίζει τον τρόπο ζωής Βρετανικές ταινίες στη Βρετανία Αγγλικά τραγούδια Αμερικάνικες ταινίες σ τις Η.Π.Α. Αμερικάνικα τραγούδια Ελληνικές ταινίες σ την Ελλάδα Ελλην ικά τραγούδια
άλλο______άλλο______άλλο______
Δεν βλέπω Δεν διαβάζω μυθιστορήματα Δεν ακούωΔεν τέτοια ακούω τραγούδια
Θα ήθελες να είχες γεννηθεί σε άλλη χώρα ; ΟΧΙ ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες;______
Θα ήθελες να ζεις σε άλλη χώρα ; ΟΧΙ ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες;______
3-4 φορές 1-2 φορές Χρήση Αγγλικών τώρα (Βάλε ✔ σε κάθε μια ερώτηση) Κάθε την την Σπάνια Ποτέ μέρα Πόσο συχνά… εβδομάδα εβδομάδα … ακούς στα Αγγλικά (πχ. Τραγούδια, ειδήσεις σε ξένα κανάλια, ταινίες, σεμινάρια στο πανεπιστήμιο); 1 2 3 4 5
… διαβάζεις στα αγγλικά (πχ. βιβλία, περιοδικά / εφημερίδες / σερφάροντας στο διαδίκτυο…); 1 2 3 4 5
… μιλάς στα αγγλικά (πχ. με φίλους, φοιτητές Erasmus στο πανεπιστήμιο, Skype...); 1 2 3 4 5
… γράφεις στα αγγλικά (πχ. μηνύματα στο κινητό, Emails, σε chat rooms, Facebook…); 1 2 3 4 5
338
Πόσο καλύτερα Καταλαβαίνω Πόσο καλύτερα Επικοινωνώ με Λίγο Αρκετά Πολύ Λίγο Αρκετά Πολύ
1 2 3 ανθρώπους με μητρική γλώσσα την αγγλικη 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ανθρώπους που η αγγλική δεν είναι μητρική γλώσσα 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Αμερικανό 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Βρετανό 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Έλληνα που μιλάει αγγλικά 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Ευρωπαίο 1 2 3
1 2 3 ανθρώπους άλλων εθνικοτήτων (ποιά)______1 2 3
ΔΗΜΟΓΡΑΦΙΚΑ ΧΑΡΑΚΤΗΡΙΣΤΙΚΑ 1. Σε ποια ηλικία ξεκίνησες να μαθαίνεις Αγγλικά; [______] Μητρική/ές σου γλώσσα/ες ______
2. Που έκανες μαθήματα αγγλικής γλώσσας; (βάλε ✔ σε όσες επιλογές ισχύει)
στο σχολείο σε φροντιστήριο ιδιαίτερα μαθήματα
3. Είχες ποτέ καθηγητή αγγλικών από αγγλόφωνη χώρα? ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ
3.1.Αν ΝΑΙ, από ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______
4. Έκανες κάτι από τα παρακάτω για να βελτιώσεις τις γνώσεις σου στα αγγλικά; (βάλε ✔ σε ότι ισχύει για εσένα)
διάβαζα Business English σε περιοδικά/εφημερίδες έβλεπα ξένες ταινίες χωρίς υπότιτλους άκουγα μουσική στα αγγλικά έβλεπα ξένα τηλεοπτικά κανάλια (πχ MTV, BBC, CNN κλπ) έχω παρακολουθήσει μαθήματα αγγλικής στο εξωτερικό (πχ. Αγγλία/Η.Π.Α.)
Άλλο (σημείωσε)______Τίποτα από τα παραπάνω
5. Έχεις ταξιδέψει ποτέ στο εξωτερικό; ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ 5.1 Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______5.2 Ποια γλώσσα επικοινωνίας κυρίως χρησιμοποίησες; ______5.3 Ποιος ήταν ο κύριος σκοπός του/των ταξιδίου/ιών σου; ______
6. Συμμετείχες σε πρόγραμμα ανταλλαγής φοιτητών (Erasmus); ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ 6.1 Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______6.2 Για πόσο χρονικό διάστημα;______
7. Έχεις κάνει πρακτική άσκηση; ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ Αν ΟΧΙ, πήγαινε στην ερώτηση 8
Αν ΝΑΙ, απάντησε στις ερωτήσεις 7.1 μέχρι 7.6 7.1 Σε ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______7.2 Τομέας/αντικείμενο εργασίας______7.3 Εταιρεία ______7.4 Η πρακτική μου άσκηση συμπεριέλαβε τη χρήση της αγγλικής
ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, συνέχισε στις 7.5 και 7.6, βάζοντας ✔ σε ότι ισχύει ΟΧΙ Αν ΟΧΙ, πήγαινε στην ερώτηση 8
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7.5 πόσο συχνα την χρησιμοποιούσες την αγγλική γλώσσα; 7.6 για ποιο σκοπό; κάθε μέρα μιλούσα με συναδέλφους έγραφα/απαντούσα emails πολλές φορές την εβδομάδα διάβαζα έγγραφα συμμετείχα σε συναντήσεις λίγες φορές την εβδομάδα διαβάζα βιβλιογραφία έκανα τηλεφωνήματα Σπάνια / ποτέ έγραφα αναφορές Άλλο ______
8. Πόσο συχνά χρησιμοποιείς τα μέσα κοινωνικής δικτύωσης (πχ. Facebook/Τwitter);
κάθε μέρα 3-4 φορές /εβδομάδα 1-2 φορές /εβδομάδα Σπάνια Ποτέ
8.1 Σε ποια γλώσσα/ες κυρίως επικοινωνείς; ______
9. Έχεις προφίλ σε κάποια ακαδημαϊκού/επαγγελματικού ενδιαφέροντος ιστοσελίδα; (πχ. LinkedIn, Academia …) ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ
9.1 Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια γλώσσα/ες επικοινωνείς; ______
Έτος γέννησης ______Φύλο [___] Ανδρας [___] Γυναίκα
Σε ποιο μέρος έζησες περισσότερο; (ονομασία πόλης/χωριού) ______
Έτος σπουδών ______Α.Π.Θ. [_____] ή ΠΑΝ. ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΑΣ [_____]
Έχω επιλέξει υποχρεωτικό μάθημα που προσφέρεται στην αγγλική ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ
Γνωρίζεις άλλες ξένες γλώσσες εκτός της αγγλικής;
ΟΧΙ ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, ποιες ;
Συμπλήρωσε τον παρακάτω πίνακα σχετικά με το πόσο καλά γνωρίζεις την αγγλική γλώσσα
ΚΑΤΑΝΟΗΣΗ ΟΜΙΛΙΑ ΠΙΣΤΟΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΟ ΠΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΠΤΗ ΠΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΦΗ (πχ.TOEFL, Lower, ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑ (LISTENING) (READING) ΕΚΦΡΑΣΗ Proficiency) Άριστη Άριστη Άριστη Άριστη Άριστη Καλή Καλή Καλή Καλή Καλή Μέτρια Μέτρια Μέτρια Μέτρια Μέτρια Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση
Σε ευχαριστώ πολύ για τη συνεργασία και το χρόνο σου!!! Ρωξάνη Φαλτζή [email protected]
Αν θα ήθελες να συμμετέχεις σε συνέντευξη αναφορικά με την έρευνά μου, θα εκτιμούσα αν μου έδινες στοιχεία επικοινωνίας
email ______κινητό τηλ. ______
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A2 Questionnaire in English Roxani Faltzi PhD candidate Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics School of English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
SURVEY ON STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND STANDPOINTS TOWARDS ENGLISH
This questionnaire is anonymous and shall be used for my PhD research. I would really appreciate your answering all questions of this questionnaire.
The following describe situations and views that some people agree with and others don’t. For each question correspond 5 possible answers (Likert scale)
SD = Strongly disagree D = Disagree NA/ND = Neither agree/nor disagree A = Agree SA = Strongly agree Put a ✔ in the cell according to what best describes your own opinion NA/ SD D A SA ND 1 I like English 1 2 3 4 5 2 In today’s world, English is important 1 2 3 4 5 3 I would not object to English becoming a second official language in Greece 1 2 3 4 5 4 English is the most useful language after Greek 1 2 3 4 5 5 English is not more important than other languages 1 2 3 4 5 6 English is the pathway to a better social status 1 2 3 4 5 7 English is the pathway to an improved quality of life 1 2 3 4 5 8 English is an essential prerequisite for employment 1 2 3 4 5 9 English is the pathway to make friendships with people from all over the world 1 2 3 4 5 10 English is the main language of communication for people from all over the world 1 2 3 4 5 11 English is a threat to multilingualism across the world 1 2 3 4 5 12 English is a threat to multilingualism in Europe 1 2 3 4 5 13 English is the single most widely-used language on the Internet 1 2 3 4 5 14 English should become one of the official languages of tertiary education 1 2 3 4 5 15 English serves the need for a global language 1 2 3 4 5 16 English does not necessarily reflect a specific culture 1 2 3 4 5
NA/ SD D A SA Your perspective for the following situations ... ND 17 I would like to make friends with international students studying in Thessaloniki 1 2 3 4 5 18 I avoid talking with people from other countries if possible 1 2 3 4 5 19 I wouldn’t mind sharing an apartment with an international student 1 2 3 4 5 20 I do not trust foreigners 1 2 3 4 5 21 I would like to acquire knowledge of diverse cultures 1 2 3 4 5 22 I would like to continue my studies abroad 1 2 3 4 5 23 I would like to work abroad 1 2 3 4 5 24 I would avoid a job that requires frequent travels abroad 1 2 3 4 5 25 It is important to participate in a European mobility program (e.g. Erasmus) 1 2 3 4 5 26 I follow the news about foreign countries on the Internet (e.g. BBC or CNN) 1 2 3 4 5 27 I find it hard to comprehend the values and customs of different cultures 1 2 3 4 5 28 I am not much interested in news about other countries 1 2 3 4 5 29 (Knowing) English helps me keep up to date with the latest world news 1 2 3 4 5
341 Participating in a European mobility program for spending a placement (interneship) period 30 abroad is important for me 1 2 3 4 5
Your perspective for the following situations SD D NA/ND A SA 31 Business English is essential for international business communication 1 2 3 4 5 32 Business English is essential for communication with native speakers of English (e.g. English, American..) 1 2 3 4 5 33 Specialized university courses should be taught in English 1 2 3 4 5 34 People need a global language 1 2 3 4 5 35 Extensive use of English at the university may signal a threat to the Greek language 1 2 3 4 5 36 In the future, many Greek words will be replaced by English ones 1 2 3 4 5 37 At work, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English (e.g. English, American...) 1 2 3 4 5 38 At work, I will use English in the future mainly with non-native speakers of English (e.g. French, Italian...) 1 2 3 4 5 39 I will not use English in the workplace 1 2 3 4 5 Outside the workplace, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English (e.g. English, 40 American ...) 1 2 3 4 5 Outside the workplace, I will use English in the future mainly with non-native speakers of English (e.g. 41 French, Italian ...) 1 2 3 4 5 42 Outside the workplace I will not need to use English 1 2 3 4 5 43 The use of English language is a threat to my mother tongue 1 2 3 4 5 44 The use of English language is a threat to my culture 1 2 3 4 5 45 I like mixing Greek with English words whilst conversing with someone in Greek. 1 2 3 4 5 46 It is important for me to speak English with a native-like accent 1 2 3 4 5 47 I like the fact that I can interact with people from all over the world through English 1 2 3 4 5 48 I am satisfied with my accent when I speak English 1 2 3 4 5 49 People can belong to diverse groups other than their cultural/ethnic one 1 2 3 4 5 50 I feel happy when I am able to speak about my country in English, with foreigners 1 2 3 4 5 51 English is a treat to my identity. 1 2 3 4 5 When I listen to a Greek person speaking English with a British or American accent, I feel he/she is trying 52 to show off 1 2 3 4 5 53 English is part of my identity 1 2 3 4 5 54 Greek culture is superior to other cultures 1 2 3 4 5 I do not mind making mistakes in grammar when I speak English, provided that I can communicate 55 efficiently 1 2 3 4 5
NA/ SD D A SA I learn English because ... ND
MO ...I imagine myself using English in order to communicate with native speakers of English (e.g. in the T1 UK or the US) 1 2 3 4 5
MO ...I imagine myself being able to communicate effectively in English with people from other cultural T2 and linguistic backgrounds 1 2 3 4 5 MO T3 ...my family expects me to know the language 1 2 3 4 5 MO T4 ... my friends consider it important 1 2 3 4 5 MO T5 ...the English language course is a prerequisite for graduation 1 2 3 4 5 MO T6 ...I want to get a certificate of competency in English (eg. Proficiency, IELTS, TOEFL, ΚΠΓ) 1 2 3 4 5 MO T7 ...it is necessary to improve my English at any stage of life 1 2 3 4 5
Moreover... MO T8 I would not attend Business English seminars, even if they were free 1 2 3 4 5 MO T9 I would like to improve my Business English skills 1 2 3 4 5 MO T10 I attend/attended most ESP courses at the university 1 2 3 4 5 MO T11 I do my best to learn English at the university 1 2 3 4 5 MO T12 I learn English besides attending the university ESP courses 1 2 3 4 5 MO T13 I already know English, therefore ESP courses are not useful to me 1 2 3 4 5
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NA/ SD D A SA ESP courses at the university ... ND AE … have prepared me to communicate in my future workplace with people from all over the world SP1 1 2 3 4 5 AE … have prepared me to communicate in my future workplace with native speakers of English SP2 1 2 3 4 5 AE … should be based on native speakers’ communication dialogues SP3 1 2 3 4 5 AE …should be taught by teachers who are native speakers of English SP4 1 2 3 4 5 AE … meet/have met my needs and goals SP5 1 2 3 4 5 AE … should be offered for more semesters SP6 1 2 3 4 5
NA/ SD D A SA When I use English I feel ND 1 More connected with my friends 1 2 3 4 5 2 More distant from my parents and older generations 1 2 3 4 5 3 More connected to people from English-speaking countries 1 2 3 4 5 4 More connected with people across the world 1 2 3 4 5 5 More European 1 2 3 4 5 6 Less Greek 1 2 3 4 5 7 More like a citizen of the world 1 2 3 4 5 8 More connected with people from my field (eg. colleagues, other students at Business School) 1 2 3 4 5
When I read a novel I prefer one that When I listen to music I prefer I like depicts life in
British movies English songs in Great Britain
American movies the USA American songs
Greek movies Greece Greek songs
Other______Other______Other______I don’t watch movies I don’t read novels I don’t listenΔεν ακούωto those songs
Would you like to have been born in a foreign NO YES If, YES, which one/s? ______country?
If YES, which one/s? ______Would you like to live in another country? NO YES
Use of English now (Put a for each question) ✔ Every 3-4 times 1-2 times Rarely Never day per week per week How often… … do you listen to English (eg. songs, news on foreign broadcast channels, university seminars) 1 2 3 4 5 … do you read English (eg. books, magazines, newspapers, while browsing the internet) 1 2 3 4 5
…speak English (eg. with friends, Erasmus students the university, with Skype...) 1 2 3 4 5
… write in English (eg. text messages, emails, in chat rooms, Facebook...) 1 2 3 4 5 343
I understand best I communicate best with Well Well Little A lot Little A lot enough enough
1 2 3 Native speakers of English 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Non-native speakers of English 1 2 3
1 2 3 An American 1 2 3
1 2 3 A British 1 2 3
1 2 3 A Greek person speaking English 1 2 3
1 2 3 A European 1 2 3
1 2 3 People from other linguistics backrounds (which one/s) 1 2 3
Demographics
1. When did you start learning English? ______Native language/s ______
2. Where did you have English lesssons?(put a ✔in any box)
At school At a private language school Individual courses at home
3. Did you ever have an English teacher from an English- YES NO speaking country?
3.1.If YES, which one/s; ______
4. Have you ever done any of the following to improve your knowledge of English? (put a ✔ in any box)
I read Business English magazines/newspapers I watched foreing movies withour subtitles I listened to English music I watched foreign TV channels/ (eg. MTV, BBC, CNN etc) I have attended English language courses abroad (eg. England/ USA)
Other (please state)______None of the above
5. Have you ever travelled abroad?/ YES NO 5.1 If YES, where? ______5.2 Which language did you mainly use? ______5.3 What was the main purpose of your travels?______
6. Have you participated in an Erasmus exhange programme? YES NO 6.1 If YES, where? ______6.2 For how long? ______
7. Have you completed an internship? YES NO If NO, please go to question 8
If YES, please answer questions 7.1- 7.6 7.1 Where? ______7.2 Field ______7.3 Company ______344 7.4 I have used English during my internship
YES If YES, continue with 7.5 and 7.6, putting a ✔ where appropriate YES If NO, please go to question 8
7.5 How often did you use English? 7.6 for which purpose? Writing/responding to Every day Conversing with colleagues emails Several times a week Reading documents Participating in meetings Few times a week Reading bibliography Making phone calls Rarely/never Writing reports Other______
8. How often do you use social networks (eg. Facebook/Twitter)?
Every day 3-4 times per week 1-2 times per week Rarely Never
8.1 In which language do you mainly communicate?______
9. Have you got a profile in an academic or professional network (eg. LinkedIn, Academia …)? YES NO
9.1 If YES, in which language do you communicate?______
Year of birth Gender Male Female
Where have you lived most part of your life? (name the city/village) ______
Year of studies AUTH or UoM
I have chosen a university subject course offered in English YES NO
Do you speak any foreign language other than English? If YES, which one/s ? NO YES ______
Please complete the following table that concerns your English language level
COMPREHENSION SPEAKING CERTIFICATE WRITING (e.g. TOEFL, LISTENING READING COMMUNICATION SPEAKING Lower, Proficiency) Proficient Proficient Proficient Proficient Proficient Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Basic Basic Basic Basic Basic
Thank you very much for giving your time to take part in this survey!!! Roxani Faltzi [email protected]
If you are interested in participating in an interview concerning my research study, please provide your contact details e-mail address ______cell-phone number______345
Appendix B Pilot Questionnaire
346 Ρωξάνη Φαλτζή B1 Questionnaire in Greek Υποψήφια Διδάκτορας Τομέας Θεωρητικής και Εφαρμοσμένης Γλωσσολογίας Τμήμα Αγγλικής γλώσσας και φιλολογίας, Α.Π.Θ.
ΕΡΕΥΝΑ ΓΙΑ ΤΙΣ ΣΤΑΣΕΙΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΨΕΙΣ ΤΩΝ ΦΟΙΤΗΤΩΝ ΓΙΑ ΤΗΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ Το ερωτηματολόγιο αυτό είναι ανώνυμο και θα χρησιμοποιηθεί για την έρευνά μου στο πλαίσιο της διδακτορικής μου διατριβής. Θα εκτιμούσα ιδιαίτερα αν απαντούσες σε όλες τις ερωτήσεις.
Τα παρακάτω περιγράφουν καταστάσεις και απόψεις με τις οποίες κάποιοι άνθρωποι συμφωνούν και άλλοι όχι. Σε κάθε ερώτημα ακολουθούν 5 πιθανές απαντήσεις (κλίμακα Likert) ΔΑ = Διαφωνώ απόλυτα Δ = Διαφωνώ Ο/Ο = Ούτε Διαφωνώ /ούτε Συμφωνώ Σ = Συμφωνώ ΣΑ = Συμφωνώ Απόλυτα Βάλε ✔ σε αυτό που περιγράφει καλύτερα τις απόψεις σου.
Η αγγλική γλώσσα... ΔΑ Δ Ο/Ο Σ ΣΑ
1 … μου αρέσει 1 2 3 4 5 2 … είναι σημαντική στη σημερινή εποχή 1 2 3 4 5 3 … δεν θα με πείραζε να γίνονταν δεύτερη επίσημη γλώσσα στην Ελλάδα 1 2 3 4 5 4 … είναι η πιο χρήσιμη γλώσσα μετά την ελληνική 1 2 3 4 5 5 … δεν είναι πιο σημαντική από άλλες γλώσσες 1 2 3 4 5 6 … είναι το διαβατήριο για μία καλύτερη κοινωνική θέση 1 2 3 4 5 7 … είναι το διαβατήριο για μια καλύτερη ζωή 1 2 3 4 5 8 … είναι προαπαιτούμενο για να βρει κανείς εργασία 1 2 3 4 5 9 … είναι το διαβατήριο για να κάνει κανείς φιλίες με ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 10 … είναι η κύρια γλώσσα που επικοινωνούν άνθρωποι από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 11 … απειλεί την πολυγλωσσία στον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 12 … απειλεί την πολυγλωσσία στην Ευρώπη 1 2 3 4 5 13 … είναι η κύρια γλώσσα της τεχνολογίας και του διαδικτύου 1 2 3 4 5 14 … πρέπει να γίνει μια από τις επίσημες γλώσσες στην τριτοβάθμια εκπαίδευση 1 2 3 4 5 15 … εξυπηρετεί την ανάγκη για μία παγκόσμια γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 16 … δεν αντιπροσωπεύει απαραίτητα μία συγκεκριμένη κουλτούρα 1 2 3 4 5
Η άποψή σου για τις παρακάτω καταστάσεις … ΔΑ Δ Ο/Ο Σ ΣΑ
17 Θα ήθελα να κάνω φιλίες με φοιτητές από άλλες χώρες που σπουδάζουν στη Θεσσαλονίκη 1 2 3 4 5 18 Αποφεύγω να μιλάω με ανθρώπους από άλλες χώρες αν μπορώ 1 2 3 4 5 19 Δεν θα με πείραζε να μοιραστώ ένα διαμέρισμα με έναν φοιτητή από άλλη χώρα 1 2 3 4 5 20 Δεν εμπιστεύομαι ανθρώπους από άλλες χώρες 1 2 3 4 5 21 Θα ήθελα να μάθω για άλλες κουλτούρες, ήθη και έθιμα 1 2 3 4 5 22 Θα ήθελα να συνεχίσω τις σπουδές μου στο εξωτερικό 1 2 3 4 5 23 Θα ήθελα να εργαστώ στο εξωτερικό 1 2 3 4 5 24 Θα απέφευγα μια δουλειά που απαιτεί να ταξιδεύω συχνά εκτός Ελλάδας 1 2 3 4 5 25 Είναι σημαντικό να συμμετέχω σε ένα ευρωπαϊκό πρόγραμμα ανταλλαγής (πχ. Erasmus) 1 2 3 4 5 26 Παρακολουθώ ειδήσεις για ξένες χώρες στο διαδίκτυο (πχ. BBC, CNN…) 1 2 3 4 5 27 Μου είναι δύσκολο να κατανοήσω τις αξίες και τα ήθη ανθρώπων άλλων πολιτισμών 1 2 3 4 5 28 Δεν με ενδιαφέρουν πολύ τα νέα για άλλες χώρες 1 2 3 4 5 Το γεγονός ότι γνωρίζω αγγλικά μου δίνει την ευκαιρία να ενημερώνομαι διαρκώς για νέα από 29 όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 Είναι σημαντικό να συμμετέχω σε ένα ευρωπαϊκό πρόγραμμα ανταλλαγής, για πρακτική άσκηση 30 στο εξωτερικό 1 2 3 4 5
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Η άποψή σου για τις παρακάτω καταστάσεις … ΔΑ Δ Ο/Ο Σ ΣΑ Τα business english είναι απαραίτητα για επικοινωνία σε εμπορικές συναλλαγές με ανθρώπους 31 από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 Τα business english είναι απαραίτητα για επικοινωνία σε εμπορικές συναλλαγές με 32 αγγλόφωνους 1 2 3 4 5 33 Ορισμένα μαθήματα ειδικότητας στο πανεπιστήμιο πρέπει να διδάσκονται στην αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 34 Οι άνθρωποι χρειάζονται μία παγκόσμια γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 35 Η ελληνική γλώσσα θα απειληθεί αν η αγγλική χρησιμοποιείται εκτενώς στο πανεπιστήμιο 1 2 3 4 5 36 Στο μέλλον πολλές ελληνικές λέξεις θα αντικατασταθούν από αγγλικές 1 2 3 4 5 Στη μελλοντική μου εργασία θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους που έχουν 37 μητρική την αγγλική γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 Στη μελλοντική μου εργασία θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους οι οποίοι δεν 38 έχουν ως μητρική την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 39 Στη μελλοντική μου εργασία δεν θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 Στον ελεύθερό μου χρόνο θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους που έχουν 40 μητρική την αγγλική γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 Στον ελεύθερό μου χρόνο θα χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική, κυρίως με ανθρώπους οι οποίοι δεν 41 έχουν ως μητρική την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 42 Στον ελεύθερό μου χρόνο δεν θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσω την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 43 Η μητρική μου γλώσσα απειλείται από τη χρήση της αγγλικής 1 2 3 4 5 44 Η κουλτούρα μου απειλείται από τη χρήση της αγγλικής 1 2 3 4 5 45 Μου αρέσει να χρησιμοποιώ αγγλικές λέξεις όταν συνομιλώ με κάποιον στα ελληνικά 1 2 3 4 5 46 Είναι σημαντικό για μένα το να έχω προφορά κάποιου που η μητρική του γλώσσα είναι η αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 Μου αρέσει το γεγονός ότι μπορώ να συνδεθώ με ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο μέσω της 47 αγγλικής γλώσσας 1 2 3 4 5 48 Είμαι ικανοποιημένος/η με την προφορά μου στην αγγλική γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 49 Οι άνθρωποι μπορούν να ανήκουν σε πολλές ομάδες εκτός της κουλτούρας ή της εθνότητάς τους 1 2 3 4 5 Αισθάνομαι χαρούμενος/η όταν μπορώ και μιλώ για τη χώρα μου στα αγγλικά με ανθρώπους 50 από άλλα μέρη 1 2 3 4 5 51 Η αγγλική γλώσσα απειλεί την ταυτότητά μου 1 2 3 4 5 Όταν ακούω Έλληνα/ Ελληνίδα να μιλάει αγγλικά με βρετανική/ αμερικάνικη προφορά νομίζω ότι 52 κάνει επίδειξη 1 2 3 4 5 53 Η αγγλική γλώσσα είναι κομμάτι της ταυτότητάς μου 1 2 3 4 5 54 Η ελληνική κουλτούρα είναι ανώτερη από άλλων χωρών 1 2 3 4 5 55 Δεν με ενοχλεί να κάνω λάθη γραμματκής όταν μιλώ αγγλικά, αν καταφέρνω να επικοινωνήσω 1 2 3 4 5
Μαθαίνω αγγλικά γιατί ... Δ.Α. Δ. Ο/Ο Σ Σ.Α.
MO ...φαντάζομαι τον εαυτό μου να χρησιμοποιεί την αγγλική γλώσσα για να επικοινωνήσει με T1 αγγλόφωνους (π.χ. στη Μ. Βρετανία, στις Η.Π.Α.) 1 2 3 4 5
MO ...φαντάζομαι τον εαυτό μου να μπορεί να επικοινωνεί αποτελεσματικά στην αγγλική γλώσσα με T2 ανθρώπους από άλλα πολιτισμικά και γλωσσικά περιβάλλοντα 1 2 3 4 5 MO T3 ...η οικογένειά μου περιμένει από μένα να γνωρίζω τη γλώσσα 1 2 3 4 5 MO T4 ...οι φίλοι μου πιστεύουν πως είναι σημαντικό 1 2 3 4 5 MO T5 ...αν δεν περάσω το μάθημα των αγγλικών δεν μπορώ να πάρω πτυχίο 1 2 3 4 5 MO T6 ...θέλω να πάρω ένα πιστοποιητικό γλωσσομάθειας (π.χ. Proficiency, IELTS, TOEFL, ΚΠΓ) 1 2 3 4 5 MO T7 ...είναι απαραίτητο να βελτιώνω τα αγγλικά μου σε οποιοδήποτε στάδιο της ζωής μου 1 2 3 4 5
Επίσης ... MO T8 Δεν θα παρακολουθούσα Business English σεμινάρια, ακόμη και αν ήταν δωρεάν 1 2 3 4 5 MO T9 Θα ήθελα να βελτιώσω τις δεξιότητές μου σε σχέση με τα Business English 1 2 3 4 5
MO Παρακολουθώ/ θούσα τα περισσότερα μαθήματα αγγλικής γλώσσας και ορολογίας στο T10 πανεπιστήμιο 1 2 3 4 5 MO T11 Κάνω ότι καλύτερο μπορώ για να μάθω αγγλικά στο πανεπιστήμιο 1 2 3 4 5 MO T12 Ασχολούμαι με την εκμάθηση αγγλικών εκτός πανεπιστημίου 1 2 3 4 5 MO T13 Γνωρίζω αγγλικά, επομένως το μάθημα των αγγλικών δεν μου προσφέρει κάτι 1 2 3 4 5
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Το μάθημα αγγλικής γλώσσας και ορολογίας στο πανεπιστήμιο ... Δ.Α. Δ. Ο./Ο Σ Σ.Α. AE … με έχει προετοιμάσει για να επικοινωνήσω στον μελλοντικό εργασιακό μου χώρο με SP 1 ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 AE … με έχει προετοιμάσει για να επικοινωνήσω στον μελλοντικό εργασιακό μου χώρο με SP 2 ανθρώπους που έχουν μητρική γλώσσα την αγγλική 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … πρέπει να βασίζεται σε παραδείγματα επικοινωνίας αγγλόφωνων 3 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … πρέπει να γίνεται από αγγλόφωνους καθηγητές 4 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … ανταποκρίνεται στις ανάγκες και στους στόχους μου 5 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … θα έπρεπε να διδάσκεται περισσότερα εξάμηνα 6 1 2 3 4 5
Όταν χρησιμοποιώ αγγλικές λέξεις/ εκφράσεις αισθάνομαι Δ.Α. Δ. Ο./Ο Σ Σ.Α. 1 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με τους φίλους μου 1 2 3 4 5 2 πιο απομακρυσμένος/η από τους γονείς μου και τις μεγαλύτερες γενιές 1 2 3 4 5 3 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με ανθρώπους από αγγλόφωνες χώρες 1 2 3 4 5 4 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με ανθρώπους από όλο τον κόσμο 1 2 3 4 5 5 πιο Ευρωπαίος/α 1 2 3 4 5 6 λιγότερο Έλληνας/Ελληνίδα 1 2 3 4 5 7 πιο πολύ ώς πολίτης του κόσμου 1 2 3 4 5 8 πιο συνδεδεμένος/η με ανθρώπους της ειδικότητάς μου (συνεργάτες, συμφοιτητές) 1 2 3 4 5
Όταν διαβάζω ένα μυθιστόρημα προτιμώ Μου αρέσουν οι Όταν ακούω μουσική μου αρέσουν τα εκείνο που απεικονίζει τον τρόπο ζωής Βρετανικές ταινίες στη Βρετανία Αγγλικά τραγούδια Αμερικάνικες ταινίες σ τις Η.Π.Α. Αμερικάνικα τραγούδια Ελληνικές ταινίες σ την Ελλάδα Ελληνικά τραγούδια
άλλο______άλλο______άλλο______
Δεν βλέπω Δεν διαβάζω μυθιστορήματα Δεν ακούωΔεν τέτοια ακούω τραγούδια
Θα ήθελες να είχες γεννηθεί σε άλλη χώρα ; ΟΧΙ ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες;______
Θα ήθελες να ζεις σε άλλη χώρα ; ΟΧΙ ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες;______
3-4 φορές 1-2 φορές Χρήση Αγγλικών τώρα (Βάλε ✔ σε κάθε μια ερώτηση) Κάθε την την Σπάνια Ποτέ μέρα Πόσο συχνά… εβδομάδα εβδομάδα … ακούς στα Αγγλικά (πχ. Τραγούδια, ειδήσεις σε ξένα κανάλια, ταινίες, σεμινάρια στο πανεπιστήμιο); 1 2 3 4 5
… διαβάζεις στα αγγλικά (πχ. βιβλία, περιοδικά / εφημερίδες / σερφάροντας στο διαδίκτυο…); 1 2 3 4 5
… μιλάς στα αγγλικά (πχ. με φίλους, φοιτητές Erasmus στο πανεπιστήμιο, Skype...); 1 2 3 4 5
… γράφεις στα αγγλικά (πχ. μηνύματα στο κινητό, Emails, σε chat rooms, Facebook…); 1 2 3 4 5
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Πόσο καλύτερα Καταλαβαίνω Πόσο καλύτερα Επικοινωνώ με Λίγο Αρκετά Πολύ Λίγο Αρκετά Πολύ
1 2 3 ανθρώπους με μητρική γλώσσα την αγγλικη 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ανθρώπους που η αγγλική δεν είναι μητρική γλώσσα 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Αμερικανό 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Βρετανό 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Έλληνα που μιλάει αγγλικά 1 2 3
1 2 3 έναν Ευρωπαίο 1 2 3
1 2 3 ανθρώπους άλλων εθνικοτήτων (ποιά)______1 2 3
ΔΗΜΟΓΡΑΦΙΚΑ ΧΑΡΑΚΤΗΡΙΣΤΙΚΑ 1. Σε ποια ηλικία ξεκίνησες να μαθαίνεις Αγγλικά; [______] Μητρική/ές σου γλώσσα/ες ______
2. Που έκανες μαθήματα αγγλικής γλώσσας; (βάλε ✔ σε όσες επιλογές ισχύει)
στο σχολείο σε φροντιστήριο ιδιαίτερα μαθήματα
3. Είχες ποτέ καθηγητή αγγλικών από αγγλόφωνη χώρα? ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ
3.1.Αν ΝΑΙ, από ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______
4. Έκανες κάτι από τα παρακάτω για να βελτιώσεις τις γνώσεις σου στα αγγλικά; (βάλε ✔ σε ότι ισχύει για εσένα)
διάβαζα Business English σε περιοδικά/εφημερίδες έβλεπα ξένες ταινίες χωρίς υπότιτλους άκουγα μουσική στα αγγλικά έβλεπα ξένα τηλεοπτικά κανάλια (πχ MTV, BBC, CNN κλπ) έχω παρακολουθήσει μαθήματα αγγλικής στο εξωτερικό (πχ. Αγγλία/Η.Π.Α.)
Άλλο (σημείωσε)______Τίποτα από τα παραπάνω
5. Έχεις ταξιδέψει ποτέ στο εξωτερικό; ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ 5.1 Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______5.2 Ποια γλώσσα επικοινωνίας κυρίως χρησιμοποίησες; ______5.3 Ποιος ήταν ο κύριος σκοπός του/των ταξιδίου/ιών σου; ______
6. Συμμετείχες σε πρόγραμμα ανταλλαγής φοιτητών (Erasmus); ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ 6.1 Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______6.2 Για πόσο χρονικό διάστημα;______
7. Έχεις κάνει πρακτική άσκηση; ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ Αν ΟΧΙ, πήγαινε στην ερώτηση 8
Αν ΝΑΙ, απάντησε στις ερωτήσεις 7.1 μέχρι 7.6 7.1 Σε ποια/ες χώρα/ες; ______7.2 Τομέας/αντικείμενο εργασίας______7.3 Εταιρεία ______7.4 Η πρακτική μου άσκηση συμπεριέλαβε τη χρήση της αγγλικής
ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, συνέχισε στις 7.5 και 7.6, βάζοντας ✔ σε ότι ισχύει ΟΧΙ Αν ΟΧΙ, πήγαινε στην ερώτηση 8
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7.5 πόσο συχνα την χρησιμοποιούσες την αγγλική γλώσσα; 7.6 για ποιο σκοπό; κάθε μέρα μιλούσα με συναδέλφους έγραφα/απαντούσα emails πολλές φορές την εβδομάδα διάβαζα έγγραφα συμμετείχα σε συναντήσεις λίγες φορές την εβδομάδα διαβάζα βιβλιογραφία έκανα τηλεφωνήματα Σπάνια / ποτέ έγραφα αναφορές Άλλο ______
8. Πόσο συχνά χρησιμοποιείς τα μέσα κοινωνικής δικτύωσης (πχ. Facebook/twitter);
κάθε μέρα 3-4 φορές /εβδομάδα 1-2 φορές /εβδομάδα Σπάνια Ποτέ
8.1 Σε ποια γλώσσα/ες κυρίως επικοινωνείς; ______
9. Έχεις προφίλ σε κάποια ακαδημαϊκού/επαγγελματικού ενδιαφέροντος ιστοσελίδα; (πχ. LinkedIn, Academia …) ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ
9.1 Αν ΝΑΙ, σε ποια γλώσσα/ες επικοινωνείς; ______
Έτος γέννησης [______] Φύλο [___] Ανδρας [___] Γυναίκα
Σε ποιο μέρος έζησες περισσότερο; (ονομασία πόλης/χωριού) ______
Έτος σπουδών [_____] Α.Π.Θ. [_____] ή ΠΑΝ. ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΑΣ [_____]
Έχω επιλέξει υποχρεωτικό μάθημα που προσφέρεται στην αγγλική ΝΑΙ ΟΧΙ
Γνωρίζεις άλλες ξένες γλώσσες εκτός της αγγλικής;
ΟΧΙ ΝΑΙ Αν ΝΑΙ, ποιες ;
Συμπλήρωσε τον παρακάτω πίνακα σχετικά με το πόσο καλά γνωρίζεις την αγγλική γλώσσα
ΚΑΤΑΝΟΗΣΗ ΟΜΙΛΙΑ ΠΙΣΤΟΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΟ ΠΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΠΤΗ ΠΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΦΗ (πχ.TOEFL, Lower, ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑ (LISTENING) (READING) ΕΚΦΡΑΣΗ Proficiency) Άριστη Άριστη Άριστη Άριστη Άριστη Καλή Καλή Καλή Καλή Καλή Μέτρια Μέτρια Μέτρια Μέτρια Μέτρια Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση Βασική γνώση
Σε ευχαριστώ πολύ για τη συνεργασία και το χρόνο σου!!! Ρωξάνη Φαλτζή [email protected]
Αν θα ήθελες να συμμετέχεις σε συνέντευξη αναφορικά με την έρευνά μου, θα εκτιμούσα αν μου έδινες στοιχεία επικοινωνίας
email ______κινητό τηλ. ______
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Roxani Faltzi B2 Questionnaire in English PhD candidate Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics School of English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
SURVEY ON STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND STANDPOINTS TOWARDS ENGLISH This questionnaire is anonymous and shall be used for my PhD research. I would really appreciate your answering all questions of this questionnaire.
The following describe situations and views that some people agree with and other don’t. For each question correspond 5 possible answers (Likert scale)
SD = Strongly disagree D = Disagree NA/ND = Neither agree/nor disagree A = Agree SA = Strongly agree Put a ✔ in the cell according to what best describes your own opinion NA/ SD D A SA ND 1 I like English 1 2 3 4 5 2 In today’s world, English is important 1 2 3 4 5 3 I would not object to English becoming a second official language in Greece 1 2 3 4 5 4 English is the most useful language after Greek 1 2 3 4 5 5 English is not more important than other languages 1 2 3 4 5 6 English is the pathway to a better social status 1 2 3 4 5 7 English is the pathway to an improved quality of life 1 2 3 4 5 8 English is an essential prerequisite for employment 1 2 3 4 5 9 English is the pathway to make friendships with people from all over the world 1 2 3 4 5 10 English is the main language of communication for people from all over the world 1 2 3 4 5 11 English is a threat to multilingualism across the world 1 2 3 4 5 12 English is a threat to multilingualism in Europe 1 2 3 4 5 13 English is the single most widely-used language of technology and the Internet 1 2 3 4 5 14 English should become one of the official languages of tertiary education 1 2 3 4 5 15 English serves the need for a global language 1 2 3 4 5 16 English does not necessarily reflect a specific culture 1 2 3 4 5
NA/ SD D A SA Your perspective for the following situations ... ND 17 I would like to make friends with international students studying in Thessaloniki 1 2 3 4 5 18 I avoid talking with people from other countries if possible 1 2 3 4 5 19 I wouldn’t mind sharing an apartment with an international student 1 2 3 4 5 20 I do not trust foreigners 1 2 3 4 5 21 I would like to acquire knowledge of diverse cultures 1 2 3 4 5 22 I would like to continue my studies abroad 1 2 3 4 5 23 I would like to work abroad 1 2 3 4 5 24 I would avoid a job that requires frequent travels abroad 1 2 3 4 5 25 It is important to participate in a European mobility program (e.g. Erasmus) 1 2 3 4 5 26 I follow the news about foreign countries on the Internet (e.g. BBC or CNN) 1 2 3 4 5 27 I find it hard to comprehend the values and customs of different cultures 1 2 3 4 5 28 I am not much interested in news about other countries 1 2 3 4 5 29 (Knowing) English helps me keep up to date with the latest world news 1 2 3 4 5 Participating in a European mobility program for spending a placement (interneship) period 30 abroad is important for me 1 2 3 4 5
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Your perspective for the following situations SD D NA/ND A SA 31 Business English is essential for international business communication 1 2 3 4 5 32 Business English is essential for communication with native speakers of English 1 2 3 4 5 33 Specialized university courses should be taught in English 1 2 3 4 5 34 People need a global language 1 2 3 4 5 35 Extensive use of English at the university may signal a threat to the Greek language 1 2 3 4 5 36 In the future, many Greek words will be replaced by English ones 1 2 3 4 5 37 At work, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English 1 2 3 4 5 38 At work, I will use English in the future mainly with non-native speakers of English 1 2 3 4 5 39 I will not use English in the workplace. 1 2 3 4 5 40 In my free time, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English 1 2 3 4 5 41 In my free time, I will use English in the future mainly with non-native speakers of English 1 2 3 4 5 42 I will not need to use English in my free time 1 2 3 4 5 43 The use of English language is a threat to my mother tongue 1 2 3 4 5 44 The use of English language is a threat to my culture 1 2 3 4 5 45 I like mixing Greek with English words whilst conversing with someone in Greek. 1 2 3 4 5 46 It is important for me to speak English with a native-like accent 1 2 3 4 5 47 I like the fact that I can interact with people from all over the world through English 1 2 3 4 5 48 I am satisfied with my accent when I speak English 1 2 3 4 5 49 People can belong to diverse groups other than their cultural/ethnic one 1 2 3 4 5 50 I feel happy when I am able to speak about my country in English, with foreigners 1 2 3 4 5 51 English is a treat to my identity. 1 2 3 4 5 When I listen to a Greek person speaking English with a British or American accent, I feel he/she is trying 52 to show off 1 2 3 4 5 53 English is part of my identity 1 2 3 4 5 54 Greek culture is superior to other cultures 1 2 3 4 5 I do not mind making mistakes in grammar when I speak English, provided that I can communicate 55 efficiently 1 2 3 4 5
NA/ SD D A SA I learn English because ... ND
MO ...I imagine myself using English in order to communicate with native speakers of English (e.g. in T1 the UK or the US) 1 2 3 4 5
MO ...I imagine myself being able to communicate effectively in English with people from otehr T2 cultural and linguistic backgrounds 1 2 3 4 5 MO T3 ...my family expects me to know the language 1 2 3 4 5 MO T4 ... my friends consider it important 1 2 3 4 5 MO T5 ...I cannot graduate if I do not succeed in the English language course 1 2 3 4 5 MO T6 ...I want to get a certificate of competency in English (e.g. Proficiency, IELTS, TOEFL, ΚΠΓ) 1 2 3 4 5 MO T7 ...it is necessary to improve my English at any stage of life 1 2 3 4 5
Moreover... MO T8 I would not attend Business English seminars, even if they were free 1 2 3 4 5 MO T9 I would like to improve my Business English skills 1 2 3 4 5 MO T10 I attend/attended most ESP courses at the university 1 2 3 4 5 MO T11 I do my best to learn English at the university 1 2 3 4 5 MO T12 I learn English besides attending the university ESP courses 1 2 3 4 5 MO T13 I already know English, therefore ESP courses are not useful to me 1 2 3 4 5
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NA/ SD D A SA ESP courses at the university ... ND AE SP … have prepared me to communicate in my future workplace with people from all over the world 1 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … have prepared me to communicate in my future workplace with native speakers of English 2 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … should be based on native speakers’ communication dialogues 3 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP …should be taught by teachers who are native speakers of English 4 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … meet/have met my needs and goals 5 1 2 3 4 5 AE SP … should be offered for more semesters 6 1 2 3 4 5
NA/ SD D A SA When I use English I feel ND 1 More connected with my friends 1 2 3 4 5 2 More distant from my parents and older generations 1 2 3 4 5 3 More connected to people from English-speaking countries 1 2 3 4 5 4 More connected with people across the world 1 2 3 4 5 5 More European 1 2 3 4 5 6 Less Greek 1 2 3 4 5 7 More like a citizen of the world 1 2 3 4 5 More connected with people from my field (eg. colleagues, other students at Business 8 School/School of Economics) 1 2 3 4 5
When I read a novel I prefer one that When I listen to music I prefer I like depicts life in
British movies English songs in Great Britain
American movies the USA American songs
Greek movies Greece Greek songs
Other______Other______Other______I don’t watch movies I don’t read novels I don’t lisΔενten ακούωto those songs
Would you like to have been born in a foreign NO YES If, YES, which one/s? ______country?
If YES, which one/s? ______Would you like to live in another country? NO YES
Use of English now (Put a for each question) ✔ Every 3-4 times 1-2 times Rarely Never day per week per week How often… … do you listen to English (eg. songs, news on foreign broadcast channels, university seminars) 1 2 3 4 5 … do you read English (eg. books, magazines, newspapers, while browsing the internet) 1 2 3 4 5
…speak English (eg. with friends, Erasmus students the university, with Skype...) 1 2 3 4 5
… write in English (eg. text messages, emails, in chat rooms, Facebook...) 1 2 3 4 5
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I understand best I communicate best with Well Well Little A lot Little A lot enough enough
1 2 3 Native speakers of English 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Non-native speakers of English 1 2 3
1 2 3 An American 1 2 3
1 2 3 A British 1 2 3
1 2 3 A Greek person speaking English 1 2 3
1 2 3 A European 1 2 3
1 2 3 People from other linguistics backrounds (which one/s) 1 2 3
Demographics
2. When did you start learning English? [______] Native language/s ______
2. Where did you have English lesssons?(put a ✔in any box)
At school At a private language school Individual courses at home
3. Did you ever have an English teacher from an English- YES NO speaking country?
3.1.If YES, which one/s; ______4. Have you ever done any of the following to improve your knowledge of English?
Έκανες κάτι από τα παρακάτω για να βελτιώσεις τις γνώσεις σου στα αγγλικά; (put a ✔ in any box)
I read Business English magazines/newspapers I watched foreing movies withour subtitles I listened to English music I watched foreign TV channels/ (eg. MTV, BBC, CNN etc) I have attended English language courses abroad (eg. England/ USA)
Other (please state)______None of the above
5. Have you ever travelled abroad?/ YES NO 5.1 If YES, where? ______5.2 Which language did you mainly use? ______5.3 What was the main purpose of your travels?______
6. Have you participated in an Erasmus exhange programme? YES NO 6.1 If YES, where? ______6.2 For how long? ______
7. Have you completed an internship? YES NO If NO, please go to question 8
If YES, please answer questions 7.1- 7.6 7.1 Where? ______7.2 Field ______7.3 Company ______355 7.4 I have used English during my internship
YES If YES, continue with 7.5 and 7.6, putting a ✔ where appropriate YES If NO, please go to question 8
7.5 How often did you use English? 7.6 for which purpose? Writing/responding to Every day Conversing with colleagues emails Several times a week Reading documents Participating in meetings Few times a week Reading bibliography Making phone calls Rarely/never Writing reports Other______
8. How often do you use social networks (eg. Facebook/Twitter)?
Every day 3-4 times per week 1-2 times per week Rarely Never
8.1 In which language do you mainly communicate?______
9. Have you got a profile in an academic or professional network (eg. LinkedIn, Academia …)? YES NO
9.1 If YES, in which language do you communicate?______
Year of birth Gender Male Female
Where have you lived most part of your life? (name the city/village) ______
Year of studies [_____] AUTH [_____] or UoM [_____]
I have chosen a university subject course offered in English YES NO
Do you speak any foreign language other than English? If YES, which one/s ? NO YES ______
Please complete the following table that concerns your English language level
COMPREHENSION SPEAKING CERTIFICATE WRITING (e.g. TOEFL, LISTENING READING COMMUNICATION SPEAKING Lower, Proficiency) Proficient Proficient Proficient Proficient Proficient Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Basic Basic Basic Basic Basic
Thank you very much for giving your time to take part in this survey!!! Roxani Faltzi [email protected]
If you are interested in participating in an interview concerning my research study, please provide your contact details e-mail address ______cell-phone number______
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Appendix C
Interview Guide
Γεια σου, σε ευχαριστώ που ήρθες σήμερα για τη συνέντευξη. ‘Οπως ήδη γνωρίζεις, αφού έχεις συμπληρώσει και το ερωτηματολόγιό μου, με ενδιαφέρει η αγγλική γλώσσα και οι απόψεις σου για αυτή, ως φοιτητής/τρια οικονομικού τμήματος. Η άποψή σου είναι πολύ σημαντική για μένα, γι’αυτό και θα ήθελα στη συζήτηση που θα κάνουμε να αισθάνεσαι ελεύθερος/η να μιλήσεις ανοιχτά και ειλικρινά για αυτά που πιστεύεις και αισθάνεσαι, καθώς δεν υπάρχουν σωστές ή λάθος απαντήσεις. Επίσης θα ήθελα να σε διαβεβαιώσω ότι θα διαφυλάξω την ανωνυμία σου, γι’αυτό το λόγο πριν αρχίσουμε θα σου δώσω αυτή τη βεβαίωση, η οποία το πιστοποιεί και εγγράφως [original in Greek]
Hello, thank you very much for coming here today. As you already know, I am interested in the English language and the way it is used today globally. In my PhD research I am investigating students’ attitudes towards English in relation to a number of parameters. Your view is very important to me, so please feel free to talk openly and honestly. There are no right or wrong answers and I ensure you that you will remain anonymous. For that, I am giving you this paper signed by me, that certifies this fact. Last, I would like to inform you that this interview will be recorded and it will last approximately 30 minutes [translation in English]
Interview Questions and Prompts1 Attitudes
1. Ως φοιτητής/φοιτήρια του οικονομικού, τι σημαίνει η αγγλική γλώσσα για σένα? [original] As a Business school student, what does the English language mean to you? [translation in English]
2. Το 2001 υπήρξε η πρόταση (από Ελληνίδα επίτροπο) να γίνει η αγγλική δεύτερη επίσημη γλώσσα στην Ελλάδα. Ποια είναι η γνώμη σου για αυτό? [original] In 2001 a Greek comminsioner in the European Union proposed that English should become a second official language in Greece. What is your opinion? [translation in English]
3. Πολλά πανεπιστήμια στο εξωτερικό αποκτούν διεθνή χαρακτήρα με την εκτενή χρήση της αγγλικής γλώσσας. Θέλοντας δηλαδή να προσελκύσουν φοιτητές από άλλες χώρες προσφέρουν πολλά μαθήματα στην αγγλική γλώσσα. Πιστεύεις ότι αν συνέβαινε κάτι τέτοιο και στην Ελλάδα θα είχε κάποιο αντίκτυπο για την ελληνική γλώσσα? [original] A lot of universities abroad adopt an international character while using the English language extensively. In order to attract students from other countries they offer many courses in English. If the same happened in Greece do you think that it might have an impact on Greek language? [translation in English]
4. Πιστεύεις πως η αγγλική γλώσσα συνδέεται με συγκεκριμένη κουλτούρα? Ποια/ες? Είναι απαραίτητο για σένα να γνωρίζεις τα στοιχεία της συγκεκριμένης κουλτούρας? Για ποιο λόγο? [original] Do you think that the English language is attached to a specific culture? Which one/s? Is it necessary for you to know that/these specific culture/s? Why? [translation in English] Identity
1. Πόσο σημαντικό είναι για σένα να έχεις προφορά κάποιου που η μητρική του γλώσσα είναι η αγγλική? [original] How important is it for you to have the accent of a native speaker of English? [translation in English]
2. Πιστεύεις ότι η αγγλική γλώσσα συνδέεται άμεσα με τους Άγγλους/Αμερικανούς? Αυτοί είναι οι μόνοι που διαμορφώνουν τη γλώσσα? Είναι δική τους? [original] Do you think that the English language is connected with the English/the Americans? Are they the only ones who own the language? Is it theirs? [translation in English]
1 Prompts appear in italics in the original and underlined in the English translation. 357
3. Θεωρείς τον εαυτό σου χρήστη ή μαθητή της αγγλικής γλώσσας? [original] Do you regard yourself a user or a learner of the English language? [translation in English]
4. Σαν Έλληνας/Ελληνίδα, πιστεύεις ότι σου δίνει κάποιες δυνατότητες/ευκαιρίες η αγγλική γλώσσα? [original] As a Greek do you think that the English language gives you any chances/opportunities? [translation in English]
5. Τι καταλαβαίνεις όταν ακούς τον όρο «Αγγλική ως διεθνής γλώσσα»? [original] What do you understand when you hear the term «English as an international language»? [translation in English]
Questions/Prompts for students who had any intercultural experience through travelling abroad, internship/Erasmus participation) Σαν φοιτητής/φοιτήτρια Εράσμους/ Έχοντας ταξιδέψει στο εξωτερικό και έχοντας χρησιμοποιήσει την αγγλική γλώσσα ως μέσο επικοινωνίας), θα ήθελα να σκεφτείς τις φορές που επικοινώνησες στα αγγλικά με ανθρώπους που μιλούν άλλες γλώσσες. Ποια/ες ήταν η γλώσσα/ες επικοινωνίας? Θα ήθελα να μου μιλήσεις για αυτές τις εμπειρίες σου. Για παράδειγμα: [original prompt] As an Erasmus student/student who has travelled extensively/student with an internship experience abroad I would like you to think of all the times that you communicated with other people. Which was the language that you used for your communication? I would like you to tell me about this experience. For example: [translation in English]
Τι σου έχουν διδάξει αυτές οι εμπειρίες? [original] What has this experience taught you? [translation in English]
Ποια ήταν τα κυριότερα προβλήματα-εάν και εφόσον υπήρξαν- στην επικοινωνία σου με αυτούς τους ανθρώπους? [original] What were the main problems-if you had any problems- that you anticipated in your communication with these people? [translation in English]
Τι σήμαινε για σένα το να χρησιμοποιείς την αγγλική γλώσσα σε αυτό το περιβάλλον? [original] What did using English in this context mean to you? [translation in English]
Τι είδους ελλείψεις πιστεύεις ότι έχεις και θα ήθελες να καλύψεις προκειμένου να αντιμετωπίσεις παρόμοιες καταστάσεις? [original] Were there any difficulties in your communication? Is there anything you would like to improve or work on with regards to your competence? [translation in English]
358
Table C1: Thematic analysis framework (interview codes)
Tree code Description Free nodes
Attitudes towards Communication aspect: limitless communication, pervasiveness of English, English as a lingua franca, privilege Attitudes English Instrumental aspect: Career opportunities, English competence promotes competitiveness, Importance of Business towards English terminology, Pervasiveness of English in academic and business journals Knowledge: knowledge (technical, job-related and cultural knowledge), update (job-related and helps learn about world news) Psychological benefits: opens horizons, self-improvement, sense of safety when abroad, extroversion, confidence, mentality, open-mindedness, cosmopolitanism, adaptation Interpersonal aspect: role of friendships, leisure (travelling), learn about other cultures, communicate feelings (situation in Greece, crisis)
Internationalisation Attitudes towards Positive of Higher education the improvement of Greek education internationalisation adaptation to a new reality of Greek higher collaborations education Business oriented courses in English important for future job extroversion of education and psychological benefits for students (open-mindedness etc.) development of Greek economy and extroversion
English as a second Attitudes towards a positive: Europeanization of Greece and Greek economy, open to international markets, Greece’s extroversion official language in hypothetical negative: reserved thoughts, L1 downgrading, Greece scenario of English Greeklish (-) becoming a second official language in Greece
ESP FL certification Attitudes towards Attitudes towards Lack of motivation for ESP courses Necessary and important ESP and ELT learning English at devaluation of ESP courses yardstick to measure English competence the university or exam-oriented goals Obsession with English language certificates elsewhere disappointment from the university/ FL learning in Greece (feelings)
359
Accent attitudes
Attitudes towards Attitudes towards positive: good, fine, ok, funny, peculiar, intriguing, interesting, coloured own accent Greek accented negative: lack of confidence, shyness due to past experience, heavy, bad, stereotypes (villager vs a man in a city) English Intelligibility is the most important
Attitudes towards positive: aspirations for NS accent, British, American, uncertain reasons, proper use, beauty of language, pure and NS accent standard, the very sound of language, attractive, beautiful, respectful negative: Australian, Scottish, difficult, hard to attain, unsuitable for Greeks ambivalent feelings: uncertainty as to whether a NS accent would suit Greek people, fear of what others would think Context specific differentiation (formal vs informal context), NS accent shows respect in the work context, tolerance of a NNS accent in an informal context
no connection of English to a culture Ownership of ambivalent feelings (NS ownership, NSs, Americans, British, Australians, reference to the origins of English) English aspirations for NS accent
Identity no threat but L1 comes first fear about Greeklish (-) expression of emotions (e.g. bad words, feelings, thoughts) English subconscious part of linguistic repertoire exposure to English in everyday life generation gap
realisation of ELF dominance: easy, nice, connection with everyone, limitless communication, necessary, a must ELF awareness shared non-nativeness: unique NNS accents, intriguing/interesting/colourful NNS accents, mistakes are ok, intelligibility, ELF experiences, successful communication, awareness of skills (body language, accommodation, adaptation) cultural traits are interesting
communication exchanges: problems (accent, grammar, vocabulary), South Europeans, Italians, NNSs, solutions (time ELF experiences to adjust, accommodation, body language) mentality change: life-changing experience (eg. knowing oneself), cosmopolitanism, open-mindedness, deliberate traveling common mentality among AIESEC members: differentiation from others (eg. classmates, other young people etc.), in- group common traits and codes, code-switching, everyday use of English, work experience stereotypes of Greek people (for travelling, foreigners etc.): superiority of Greeks over foreigners
360
Appendix D Material for Facebook group
361
D1: Pictures uploaded on Facebook group
https://www.facebook.com/groups/1378601139051150/
362
D2: Videos and prompts used for Facebook group
Video 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjO1BXzZLpE
Τι συμβαίνει με την προφορά φυσικών ομιλητών (native speakers)? Τι είναι αυτό που τους εκνευρίζει τόσο πολύ και τι θέλουν να μας δείξουν? [original prompt]
What happens with native speaker accents? What makes people mad and what do they mean by their reactions? [English translation of prompt]
Video 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZpOY-bymZA
Η προφορά (φυσικού ομιλητή-native speaker) προσδίδει περισσότερο κύρος στον εργασιακό χώρο? Πείθει περισσότερο το συνομιλητή/πελάτη/συνεργάτη? [original prompt]
Is native speaker accent more prestigious in the workplace? Does it act as a convincing tool for the potential client or colleague? [English translation of prompt]
Video 3: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4tl8y1f4Zk
A miscommunication example that can cause real trouble… ]original prompt]
Video 4: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JhFiYkvXJSc
363
Appendix E Data collection timeline
a. The Questionnaire
Stage Date Instrument Time No of (mins) students Year Month
Pilot 2013 April (hard Questionnaire 30min 24 copy) Main Study 2013 May (hard Questionnaire 20min 236 copy) 2013 May/June Questionnaire 20min 257 (online) 2013 October- Questionnaire 20min 108 November (hard copy) 2013 October- Questionnaire 20min 181 November (online) Total 2013 782 responses
b. The Interviews
Stage Date Instrument Time No of approximately students (mins) Year Month
Pilot 2013 August Interview 20min 4 Main Study 2013 October- Interview 15mins-1.5hs 18 December
c. The Facebook Group
Stage Date Instrument No of students Year Month
Main Study 2013 February- Social media 13 March group
364
Appendix F Sample letter of permission for distribution of questionnaires (in Greek and Engllsh)
365
ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΔΗΜΟΚΡΑΤΙΑ ΣΧΟΛΗ ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΙΚΗ ΤΜΗΜΑ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΦΙΛΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ
Πληροφορίες: Θεσσαλονίκη, 21/5/2013 ΑΡΙΣΤΟΤΕΛΕΙΟ Τηλ.: 2310 99 7458 Fax: 2310 99 7432 Αριθμ. Πρωτ.: ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.enl.auth.gr ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ Κτίριο: Νέο κτίριο Φιλοσοφικής Σχολής ______
ΠΡΟΣ: Τον Καθηγητή κ. . . . Πρόεδρο του Τμήματος Οικονομικών Επιστημών, Α.Π.Θ.
Κοινοποίηση: Γραμματεία Tμήματος Oικονομικών Eπιστημών, Α.Π.Θ.
Κύριε Πρόεδρε,
Θα σας παρακαλούσα όπως δώσετε την άδεια να σταλεί σε φοιτητές που φοιτούν στο Τμήμα σας ένας σύνδεσμος στο διαδίκτυο με σκοπό τη συμπλήρωση online ερωτηματολογίου, από όσους φοιτητές του Τμήματός σας το επιθυμούν. Ο συγκεκριμένος σύνδεσμος μπορεί να γίνει διαθέσιμος με τη συνδρομή της Γραμματείας του Τμήματος Οικονομικών Επιστημών μέσω μαζικής αποστολής ηλεκτρονικού μηνύματος. Συγκεκριμένα το ερωτηματολόγιο αυτό αποσκοπεί στη διερεύνηση των στάσεων και απόψεων των φοιτητών οικονομικών τμημάτων για την αγγλική γλώσσα. Η έρευνα πραγματοποιείται στο πλαίσιο της εκπόνησης διδακτορικής διατριβής της υποψήφιας διδάκτορα, κ. Ρωξάνης Φαλτζή, της οποίας είμαι η κύρια επιβλέπουσα. Θα σας παρακαλούσα να μας ενημερώσετε έγκαιρα σχετικά με την έκβαση του αιτήματος καθώς η έρευνα πραγματοποιείται στο τρέχον εξάμηνο σπουδών. Θα ήθελα να σας ευχαριστήσω εκ των προτέρων για τη συμβολή σας στη διεξαγωγή της συγκεκριμένης έρευνας.
Με τιμή,
Αρετή-Μαρία Σουγάρη Επίκουρη Καθηγήτρια Γλωσσολογίας Τμήμα Αγγλικής Γλώσσας και Φιλολογίας
366
HELLENIC REPUBLIC FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY SCHOOL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Information: Thessaloniki 21 May 2013 ARISTOTLE Tel.: 2310 99 7458 Fax: 2310 99 7432 Ref. nr.: UNIVERSITY OF E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.enl.auth.gr THESSALONIKI Building: New Building of Faculty of Philosophy ______
To: Professor . . . , Head of Economics Departnment, School of Economics, A.U.TH.
ATTN: Secretary of the Economics Department, A.U.TH.
Dear Prof . . .,
I am writing to you to request permission in order to conduct a research study at your institution. If approval is granted, students of your department will be sent a link via massive emails so as to complete an online questionnaire in case they are interested. The link can be made available to students with the assistance of the School’s registrar office.
To be more specific, this questionnaire aims at delineating business school students’ attitudes towards the English language. Ms Roxani Faltzi, who is conducting this research, is completing her PhD under my supervision.
I am kindly asking for your prompt reply so as to conduct this research in the current academic semester. Your approval will be greatly appreciated.
Sincerely yours,
Areti-Maria Sougari Assistant Professor of Linguistics School of English Language and Literature
367
Appendix G
Interview consent form
368 CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH
RESEARCH TOPIC:
ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IN A GREEK TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT
I consent to my participation in an interview for the above research. I have been informed of the study’s goals and objectives by the researcher. I am aware that if I wish I could withdraw from participation at any time. I also know that the researcher will secure confidentiality.
I hereby give my permission to the researcher to use recordings and any notes taken during the interview for research purposes and publications.
Thessaloniki, 25/11/2013
Name/Signature
I, the researcher, have explained the purpose of this study and have requested the cooperation of the above participant in research interviews. I have explained that any information and all recordings obtained in the interview will be used only for legitimate research purposes.
In case questions about the study or participation arise, the participant can contact me anytime on [email protected]
The participant can also contact me to request a copy of the results of this study. Additionally, in the event of any concerns or complaints, the participant can contact my PhD supervisor Dr. Areti-Maria Sougari, Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics, at School of English, AUTH on [email protected]
Thessaloniki, 25/11/2013
Roxani Faltzi
PhD candidate Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics School of English Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]
Thank you for your help in this research study!!! 369
Appendix H Tables per variable
370 TABLE Η1: Statistical Results: Percentages and frequencies for Attitudes towards English
Neither Item Std Strongly Agree/nor Strongly Mean Deviation disagree Disagree disagree Agree agree
1 I like English 3.84 .91 1.4% (8) 7.0% (39) 20.7% (116) 47.6% (267) 23.4% (131)
2 In today’s world, English is important 4.68 .64 0.7% (4) 0.9% (5) 2.5% (14) 21.4% (120) 74.5% (418)
3 I would not object to English becoming a second official language in Greece 2.85 1.25 17.2% (96) 23.3% (130) 28.3% (158) 20% (112) 11.3% (63)
4 English is the most useful language after Greek 3.68 1.08 3.8% (21) 11.4% (64) 22.2% (124) 38.3% (214) 24.3% (136)
5 English is not more important than other languages 3.08 1.06 7.0% (39) 25.2% (140) 27% (150) 34.5%(192) 6.3% (35)
6 English is the pathway to a better social status 3.32 .99 4.5% (25) 16.2% (90) 30.9% (172) 39.4% (219) 9.0% (50)
7 English is the pathway to an improved quality of life 3.20 1.02 5.6% (31) 18.3% (101) 35.1% (194) 32.1% (177) 8.9% (49)
8 English is an essential prerequisite for employment 4.24 .82 0.4% (2) 3.8% (21) 11.1% (62) 41.1% (229) 43.6% (243)
9 English is the pathway to make friendships with people from all over the world. 4.01 .85 1.1% (6) 5.2% (29) 13.5% (75) 52.2% (291) 28% (156) 10 English is the main language of communication for people from all over the world 4.25 .80 0.5% (3) 4.1% (23) 7.4% (41) 46.1% (257) 41.8% (233)
11 English is a threat to multilingualism across the world (n) 2.85 1.02 3.1% (17) 25.3% (141) 35.2% (196) 26 (145) 10.4% (58)
12 English is a threat to multilingualism in Europe (n) 2.83 1.00 2.7% (15) 25.4% (140) 33.9% (187) 28.6% (158) 9.4% (52)
13 English is the single most widely-used language on the web 4.35 .69 0% (0) 2.3% (13) 5.7% (32) 46.7% (260) 45.2% (252)
14 English should become one of the official languages of tertiary education 3.38 1.01 5.9% (33) 10.4% (58) 34.2% (191) 38.5% (215) 11.1% (62)
15 English serves the need for a global language 3.77 .88 1.6% (9) 7.0% (39) 21.6% (120) 52.3% (290) 17.5% (97)
16 English does not necessarily reflect a specific culture 3.52 .93 1.8% (10) 12.5% (70) 31.2% (175) 41.4% (232) 13.2% (74)
33 Specialized university courses should be taught in English 3.22 1.05 6.1% (34) 16.9% (94) 36.2% (201) 30.1% (167) 10.6% (59)
34 People need a global language 3.26 1.14 9.1% (51) 14.7% (82) 29.9% (167) 33.3% (186) 12.9% (72)
371
TABLE Η2: Statistical Results: Percentages and frequencies for International Posture Neither Item Std Strongly agree/ nor Strongly Mean Deviation disagree Disagree disagree Agree agree I would like to make friends with international students studying in Thessaloniki 17 3.93 .81 1.1% (6) 2.9% (16) 21.4% (120) 51.3% (288) 23.4% (131) I avoid talking with people from other countries if possible (n) 18 4.12 .86 1.4% (8) 3.7% (21) 11.9% (67) 47.6% (267) 35.3% (198) I wouldn’t mind sharing an apartment with an international student 19 3.22 1.05 6.2% (35) 17.1% (96) 35.3% (198) 31.2% (175) 10.2% (57) I do not trust foreigners (n) 20 3.94 .84 0.9% (5) 3.2% (18) 23.4% (131) 45.5% (255) 27% (151) I would like to acquire knowledge of diverse cultures 21 4.32 .68 0.2% (1) 1.4% (8) 6.8% (38) 49.5% (277) 42.1% (236) I would like to continue my studies abroad 22 3.92 .94 1.6% (9) 5.5% (31) 21.8% (122) 41.5% (232) 29.5% (165) I would like to work abroad 23 3.81 1.01 1.8% (10) 9.7% (54) 22.8% (127) 37.3% (208) 28.4% (158) I would avoid a job that requires travelling frequently abroad (n) 24 3.80 1.04 2.3% (13) 10.4% (58) 21.1% (118) 37.9% (212) 28.4% (159) It is important to participate in a European mobility program (e.g. Erasmus) 25 3.59 .96 1.6% (9) 8.8% (49) 38.9% (218) 30.2% (169) 20.5% (115) I follow the news about foreign countries on the Internet (e.g. BBC or CNN) 26 3.18 1.12 7.5% (42) 21.6% (121) 27.1% (152) 33% (185) 10.7% (60) I find it hard to comprehend the values and customs of different cultures (n) 27 3.86 .78 0.4% (2) 4.5% (25) 22.8% (127) 53.4% (298) 19% (106) I am not much interested in news about other countries (n) 28 3.95 .83 0.9% (5) 4.8% (27) 17.2% (96) 52.4% (293) 24.7% (138) (Knowing) English helps me keep up to date with the latest world news 29 4.02 .79 0.5% (3) 3.8% (21) 16.3% (91) 52.5% (294) 27% (151) It is important to participate in a European mobility program, for spending a 30 placement (traineeship/internship) period abroad 3.73 .92 1.8% (10) 7% (39) 27.6% (155) 43.7% (245) 20% (112)
372
TABLE Η3 Statistical results: Percentages and frequencies for Identity Mean Std Neither Strongly Strongly Item Deviation Disagree agree/ nor Agree disagree agree disagree Extensive use of English at the university may signal a threat to the Greek 35 language (n) 2.75 1.13 15% (84) 29.3% (164) 26.3% (147) 24.5% (137) 4.8% (27)
43 The use of English language is a threat to my mother tongue (n) 3.17 1.15 7.7% (43) 23.4% (131) 25.7% (144) 30.5% (171) 12.7% (71)
44 The use of English language is a threat to my culture (n) 3.34 1.13 6.6% (37) 17.3% (97) 25.9% (145) 35.4% (198) 14.8% (83) I like mixing Greek with English words whilst conversing with someone in 45 Greek 2.62 1.03 14% (78) 33.8% (188) 31.2% (174) 18.1% (101) 2.9% (16)
46 It is important for me to speak English with a native-like accent 3.29 1.03 5.9% (33) 16.3% (91) 29.5% (165) 39.5% (221) 8.8% (49) I like the fact that I can communicate with people from all over the world 47 through English 4.06 .68 0.4% (2) 2.1% (12) 11.8% (66) 62.6% (350) 23.1% (129)
48 I am satisfied with my accent when I speak English 3.19 1.03 5.9% (33) 20% (112) 30.8% (172) 35.8% (200) 7.5% (42) I feel happy when I am able to speak about my country in English, with 50 foreigners 4.13 .70 0.4% (2) 2% (11) 10.5% (59) 58.4% (327) 28.7% (161)
51 English is a threat to my identity (n) 3.78 .97 3.1% (17) 6.7% (37) 21.6% (120) 46.7% (259) 22% (122)
53 English is part of my identity. 2.52 .94 12.9% (72) 39.4% (220) 32.6% (182) 13.3% (74) 1.8% (10) I do not mind making mistakes in grammar when I speak English, provided 55 that I can communicate efficiently. 3.21 1.10 5.9% (33) 24.5% (137) 22.5% (126) 37.3% (209) 9.8% (55)
373
TABLE Η4 Statistical results: Percentages and frequencies for Motivation Neither Item Mean Std Strongly agree/ nor Strongly I learn English because ... Deviation disagree Disagree disagree Agree agree ... I imagine myself using English in order to communicate with anglophones MOT1 (eg. in the UK or the US). 3.79 .86 1.1% (6) 8.9% (50) 16.3% (91) 57.3% (321) 16.4% (92) ... I imagine myself being able to communicate efficiently in English with MOT2 people from other cultural and linguistic backgrounds. 4.08 .67 0.2% (1) 2.7% (15) 9.7% (54) 63.4% (354) 24% (134)
MOT3 ... my family expects me to know the language 3.04 1.14 9.5% (53) 26.8% (150) 20.9% (117) 35.2% (197) 7.5% (42)
MOT4 ... my friends consider it important 2.81 1.16 14.4% (80) 29% (161) 23.4% (130) 27.5% (153) 5.8% (32)
MOT5 ... the English language course at the university is compulsory 3.20 1.66 7.5% (42) 23.9% (134) 22.7% (127) 32.7% (183) 13.2% (74) ... I want to get a certificate of competency in English MOT6 (eg. Proficiency, IELTS, TOEFL, ΚΠΓ) 4.14 .86 1.6% (9) 3.6% (20) 10.2% (57) 48.5% (271) 36.1% (202)
MOT7 ... it is necessary to improve my English at any stage of life 4.23 .75 0.4% (2) 1.8% (10) 11.6% (65) 47% (262) 39.2% (219)
TABLE Η5: Statistical results: Percentages and frequencies for Intended Learning Effort Neither Item Mean Std Strongly agree/ nor Strongly Deviation disagree Disagree disagree Agree agree MOT8 I would not attend Business English seminars, even if they were free (n) 4.16 .85 0.9% (5) 3.8% (21) 12.5% (70) 43.8% (245) 39% (218) MOT9 I would like to improve my Business English skills 4.12 .71 0.4% (2) 2.7% (15) 10% (56) 58.8% (329) 28.2% (158) MOT10 I attend/attended most ESP courses at the university 3.07 1.19 9.8% (55) 25.9% (145) 23% (129) 29.6% (166) 11.6% (65) MOT11 I do my best to learn English at the university 3.08 1.07 6.8% (38) 25% (140) 30.2% (169) 29.8% (167) 8.2% (46) MOT12 I learn English besides attending the university ESP courses 3.39 1.21 8.3% (46) 19.2% (107) 15.4% (86) 39.7% (221) 17.4% (97) MOT13 I already know English, therefore ESP courses are not useful to me (n) 3.46 1.06 6.3% (35) 11.5% (64) 26.3% (147) 42.1% (235) 13.8% (77)
374
TABLE Η6 Statistical results: Percentages and frequencies for Attitudes towards ESP courses Std Neither Strongly Item Mean Deviation Disagree agree/nor Agree Strongly agree disagree disagree AESP ESP courses at the university have prepared me to communicate in my future workplace with 25.5% 1 people from all over the world 3.03 1.05 7.7% (41) (136) 28.5% (152) 33% (176) 5.3% (28) AESP ESP courses at the university have prepared me to communicate in my future workplace with 22.9% 2 native speakers of English 3.05 1.03 7.5% (40) (122) 31.3% (167) 33.6% (179) 4.7% (25) AESP ESP courses at the university should be based on native speakers’ communication dialogues 3 3.53 .82 1.1% (6) 9.8% (52) 32.1% (171) 49.1% (261) 7.9% (42) AESP 24.4% ESP courses at the university should be taught by teachers who are native speakers of English 4 3.16 1.02 4.3% (23) (130) 30% (160) 33.4% (178) 7.9% (42) AESP ESP courses at the university meet/have met my needs and goals 5 3.14 .99 6% (32) 20% (106) 33.1% (175) 35.7% (189) 5.1% (27) AESP 22.1% ESP courses at the university should be offered for more semesters 6 3.15 1.13 7.5% (40) (118) 30.8% (164) 27% (144) 12.6% (67)
31 Business English is essential for international business communication 4.21 .65 0.5% (3) 0.5% (3) 8.2% (46) 59% (331) 31.7% (178)
32 Business English is essential for communication with anglophones (eg. English, American...) 4.25 .75 0.7% (4) 2.1% (12) 7.5% (42) 50.4% (282) 39.3% (220)
Table Η7 Statistical results: Percentages and frequencies for Awareness
Std Item Mean Devi Strongly Neither agree/ nor ation disagree Disagree disagree Agree Strongly agree
37 At work, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English (eg. British, American...) 3.51 .92 1.8% (10) 12.0% (67) 32.0% (179) 41.7% (233) 12.5% (70)
38 At work, I will use English in the future mainly with non-native speakers of English (eg. French, Italian...) 3.39 .89 1.8% (10) 14.3% (80) 34.9% (196) 40.8% (229) 8.2% (46)
39 I will not use English at work 3.85 .94 1.3% (7) 6.8% (38) 24.2% (135) 40.9% (228) 26.8% (149)
40 Outside the workplace, I will use English in the future mainly with native speakers of English (eg. British, American..) 3.63 .90 1.3% (7) 11.3% (63) 23.7% (132) 50.3% (280) 13.5% (75)
41 Outside the workplace, I will use English in the future mainly with non-native speakers of English (eg. French, Italian..) 3.44 .87 1.3% (7) 13.7% (76) 32.9% (183) 44.2% (246) 7.9% (44)
42 Ouside the workplace I will not need to use English 3.91 .94 1.3% (7) 7.2% (40) 19.9% (111) 42.4% (236) 29.3% (163)
375
Appendix Ι: Miscellaneous tables from Chapter 6
Table 6.8.1 List of countries students would like to have been born
Continents Countries America (152) America (7), U.S.A. (7), Canada Asia (2) Japan (2) Australia (4) Australia (4) Europe (713) Austria, Belgium, Britain (12), Denmark (3), France (9), Finland (3), Germany (10), Italy (9), Netherlands, Norway (2), Spain (5), Sweden (9), Switzerland (6)
Table 6.8.2 List of countries students would like to live
Continents Regions Countries Africa South Africa America (74) Canada (5), South America (10), U.S.A. (59) Asia (8) North Korea, Japan (6), Singapore Australia (11) Australia (10), New Zealand Europe (288) North Europe4 (170) Austria (5), Belgium (7), Denmark (8), Finland (5), Iceland, Netherlands (24), Norway (9), Russia (3), Sweden (23), Switzerland (18), United Kingdom (65) Central Europe (58) France (23), Germany (34) East Europe (5) Czech Republic (5) South Europe (49) Cyprus, Italy (30), Malta, Monaco, Portugal, Spain (15)
2 The numbers in the parentheses indicate the number of times a country was reported by the students. When no number is mentioned, this means that the equivalent country was mentioned once (e.g. Canada). 3 Europe and North Europe were mentioned twice without a specification for a country. Therefore the number 71 in the parenthesis includes those two cases as well. 4 Sometimes a region was mentioned without specification of a country (e.g. North Europe). Therefore, the number appears slightly bigger that the sum of countries in the Table. 376
Table 6.32 Pearson Correlation for the relationship between all the dependent variables under investigation
Attitudes International Awareness of Identity Motivation Intended Attitudes towards Posture future English Learning towards English use Effort ESP Attitudes towards English +.272 +.382 +.465 +.384 +.302 +.359
International Posture +.272 +.339 +.405 +.070 +.336 +.160
Awareness of +.382 +.339 +.310 +.192 +.152 +.230 future English use
+.465 +.405 +.310 +.167 +.228 +.257 Identity
Motivation +.384 +.070 +.192 +.167 +.247 +.268
Intended Learning Effort +.302 +.336 +.152 +.228 +.247 +.283
Attitudes towards +.359 +.160 +.230 +.257 +.268 +.283 ESP 377 Appendix J: Interviewees’ profile table
Aspirations
-
- for - English attitude Learning iversity
)=negative English - Participant Department Un English compe tence Code switching Business related Experience abroad ELF experience Motivation course ESP (+)=positive ( AIESEC Member Internship Experience Exposure Positive (+) Negative (-)
✓ Scotland ✓ Career Lack of ✓ Belgrade NNESs (French, American British NS model, (E. study), opportunities motivation, (1,5 German, (simple, easy) (difficult, heavy) emphasis on England, Opens disappointm months) Serbian…) NS accent=more accent Austria, horizons ent Marketing NESs (American, respect in work Australian Oral France, Self- though ESP counsellor British) context (difficult) communicati Gerrmany, improvement courses are (business Stereotype on is Italy, Study abroad important plans/ (NESs are different Serbia, prepare excellent) (village Bulgaria, ppt/read accent)
Turkey papers/write exposure to
reports/send the language
emails) is important Business Martha Economics Thrace B2+ English ✓ ✓ ✓ Communicati (-) ✓ Experience NNESs Not clear Not clear Depends on on of working NESs the Express context (as interlocutor feelings an AIESEC Communicati member) in on with Greece British is more difficult Business
terminology is important Oral
communicati Zoe Economics UOM C2 on
378 ✗ U.S.A., Contact Career (-) ✗ NNESs (Italian, American NS model Italy, with opportunities French, Spanish, NS accent
Malta, many Communicati North Europe) (-) Germany, NNSs on comments
Serbia, competitivene
ostas FYROM, ss C Economics AUTH C2 Bulgaria ✓ Italy, ✓ Communicati (-) ✓ NNESs Greek Writing skills
U.S.A., on NESs American Vocabulary England Leisure
(E. study) Travelling elope Erasmus, Pen Accounting Finance & AUEB C1 friendships ✓ England ✓ Communicati (-) ✓ NNESs NS accent grammar (E. study), on NESs British syntax France, Travelling (enthusiastic
Serbia, Everyday life about British Turkey Opens accent)
horizons Friendships intelligibility is Agapi Economics UOM C2 Future job what matters) ✗ ✗ ✓ Communicati Not ✗ NNESs oral communi
on, career, job mentioned NESs intelligibility is cation
what matters Grigoris Economics AUTH ✗ ✓ Communicati Not ✗ NNESs British
on, career, job mentioned NESs and all NESs
Dimitris Economics AUTH ✗ ✗ ✗ Communicati (-) ✗ Working NNESs (very NS Improve
on, career, experience few) (American) knowledge job, meet in Greece Speaking
other cultures (oral communicati Maria Economics AUTH B2 on) ✗ Spain, ✗ Communicati Not ✗ NNESs NS American Greek (It's bad/ writing skills
England, on, career, mentioned NESs ugly to speak terminology
Germany leisure problematic with Greek
communication accent) Ifigenia Economics AUTH B2
379 ✗ Italy, ✓ Career, study ✗ ✓ NNESs (Italian, British Humour makes He regards France abroad, (no oral co German, Spanish, (but it is communication himself a Communicati mmunicatio Greek) difficult) difficult user but on n/ read man Difficult Italian when it uals/ emails) accent comes to language assessment
and certificate
attainment he C2 - becomes a Petros Economics AUTH C1 learner ✓ England, ✓ Career, study (-) ✗ ✗ NNESs (Chinese, British (easier) Scottish Vocabulary Cyprus, abroad Italian, German, American Irish terminology
Bulgaria, Communicati Swiss)
s Russia on NESs (British, Self- American)
Cypriot) - improvement Changes his accent according Nikos Economic AUTH is (Nikos C2 Greek to interlocutor ✗ Germany, ✓ Communicati (-) ✗ ✗ NNESs (German, British (but Needs Czech on, career, Czech) difficult) improvement
Republic, study abroad, NESs England self-
(E. study) improvement (she became Melina Aconomics AUTH extrovert) ✗ Turkey, ✓ Communicati (-) ✓ ✓ NNESs (Turkish, NS accent Different accents vocabulary
Bulgaria, a lot on, study Brazilian, are charming
England, abroad, Columbian,
Framce, career, self- Asian. Spanish, C2 - FYROM, development Italian, Russian, Phaedra Economics UOM C1 Cyprus Egyptian…) ✓ Germany, ✓ Communicati (-) ✓ ✓ NNESs (Indian, NS oriented NNS accents are vocabulary Italy, a lot on, study Ukraine Arabs, Italian, (American) intriguing and Ukraine, abroad, Brazilian, interesting
Cyprus career, self- Ukrainian, development Chinese, Spanish)
NSs (Scottish, C2 - British, Chloe Economis Thrace C1 American) ✗ Spain, Communicati (-) ✗ ✗ NESs, NNESs NS oriented but Accent needs
Turkey, on, study emphasis on improvement Bulgaria, abroad, intelligibility Grammar
FYROM career, leisure More use and exposure to Alexandros Economics AUTH B2 the language
380 ✓ Ukraine, ✓ Communicati Not ✓ ✓ NNESs American NNS accents are Accent
) Germany, a lot on, career, mentioned Ukraine NS intriguing speaking
Portugal, interpersonal ΔΕΣ C2
- Italy relations Marianna Business Edministrati ( on UOM C1 ✗ Italy, Communicati Not ✗ ✗ NESs (British) NS (British) Accent,
Turkey, on, career, mentioned NNESs (Italian, spelling
England study abroad, Turkish)
knowledge,
Thomas Economics AUTH C1 leisure ✓ ✗ ✓ Career!!! ✓ ✗ NNESs NS (American) Business English is NESs terminology
mostly related
to job and
self- improvement Antonis Economics AUTH C1 skills
381