THE BASIN, :

A GEOGRAPHICAL APPRAISAL OP THE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the of The Ohio State University

By CRAIG DUNCAN, BS A., M. A.

The Ohio State University 1955 Frontispiece

The mountains: Peyto and the Mistaya Valley, Saskatchewan Basin PREFACE

The economic potentialities of semiarid are considerably enhanced if the meager supply of

is supplemented by water from other sources. The writer

obtained an appreciation of both the possibilities and the problems associated with surface water use as a result of a

study of farming in the shadow of southern . In 1951 his interest in the use of the water resource was further stimulated after traveling across the area of the , Canada* The three through which he passed are located on important of the . across the upper provide both storage and head for hydroelectric generation. An area of intensive farming, centering on , , contrasts with the grazing lands of the high and the dry-farmed cropland of the western lowlands. Irrigation ditches parallel the fences in the area between Lethbridge and Taber. Beyond, the land is sterile. A few are grazed on vast expanses of steppe . At Hat the author learned of plans to bring water from the west to serve these dry lands* Many of the problems of the Prairie Provinces are associated with the lack of water. A step towards solving

iii some of these was made In 1948 when the Prairie Provinces

Water Board was formed by the , and the Provincial governments of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and

Manitoba. Its primary functions were to coordinate activi­ ties over the basin and to recommend water allocations among the three Provinces. In considering allocations of inter­ provincial water, the Board has become increasingly aware of the lack of basic Information concerning the and economic significance of the water resource. A need was expressed for a broad study of interprovincial watersheds in to coordinate (1) all facts known concerning their geographical location in relation to present and probable future activities and needs, (2) the economic signifi­ cance of various physical and engineering possibilities re­ lated to these activities, (3) the present and required legal framework regulating human activity in relation to water, and (4) any other relevant aspects.

This study was envisaged as a contribution to the literature on the basic needs of the basin. The writer undertook to collect and coordinate the regional material relating to the of the Saskatchewan River Basin, to examine the characteristics of stream flow in terms of this material, to study the modification of stream flow re­ sulting from present utilization, and to anticipate future modification in terms of proposed future needs. The work was sponsored by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration and employment was offered the writer by that organization from to , 1954* The following procedure was used in carrying out the details of the assignment: (1) A bibliography was assembled and the basic litera­ ture relating to the area and the problem was

examined. (2) Field trips were made from the headquarters at , Alberta, to give a representative coverage

of the basin. During the months the author

traveled by car along selected routes noting the land use, the physical characteristics, and the

situation and characteristics of stream beds. An adaptation of the well-known fractional code for land classification was used as a quick and con­

venient method of recording observations. As this was to be a macrostudy, regional characteristics

and differences, rather than the details within

areas, were noted. It had been found in the

earlier reading that detailed studies had been made of small, usually problem areas, but that there was a lack of literature on the basin as a whole.

Through the field work it was possible to obtain

the areal coverage required and also to place the

smaller studies in proper perspective.

(3) A series of interviews was arranged and visits were vi

made to people representing organizations, both

governmental and private, located within the basin.

Field trips were undertaken in order to examine specific activities. Of these, the outstand­

ing were trips into the foothills sponsored by the Eastern Rockies Forest Conservation Board, and those to the various irrigation where

field officers explained problems of water with­

drawal and reticulation.

(4) A complete set of hydrometric statistics for the

Saskatchewan River system was obtained and an analysis was made of these in terms of the geo­

graphical background. The literature on underground

sources of supply was examined. From the material examined and from observations in the field, this study was written and certain conclusions have been reached. The study is not complete. Some areas are known in detail, but a more comprehensive survey of so large a basin must await more exhaustive regional surveys within the confines of the basin. The investigation which the writer has undertaken represents a starting point for these suggested detailed regional surveys.

It would be difficult to acknowledge individually all who aided the writer in his Investigations. Information was readily supplied by members of government departments, both

Provincial and Dominion, in office interviews and on field trips. Representatives of private organizations utilizing

the also gave of their time in supplying in­ formation. Mr. W. M. Berry offered frank and valuable criticism of early drafts of this study. Mr. E. P. Collier

supplied the copies of recent hydrometric records and gave the writer much good advice as to their use. To Dr. J. A.

Boan the author is particularly indebted. His advice re­ garding the organization of the text, his help in obtaining difficult source material, and his suggestions and activity in arranging interviews contributed considerably towards the success of the study. In , 1955 the writer returned to Ohio State University to complete the writing of the dissertation. The task was lightened and the text considerably Improved as a result of the suggestions of Professor Guy-Harold who served as adviser. Further textual criticism was given by

Professors A. J. Wright and F. A. Carlson. Finally, the writer wishes to acknowledge the constant encouragement given him by his parents during the past four . TABLE OP CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE ...... H i LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS...... x

LIST OP T A B L E S ...... xil Chapter I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

IIS THE ...... 15 Introduction Precipitation and Temperature The Climatic Regions The Mountain and Foothill The North Saskatchewan Region The Central Region The South Saskatchewan Region The Lower Saskatchewan Region III: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 51

Introduction The Physiography The Vegetation and Soils The Vegetation The Soils Hydrologic Regions within the Saskatchewan River Basin The Basin The Basin The Lower Saskatchewan River Basin IV! THE SURFACE W A T E R S ...... 107

Introduction The North Saskatchewan River The South Saskatchewan River River The The South Saskatchewan River The Saskatchewan River

vill ix Chapter Page

V: WITHDRAWAL PROM THE SURFACE SUPPLY 163

Introduction The North Saskatchewan Basin The South Saskatchewan Basin The Bow River The Oldman River The South Saskatchewan River

VI! THE SUBSURFACE WATER S U P P L Y ...... 216

Int r oduc 11 on The Geological Conditions and Subsurface Water Supply The Subsurface Water Regions The Mountain Region The Alberta Region The South Saskatchewan Region

VII! SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 240

Introduction Characteristics of the Water Resource The Influence of Climate The Influence of Physiography The Influence of Vegetation and Soils Water as a Resource Future Water Demands The of Alberta The Province of Saskatchewan The Province of The Changing Value of the Resource

APPENDICES ...... 268

A Hydrometric Data B Water Withdrawal Data

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 282 AUTOBIOGRAPHY ...... 292 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page The mountains: and the Mistaya Valley, North Saskatchewan Basin . . . Frontispiece

1. The plains: grain elevators on the Saskatchewan Plain, South Saskatchewan Basin ...... 15 2. Average annual precipitation, Saskatchewan River B a s i n ...... 22

3. Average annual temperature, Saskatchewan River B a s i n ...... 27

4. Daily flow: at Athabaska G l a c i e r ...... 34 5. The Saskatchewan River Basin, physiography .... 59

6. The Saskatchewan River Basin, vegetation ...... 73

7. The Saskatchewan River Basin, soils ...... 83 8. The foothills: the River, Bow River B a s i n ...... 94

9. Hydrographs for selected stations and annual runoff, North Saskatchewan River ...... 128

10. The plains: The River near , Alta. White bentonitic and seams outcrop on the valley s i d e s ...... 144

11. Hydrographs for selected stations and annual runoff, South Saskatchewan River ...... 155 12. Diagrammatic profile of the Bow River showing existing and proposed power sites and other diversions...... 177 13. The South Saskatchewan River Basin, irrigation . .181

14. The plains: Bassano on the lower Bow River, Eastern Irrigation ...... 200

x xi Figure Page

15. The Saskatchewan Elver Basin, ...... 213

16. Diagram showing effect of full development on the Saskatchewan River System ...... 258 17. Map of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and M a n i t o b a ...... Inside back cover LIST OP TABLES

Table Page

I The Population of Alberta and Saskatchewan . . . 8

II The Population of Cities over 30,000 In the Saskatchewan Bas i n ...... 10

III The Number of with Midsummer Drought . . 41

IV The Average Monthly Range of Temperatures for Typical Meteorological Stations ...... 44

V Plow of the North Saskatchewan River at the Alberta-Saskatchewan ...... 120

VI Plow of the North Saskatchewan River at The F o r k s ...... 123

VII The Annual Runoff of the North Saskatchewan R i v e r . ,...... , 125

VIII Concentration of Runoff on the North Saskatchewan River . 127

IX Plow of the Bow River at ...... 135 X The Plow of the South Saskatchewan River near the Alberta-Saskatchewan Border .... .146 XI Plow of the South Saskatchewan River at The P o r k s ...... 147 XII Discharge into the Saskatchewan R i v e r ...... 158

XIII Plow of the Saskatchewan River at . . .160

XIV Existing Storage in the Mountain and Foothill Region ...... 173 XV Existing Hydroplants In the Mountain and Foothill Region of the Bow R i v e r ...... 174 XVI Monthly Discharge of and Forty Mile Creek ...... 176

xii xiii

Table Page XVII The Runoff of the Bow Difference Between Natural and Actual Runoff ...... 179 XVIII The Actual Plow of the Bow River under Average Conditions ...... 194

XIX The Actual Plow of the Bow River under Average Conditions but with Pull Use of the Allocation for Irrigation ...... 195 XX The Actual Plow of the Bow River under Low Water Conditions ...... 196 XXI Existing Irrigation Districts...... 206

XXII Irrigation Projects in Saskatchewan ...... 212 XXIII Partial Analysis of Well Water Used for Municipal Purposes at Selected Locations . .228 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Saskatchewan River Basin-*- is located athwart the three Prairie Provinces of Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan and

Manitoba, and between 49°N and 55°N. A small area in the southwest is located in the . Longi­ tudinally it extends from 117°W in the , to

99°W where the main Saskatchewan River empties into Lake . Prom the mountains to , the basin has a length of about 700 miles, an area of 131,500 square miles.^ it is the fourth largest in Canada, the second in the more densely populated portion, and it occupies 3.7 per cent of the total area.

The Saskatchewan River and its tributaries drain the basin. Of these, the North and the South Saskatchewan are the most important. Their is at The to which they flow, after having collected water from mountain and prairie streams. Prom The Pork3, the Saskatchewan flows east to Its debouchment into Lake Winnipeg. Eventually, by

1. Subsequently the Saskatchewan River Basin will be referred to as "the basin."

2. This figure was obtained from the Water Resources Divlsiorv Dept, of Affairs and National Resources, Winnipeg, Man. 1 2 way of the , the water is carried to . The river's watershed abuts against other important drainage systems having their origins in interior Canada. The Athabaska and the Churchill rivers lie to the north, draining to the *>_ctic and to Hudson Bay, respectively. In the northwest, the watershed boundary is marked in some places by the swells of glacial , and on the Shield by irregular granitic outcrops, but gener­ ally, it is indeterminable, an irregular mass of stagnant muskeg. The southeastern contact is made with streams of the Asslnlboine River which flows via the Red River into the southern end of Lake Winnipeg. The land surface is flat and featureless. The water parting is indistinct. To the south, the height of land Is marked by residual hills, rising above the undulations of the . Of these, the and River Ridge are the most prominent. From their southern slopes, runoff drains to the Missouri system. Of all the basin’s boundaries, none is more spectacular, nor more distinct, than that with the Pacific drainage. Peaks rise to over 10,000 feet from the of the Rocky Mountains. From the eastern slopes, runoff drains to the Saskatchewan River.

Within the basin the land surface is undulating. There is a general decrease in elevation in the direction of river flow, from west to east. The Rocky Mountains occupy six per cent of the total catchment. East of the foothills is a large area of undulating land. It Is "broken by low hills and ridges in the west, flat-topped, residual hills and irregular knobs in the east. Rivers flow In steep-sided, trench-like valleys. This region occupies about 60 per cent of the basin and is bounded on the east by the Missouri

Coteau, an Irregular line of hills which, in turn, drop to the Second Prairie between 1500 and 2000 feet In elevation. Local relief in this area Is negligible. As the basin narrows towards the Manitoba border, a still lower level is found which is continuous to Lake Winnipeg. Summing up, then, it be said that the plains are flat to undulating, Interspersed with local areas of moderate relief. Concerning most of the basin it has been said that "probably no other agricultural region of , except, possibly the Corn Belt and the region to the south, possesses so large a portion of topographically . . .1,3 Although there are but few topographic limitations to agricultural activity, the basin has other disadvantages.

Low average annual temperatures are a characteristic. Winter is in control of the climate. The summers are warm but short. They begin when the mean dally maximum tempera­ ture of 70°P Is reached. Summer, in terms of these condi­ tions, advances from the southwest, reaching

3. 0. E. Baker, "Agricultural Regions of North America, Part VI: The Wheat Region," Economic Geography, Volume 4, 1928, p. 410. about May 20, southwest Saskatchewan about June 7, ,

June 11, and Edmonton, June 16. Summer retreats from the northeastern portion of the basin when the dally maximum

temperature Is no longer over 70°F. Over and the lower Saskatchewan delta, begins about 15; In the south, from 5 to about 15. Winter, the period when the maximum dally temperature Is below 43°P,

lasts from about mid- until the end of the following .^ The basin has a frost of about 60 days in the foothills, 90 days over most of the basin, and about 120 days in the southwest. In terms of these character­

istics of temperature, there are definite limitations placed

on the variety of crops that may be grown. Temperature conditions place restrictions on agricul­ tural production, but the low precipitation makes the grow­ ing of many crops all but impossible. Over most of the

basin, the average annual precipitation is between 10 and 20 inches. An early observer has described the drier areas

as follows;

The true arid district which occupies most of the country along the South Saskatche­ wan, and reaches as far north as latitude 52 degrees, has even early in the season, a dry parched look . . . The grass is very short on these plains, and forms no turf, merely consisting of little wiry tufts. Much of the arid country is occupied by

4. W. Burton Hurd and T. W. Grindley, , Climate and Population of the prairie Provinces of Canada, Bureau of Statistics, , 1331, p . 7. 5

tracts of loose , which is con­ stantly on the move before prevailing winds.5 Techniques to combat the dessication of summer had to be developed before much of the land could be profitably brought into production.

For many years following the discovery of the Saskatche­ wan River in 1738, little attempt was made to settle the area. Great herds of buffalo grazed on the prairie grasses or wandered north through the poplar and aspen groves of the parkland. and Blackfoot Indians lived and hunted on the plains which were parched by the droughts of summer, and swept by the blizzards of winter. They hunted and trapped, selling their furs to the Hudson's Bay

Company established at the mouth of the Churchill River. The monopoly of this Company was broken when interlopers, seeking to divert the through , came into the basin. Hew companies were formed, a string of forts was established along the Saskatchewan River, and new out­ lets were discovered to the north and west. The basin was becoming more accessible. The area was ripening for settle­ ment.

But settlement had to await a government expansionist policy which developed during the period of prosperity in

5. 11 Journals, Detailed Reports and Observations relative to the Exploration, by Captain Palliser of ", The General Report, British Parliamentary Papers, London,.1863, p. 246. 6 the eighteen fifties. In 1857 Captain was despatched "to explore that portion of British North America which lies between the northern branch of the River Sas­ katchewan and the frontier of the United States, and between the Red River and the Rocky Mountains.”6 Palliser con­ sidered that the North Saskatchewan region was suitable for settlement but that the South Saskatchewan, because of Its aridity, was unfit. Subsequent exploratory reports corrobo­ rate this opinion. Settlement began but slowly. Sparse and desultory agricultural communities surrounded the important trading posts. Problems associated with transportation were diffi­ cult to surmount until the Dominion Government, faced with the political necessity of linking eastern and , made it possible for the Company to complete the link In 1885. Another line, to be­ come the Canadian National Railway, was completed later. "Railway contributed to the settlement process in two ways. In the first place the completed railway was lndispensible to the production and marketing of a bulky crop such as wheat . . . In the second place the con­ struction of railways provided a source of cash Income for settlers and potential settlers."^

6» Ibid., pp. 4-5. 7. Report of the on the South Saskatchewan River Project, Ottawa, 1952, p. 92". 115 110 h 55

EDMONTON

^ # § J

h- 50

115 110

Figure 13 SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

IRRIGATION

EZ*isVir»g Areas

7WTiii Proposed Areas

Scale in Miles

50 0 50 - 100 150 200

100' _ l __

Figure 13 During the first 30 years of the present century, the prairie wheat economy was established. Farming techniques were Introduced and adapted to meet the exacting climatic requirements. As a result of the Crowsnest Agreement, favorable freight rates were obtained for the shipment of wheat. were developed to handle and market the . Settlement over the basin was not a uniform process. Some areas are still largely -unpopulated. Apart from trappers and sporadic attempts at cultivation, few live in the lower Saskatchewan River area. Settlers have been reluctant to move into the short-grass plains where grain farming is submarginal in character. About 60 per cent of the occupied land Is in pasture. Ranching predominates as a farm type. Ranching Is also a characteristic of the foothills where summers are short, and of the rougher areas of the prairies where the terrain is not suited to arable farming. In the northern part of the basin a mixed farm economy has developed, resulting in a more Intensive use of the land. Wheat dominates in the rotation and Is the cash crop. Several other activities are characteristic. Of these, dairying, beef and hog fattening, the growing of coarse grains for feed, and growing are the most im­ portant. Further Impetus to settlement has been given by the development of Irrigation in the southwest. Specialty crops are a characteristic of those districts within this region where facilities are provided for handling the products. The growing of feed crops like alfalfa, and the fattening of livestock are becoming increasingly important activities in these areas. During the present century, the population numbers have increased considerably. When the Provinces of Alberta and

Saskatchewan were carved out of the Northwest in

1905, they had a combined population of 163,000 or two per cent of the total Canadian population. By 1951, Alberta had a population of 939,501 or 6.7 per cent of the Canadian population.® Saskatchewan had a population of 831,728 or

5.9 per cent of the total. The Pas and , in Manitoba, lie within the basin. Their combined population of 14,000 is dependent chiefly on activities. In the two western provinces, rural population predominates

(Table I).

TABLE Is THE POPULATION OF ALBERTA AND SASKATCHEWAN

(Sources The Canada Yearbook, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1954, p. 130) Province Rural Population Urban Population

Saskatchewan 579,258 252,470 Alberta 489,826 449,675

Industries associated with the production of minerals are of importance in the Prairie Provinces. Coal has long

8. The population data are taken from The Canada Yearbook, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1954, p. 119. been mined in several localities in the western part of the basin, much of it of a high grade bituminous character. Salt, building stone, pottery clay, and limestone for cement are also obtained. These industries have attracted some

people to the area but most were attracted by the agricul­

tural potentialities. In recent years, the discovery of oil and gas fields has attracted many people to the western

portion of the basin. Oil was first pumped at in 1914 and for many years this constituted the only im­

portant area of production. Other fields were discovered but it was not until the period of the Second War that real impetus was given to the Industry. Today oil Is found

In many localities. It is being pumped at ,

around Edmonton, Calgary and across the southern portion of the basin. Gas is associated with of the oil fields and Is being exploited. All the major cities and many of

the smaller centers in Alberta are supplied with .

The production of mineral and agricultural commodities

has given rise to local . Although the

Prairie Provinces are not considered a major manufacturing region in Canada, the gross value of manufactured products has been Increasing. In recent years, they have totalled about four-fifths of the annual value of farm products. The four chief Industries are slaughtering and meat packing, milling, the manufacture of ...dairy products, and refining. Together they account for about 50 per cent of 10 the manufactured goods produced in the three Prairie q Provinces. A marked growth in urban population has been a charac­ teristic of recent years and one which, incidentally, con­ trasts with a slight decline in total population. Pour cities of over 30,000 inhabitants are located within the basin (Table II).

TABLE II: THE POPULATION OP CITIES OVER 30,000 IN THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN (Source: The Canada Yearbook, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1954, p. 121) Populat ion 1941 1951 Calgary 88,904 129,060 Edmonton 93,817 159,631 Regina 58,245 71,739 Saskatoon 43,027 53,268

The metropolitan areas of Edmonton and Calgary have populations of 139,100 and 173,100 respectively. Pour other cities within the basin have populations of over 10,000. These are Lethbridge and Medicine Hat, In Alberta, Prince

Albert in Saskatchewan, and the mining city of Plin Flon In Manitoba.

Important quantities of water are required for domestic and industrial uses within these cities. It Is used as an ingredient in some finished products as, for example, in the

9. Donald P. Putnam, Canadian Regions, , 1952, p. 387. 11 food canning Industry. It Is important as an agent In

cooling, removing impurities, and preparing solutions, a function it serves in the petroleum refining and associated

industries. Water is also used in nearly all industries in

diluting and removing industrial wastes.

In the smaller , sufficient water is obtained from wells but the major cities, because of the quantities they consume, require a surface source. The used water is returned to the streams, a practice that will have to be modified as population density is increased. Already in some of the streams is a problem. In , when the flow of the North Saskatchewan River is lower than normal, pollution from the industrial waste of Edmonton has created problems as as Prince Albert. Water is also required for the generation of but, because of the variation of stream volume, storage is necessary. The development of the hydroelectric potential over the basin is far from being realized. Concentration of production in the Bow River area has led to problems con­ cerning the allocation and use of the water for various purposes. The establishment of extensive balancing reser­ voirs is a necessary prerequisite to any further development if all interests are to be considered. Schemes for the steam generation of electricity, using coal or natural gas, have been planned, and at , west of Edmonton, the first plant is being built. Again a good source of water 12 is required. For both the urban and the rural inhabitants of the basin, the water resource is a factor of major importance. Periodic shortages have been accentuated as the demand for water has increased. Considerable hardship has been felt by a number of the users. An appraisal of the water supply of the basin is required; a better allocation for its use is necessary. The question of allocation is complicated by several factors. Because the water flows through three provinces, each has a right to a portion of that flow.

Tentative allocations have been made in terms of present and probable future usage as recommended by the Prairie Provinces

Water Board.-1-0 The provinces, in turn must allocate water in terms of the legal claims of the present users before considering any new claims. The question of the most economical use must be considered as a factor in the optimum distribution. All these and other local factors make for complex considerations prior to the actual of any water.

The overall effect of withdrawal on the Saskatchewan River system needs to be examined. Studies to this end are being undertaken.^ Fundamental to a consideration of the complex relationships existing in a river basin is an

10. Fifth Annual Report, 1952, Prairie Pro^/inces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1953, Appendices A and B, pp. 7-9. 11. Water Reports, Numbers 1 to 4 inclusive, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1950-1951* 13

Figure 1

The plains: grain elevators on the Saskatchewan Plain, South Saskatchewan Basin 14 understanding of the physical hase. It is the aim In this Investigation to study flow characteristics against the physical background of the Saskatchewan River Basin and to consider modification In terms of dominant physical factors. The effect of withdrawal for various uses will also be studied as another factor modifying stream flow. CHAPTER II

THE CLIMATE

Introduction Climatic elements play an Important role In determining

many of the stream’s characteristics. Of these, the nature

of the precipitation in Its amount, frequency, form, and

distribution, is perhaps the most significant. In winter, precipitation is principally in the form of in the

Saskatchewan River Basin. Both this form and its release as runoff are a function of temperature. The delay in release is an important hydrological fact. In the winter, potential runoff may be considerably reduced by sublimation from the

snow surface; in the summer by evaporation from the melt- water. The efficiency of the temperature is a factor here to be considered. The climatic elements, temperature and precipitation, will be examined in some detail as basic factors influencing stream flow.

Most of the Saskatchewan River Basin lies within one broad climatic region, that which has been loosely called the Southern Prairies.^ The region extends beyond the basin in all directions except the western where it is bounded by the

Southern Interior Valleys Region. Koppen, more specifically,

1. A. J. Connor, The Canada Yearbook, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1546-1939 ,'r p.r 42. 15 16

includes the basin within three separate climatic regions, (1) the Humid , Dfc, with cool, short summers, (2) the Semiarid, BSk'w, with cool summers and a summer rain period, and (3) the Humid Microthermal, Dfb, with cool but

longer summers than in the Dfc region.^ Three basic factors are of major importance in con­

sidering the climate of the basin, the latitude, the interior location and the topographic relationships. The latitudinal

extent of the basin is from 48°30'N to 54°N. In these , the intensity of direct is never great, the zenithal altitude of the sun ranging from 18° in Decem­ ber to 66° in June.3 The hours of sunlight, however, are considerably extended during the high sun period, being

about twice as great in June as they are in December when 7.92 hours of sunshine are possible on the 21st day of the month.4 The great range in solar radiation dominates the

of the . The main tributaries of the Saskatchewan River have their sources along the western border of Alberta, 450 to 500

2. W. KSppen, Die Kllmate Per Erde, Berlin, 1923, Tafel 1.

3. Morley K« Thomas, The Climatologlcal Atlas of Canada, Meteorological Division, Department of Transport, Ottawa, 1953, pp. 185-186.

4. Clarence E. Koeppe, The Canadian Climate, Bloomington, Illinois, 1931, p. 3. miles from the Pacific coast. They flow east, deeper into the heart of the . Continentality characterizes the climate. Seasonal temperature ranges, already high as a

result of the latitudinal control of insolation, are accentu­ ated. In the southwest, where the mountains are the lowest,

the mean annual range is about 55°P. In the eastern portion

of the basin, the mean annual range is 74°F.® Another characteristic of the interior location Is the relative de­ crease in precipitation. Absolute decreases as

air masses lose their moisture in moving towards the interior

of the continent. The precipitation potential is correspond­ ingly reduced.

The third important control of the climate is topo­ graphic. Immediately to the west of the basin, and athwart the direction of westerly air movement, lie the cordilleras of the Rocky Mountain system. Within these ranges many

peaks are over 10,000 feet high. Passes, like the Crowsnest and the Kicking , 4450 feet and 5339 feet in elevation respectively, are ineffective as routeways for Pacific air. The Rocky Mountains form an effective barrier, shutting out the marine influences that might have an ameliorating effect on the climate of the basin. To this circumstance, more than

5. Climatologlcal statistics, unless otherwise stated, are taken from either The Climatic Summaries for Selected Meteorological Stations in Canada, , and! , volume I, or The crimatological Atlas ot Canada, prepared by "Mo'rl'ey K. Thomas'. Both were published by the Meteorological Division, Department of Transport, Ottawa, 1948 and 1953, respectively. 1 8

to any other, la attributable the low precipitation of the

prairie area. Most of the Saskatchewan River Basin is an area of rain shadow. Average precipitation totals are about 15 inches. Only in the headwater regions on the eastern

slopes of the Rockies, is there an increase where clouds, trailing over the main divide, bring sufficient precipitation

to raise the totals to 20 inches in the valleys and to higher amounts towards the crests. Northwest of the Saskatchewan watershed, the Rockies are considerably lower. Peaks in the of 5000 feet are common, and maximum elevations are seldom over 8000 feet. , which the newly constructed Hart traverses in crossing the main divide, is but 2850 feet above sea level. This low section of the Rockies does pro­ vide a somewhat circuitous routeway for Pacific airmasses entering the prairie region.

Three types of air masses influence the climate of the basin. All have their distinctive source regions and all are considerably modified by the time they reach the area under consideration. Summer and winter airmass influences differ in intensity and frequency. Those of summer are described in the following quotation: To the Canadian plains . . . there is normally in summer an inflow of (a) dry, cool air which forms the western fringe of the polar-basin air on the but which becomes warmer as it advances, (b) of Northern Pacific air which, getting across the mountain system, has carried with 19

It little of the moisture originally present in the lower layers, (c) of air, heated on the continent and moving north.® The area of discontinuity between the modified polar

and tropical air masses is that in which the belt of pre­

cipitation is likely to be found. In a normal , the prairie section of the basin receives rain in summer from

this source after which the frontal area moves north and

disappears as the tropical air is further modified. There

are many variants to this movement. If the tropical air is

less active, it will not push far enough north. The basin then has a cool but dry summer. If the air masses meet and a stationary front is developed over the basin, the area

then has a relatively wet summer. Again, the frontal sur­

face between the conflicting air masses may be carried rapidly north bringing but a brief period of rain to the basin. If the Pacific air becomes particularly vigorous In

summer, it results in cool but dry conditions over the basin.

Under these circumstances the droughts of summer are established. The character of the prairie summer is, there­ fore, very variable from year to year and Is dependent upon the trends established by the dominating air masses. It is usually not until the early autumn that the in­ fluences of Pacific air become a major factor In the region.

Associated with the coastal storms, vigorous systems push

6. A. J. Connor, "The of Worth America," Handbuch der Kllmatologie, Berlin, 1938, p. 347. 20 over the mountains in the low area of the main divide, drive a wedge between the cold polar air in the Mackenzie Basin and the retreating tropical air, and drift southward over

Alberta. Indian summer, associated with the warm dry air, persists as long, and as far east, as these influences are felt. Cold spells in winter are caused by outbreaks of polar air. If these advance south from the Mackenzie Basin, temperatures may drop to -45°P or lower. Sometimes the polar air moves southwards by way of the North Pacific and enters the prairies after considerable warming. "There are cases where such a month has averaged more than 25°P warmer than a normal winter over a large area in Alberta, and 10°P or more warmer over the remainder of the Pacific."1^ In some winter months this polar air stretches from the to Hudson Bay. Then the eastern prairies have cold winters, but Alberta is fed by warmed returning polar air from the southeast, or by Pacific polar air from the west and northwest. Considerable alrmass variety is possible In one year and from year to year. The variety possible in­ creases towards the western edge of the prairie portion of the basin. The Saskatchewan and Manitoba sections are more regularly under the polar Influences. By , polar air still dominates, but the effects of the tropical continental

7. Idem, The Canada Yearbook, 1948-1949, Ottawa, p. 50. 21 air are beginning to be felt as the Gulf air pushes north.® Over most of the basin, elevations are between 1500 and

2500 feet. Any climatic effects resulting from differences in altitude are of importance. On the high plains, the foothills, and in the mountains, decreases in tempera­ ture are attributable to the higher elevations. Rocky

Mountain House and are about 3500 feet above sea level. and Banff are 4500 feet above sea level, and 5000 feet. Temperatures at these stations are lower than those of the adjacent plains.

The situation of the Saskatchewan River Basin results in its being under the influence of the climatic controls outlined above. Pressure differences are also important in establishing gradients conducive to the movement of air- masses but as their hydrologic effects are experienced in­ directly through the air masses, they have not been analysed here. Other influences on climate such as the cold air drainage to hollows, warmer and drier conditions on south- facing slopes, and the reduction of frost damage In areas of constant air movement, are all factors of local importance.

8. G. H. Rheumer, Climate and Climatic Regions of Western Canada, Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois., 1953. 'EDMONTON

CALGARY

Figure 2 SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

AVERAGE ANNUAL

PRECIPITATION

Miles 100 I so

Figure 2 23

Precipitation and Temperature

A large portion of the Saskatchewan River Basin is classified as either dry subhumid or semiarid.^ Average annual precipitation is generally between 10 inches and 20 Inches. The driest part of the basin, known as Palliser’s Triangle, stretches from about Brooks, southeast of Calgary to Outlook, in central Saskatchewan. Captain John Falliser, who explored the area between 1847 and 1860, reported that the central desert region of the United States extended a short way into British , forming a triangle. The semlarid core contains gradations of aridity* An inner, drier area is sometimes known as Fowkefs Triangle and was the last area to be settled. It is the first to be abandoned during any periods of prolonged drought. West of this dry region, average annual precipitation increases rapidly to about 20 inches. Lake Louise, the nearest reporting station to the Rocky Mountains, has the highest total, 23.83 inches. Although on the eastern and leeward side of the mountains, it does receive rain from the clouds trailing over from the west. Nordegg, in the northern portion of the mountains, has an average annual precipitation of 21 inches. Banff has 19.16 inches, and

Babb, in , has 19.43 inches. Calgary, on the high

9. Marie Sanderson, ’’The Climates of Canada According to the New Thornthwaite Classification”, Scientific Agriculture, Volume 28, 1948, Fig. 6, facing.p. 514. 24 plains, east of the mountains, has an average annual pre­ cipitation of 16.65 inches. East of this location, totals decrease to 10 inches in the Triangle. At each station, a good proportion of the total precipi­

tation is in the form of snow, the higher the elevation of

the station, the greater the proportion.-*-® At Lake Louise,

the snowfall is 59 per cent, at Banff, 41 per cent, and at Nordegg, 38 per cent of the annual precipitation.

In the northern part of the Saskatchewan River Basin, the average annual precipitation varies, increasing gener­ ally towards the south and west. At , at about the same elevation as Calgary, average annual precipitation is 19.13 inches. At Edmonton it is 17.38

inches. Precipitation decreases towards the east so that at

Battleford only 13.14 inches are recorded.

Average annual snowfall and its percentage of the total precipitation, decrease away from the mountains. At most stations 40 to 50 inches of snow are recorded, about 30 per cent of the total precipitation. At only 28 inches of actual snow are recorded, 21 per cent of the total precipitation. This lower figure for Battleford may, in part, be due to the situation of the recording station in

10. Total precipitation is made up of the rainfall to which is added the water equivalent of the snowfall and all other forms of frozen precipitation. For this computa­ tion, 10 inches of freshly fallen snow are considered as having an average water equivalent of one inch. Climatic Summaries for Selected Meteorological Stations in the Dominion of Canada, Volume ~T~, Tor onto, Ont., p. Tl 25 the more sheltered, valley of the North Saskatchewan River.

At Prince Albert, near The Forks, both total precipitation and snowfall increase again to 16.11 inches and 51.5 inches respectively. The South Saskatchewan region may be subdivided into three distinct sections. In the southwest, from Cowley to

Cardston, average annual precipitation is about 20 Inches.

At Lethbridge the total has decreased to 15 inches annually; while In a line from Medicine Hat to , the second Is distinguishable with an average annual precipitation near 12 Inches.

South of this area, straddling the Alberta-Saskatchewan boundary, lie the Cypress Hills. Although they appear more as a gentle swell than as a distinctive landscape feature, their elevations, between 3500 feet and 4800 feet, are sufficient to Induce orographic rain. Annual precipitation Increases in this southern section to 17 Inches. From The Forks to Lake Winnipeg, annual precipitation Is about 15

Inches. The percentage of this that Is snowfall appears to

Increase from about 25 per cent at Melford, to 29 per cent at The Pas.

A characteristic of precipitation in the prairies Is the great variation possible from year to year. This is a natural result of the complexity of the climatic controls. "A nice balance between the momenta of the southern and 26 northern air masses must exist if rain of a moderate to 11 heavy quantity is to fall.'* When this balance is upset variations from the average occur. Generally speaking, mean annual temperature decreases from south to north. Because of the inconsistencies in climatic controls, variation from this simple pattern is to be expected. On the prairie section, the isotherms are oriented east-west, a pattern which may be considered as normal for the basin. Mean annual temperatures decrease from 42°F at Medicine Hat, in , to 33°F at Lloydminster, in the North Saskatchewan Basin. Calgary, located near the western extremity of the prairies, has a mean annual temperature of 38°F. Outlook, at about the same latitude in central Saskatchewan, has a mean annual tempera­ ture of 37 °F. Along the western border of the basin, in the mountain­ ous section, isotherms swing sharply southward. Negative temperature anomolies, resulting from the increasing alti­ tude become apparent. Banff and Lake Louise have mean annual temperatures of 36°P and 31°P, respectively. In the northwest, centering on Edmonton, and in the extreme south­ west, positive temperature anomolies are found. Edmonton has a mean annual temperature of 37°P, four degrees higher

11. W. Burton Hurd and T. W. Grindley, o£. clt., p. 4. EDMONTON

'CALGARY

\ Figure iue 3 Figure

^>°r\ SASKATOON 100 100 AKTHWN IE BASIN RIVER SASKATCHEWAN 50 VR G ANNUAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE Degr Fo^re.nh«,if) s e re g e (D 50 0 9 ° 100 150 L A K £ 200 50 55 27 28

than that of Lloydminster to the east. Less spectacular than the northern swing of isotherms in the northwest, is the swing from the southwest again indicating a positive anomaly. This warmer air may have drifted in from the

Pacific over the lower section of the Rockies in , or it may be air that was forced to rise in order

to cross the higher Rockies. The plus anomaly at the base

of the Rocky Mountains is related to the warming of -Pacific air by loss of moisture arid descent to the plains.

In the east and northeastern portions of the basin, the isotherms are oriented towards the southeast, parallel­

ing the path most frequently followed by Polar air masses.

Saskatoon has a mean annual temperature of 34°F, Melfort, o on the , 33 P, and The Pas, in Manitoba, has 31°P.

The Climatic Regions For purposes of further analysis of temperature and precipitation statistics, it is convenient to subdivide the basin into a number of regions. These will correspond

approximately to the hydrologic subdivisions to be used later in the study. The Mountain and Foothill Region

This is the region of heaviest precipitation within the basin. Annual and seasonal precipitation varies considerably, reflecting the great diversity of relief. Valley areas receive the least direct precipitation. Eastern slopes 29

often receive heavier precipitation than the western slopes as these latter are usually sheltered by the higher ranges.

Orographic precipitation is the commonest type although precipitation may be frontal in nature, intensified by oro­ graphic uplift. In late summer and autumn, katabatic winds,

rolling down the valleys from the cooler uplands, force the

warmer air to rise, inducing convectional currents and re­ sulting In convectional rain of high intensity. Frontal precipitation is more typical of winter than of summer and

comes usually In the form of snow. Precipitation, generally, Is lighter but is more prolonged In the mountains than on

the prairies. Because of topographic modification, Its

distribution is patchy.

Precipitation regimes show certain broad characteristics. Lake Louise, located near a pass In the main divide, is more

typical of the type regime. Maximum pre­ cipitation occurs In the months of , December and January, and only 25 per cent falls in the three summer months. There Is a secondary peak In the month of June.

Further east of the main divide regimes approach those of the prairies. Precipitation maxima are concentrated in the three summer months of June, , and August. At Nordegg, Banff, and Babb percentage concentration of precipitation

12. Over one hundred precipitation gauges (Sacramento Type "A"), have been installed in the Rocky Mountains National Forest. The observations are being used in a micro- climatic study for watershed management. 30 varies from 48 to 37 per cent. Throughout the rest of the year precipitation averages about an inch a month* In November, December and January the totals are the lowest for the year. The variability of precipitation is less In this region than it is on the plains. At Banff it Is about 48 per cent?-3 Within the region possible variations from the mean are greatest during the winter, the period of minimum precipita­ tion, but at this time variations of precipitation will have little effect on stream flow. From November to March 90 per cent of the average monthly precipitation is in the form of snow. From September on appreciable quantities of snow falls, the average amount decreasing from north to south. Again In April and May some snow Is recorded. It Is over 90 per cent of the total pre­ cipitation, November to March inclusive, at Nordegg, 79 per cent at Lake Louise, and 69 per cent at Banff. Hence, unless there Is some melting, streams In the mountain area will receive little surface replenishment during the winter months* Rainfall is low. Small diurnal fluctuations result from the melting, and minimum flow tinder the ice is maintained in the larger streams from . Summer months are those of maximum flow when both the winter

13* Mean, maximum and minimum precipitation figures are taken from Clarence E. Koeppe, o£. clt., pp. 256, 257, 261, 263. 31 snow melts and the summer rainfall is collected as runoff. The rainfall totals for June, July and August are the highest in the basin. Average annual and monthly temperatures are lower than those on the prairies, a result of the higher altitude. A meteorological station is located near the main divide at Lake Louise, which has average monthly temperatures from 4°P in January to 54°F in July. These may be regarded as typical for most of the upper . Peaks rising to

10,000 feet on either side of the valley have appreciably lower monthly temperatures. The annual range of temperature at Lake Louise is 50°P. The average daily maximum tempera­ tures in July and January are 71°P and 36°P, respectively. The average daily minimum for the same two months are 36°P and -8°P. Since extremes will be less conservative, it may be said that freezing temperatures are possible in any month at these altitudes.

Nordegg, Banff, and Babb are recording stations at lower elevations but still in the mountains. They are all located at an elevation of about 4500 feet in the northern, central, and southern portions of the region respectively. Tempera­ tures increase with the decrease of latitude. The monthly average temperatures for July are 55°P at Nordegg, 58°P at

Banff, and 60°P at Babb.-*-4 For January, the minimum month,

14. The Climatologlcal statistics for Babb were obtained from Climate and Man, The Yearbook of Agriculture, Washingto'n, D. G.~," l^ l , p.' "956. 32

the average monthly temperatures are 12°F at Nordegg, 13°P at Banff, and 18°F at Babb. Annual temperatures are about the same but all are lower than that of Lake Louise. Below

freezing temperatures are of no hydrologic significance in

the three summer months of June, July, and August. Within the mountains, mid-October and April are the first and last months of appreciable snowfall. During each of these months the critical average temperatures are about

32°P. Early or late freeze-ups and thaws will depend on

the variations about this figure. The thaw period begins later in the mountains than on the prairies. Through November to March, the average daily maximum temperatures

are below freezing and, although extreme temperatures may climb to as high as 50°P, there are few sustained periods of snow melt. Stream flow under ice is low. Late spring is the period of thaw. Then snow and

glacial ice melt on all but the highest and north-facing slopes and augment the prairie flow of streams already

swollen with summer rain.

Variations in the contribution of glacial meltwater to stream flow is a function of the temperature. The impor­ tance of the contribution, particularly of the Columbia

Icefield, is relative. In spring and early summer, snow melt and rainfall maintain a satisfactory level in streams.

The contribution from the is of little consequence. In the wetter summers, when there Is sufficient water in the major streams, the percentage of flow that Is glacial melt- water is very small. The contribution does become of much greater importance in the latter part of a normal summer and in a dry year. Then two factors combine to significantly increase the importance of the glaciers' contributions. First, there is a relative increase in the meltwater as river flow from precipitation sources is so much less than normal. Secondly, there is an absolute increase in the volume of meltwater. Dry summers are usually summers so that melting is much greater. A considerable diurnal vari­ ation may be noted, especially from the south-facing slopes. This is a function of daily maximum and daily minimum temperatures.

The North Saskatchewan Region The north is the more humid part of the prairies.

Temperatures are lower and the precipitation higher and more effective. Frontal precipitation is typical. Rain, of moderate intensity, falls for longer periods than in other parts of the prairies. In winter snowfall replaces the rain.

Convectional rain Is associated with summer precipitation and, because this is much heavier than the frontal, its contribution to the annual totals is more important than the frequency would suggest. Average annual precipitation decreases away from the mountains. Regimes are similar across the north. C.F. S. 4.5

4.0

3.0 DAY JULY 1953

DAILY f l o w : s u n w a p ta r iv e r a t a t h a b a s k a g l a c ie r

^Adopted fro»n official (race W f l l f f R&SOkK*Cf»3 DivL, C a l^ o o j

Figure 4 35

is the month of minimum precipitation, June the month of maximum. The five stations selected have a typical prairie

regime with the maximum concentration of precipitation in

the summer months. Prom Rocky Mountain House in western Alberta to Prince Albert in central Saskatchewan the sta­ tions vary from 43 per cent to 51 per cent in their summer

concentrations of average annual precipitation. This type

of regime is of maximum benefit to farmers who are pre­ dominantly engaged in grain growing.

Precipitation on the prairies is much more variable than it is in the mountains. Monthly rainfall totals may be as high as three times the average in November and

December at Edmonton, and twice as high at Prince Albert.

Summer precipitation is more reliable than that of winter. The variation from the mean increases from west to east. As in the mountains, snow forms the bulk of winter pre­

cipitation. In November it is about 90 per cent of average monthly precipitation in the northern part of the basin. It

is not until April that the percentage of snow to total pre­ cipitation drops to about 50 per cent. In spite of these high percentages it must be remembered that the total pre­ cipitation is at a minimum so that actual inches of snow are generally about five inches for each of the winter months. Only at Rocky Mountain House is this figure exceeded. Except in more favorable years this snow accumulates and lies through the winter. 36

Precipitation over the northern portion of the basin adds to the flow of the North Saskatchewan River particu­ larly in the early summer. Prairie tributaries are minor streams by comparison. Their major flow is in the early summer months when surface runoff, as well as groundwater

flow, is available. Because of the greater variability of precipitation on the plains, the variation in the contribu­ tions of the tributaries to the North Saskatchewan's flow makes for considerable variations in the normal regimen.

Both precipitation and stream flow are more reliable in the source region of the mountains and predictions of flow, once

the river has the prairies, are much more difficult. In a study of the temperature characteristics of this northern section of the basin two sub-regions are dis­

tinguishable on the basis of annual temperatures. Average monthly temperatures add further emphasis to differences between the western and the eastern regions. The greater range of the eastern stations is the major differentiating factor. At Edmonton monthly average temperatures range from 6°P in January to 62°P in July, a mean annual range of 56°P. At Lloydminster, about 145 miles east of Edmonton, the January temperature is -4°P, that of July, 63°F. The range has increased to 67°F. Average monthly temperatures at Battleford and Prince Albert are similar to these. In studying the average maximum, minimum, and extreme temperatures the nature of the subregional differences ■becomes still further apparent. The Pacific air does re­ duce the temperature range for the western area as already mentioned, having less influence on the average maximum and minimum temperatures and still less on the extremes. It is the ameliorating factor in the west. Its Influence, without considerable modification, is seldom felt beyond the bound­ aries of Alberta. In summer it may impede the northern advance of tropical air. In winter it may turn the polar air towards the east. The more extreme air mass types, polar and tropical continental, move over the eastern basin.

Although occurring less frequently, these air masses do follow paths across Alberta and extremes In the temperature figures are related to this air movement more than to the Pacific air mass.

At Edmonton, the average daily maximum temperature is

74°F (July), the minimum, -4°F (January). The averages of extreme temperatures are from 87°F to -36°F for the same months. At Battleford the corresponding figures for aver­ age daily maximum and minimum are from 78°F to -10°F, aver­ age extreme maximum and minimum are from 92°F to -39°F.

Prince Albert has still more extreme conditions. The differences between the eastern and the western sections of the region depend on the frequency of occurrence of the temperature controls.

Snowfall Is not as heavy on the plains, nor does it lie as readily as In the mountains. April Is the month of thaw but average temperatures are higher than those in the moun­ tains. The thaw sets in earlier* Late spring rains and the spring thaw oombine to increase the runoff during this period. It is a problem period. Ploe ice often jams at certain locations and forms temporary dams. Prazil ice, freezing to the floe, accentuates the problem. The In­ creased stream flows will build up behind the dams, over­ flow, and the surrounding lowlands. This type of flooding is associated with the early peak flow of the streams. In terms of the volume of water, this peak is secondary to the main peak which comes when the alpine thaw runoff, combined with the early summer rainfall over the basin, considerably augments the supply.

The Central Region

This, as has already been pointed out, Is the driest region of the basin. Minimum precipitation Is reflected in the Increase In Intermittent and interior drainage which centers on small and brackish sloughs. The western boundary coincides with the limit of the western prairies.

The eastern climatic boundary extends beyond the basin. But, to the north and south, boundaries of this semiarid center are not as distinct. There is a decrease in pre­ cipitation from the north to a central area between about

Brooks and Outlook. Then precipitation totals gradually Increase again to the south. 39

Precipitation is generally frontal in character, associated with the meeting and mixing of the summer masses of polar and tropical air. Violent thunderstorms bring heavy, although localized, rain to the central prairies. In western Alberta 25 days with thunderstorms Is the annual average. Rainfall regimes are similar to those of the northern region. There is about a 45 per cent concentration in the summer months of June, July, and August, but the total pre­ cipitation for these months is lower. At Leader, a station typical of the drier core of the region, there is a 44 per cent concentration of precipitation in the three summer months. Luring that period an average of 5.21 Inches falls.

During the same period 6.81 inches is the average for

Battleford, 8.73 inches for Edmonton. Winter precipitation is about half an inch per month from Octover through March. J. W. Hopkins has sought to establish secular trends In prairie precipitation. He observes that most of the precipitation falls between April 1 and October 31 and that there is a greater variability in these months.

The 31 year average was found progres­ sively to increase from the low value of one inch or less in April to a maximum of three Inches or more In June, after which there was again a diminution In July and August, such a progression being typical of the •northern plains’ type of precipitation.15 15. J. W. Hopkins, "Agricultural Meteorology: Some Charac­ teristics of precipitation In Saskatchewan and Alberta," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 14, 1936, pp.319-346, 40

There Is considerable variation possible in the annual precipitation. It is generally greater than that for the northern region but considerable differences are possible.

At Medicine Hat the extreme figure is three times the mean precipitation figure. Prom November through March over 90 per cent of the precipitation is again in the form of snow but the total snowfall Is much lighter than In either the mountain region to the west or the prairie region to the north. The per­ centage which falls as snow decreases to the south.

Daniel and Harper have commented on the efficiency of different types of precipitation in increasing soil mois­ ture. ^ Showers of .30 inches or less are of little benefit.

Most moisture Is evaporated or transpires. In April from 42 per cent to 66 per cent of total precipitation was in the form of showers (17 year period). In subsequent months the average amount falling on each rainy day was greater.

Twenty-seven to 33 per cent of precipitation in June, and

28 to 31 per cent In July was under 0.30 Inches. During this period about 23 per cent of precipitation was in amounts of over 1.50 Inches a day. Prom the heavier downpours there was little gain in soil moisture. Most of the precipitation was as runoff. The optimum precipitation for

16. H. A. Daniel and H. J. Harper, ,fThe Relation between Effective Rainfall and Total and Phosphorus in Alfalfa and Prairie Hay'1, The Journal of the American Society of Agronomy,. Volume 27, 1935, pp. 644-652. 41 replenishing the soil moisture lies between these figures. The relation to surface runoff is obvious. Light rainfall provides little surface runoff in summer. Heavy downpours result in too much runoff and flash which, if not confined within the stream banks, may cause considerable damage.

Both this central region and the South Saskatchewan are

subjected periodically to droughts. Conditions for droughts are accentuated by hot southwest winds in summer, while in winter mild dry southwesterly or Chinook winds frequently cross the region (Table III).

TABLE III: THE NUMBER OP SUMMERS WITH MIDSUMMER DROUGHT (Source: A. J. Connor, "The Climates of North America," Handbuch der Klimatologie, Berlin, 1938, p. 363) Station Period of Number of Percentage of Record Droughts Years with (Years) Drought Edmonton 52 6 12 Calgary 50 18 36 Medicine Hat 51 27 53 Swift Current 50 15 30 Prince Albert 50 17 34

In terms of temperature, the central region is one of transition. Average monthly temperatures at Calgary range from 62°P in July to 13°P in January. Red Deer, approximately

100 miles to the north, has slightly lower monthly figures.

Macklin, centrally located within the region, has an annual range from 64°P to -1°P. Outlook, to the southeast, has an 42 annual range from 67°F to 3°P. As In the northern region, mean annual range increases towards the east. Extremes also increase towards the east, but the differences between east and west are not so great as in the average figures. This is the region where blizzards are an unwelcome, though too frequent, occurrence, particularly in the spring.

Winds of over 50 miles per hour whip the fine, dry snow from the ground, simulating the effects of a snowstorm. Tempera­ tures drop rapidly. General temperature relations are similar to those in the north, March and November being the critical months for thaw and freeze respectively. Because there is much less snow lying on the prairies, the thaw period does not have the noticeable effects on local stream flow that it has in the west.

The South Saskatchewan Region This region, the most southerly in the basin, is characterized by higher temperature figures. These allow a greater variety of crops to be grown. Precipitation within the region is insufficient for the needs of agriculture, and irrigation has been established as a practice aiding the development of the area. The region stretches from about

Cowley in the west to Swift Current in the east. Within the area there is considerable diversity of climates. Nearer the mountains, precipitation is higher than on the eastern 43 prairies and summer concentration, although still charac­ teristic, is lower. Pincher Creek and have summer concentrations of ahout 38 per cent. Medicine Hat and

Swift Current have average summer concentrations of 43 per cent and 47 per cent, respectively. Precipitation variabili­ ty increases considerably towards the east. Snowfall figures are similar to those in other prairie

stations, the amount being greater nearer the mountains. Prom November to March, all stations record over 90 per cent of precipitation in the form of snow. In April, the amount of precipitation that falls as snow Is still over 60 per cent in the western stations but there is a marked reduction towards the east.

The Oldman River and Its tributaries collect the run­ off from the southwestern area. The late spring and early summer maxima are characteristic when the rains of that period combine, first with the prairie, and later with alpine snow thaw. In the east the prairies are often bare of snow, the thin covering having been melted during the warmer winter periods.

In analysing the temperature figures, a distinction between the western and eastern portions of this region Is discernible. The average annual temperatures are about the same over the region, being within 2°P of 40°P, but the mean annual range varies from west to east. The maximum monthly temperatures at Pincher Creek, Cardston and 44

Lethbridge are about 5°P lower than those of three repre­ sentative eastern stations, Medicine Hat, Creek, and Swift Current. In winter the opposite is the case. Average

January temperatures are about 5°P higher at the western

stations. The lower annual temperature ranges of western locations are a characteristic of piedmont areas within the basin (Table IV).

TABLE IV: THE AVERAGE MONTHLY RANGE OP TEMPERATURES FOR TYPICAL METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS

(Source: "The Climatic Summaries . . .," 0 £. cit., pp. 22-23)

Meteorological Average January Average July Average Annual Station Temperature Temperature Range~"o'f Temperature Pincher Creek 18°P 61°P 43°F Cardston 17°P 65©P 48<>F Lethbridge 16°P 64op 48°P Medicine Hat 12°F 69°F 57°F Maple Creek 12°P 68°P 56°P Swift Current 8°P 66°P 58°P

As In other prairie regions, there are not the great differences in extreme temperatures that might be expected from an examination of the averages. Monthly averages of daily maximum temperatures for the highest month are about 80°P over the whole of the region. Monthly averages of daily minimum temperatures for the lowest month are about

7°P In the west, 0°P In the east. A distinguishing charac­ teristic Is to be found in differences in the coldness of winter as between one section and the other. The average extreme temperatures for only two stations were available, 45

Lethbridge and Swift Current, The figures nearly coincide

in the average extreme highest temperatures and there is but

3°P difference in the average extreme lowest temperatures. In this region Pacific air is responsible for the less extreme temperatures of the west. Western regions do come under the influence of very cold and tropical air but the frequency of these in the west is much lower.

Of major importance in modifying the winter tempera­ tures, is the occurrence of the chinook. Although the effects of this wind may be felt as far north as Edmonton, and as far east as Saskatoon, it is in the southwest area that they reach their best development. The chinook has been described as a spectacular change from bitter cold to comparative warmth.

The greatest contrast occurs when a severe prairie has occupied western Alberta and eastern Saskatchewan for one to three days with the tempera­ tures well below zero and the whole mass of very cold air accelerates suddenly to­ wards the southeast. In this case, air from the , which has been lying over the coast and filling the inter- montane valleys of British Columbia moves east, crossing the Rocky Mountains. While the denser low levels of the Pacific air can reach the plains of Alberta only with great difficulty, usually moving northward through the Intermontane valleys, yet the dry upper levels of the Pacific air cross readily enough, descending into eastern Alberta.17

17. A. J. Connor, The Canada Yearbook, op. cit., p. 51. 46

The temperature characteristics depend on the particu­ lar body of air. There may be a sudden gain of 50°P and, since the air is usually very dry, the sun shines brightly, the temperatures rise in the afternoon, while the snow lying on the ground is rapidly lost to the warmer, drier air by sublimation. When the air comes from the southwest, temperatures have been known to rise to 65°P at Lethbridge.

’’Further east the chinook properties diminish or disappear and the mass may continue eastward with merely a warm front at the surface marking its progress.”-*-® With a wind shift, the advent of polar continental air terminates the conditions of the chinook. Unsettled weather follows with cloudy skies, chilly winds, snow storms, and generally foggy conditions in the foothills.

During milder winters thin coverings of fine snow are rapidly dissipated. Under the influence of the chinook, snow cover may completely disappear.

The Lower Saskatchewan Region

In this, the most eastern of the climatic regions, it is the great range of temperature that is the distinguishing feature. Precipitation totals are similar to those over most of the North Saskatchewan Basin. The bulk of the precipitation falls in the summer when there is a

18. H. L. Osmond, "The Chinook Yn'ind East of the ,” Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 19, 1941, p , 63. 47 concentration of about 45 per cent. Prom November to March inclusive, precipitation is mainly in the form of snow. Five inches of snow falls each month, not a particularly significant total. There i3, however, considerable varia­ tion from year to year, but this has little effect on the flow of the main Saskatchewan River* If high water in the main river coincides with the summer period of maximum run­ off in the tributaries, there will be flooding in the lower reaches. The main river acts as a dam backing up the water.

At Melfort, a located in the basin of the Carrot River, the average monthly temperature ranges from -3°P in January to 63°F in July. The Pas, nearer the eastern end of the basin, has a much greater range, from -9°P to 65°P.

Average daily minimum temperatures for the coldest month is -13°P at Melfort and -18°P at The Pas. Both have an average daily maximum temperature of 75°P in July.

Prom November to March, the average monthly tempera­ tures are below 32°P. In October and April they are near that figure so freezing conditions may be expected. High water on the Saskatchewan River below occurs twice a year. The first time In March or April, depending on temperature conditions. The Ice breaks up and flow is supplemented by runoff from the winter snow. The second peak Is caused by runoff from of the Rocky Mountains. Wind direction and velocity are of little direct 48 importance in a hydrologic study. All points of the compass are represented at the stations where the records are kept. There is some regional differentiation. In the western part of the basin, winds from the south and the southwest pre­ dominate. In the lower Saskatchewan Basin the prevailing winds are from the northwest and the northeast. The mean wind velocity is about 10 miles per hour. Gusts up to 110 miles per hour have been recorded. The percentage of calms is greater in the winter than in the summer. This condition is conducive to cold air drainage and the establishment of temperature inversions.

Polar continental air settles in the valleys and is very difficult to move. The coldness is increased by conduction if the drainage is over muskeg or over one of the many sloughs in the basin. Observations of inversion conditions have been made in the area to the north of the basin. The following statement is taken from the record: In a thirteen year comparison of mean monthly spreads between hilltop and slough thermometers, the widest divergence was 9.26°F in February, followed by 8.62°F in December, 8,59°F in January, 7.85°F in March, 7.15 F in August and 7.02°F in November. There was a tendency for the coldest months to show the greatest spread.19 In these hollows snow will lie throughout the winter resisting melting during the brief periods of warmer weather.

19. W. D. Albtflght and J. G. Stoker, "Topography and Minimum Temperature,” Scientific Agriculture, Volume 25, 1945, p. 149. 49 The milder chinook winds are often insufficiently strong to

shift this stagnant air. It has been suggested that one of

the reasons why the chinook is not experienced in the mountain valleys is because of the inability to move the masses of cold air settled in the valleys. To the north of the basin cold air extends far out from the mountains. The

chinook travels over this and is considerably modified. Because of the cooling of the chinook air, spectacular in­

creases in temperature are not experienced north of Red Deer. The frost free period has been defined as that in which the minimum temperature remains above 32°F, the interval between the last killing frost in spring and the first in autumn. It Is a useful concept in hydrology indicating the final period of thaw In spring and the return of freezing conditions in the autumn. In general, the frost free season

enters southern Alberta and Saskatchewan about May 20 and crosses north over the by May 30.^0

The southward retreat in the autumn follows, more regu­ larly, the parallels of latitude. By October 15, it Is at

the South Saskatchewan water divide with the Peace River to the north, and by November 20 It Is practically at the south­ ern of the prairie provinces. There is some inter- %

20. B. W. Currie, "The Vegetative and Frost Free Seasons of the Prairie Provinces and the ," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 26, 1948, p. 9. . 50 ference with this regular retreat over ice free water bodies and where altitudes increase. CHAPTER III

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Introduction

The continued replenishment of streams is ultimately

due to precipitation in some part of the catchment.

Channel precipitation, or that which is directly inter­

cepted at the channel surface, augments the flow of the

streams in that it is immediately converted to surface run­

off. This direct contribution is insignificant when com­

pared with that water which reaches the streams by more

devious routes. Some of the precipitation is intercepted by the vegeta­

tion of the catchment. The amount varies with the type of

precipitation, the length and intensity of the storm. It has been estimated that about 20 per cent of rain falling

in the open is intercepted by deciduous trees (beech, oak and maple), and about 60 per cent may be intercepted by

spruce although, in this latter case, the method of measur­

ing has been criticized.1 Interception of wet snow and

freezing rain may amount to a considerable proportion of the

total precipitation. Interception of the precipitation to sublimation or evaporation even while the snow or

1. Ray K. Linsley, Jr., Max A. Kohler, Joseph L. H. Paulus, Applied.Hydrology, Mew York,. 1949, p. 260. 51 rain is still falling. Wind, by increasing the processes of

sublimation and evaporation, adds to this loss. A lag between the time of precipitation and stream replenishment is encouraged where any form of vegetation is present, a factor conducive to a more favorable regimen. Forests pro­ tect the surface water, particularly if this is in the form

of snow, by acting as a heat screen, but generally, through

their interception, forests are wasters of water. The loss of water due to these causes is critical in areas of low precipitation. Loss of water due to Interception must, how­

ever, be balanced against the beneficial effects of forest

cover in giving a greater control of runoff and in decreas­

ing erosion. In the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve, where

restricted cutting of the timber is allowed, experiments are being conducted which have as their purpose to obtain an

optimum runoff In terms of practices. Patch cutting would appear to offer the best solution.^

Of the precipitation which reaches the ground, some will evaporate from the surface, some will percolate into the soil, and the remainder will flow to the rivers. The

structure of the soil Is an Important factor as the infil­ tration rate Is largely determined by this. A dry, finely pulverized soil prevents rapid infiltration while a moist soil, but one that is not saturated, quickly absorbs addi-

2. Personal interview with D. I. Crossley, Forestry Branch, Department of Reserve and Development, Calgary, Alta. tional moisture. The small pore space of the fine soil particles decreases the infiltration rate, so that surface runoff is more rapid. Sandy soil thus has a much higher infiltration rate than has a clayey soil. Clay soil par­ ticles swell when water is added, decreasing the pore spaces. Infiltration is completely reduced if the ground is frozen. Runoff is then considerably increased. Water may be held as soil moisture. Some of this will reach the stream channel through interflow, or as ground­ water moving laterally below the level of the water table. Subsurface flow is significant in the replenishment of the prairie streams. Water is stored in the soil to be re­ leased slowly. From midsummer to the end of autumn, this is often the only source of water for many prairie streams and it helps to maintain their flows. The amount of water obtained will vary with the soil type and with the under­ lying geological structure.

The bulk of precipitation falling to the earth spreads as a thin sheet over the surface. From this sheet there is loss through sublimation and evaporation. Some water collects in hollows, becomes depression storage and is of no further use. Overland flow begins when the thin sheet of water which has built up over the basin surface, is no

3. Interflow is that portion of the water which seeps Into the soil, moves laterally In the upper soil until Its course is Intercepted by a stream channel or until It returns to the surface at some point downslope from its point of infiltration. 54

longer able to remain in a position of equilibrium. It

flows to lower levels and, eventually, to the stream. When precipitation is in the form of snow, overland flow must

await the warmer temperatures which will be sufficient to

bring about a thaw. Volume and the rate of overland flow

depend primarily on the amount of discharge, the viscosity and the configuration of the surface. On the undulating

surface of the prairies, the movement of water to the major

stream channels is much slower than is a comparable volume

in mountainous areas.

Stream regimen is the end product of an aggregation of physical factors. Of these, climatic Influences are the

most important in determining the particular pattern the flow

will take. But within the broad pattern dictated by cli­ mate there are many local variations in the natural flow.

These directly reflect the relief over larger areas; the surface configuration, vegetation and soils over smaller

areas. Agricultural activities, in-so-far as they modify

the land surface, must also play a part in modifying stream

flow. A detailed examination of physical inter-relation­

ships is beyond the scope of this study. General physical

patterns must be outlined if the later analyses of regimen are to be understood.

The Physiography of the Saskatchewan River Basin The site of the Saskatchewan River Basin was originally a vast lowland region, the Alberta Shelf, which extended 55 from the Great in to the Gulf of

Mexico. Prom Pre- times the Shelf existed as a western extension of the central North American craton of which the Canadian Shield was the core. It suffered alter­ nating periods of broad subsidence, marine and sedimentation, emergence and erosion. To the west of the Shelf, along the present western boundary of the Province of

Alberta, lay a deep trough, the Rocky Mountain geosyncline. Sedimentation within this trough was more or less a con­ tinuous process. The sediments originated from an orogenic belt further west bordering the present Pacific coast and, later, from a high mountain landmass which J. B. Webb named the Cordilleran geanticline^ and F. J* Fraser,

4. J. B. Webb, "Geological History of the Plains of Western Canada," Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Volume 35^ 1951", p. 2294. 5. F. J. Fraser, F. H. Mclearn, L. S. Russell, P. S. Warren and R. T. D. Wickenden, "Geology of Southern Saskatchewan" Memoir Number 176, Geological Survey, 1935, p. 114. The rise of the Cordilleran geanticline had broken up the geosyncline immediately to the east but this was able to persist as a trough and sedimentation continued. As the

Mesozoic drew to a close, uplift, initiated by tremendous crustal forces from the west, was directed against the geosycline. Rocks were compressed and uplifted and the site of the former sea was converted into a mountainous region.

This, the Laramide, or main Rocky Mountain orogeny, resulted in the Rocky Mountain geanticline. The region of uplift was bounded in the west by the Rocky Mountain Trench and to the east, by the foothills and these in turn by the shallow dip of the Alberta Shelf. Folding within the boundaries of this region continued, developing folded thrust faults in the foothills of the Rockies. These have been studied in the northwestern portion of the basin® and in the southwest.

It is in this latter area that the most spectacular relief forms have resulted from overthrusting. The famous overthrust was formed.^ It has been traced 100 miles north Into Canada. The overthrust resulted In a reversal of the normal so that the Lewis and Livingstone ranges are ’’perched*1 on Cretaceous materials. Along the foothills

6. B. F. Hake, Robin Willis and C. C. Addison, "Folded Thrust Faults in the Foothills of Alberta," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Volume- i’9^2, pp. 291-334.

7. James L. Dyson, nThe Geological Story of National ," Special Bulletin Number 5, Glacier Natural History Association, Inc., West Glacier, Mont., 1949, pp. 14-19. 57

region the overthrust is at the contact between Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments and it often coincided with the trace

of an overthrust fault plane. Within the hands of sedi­

mentary rock, evidence of intrusive igneous activity has

been exposed. A diorite sill is a prominent feature high up

in the Lewis Range. In summary, the Rocky Mountains may be described as an

anticlinorium, modified by faulting, overturning and over­ thrusting with local areas of intrusive igneous activity. Erosion followed the period of uplift and the young

sediments were removed from the mountain mass so that to­

day granite, forming the core of the Rockies, has been

exposed. Other sediments are composed of a thick mass of

folded and faulted materials ranging in age from Pre-

Cambrian to late . Mesozoic formations often occur

as inliers in the Paleozoic materials and the ridges of

Paleozoic and Pre-Cambrian materials occur outside the main front of the Rockies. For some time, antecedent rivers

persisted across the rise of the Rockies, and, although eventually defeated, they did cut the lower alpine passes.

Erosion of the uplifted mass was particularly extensive in

the southern part of the basin. Maturity in the cycle was

reached during the and the Pliocene periods. Most

of the eastern extension of the overthrust was removed until only outliers, the most striking of which is , remained. The abrupt termination of the Rockies is a characteristic in the south. Effective, but less complete erosion of the bedrock to the north, resulted in the sculpturing of the eastern ranges. The present topography of the northern foothills is related to the eastern dip of the Alberta geosyncline. Erosion of the fresh water elastics has resulted in "strike ridges of more resistant stones . . paralleled by broad valleys carved in softer shales . . .

The drainage system developed on a plain formed dur­ ing the early or middle Tertiary and has been superimposed on the Cretaceous rocks so that the present day streams are Q only partially adjusted to structure." Sediments, particularly fresh water elastics, rapidly accumulated about the site of the present foothills. In the shallow geosyncline extending east to the Shield, an

Oligocene gravel plain was built up. It consisted of "Saskatchewan ," coarse gravels, sand and which differed considerably from the earlier Cre­ taceous elastics of Zephyria. Paleocene warping of the geosyncline was associated with the formation of the Sweet- grass Arch which extended from the south into central Alberta. The smaller Alberta geosyncline was formed to the west of this. During the Miocene and the Pliocene epochs erosion reduced most of the original Tertiary level until only remnants remained. Attempts have been made to correlate

8. B. F. Hake, Robin Willis and C. C. Addison, ojd. cit., p. 295. 115 110° 55

DM ON TON:

SA!

ALBERTA:

PL

50

WfflPr IfyWrfflkir wM£ r

115 no

Figure 5 59

: q^^MANITOBA

WINNIPEG

o,saskato6N X-j

! & & :x;xx:- SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

PHYSIOGRAPHY b elief ( -Feet ) ■' nri ■: . . . . U n d e r /o o o 2000 +o 3000

/o o o to 1500 1 3o o o ■j'o 5oo o

1 5 0 0 to 2 ooo * * 1 O v e r 5ooo

S e a e i n Miles 5 0 50 100 150 200

100' _l_

Figure 5 these levels with the old Flaxville and other peneplain surfaces of Wyoming and Montana. The height of these residuals above the general prairie level varies. The western hills in the Cypress Hills area have a local relief of 600 feet. In the east the hills rise 1600 feet above the

plains. A most striking feature of these remnants are the nearly level summits found at their tops. They are often bounded by steep slopes whereas in the Cypress Hills, gorges ’’meet the upland surface at marked angles and form

strong contrasts with the upland surface."^ Other more

prominent remnants include such topographic features as the Milk River Ridge, an elevated ridge of country, the Porcu­ pine Hills which are closely associated with the Rockies, the Hand Hills, and the base of the Missouri Coteau. The Hand Hills rise to 3550 feet, about 1200 feet above the

surface of the plains. They form "an elevated tableland, the top of which, however, is not flat but composed of five ridges which radiate from a center lying to the southeast.

Gravel benches associated with these features indicate brief periods of aggradation. "In the valleys of Mill and Pincher creeks and those of the forks of the Oldman, east of the actual base of the mountains, wide terraces and terrace

9. M. Y. Williams, "The Physiography of the Southwest Plains of Canada," Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Volume 23, 1929, pi 64. 3A J. B. Tyrrell, Annual Report, Volume 2, Geological Survey Canada, 1887, p. 29. 61 flats are found, stretching out from the ridges of foothills and running up the valleys of various streams."1-1. Similar terraces are found in the valleys of the Bow and Crowsnest

Rivers.

The general prairie surface is at the Cretaceous level, the only exceptions being in the area of the lower

Saskatchewan River where and rocks out­ crop, and adjacent to the foothills where early Tertiary sediments have been preserved in the Alberta geosyncline.

Sufficient variety is found in the composition of forma­ tions to influence local drainage and topography. The

Edmonton rocks consist of very fine elastics combined with abundant clayey matter. They have tended to develop very flat or low-angle topography. The soft beds of white and pale-grey, argillaceous and grey and brown clay weather into typical badland forms. Water does not readily seep through the rocks but is either retained as shallow, intermittent lakes or cuts courses to drainage ways through steep-walled gullies. The to the west consists of coarse elastics, loosely cemented, with alter­ nating harder and softer bands.

The coarse sands are not as readily moved by wind or rain action and can form relatively steep protective taluses. This feature in conjunction with the ribbed

11. M. Y. Williams, ojd. clt., p. 66. 62

nature of the bedding has resulted in the Paskapoo surface assuming a sharply rolling character locally.12

Paskapoo rocks, like the porous rocks to the east, absorb water readily so that the surface is marked by fewer lakes and streams. Large lakes in the Paskapoo have bottoms at the level of the Edmonton formation. The outstanding topographic features at the plains level are two east-facing of the Manitoba cuesta

and the Missouri Coteau. These are hilly belts of out­

Cretaceous rock, oriented approximately northwest to southeast across the basin, and marking a break between

erosion levels. The Manitoba has been described

as "a series of water worn cliffs -overlooking a region of

Silurian bedrock and alluvial sediments of the former 13 lake." In the north, the cliffs disappear and the cuesta becomes more a line of contact between Cretaceous rocks in

the west and Silurian in the east. The Missouri Coteau is a

long, narrow upland extending to the northwest. Glacial moraines perched on its top, accentuate the height.

During the Pleistocene, Ice advanced over the plains from both the west and the northeast. The western movement was from the Cordilleran ice cap and was basically a piedmont

12. J. A. Allan and J. 0. G. Sanderson, "Geology of the Red Deer and Rosebud Sheets, Alberta,” Report 13, Research Council of Alberta, Edmonton, 1945,"p. ll. 13. W. M. Thayer, "The Northern Extension of the Physio­ graphic Divisions of the United States," Journal of Geology, Volume 26, 1918, p. 24. 63 extension of valley glaciers. Within the Rockies, it con­ siderably modified the mountain scenery developed under normal erosion. Great U-shaped valleys, paralleling the mountain ranges were gouged out. Above the sheer, rock sides, massive peaks persisted as nunataks. Jagged aretes leading to horns or tinds, cirques at the heads of main and tributary valleys, cols and valleys are today characteristic features of the Rockies resulting from this glaciation. The valley floors are flat-bottomed. Across them un­ derfit streams flow in braided channels. Masses of valley train material line the valley floors. Colluvial debris slopes in long talus cones from the sides. Lakes occupy steps in the valley floors or are found retained behind the lips of cirques in the upper valleys. There are also evi­ dences of former lakes, temporarily dammed behind glacial debris, in the sorted sediments of the valley floors. Moraines are not a conspicuous feature except in areas adjacent to present day glaciers.

Cordilleran ice several times advanced beyond the con­ fines of the mountain valleys to make contact with Laurentide ice from the east. Quartzlte erratics, dumped as the ice melted, mark the extent of advance. Prom an ice cap on the Canadian Shield, Laurentide Ice^ advanced into the foot­ hills until it reached elevations which it could not sur­ mount. Barriers, like the residual of the Porcupine Hills, blocked advance, hut great lobes of ice extended up the lower areas of the valleys. In the southwest "the northern lobe, enveloping the northern end of the Porcupine Hills

near Stimson Creek, extended down the valley now occupied by

the Chain Lakes.” A central lobe extended into the

Porcupine Hills and a southern branch left morainlc material at 4400 feet. The Laurentide drift contained pieces of

granite, gabbro, gneiss, and schist and other types of rock

derived from the Canadian Shield. Erratics mark the extent of this drift. In southern Alberta are found two drift

sheets of eastern origin, and these are separated in places by -bearing Interglacial deposits. The earlier sheet went well into the foothills. Cordilleran drift overlaps this and Is In turn overlapped by later Laurentide drift. In southern Saskatchewan, borings show evidence that at

14. There appears to be some confusion in the use of the terms "Laurentide” and "Keewatin" In naming the Ice sheets advancing from the east. Some writers use the words synonomously, while others use the word "Laurentide" to distinguish the northeasterly from the more easterly com­ ponent. "Laurentide" Is here used as the more modern name for the ice sheet advancing from the east.

15. A. MacStalker, "Surficlal Geology of Southwestern Alberta," Third -Annual Field Conference and Symposium. Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, 195#, p. STT 65 least three till sheets were separated by two series of

Interglacial deposits. Three types of -unconsolidated materials are found over the basin. There are some gravels and sands, possibly of preglacial origin, the drift materials of Laurentide, and to a more limited extent, Cordilleran origin, and some post-glacial river and lake deposits.^ Of these, the drift materials are the most extensive. They consist of both sorted and unsorted materials, till, clay, and semi- stratifled silts and clays. The thickness of the drift varies over the basin, but it is generally between 25 and 50 feet thick and is seldom more than 100 feet deep in the

Interstream areas. The till deposit Is somewhat thinner west of the Coteau than it is to the east. Where the till of ground has been dumped on the land, a flat to undulating plain has resulted. Not all lowland features are aggradational. Plat areas to the east of Red Deer have been smoothed and planed by glacial action. "Rock drumloids," small roches moutonnees north of the Hand Hills, have been formed by ice sculptoring of the bedrock. Post-glacial dissection of the morainic features varies with the length

16. W. A. Johnston and R. T. D. Wickenden, "Moraines and Glacial Lakes in Southern Saskatchewan and Southern Alberta, Canada," Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Volume 25, 1931, p. 31. 17. J. A. Allan and Ralph L. Rutherford, "Geology of Central Alberta," Division Report Number 30, Research Council of Alberta, Edmonton, 1^34, p. 9. 66

of exposure to post-glacial erosion and the proximity of

actively eroding streams. All features are topographically youthful, although those *ln the west show, in their greater complexity, a longer exposure to erosion. The hills are

steep-sided and the lowlands often undrained. Many of the hollows have been filled with lacustrine sediments. It has

been pointed out that the moraines of Alberta contain very

little out-wash. "Kame topography is rare and Is usually well localized. , valley trains, and glacial lake no deltas are also rare.’1 A pitted outwash plain lies to the

west of Edmonton. It appears as an accumulation of hills and hollows rising nearly 100 feet above the plain of the

ground moraine. Kettle holes are not so numerous as In

other areas. Three types of glacial deposit are found, (1) terminal or end moraines consisting of unsorted till and boulder clay, (2) partly sorted material and, (3) well

sorted gravel, silt, sand and clay. The end moraines form marked surface Irregularities over the basin. A prominent

moraine, the Viking, lies east of Edmonton. Its hilly sur­

faces extend a considerable distance south. Moraines have

been built up around structural features as, for example, at the western end of the Milk River Ridge. One, eight miles west of Cardston, stands 200 feet above the plain. The

18. J. Harlen Bretz, "Keewatin End Moraines In Alberta, Canada,” Bulletin^of the Geological Society of America, Volume 54~ 1943, pi 35. 67

Missouri Coteau formed a barrier to ice movement and two prominent terminal moraines are located, one along the crest and another a few miles to the west.

In some areas of eastern Alberta it is considered that moving ice caused Intense deformation of surface features. Tit Hills and Mud Buttes show abnormal distortions of strata which are of a surficial nature. "If the surficial nature of the disturbance is granted, the surficial nature of the force and its direction naturally to the assumption that the thrusting force was the great ice sheet, because it was the only competent force. "^-®

As the ice front retreated east across the plains, fluvial and lacustrine formations were established beyond the retreating ice and in the ice itself. Lakes were formed where the ice blocked east-flowing streams; Lake , in the southwest, was the first of these. They increased in size towards the east, the largest being Lakes Regina and

Agassiz. Sediments were deposited in these. In englacial lakes fine materials were gradually lowered on to the sur­ face as the ice melted. A covering of lacustrine sediments, varying In depth from a few Inches to several feet, was formed over part of the morainic material. West of Edmonton, six inches of lacustrine silt covers rolling morainic hills.

19. Oliver B. Hopkins, "Some structural Features of the Plains Area of Alberta Caused by Pleistocene Glaciation," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Volume 34, 19r£2>, p.’ £2 6 . 68

In other areas, morainic hills alternate with flat lacustrine basins. This is typical topography of the area between the

North and the South . In some areas, particularly to the south, ridges of sand mark suc­ cessive lake shores formed during pauses in the shrinkage of the post-glacial lakes. Today sand areas are found

scattered over the basin. They provide some relief es­ pecially in the Great Sandhills, the most extensive of these dune regions. ridges rise across the course of the lower Saskatchewan River in Manitoba. They were formed by the retreating . Smaller sand deposits and lenses in the till material resulted from some fluvial sort­ ing during deposition.

The lakes have all but disappeared, drained by an extensive system of rivers which carried meltwater to the south. Lake remnants remain as shallow, saline sloughs. Lake Pakowki and Manito Lake are good examples. Some have

shrunken to the size of their deeper depressions as in the case of Lake Winnipeg, a remnant of the former Lake Agassiz.

Other lakes occupy portions of the old, abandoned channels of ancient streams. Many of the present day lakes occupy depressions in the drift and have become the receptacle for the drainage of adjoining high land. Some are spring fed. Grassy and Lake Newall are examples of these although the latter now receives most of its supply from irrigation . 69

Evidence of an inter- and post-glacial drainage system is to be found in the which traverse portions of the basin in intricate patterns. They provide a unique topo­ graphic feature with their broad, flat-bottomed valleys, steep sides and truncated spurs. The valleys have all the features of late maturity but the interfluves still retain the convexity of youth. The valleys are shallow. Down- cutting through the older tills to bedrock had not advanced very far before the source of water supply was reduced. Today they remain as dry valleys or valleys which carry, for part of their lengths, the small flow of the prairie streams. Fortymile in southern Alberta is one of these. It

leaves the valley of the South Saskatchewan River north of Burdett as a depression between three and four miles wide. Three miles south of Burdett It to one mile In width and one and one half miles further south It is joined by a narrow valley from the west, with a marshy bottom . . . Chin and Fortymile coulees curve eastward below this junction and finally bend northward forming Seven- persons Coulee. This Is a valley more than one half mile in width becoming shallower to where it widens out 12 miles southwest of Seven- persons town, continuing as a wide shallow valley to Medicine Hat.^O

The present drainage systems of the Saskatchewan River

Basin are still badly disorganized. They reflect the vari­ ous geologic Influences in the history of the basin. The

20. M. Y. Williams and W. S. Dyer, "Geology of Southern Alberta and Southwestern Saskatchewan," Memoir 165, De­ partment of Mines, Ottawa, pp. 107-108, 70 main rivers flow in an easterly direction and are consequent upon the slope of the land towards Lake Winnipeg. Dis­ crepancies, however, do arise. Where the North Saskatchewan

River crosses the western limit of Laurentide moraines, it swings sharply northwest. Warren suggests that the north­ west trending channel was probably produced by escaping on meltwater from the large Clearwater glacial lake. x As the drainage re-established itself, the North Saskatchewan made use of this channel in forming its course. The river is later turned from its northeast course by the Viking moraine.

Moraines bordering the lower course would indicate a similar influence. Over the Third Prairie Plain the North Sas­ katchewan River flows in a narrow lower valley flanked by a broad and steep-sided upper valley. After cutting through the hills of the Coteau, the upper valley lowers consider­ ably until, near its junction with the South Saskatchewan, the valley sides become rolling, convex slopes. The course of the South Saskatchewan, generally consequent, was de­ flected by morainic barriers. This is seen where it turns north after traversing the Missouri Coteau. On the Alberta Plain, the South Saskatchewan is generally a youthful river. It flows in a steep-sided which, at Medicine Hat, is 250 feet deep. Thirty-five miles east, the depth increases

21. P. W. Warren, "The Drainage Pattern of Alberta," Trans­ actions of the.Royal Canadian Institute, Volume 25, 1944, p. 10. 71 to 500 feet. This section is considered by Williams to be a re-excavated preglacial channel. 22

Several influences control the direction of the tribu­ taries of both the North and the South Saskatchewan. These 23 have been discussed by Warren. A physiographic control of stream pattern predominates in the mountains and in the vicinity of the residual hills. The main streams emerge from the foothills in wide valleys with well developed sub­ sequent tributaries. These tributaries Indicate a local structural control.

On the prairies, streams seldom expose the underlying rock so structure has little influence on stream patterns. In the Red Deer basin the smaller tributaries and a portion of the main stream between Drumheller and Yardley show the influence of a structural control. They align themselves along the longitudinal folds, flexures of the Rocky Mountain orogeny. Beyond Drumheller, the Influence of structure ceases and consequent stream development is followed.

Glacial features exercise considerable control on stream patterns. Moraines turn tributaries from general consequent directions to flow north-south Instead of In the usual east-west direction. Near the mountains and over limited sections of the plains, streams occupy preglacial

22. M. Y. Williams, op. cit., p. 78.

23. P. W. Warren, op. cit., pp. 3-14. 72

channels* The course of the Bow River is largely preglacial.

Like the upper course of the North Saskatchewan, the Red

Deer, Oldman, and the Bow cut across the general line of up­

lift and are antecedent to that uplift. They became re­ established in those courses in post-glacial times. For sections of their valleys, many modern streams

occupy parts of the old coulees. , for example,

is a small stream occupying a very wide valley. Streams

like the Dogpound, Sevenpersons Creek, and Fortymile Creek

look grotesquely small where their courses follow through

the wide coulees. In the Saskatchewan section of the basin, similar

features are seen, although the prairie stream, small on the Alberta plains, all bub disappears under the semiarid climate

of southern Saskatchewan. Steepsided arroyos, separated by

extensive Interfluve areas, result In a coarse dissection pattern. Apart from the South Saskatchewan River, permanent streams are few. Interior drainage predominates. Between the Saskatchewan boundary and Lake Winnipeg the delta area is located. uIn only rare Instances is there a promontory that rises more than a few feet above the level 24 of the surrounding lands.” The pond area of the delta is separated from the Saskatchewan Plain by the Tobin .

24. C. H. Attwood, The Water Resources of Manitoba, Manitoba Economic Survey Board, Winnipeg, 1§38, p. 52. Figure SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

VEGETATION

C o r c lille r o O F o r e s t Boreal forest land - Poplar

Rarklood — Aspen Toll R'airic Short Fhalrle Roe forest

Scale i n M i e s 50 0 50 100 150 200

100° I___

Figure 6 The river channel through the delta is very unstable, and

evidence of numerous former channels is prevalent over the plains. At present the empties into which is rapidly silting up. The Bigstone cutoff and the small Tearing River, both containing rapids, are outlets

from Cumberland Lake. From where these join the old channel

of the Saskatchewan River to The Pas, the river is broad, deep, and meandering. The low, flat land is broken by only a few ridges of boulder clay. Of these, the most prominent are located where the river cuts through at the Barriers below Tearing River and again at The Pas. In certain sec­ tions, the river is held to its course between . Generally it is sluggish and much of the water is tempo­ rarily lost to the numerous backwaters and lakes adjacent to the main stream.

The Vegetation and Soils of the Saskatchewan River Basin The Vegetation

Major differences in natural vegetation throughout the basin are a reflection of climatic differences. Coniferous forests predominate in the mountain section where precipita­ tion is higher and temperatures, because of altitude, are lower. Grove or bluffs of trees alternate with areas of grass in the Parkland Belt.This occupies the northern

25. The term ''bluff” appears to be local, referring to the small patches of woodland appearing in an otherwise grassland area and usually occupying the rough land or the depressions. portion of the hasin and is roughly coincident with the North

Saskatchewan tributary basin. Rainfall is between 15 and 20 inches, and temperatures are generally cooler than in the south. The southern portion of the basin is characterized

by grassland vegetation. Precipitation decreases from

about 15 inches around the grassland periphery to about 10 Inches in the heart of the Palliser Triangle. Grassland

deteriorates from a luxuriant tall-grass prairie to an open

stand of short-grass steppe. In the east, the Saskatchewan River flows through an area dotted with lakes and muskeg. Where these are not present, forest predominates. Tempera­

tures in this eastern region are lower, and precipitation higher than in the west.

Within these broad groupings of plant formations,

associations persist under favorable local conditions. Areas of grassland extend into the foothills and have re­

sisted the encroachment of forest vegetation. Grassland is interspersed among the coniferous forest species of the northwest and appears to be a relic of more xerlc conditions. In the parkland, bluffs which are usually dominated by poplar, may also contain spruces and tamarack In wetter

sites. The may be relics of a moister period and have persisted under favorable conditions. Although prairies are characteristic of the drier, southern portion of the basin, forest species are often a characteristic of the moister, north-facing slopes of the deeply Incised rivers. 76

They are also found in the coulees, adjacent to the streams where the water table is much higher. In order that the distribution of species in the present plant communities may be more fully understood, some knowledge of the environmental history of the basin is required. The outstanding events influencing the present forest composition were the advances and retreats of the Cor- dilleran and Laurentide ice sheets* As the , or final advance began, "there is reason to believe that the bulk of the tree vegetation was destroyed and was not forced south by the Ice."^® Continual re-establishment of species as the ice advanced south, would not be rapid enough and the winds of decreasing relative humidity from the anti­ cyclones over the glaciers would still further discourage rapid plant retreat. In spite of these factors refugia were established, areas where the more fortunate species, after migrating, were able to persist along with those already established there. Within the basin, refugia may have been established either on the higher residual blocks or In the inter-lobate areas. Lodgepole pine (Plnus contorta var. latifolia), and associated species are characteristic of the north-facing slopes of the Cypress Hills. They form an ecological outlier from the main region within the Rockies, one that may have survived the various Ice advances.

26. W. E. D. Halliday and A. W. A. Brown, "The Distribution of Some Important Forest Trees in Canada," Ecology, Volume 24, 1943, p. 355. 77

Definite refugia were established to the northwest and south

of the basin. The boreal refugia was located around the Bering Sea with an extension into the . Both would

contain certain rigid species, permanent fixtures in these regions while other, more plastic species, would advance

south and east with the advent of more favorable conditions. Spruces and tamarack () would be character­

istic species from the first center, trembling aspen (), white birch (Betula papyrifera), lodgepole pine and alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) from the second. Typical west coast species were associated with a

southern extension from the present Bering Sea area. What Halliday and Brown call the western refugia was

"situated beyond the former Cretaceous depression of the center of the continent and centered on the Cordilleran

land maas."^ As the ice melted, various plastic species advanced into the present Saskatchewan River Basin from this

location. In migrating from both refugia, species encoun­

tered temporary, but significant barriers, in the form of the post-glacial lakes across the region. The migration of white spruce (Picea glauoa), was channelled along certain lines by the intervening lakes. pollens tell the story of advance of the boreal forest from the south. Such species as white spruce, spruce (),

27. W. E. D. Halliday and A. W. A. Brown, ££. cit., p. 355. 78

balsam fir (Abies balsamea), and (Plnua Banks1ana) were associated with the first advance. There is consider­ able evidence to support the observation that a xeric

period followed this first advance, as species associated with warmer and drier conditions have left pollen grains

above those of the first advance. Remnants of a more ex­ tensive grassland vegetation are found in the northwestern

portion of the basin. There was a swing back to cooler and

moister conditions later which resulted in a re-lnvasion of some of the northern and associated with them, spruce

and fir. In the eastern portion of the basin some species, such

as eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), white elm

(Ulmus ), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanioa var.

lanceolate), and mountain maple (Acer spicatum), migrated from the Appalachian refugia to this region. Those which are able to withstand the colder winters of the northern

portion of the basin are still migrating west and north

while others, like the burr oak (Quercus macrocarpa), are

limited to the eastern portion of the basin. It is considered that the forest regions "are now

possibly somewhat in the same positions as they were immedi­ ately preceding the oncoming of the Wisconsin.1,28 Glaciation has considerably modified the composition of the vegetation.

28. W. E. D. Halliday, "Climate, Soils and Forests of Canada," Forestry Chronicle, .Volume 26, 1950, p. 292. 79

Many species have been eliminated so that today the vegeta­ tion of the basin is comparatively simple. It is composed of a limited number of species. In the climax forest association white spruce is considered as the dominant species. Trembling aspen is the dominant species in the parkland and is found associated with balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera). Qn the prairies, needlegrass (Stlpa sp.) and grama grass (Bouteloua sp.) have the most extensive develop­ ment.

The Soils The soils of the Saskatchewan River Basin fall Into three broad groups. Mountain soils, reflecting all the complexities of mountain regions, are characteristic of the western part of the basin. They have been studied in the

Kananaskis River area.^^ Climate and the nature of the forest vegetation should result In the domination of podzolization but well developed profiles are difficult to find. Unconsolidated surface deposits are of recent origin and include glacial till, transported deposits of alluvial and lacustrine origin, and residual and sorted residual deposits. In the lowland or valley bottom soils, there Is evidence of new lacustrine materials deposited over pre­ viously well developed soil profiles.

29. D. I. Crossley, "The Soils of the Kananaskis Forest Experiment Station In the Sub-alpine Forest Region of Alberta," Silvicultural Research Mote Number 100, Ottawa, 1951. Moat of the soil in the area studied was developed over limestone and this has a higher humus content that adjacent soils derived from granite or sandstone hut podzolizatlon has advanced further on the latter soils as they were less resistant to leaching. Soil textures are fine but the drainage is usually adequate. It Is observed that there Is little or no pan development to inhibit water movement through the profile^ and the rocky, porous nature of the glacial till permits the maximum water infiltration. The

soils are for water storage. The following profile types have been identified within the areas (1) Alluvium, (2) Chernozem, (3) Rendzina, (4) Brown Forest, (5) Podzols - brown grey.^ There is no evidence of profile development

In the alluvium. A preliminary study of the soils of the upper Ghost and

Red Deer rivers has been made. Classification into the following categories Is based on the nature of the parent rock material; (1) Bare rock and rocky alpine soils.

(2) Residual soils with some profile development. In these soils infiltration capacities are moderately

high. (3) Colluvial soils. Detention storage In these Is

high.

3°. Ibid., p. 9. 81

(4) Glacial soils other than glacio-fluvial. The great depth, high water retention and storage capacities

of these soils make them valuable for watershed

management. (5) Alluvial and glacio-fluvial soils. The infiltra­

tion and storage of these soils vary with the texture. (6) Bog and marshland soils. These are of little use

for retention and do not play any part in regimen

lmprovement.

The mature prairie soils reflect a response to climate and vegetation and may be grouped broadly as soils developed under forest cover, occupying the northern and extreme eastern part of the basin, and soils developed under grass­ land and occupying the remaining part of the basin. The prairie soils include the Brown Soils (Chestnut) occupying the transition area to the north and west of the Triangle.

North of these lie the Black Soils (Chernozem), of the

Parkland. The forest soils consist of Degraded Black, occupying a transition zone to the Grey Soils (Podzols) along the northern boundary of the basin and coincident with the increase of conifers to the west. Grey Soils, inter­ spersed with peat soils, are a characteristic of the western portion of the prairies and the northeastern portion of the basin. Wooded Calcareous soils dominate in the Delta region. Local variations in climate and vegetation introduce 82 regional variations in the prevailing profiles. The most arid section of the Brown Soil Zone is represented by local areas of Grey- Brown soils; transition areas of mixed Brown- Dark Brown and Dark Brown-Black soils occur along the northern borders of the main zones of Brown and Dark Brown soils respectively; cli­ matic differences within the Black Soil belt have been recognized by the areas of Thin Black and Thick Black soils on the basis of the differences in the average thickness of the A horizons. Finally, local elevations in all zones produce a succession of soil profiles representing vertical zonation.31

The soils of the plains are also modified in terms of the materials of their origin. Soils have developed on the three types of unconsolidated materials, residual, trans­ ported, and resorted or mixed. Residual soils, formed from the weathering and decay of underlying rocks, are common throughout the basin. In Alberta "they are formed from softer shale formations, often of marine origin, containing soluble mineral impurities like alkalies or alum. Trans­ ported soils consist of rock debris transported mainly by ice. That from the Pre-Cambrian Shield reached Alberta from the northeast and consists mainly of debris from Pre-

Cambrian rocks, many of them high in , magnesia and alumina. The debris left by the Cordilleran Ice sheet con­ sists largely of rock from the mountains where limestones

31. J. Mitchell and H. C. , "The Soils of the Canadian Section of the ," Proceedings, Soil Science Society of America, 1948, volume' 13, i'9'49’, pi 434.

32. J. A. Allan, "Geology of Alberta Soils," Report Number 34, Research Council of Alberta, 1943, p. 64. 11 o 55

vJ

CALGARY;

50

115 no

F ig U l'Q SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN SOILS

Grg^j W o oded T r o n s i t i o n 5 0 ° — B l o c k P o r k Dork fcro^n RrouJr fllpirC G rey Vv^aodeol » ktgk lim e 5 o o d 84 and dolomites predominate. Hence the soils of Alberta differ particularly in mineral composition, according to the source of the debris. Rivers moved the finer rock materials down the surface slopes from west to east. Soils developed on alluvial materials are widespread, especially on flats adjacent to the rivers and in the lower Saskatchewan section.

Loessal cappings to various types of soil profile are of local occurrence. Resorted or mixed soils are widely dis­ tributed but are often difficult to distinguish from the older glacial or alluvial soils.

Brown, Dark Brown and Black soils are best developed on medium-textured glacial till, and lacustrine-alluvial de­ posits on well-drained, gently-sloping, upland sites. The structure is generally prismatic. In lower and flatter localities solonetz profiles occur. In an extreme form these develop into sterile "slick spots" or "blow outs."

Soils of the glacial lake beds in Saskatchewan are developed on uniform heavy clay deposits and have a cloddy, granular structure. Their recent origin may be a factor accounting for the poor profile and structure development.

Degraded black soils appear to represent former black soil profiles of grasslands that have been under woodland for a sufficient period to show some stages of podzolic development. The grey wooded soils are characterized by leached, ashy grey A2 horizons and heavy textured illuviated

B horizons. Associated with flat to depressional topography, 85 poor drainage and usually wet soil conditions are some intrazonal soils like the peat podzol, the meadow and the peat soils.

Hydrologic Regions within the Saskatchewan River Basin

The Saskatchewan River Basin is subdivided Into a number of hydrologic regions based on major groupings of the 3«T various tributary basins. Some smaller and Inland drain­ age basins have also been delineated. Describing some of these river catchment areas as "basins" is a misnomer. Pew of the tributary areas could be visualized as basins from a physiographic point of view. Instead, they represent great undulating areas rising Imperceptibly to indistinct water partings. Catchment boundaries are transition areas from one drainage system to another, and the direction of runoff is often adventitious. The term "basin", however, Is a convenient one and is used with a realization of its limitations.

The North Saskatchewan River Basin

The basin extends from the continental divide of the Rocky Mountains to the confluence of the North and South

Saskatchewan rivers at The Porks. The major physiographic regions are Included within its boundaries. The mountains,

53. The subdivision is a standard one, obtained from the Water Resources Division, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Regina, Saskatchewan. 86

noted for their diversity of glaciated scenery, form the

upper catchment of the basin. The foothills have a maximum relief of 2000 feet and a local relief that ranges from 500 feet to 1300 feet. Long strike ridges, formed on resistant

of the Cardium and Brazeau formations, are broken by transverse valleys. The North Saskatchewan River follows

an antecedent course across these. Subsequent tributaries, developed along the strike of softer shale, enter the main rivers at right angles. "In many localities, where the geology is complicated by low dipping fault planes, the

topographic expression is likewise more complex. Single

ridges give way to multiple ridges, and straight ridges to arcuate ridges.11'54 The major portion of the catchment is on the Alberta and Saskatchewan plains, those of the Third

and Second Prairie levels, respectively. Surface features

are associated with the aggradational forms of glaciation. Recessional moraines, rising two or three hundred feet above

the plain surface, form the only noticeable relief feature.

In western Saskatchewan the Missouri Coteau, at right angles to the general basin trend, is a prominent relief feature.

The Coteau, in the north, is not as high as it is to the

south, nor do the long, low ridges rise abruptly from the plains. Nevertheless, It still represents a significant

34. J. C. Scott, "Folded Faults In the Rocky Mountain Foot­ hills of Alberta, Canada," Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Volume 35, 1951, p. 2319. 87 break in the plains topography. On the Alberta Plain, the major streams occupy well

defined valleys, which usually consist of two parts. The lower valley is comparatively recent, and rises 100 to 200

feet above the stream bed. The upper part slopes gently back towards the water divide of the interstream area. The

course of the Worth Saskatchewan River immediately to the

west of Edmonton has been described as follows: From Berrymoor ferry east, the lower part of the is, on the average, wider than it is to the southwest. There are numerous large islands in the stream course and the broad river terraces are common along of the valley. The stream channel frequently changes its course through these broad, low terraces. The meanders of the stream channel are more abrupt than those in the valley, which averages one to two miles in width. On the Saskatchewan Plain the river flows between low banks from which the land shelves back to the divide. There is no

longer a steep-sided inner valley. The Battle River occupies a large tributary basin to the south. For much of its

course it flows through a series of coulees. The valley sides are steep and the valley floor flat and wide.

The vegetation of the North Saskatchewan Basin is pre­ dominately that of parkland. Boreal forest is found in the western prairies and mountains. At higher levels, Engelmann

35. R. L. Rutherford, "Geology of the Area Between the North Saskatchewan and McLeod Rivers, Alberta," Geological Survey Division, Report Number 19, Scientific and In­ dus triaT~Re sear chT 13&8, p. 677 88 spruce (Picea Engelmannl), grows in pure or mixed stands.

Its best growth, is made on deep, rich, loamy soils with a high moisture content. Lodgepole pine and alpine fir (Abies

losiocarpa), are often associated with the spruce or them­ selves form pure and mixed stands. Alpine fir grows as a stunted shrub at very high altitudes.

In the foothills and on the western plains, conifers occupy the more favorable locations. White spruce replaces Engelmann on the better drained land. Black spruce and tamarack take possession of the poorly drained sites.

Beyond the forest lies the parkland. Some would regard

this as a climax association while others consider it as a transition from prairie to boreal forest. Two character­

istic northern trees are present, white spruce and black spruce, the former being well established along ravines, the

latter on muskeg. It Is reasonable to regard the parkland as a transition belt "where slight differences in soil, climate and topography have allowed grassland to become invaded by northern vegetation, these special conditions giving prefer­ ence to trembling aspen and members of the willow family, and where conditions offer a suitable habitat, by two characteristic trees of the northern forest."36

Three associations are characteristic of the parkland.

36. Francis J. Lewis, Eleanor S. Dowding and E. H. Moss, "The Vegetation of Alberta, II The Swamp, Moor and Bog Forest Vegetation of Central Alberta," Journal of Ecology, Volume 16, 1928, p. 23. 89

The "normal poplar" stand consists of dense clumps of aspen

with which may be associated other light demanding species such as white birch, pin (Prunus pensylvanlca), and balsam poplar. The "open poplar" association is common on sandy or gravelly soils. The poplars are widely spaced,

short, and branching. Willows (Sallx Bebbiana), are often a

secondary species. The third type is the "poplar-spruce"

association which may be regarded as a climax and is de­ veloped where the spruce has sufficient protection from fire.

The poplar association has five well defined layers. (1) Tall trees with a continuous canopy.

(2) Smaller trees and larger shrubs - an intermittent

layer that shows poorer development in the aspen consociation. (3) A lower shrub which is usually inconspicuous except in the late summer as it is somewhat obscured by members of the layer.

(4) Taller herbs form a continuous stratum, and are

prominent in the latter part of the growing season.

(5) Lower herbs which consist mainly of and lichens.3^

Ecotone areas lie about the northern and southern boundaries of the North Saskatchewan Basin. In the south, aspen tends to invade and succeed prairie. White spruce is

37. E. H. Moss, "The Poplar Association and Related Vegeta­ tion of Central Alberta," Journal of Ecology. Volume 20, 1932, p. 398. more prominent in the north. Grasses occupy the area between

the bluffs and form a closely knit mat. The most common of

these are awned wheat grass (Agropyron subsecundum), slender wheat grass (Agropyron pauclflorum), fringed bromegrass

(Bromus cillatus), and marsh reedgrass (Calamagroatls cana­ densis ). Special vegetation types are associated with

abnormal habitats. Muskeg fringes numerous small lakes. Moss and some conifers grow on some peat areas and are so

similar to muskeg that peat-bog and muskeg are almost

synonomous terms.The areas are very noticeable as the

contrast between parkland trees and those of the muskeg are very great. The transition zone is often only a few feet.

The reed swamp and the low moors of the parkland are other special types. Reed swamps occur next to the water and are surrounded by low moor, the two types frequently merging.

All the soil zones except the Brown Prairie soil are represented in the North Saskatchewan Basin. The Grey

Wooded soil is a characteristic of the coniferous forest of

the mountains and the western plains. The surface horizon

consists of a semi-decomposed leaf mould layer, a thin A^ horizon and a severely leached and platy Aq which has a depth of six to eight inches. The B horizons are heavier textured, compact and darker in color than the A horizon. A

38. F. J. Lewis and E. S. Dowding, ’'The Vegetation and Retrogressive Changes of Peat Areas (“Muskegs”) in Central Alberta," Journal of Ecology,-Volume 14, 1926, p. 317. transition zone across the northern part of the basin corresponds to the vegetation ecotone where spruce is much more prevalent. Black Prairie soils are located in the heart of the basin. This soil is a characteristic of the true . The normal profile has a black to a very dark brown A horizon that averages 12 to about 14 inches in depth. The more compact B horizon is brown to dark brown. A Shallow Black soil zone lies across the southern part of the basin and is succeeded by a Dark Brown zone. Although this area is called the short grass region, the growth is dense and taller grasses are found. The A horizon is about seven inches in depth and is dark brown in color. The B horizon is heavier and is more compact that the A. Farm practices have modified the vegetation and soil patterns. Grain growing predominates but usually as part of a mixed farming economy. Dairying is next in importance.

Towards the west, farming methods are primitive, and farms are poor. Much of the forest is in a primeval state.

Lumbering has made inroads in the western coniferous forests of the plains.

The South Saskatchewan River Basin

This tributary basin includes the headwater basins of the Red Deer, Bow, Oldman, and St. Mary rivers. It stretches from the main divide of the Rockies to The Forks. For some distance toward the east, the northern boundary of the basin coincides with that of the North Saskatchewan River. In 92

eastern Alberta a series of inland drainage basins later

separate the two. The largest of these inland areas from

west to east are the basins of Sullivan Lake, Manito Lake, and Lake. Physiographieally there is little to

distinguish the inland drainage areas from the basins to the north and south. The land surface is undulating, the mo­

raines alternating with drift or glacio-fluvial lowlands. An area within the Manito Basin has been described as follows The general effect of glaciation has been to level the lowest areas and leave a wide plain. This plain is by no means uniformly level however as it varies considerably in elevation, and it is cut up by many drainage channels consisting of coulees . . . A good deal of the plain is rolling in nature and in some parts it is quite hilly . . . formed by glacial deposits and post glacial erosion. . .39

Prairie vegetation predominates in the inland drainage

region. It is a short grass vegetation which is almost

devoid of trees except for those which fringe some of the rivers and lakes.

Soils consist of both Dark Brown Prairie and Prairie

soils. Grain growing is the most important farming activity in the western part but, as precipitation decreases toward the east, it is replaced by ranching.

The basins of the Red Deer, the Bow, Oldman, and the St. Mary head high in the Rockies. Mountain, foothill, and plain are crossed before the rivers flow into the South 39. P. A. Wyatt and J. D. Newton, Soil Survey of the Sound­ ing Creek Sheet, The of Agriculture, , Edmonton, Alta., 1927, p. 2. 93

Saskatchewan. This traverses the hlllier country of the

Coteau then flows north on the Saskatchewan Plain. The alpine portion of the basin is similar to that of the North

Saskatchewan River. Features of glacial erosion predominate, valley sides are steep, valley floors are littered with much glacial debris. Stratified deposits of valley train material

are common on the valley floors, whereas lenses of finer sands and varved clays suggest further fluvial and lacus­ trine action. The main divide is much lower about the head

of the , a tributary of the Oldman. Foothills, consisting of alternating hard and soft bands of Cretaceous sediments, are much more prominent in the northern part of the basin than in the south. The Red

Deer traverses a large trough before entering the ridge and valley section of the foothills.Glacial materials floor the trough and the valleys which run through the foothills. Into these the Red Deer has cut terraces.

Where the Bow River traverses the foothills between the

Kananaskis River junction and Cochrane, three elements in

the relief may be observed. The higher areas are broken in­

to several ridges which frequently extend for a considerable distance northwest or southeast from the respective sides of

the Bow valley. Broad river or river-lake terraces occupy

40. The trough has the appearance of a great and a tectonic origin has been suggested. Faulting in the region has been observed. Figure 8

The foothills: Waiparous River, Bow River Basin 95

the lower parts of the valley. These terraces were probably

formed, when the Bow River was dammed at various times during glacial retreat. Moralnal material, 25 to 50 feet high stand as islands in the terraces. Several small streams

disappear on reaching these terraces because of the porous

nature of the material. The Third Level is that cut into the terraces by the present Bow River. The Bow valley it­ self is probably preglacial.

From the St. Mary to the Oldman River there is an

absence of foothills owing to the effective erosion of the

Lewis overthrust. This erosion in the eastern part of the

overthrust block, in addition to producing its crenulated

edge, has left several isolated remnants east of the main mass of the mountains. Chief Mountain is perhaps the best

known of these. From the main mountain ranges, streams flow

to the plains with but few interruptions.

The Red Deer, the Bow, and the Oldman rivers cross a portion of the Alberta Plain to join the South Saskatchewan

River. The Red Deer enters the drift region with but little change in direction. The valley is wide and the banks are

low until the town of Red Deer is reached. The valley is preglacial and is little, if at all, entrenched in the old-

land. Just north of Red Deer the river swings to the south­

east and enters a much more confined valley with high banks and continuous exposures. For the most of its lower course, the Red Deer flows in a gorge the sides of which get higher as the river traverses first, the residual area of the

Wintering and then the Hand Hills. Badland topography is a

characteristic of the sides. Valleys of tributaries descend 250 to 300 feet to the Red Deer. The steep walls of the

inner valley rise from a broad floor of outwash debris which,

in many areas, is half a mile wide. The Red Deer has en­ trenched itself 15 or 20 feet In an older floodplain and out­ wash deposits of clay, sand, and gravel are a common occur­ rence. The upland is of rolling moraines and till and is capped by yellowish, silt clays which reach a maximum thick­ ness of 75 feet. Residual hills rise above the glacial depositions. The Bow River enters the high plains to the west of Calgary. The physiographic history of the lower Bow is complex. Advances and retreats of both Cordilleran and

Laurentide ice, and prolonged inter-glacial periods all tend to complicate the picture. Its lower course Is similar to that of the although topographical differ­ ences between upland and river level are not as great.

The Oldman River from the west and the St. Mary from the southwest join near Lethbridge to flow east Into the South Saskatchewan River. Postglacial dissection is limited to the major streams in their cutting of major trenches.

The steep-walled valleys are clearly developed upon a mature land surface. Generally speaking the upland consists of a rolling plateau sloping northeastwards from the foothills of 97 the Rocky Mountains and dissected by rather intricate stream systems. The glacial topography, although modified by lacustrine deposition, is recognizable in both end moraine and ground moraine areas. Moraine knolls are sharply defined in all the areas of end moraines and can be found at elevations up to 400 feet in the Porcupine Hills. Southwest of the area, moraine forms, unmodified by lacustrine deposition, are characterized by steep-sided knobs, ridges and basins with hundreds of lakes and ponds. The initial glacial forms are essentially un­ modified over wide areas . . .41

The South Saskatchewan River flows east through the hilly country as it approaches the Coteau. Irregularities are probably due to erosion, following the uplift of the

Sweetgrass Arch. Moraines In the vicinity of the Coteau tend to accentuate the relief. At Medicine Hat the South

Saskatchewan River is 250 feet below the upland surface. Thirty-five miles below the city, the depth Increases to 500 feet. The river Is inset about 10 feet In the floor of this great gorge. The valley sides consist of Bearpaw shales and are often characterized by badland surfaces. South of the river In Alberta, is an area of residual swells and a great number of coulees. Shallow alkaline lakes and dry coulees mark the drainage systems of the period at the end of the Pleistocene. Southern Saskatchewan

41. Leland Horberg, "Pleistocene Drift Sheets In the Leth­ bridge Region, Alberta, Canada," Journal of Geology, Volume 60, 1952, p. 313. 98

Is mainly flat or undulating, sloping towards the northeast.

The area consists of a series of morainic ridges deposited

along the edge of the till sheets. Intermorainic tracts of rolling till plain and level lacustrine areas separate these. The Great Sandhills Lake must have occupied the area "between

the Cypress Hills and the river. This now consists of an

extensive area of sand dimes. After the river crosses the Coteau, it flows north. The banks gradually become lower and, beyond Saskatoon, they

are little more than low, sandy ridges. Moraines account

for irregularities in a flat land surface and are particu­ larly prominent south of Prince Albert. Coniferous forest, parkland and prairie are all found

in the basin of the South Saskatchewan River. Coniferous

forest is limited to the mountain area. Species increase In variety from north to south. Spruce and lodgepole pine still dominate the forest types. Several zones of vegetation have been recognized in the forests of Glacier National Park,

AO Montana.’0 The lowest zone Is a transition one represented In the lower foothills of the eastern slopes. Trembling aspen predominates but often the band is narrow, grasses extend to the mountain edge, and aspen form a galeria vegetation along the waterways. Fingers of broadleaf trees

42. Donald H. Robinson, ’’Trees and Forests of Glacier National Park,” Special Bulletin Number 4, Glacier Natural History Association, inc., West Glacier, Mont., 1950, pp. 445. 99 extend up the valleys of the coniferous forest areas. The next highest and largest Is the Canadian Zone which includes most of the forested area of the park except the narrow belt just below the barren, rocky peaks. There is considerable overlapping but spruce, lodgepole pine and alpine

(Larix Lyalli) are the dominant species. Just below tinfber- line is a very narrow belt, the Hudsonian Zone, usually recognized by the strictly alpine types of vegetation.

Alpine larch, alpine fir (Abies laslocarpa), and whitebark pine (PInus alblcaulls) are characteristic. It is the region of gnarled trees, the whitebark pine being described as a stunted, much branched tree, often reduced to a sprawling shrub growing close to the ground. Alpine meadows are Interspersed with trees and serve as a transition to the next zone, the Arctic-Alpine Zone which extends from timber- line to the tops of the highest peaks. Vegetation is dwarfed and stunted and must resist the prolonged periods of cold and the high wind. There are no trees in the zone, but there are several dwarfed shrubs like the willow and the birch.

The vegetation of the plains section of the South

Saskatchewan Basin has been described as a mixed prairie.^ It extends from the base of the foothills beyond the eastern extension of the basin. Three main types are found within

43. Robert T. Coupland, "The Ecology of the Mixed Prairie in Canada," Ecological Monographs, Volume 20, 1950, p. 273. 100 44 the mixed prairie. (1) The submontane mixed prairie dominates the vegetation in regions below the lodgepole pine forests and in certain areas near the outer margin of the mixed prairies. Rough fescue (Festuca scabrella) is the dominant grass in a fescue-oatgrass () association.

Aspen, rose (Rosa acicularls) and willow are common along coulees and north-facing slopes. Pines form an ecotone between the grassland and the forest. The Submontane Mixed

Prairie is at an elevation where summers are too short to permit grain growing. Ranching predominates as the main land use type.

(2) The Mixed Prairie consists of both short and medium tall grasses of the needlegrass - wheatgrass - grama grass association. Trees become increasingly important in areas adjacent to forest formations. Among the widest distribution are roses, western snowberry (Symphoricarpos oocldentalls), willow, wild licorice (Glycyrrhlza lepidota), and trembling aspen. Several modifications of the dominant community exist within the confines of the mixed prairie.

(3) The occupies the driest areas of the basin. It contains some of the species found in the

Mixed Prairie area but the dominants are needlegrass and

44. S. E. Clarke and J. A. Campbell, "An Ecological and Grazing Capacity Study of the Native Grass Pastures in Southern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba," Publiea- tion Number 758, Division of Forage Crops, Swift Current, Sask., 1942, pp. 9-15. 101 grama grass. grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis) accounts for a to two-thirds of the basal grass coverage. It grows In association with variable amounts of other grass species which may be relatively sparse or nearly as abundant as It is. There are several subdominant species, both grasses and sedges, their occurrence varying with slope, exposure, and degree of salinity of soils. A number of herbs and shrubs, many of them xerophytic, are found associ­ ated with the shortgrass region. These include some succu­ like prickly pear (Opuntla polyacantha), and various sages (Artemisia sp.). Grassland is a vegetational response to drier habitat conditions. With the grasslands of the basin there are differences in the associations reflecting Irregularities in the habitat. There Is a marked change in grassland composi­ tion across the soil color zones. A topographic relation­ ship Is seen in the increase in blue grama grass and spear- grass (Stlpa comata) and other needlegrass species on the steeper and drier south-facing slopes. The north-facing slopes in the Dark Brown soil zone have a considerable coverage of fescue grasses. Fescue is characteristic of the of the Cypress Hills and in the aspen groves of the northern part of the basin. In the Cypress Hills, It is considered as a subclimax to lodgepole pine which occupies the high tableland. In the parkland it Is a postclimax to 102 45 the aspen community. The vegetation of the large areas of sand dune show certain differences within the grassland and parkland forma­ tions. A shortage of water coupled with a different soil type are the dominating factors. Any slight change in elevation or in amount of exposure may result in striking contrasts in vegetation. The vegetation of the sand dunes south of Edmonton have been described. ’’The summits of the surrounding hills are practically barren, with a few old pines badly infected with Arceuthoblum, a carpet of lichens and mosses under their shade, and a scattering of xerophytlc grasses and flowering plants on the open ground."^® Those of the grassland region have a vegetation cover that varies with the depth of the water table. On the exposed slopes, speargrass is the dominant. The undulating to gently roll­ ing areas between the stabilized dunes are often dominated by shrubs, while grasses are common in a lower layer of vegetation. On bare sand, sand dock, (Rumex venosus) is the pioneer. On the lee slopes, shrubs and occasionally trees, dominate, balsam poplar being adapted to the habitat since it can withstand considerable by the sand.

Brown Prairie soil is the predominating type in the

45. R. T. Coupland and T. Brayshaw, "Fescue Grasses of Saskatchewan,11 Ecology, Volume 34, 1953, pp. 386-405. 46. Eleanor S. Powding, "The Vegetation of Alberta, III Sandhill Areas of Central Alberta. . Journal of Ecology, Volume 17, 1929, p. 88. 103

South Saskatchewan Basin. Narrow bands of Dark Brown, Shallow Black and Grey Wooded soils are found in the west.

Their characteristics have been described. The Brown soil develops under the mixed prairie vegetation. In the normal profile the surface horizon is about five inches deep and brown in color. The B horizon is light brown and makes up about 20 to 24 inches of the profile below which lies the parent material, usually glacial till.

Within this broad soil zone there are many variations.

These are mainly determined by the nature of the underlying materials. Land use varies throughout the region and only the heavier-textured lacustrine soils are suitable for arable farming. Generally in the absence of sufficient precipitation, ranching is the commoner and less hazardous form of land use.

The Lower Saskatchewan River Basin

The lower basin, between The Porks and Lake Winnipeg, occupies a much smaller area than does either of its two major tributaries. For a short distance the Saskatchewan

River flows east over the Saskatchewan Plain. The banks are low and the land slopes back gradually to the water divides.

A short distance downstream from Nipawin, the Manitoba

Escarpment is reached. This prominent relief feature is structural In origin and separates the Saskatchewan Plain from the Manitoba Plain. Viewed from the west, there is 104

little relief "but from the east, slopes are steep, descend­ ing to the First Prairie Level. Down this step the river

descends in a series of rapids called the Tobin Rapids. To the south, overlooking the Carrot River, lie the Fasquia

Hills, with rugged relief resulting from the deposition of

much moraine during the waning of the ice front. To the

north of the river lies the Canadian Shield.

The Saskatchewan River, after descending the rapids,

flows over the Manitoba Lowland. Many lakes occupy this area

and these may be regarded as modern remnants of the glacial Lake Agassiz which occupied all of the lowland and adjacent

portions of the Shield. As the ice retreated, the lake was formed. It extended from the ice barrier In the east al­

most to Prince Albert and, at first, the Saskatchewan River drained via the Qu'Appelle River. As the lake decreased in

size It left ridges of sand and gravel which today are prominent relief features. The Saskatchewan River scoured an outlet to Lake Agassiz through these ridges. As the lake

receded, smaller remnants remained and Into these the river

flowed, building out deltas so that delta sediments are a

characteristic of the area along the lower course of this river.

Numerous moraines were crossed. These often formed temporary blocks and one now forms the eastern boundary to Cumberland Lake. It has an uneven and morainic de­ posits of varying thickness are heaped upon the comparatively 105 even floor of limestone material. The Saskatchewan River flows through the lowest gap. Below The Pas the river has the character of a great estuary which it has gradually filled. Low, flat land is broken by a few ridges of boulder clay. For much of its course, the river is above the level of the land. It is confined between natural levees, but it periodically over­ flows and floods the adjoining land. Between and Lake Winnipeg, the Flying Post Rapids are located.

The vegetation of the lower Saskatchewan is included in what has been called the Mixed Wood Belt, distinct from the coniferous forest region to the north. ^ It Is an ecotone between the parkland and the coniferous forest. Both conif­ erous forest and broadleaf forest species predominate.

Three associations are distinguishable, and these have been described elsewhere. The poplar-spruce Is the most common on the Manitoba lowlands and is associated with Jack pine

(Pinus Bankslana) on the limestone outcrops and bur oak

(Quercus macrocarpa) on the southern of the basin.

On poorly drained areas tamarack and black spruce are common trees. Grasses, particularly the more hygrophytic sedges (Carex sp.l_pccupy large areas that are periodically inun­ dated.

Soils in the region are Intrazonal, developed on a high lime base. Grey Wooded soils, the normal type for the region

47. Donald F. Putnam, ed., ng. cit., p. 352. 106 are the exception here. The soil profile is very shallow and is characterized by a dark colored surface horizon which is finely granular and friable, developed over a marly lime accumulation of rather crumbly consistency. Much leaching of the surface soil is a characteristic. Where the land can be drained, and on the higher ground, some farming is possible. Grain growing and dairying are the principal occupations in the Carrot River block. The Indians carry on muskrat trapping over much of the lower basin. Part of their activity involves periodic flooding of the muskrat breeding grounds, a practice which conflicts with the drainage activities of the farming areas. CHAPTER IV

THE SURFACE WATERS

Introduction In the Report of the Royal Commission it was pointed out that serious deficiencies exist in the fund of basic data. "Sound policies for the conservation and use of the water resources of the Saskatchewan River Basin must be predicated upon two fundamental premises. The first is a knowledge of water resources in different regions. The second Is the extent to which these water resources have been developed and utilized up to the present."^ In this chapter an analysis will be made of hydrometric records available for the Saskatchewan River Basin in order to de­ termine the various stream and river flow patterns. Such a study, the writer assumes, will in an understanding of the water characteristics of the various regions in terms of the hydrologic information available. More detailed analyses must await the establishment of gauging stations having a denser distribution, and being maintained for a period of at least 35 years without interruption of the

1. Report of the Royal Commission on the South Saskatchewan River Project, op. cit., p. 17.

107 108 o record. Some attempt will be made to compensate for a short period of hydrometic record at strategically located stations by an estimated extension through correlation with flows in neighbouring basins, and through correlation with precipitation statistics. In most instances, however, time does not permit these extensions being made and the worth of the statistics must be assessed in terms of the years of record.

Stream flow is limited to very definite channels, but water, having fallen as some form of precipitation, must reach the main stream by one or a combination of routes.

Surface runoff flows directly to tributaries and is the most significant contribution. Given a constant precipitation, runoff will vary In volume with time, basin configuration, vegetative cover, soil type, and agriculture. Interflow is the lateral movement of water from soil to streams. It varies with the permeability of the soil type. Groundwater flow results In replenishment via the water-table. The amount of flow and the direction Is influenced by the sub­ strata of the area. Porosity and permeability of earth materials are factors of particular significance in their various relationships. A soil of low permeability but high

2. Thirty-five years is the approximate length of the Bruckner cycle a supposed world-wide periodic variation In temperature, rainfall, and atmospheric pressure which is thought to be best developed in the mid-latitudes. 109 porosity will store water and give it up but slowly to the

stream. Finer silts and clays have this property, and these, if charging a stream, may maintain flow long after other

streams have, in dry season, lost their main supplies. Channel precipitation is the direct fall of precipitation on to the water or ice surface of a stream. Gauges, located on the water surface, are used to measure the channel precipita­ tion. In this chapter we are interested in stream flow, the movement of water under the force of gravity along sur­ face channels in the Saskatchewan River Basin. The dis­ charge along these channels is the volume of water flowing past the cross-sectional area in a unit of time. It is measured by means of a current meter or is calculated follow­ ing observations of stage, the height of the water surface above any arbitrary datum. The discharge or flow of a stream is measured in cubic feet per second, often shortened second feet. Cubic feet per second are used in this chapter in the record of extremes of stage where instantane­ ous discharges are recorded. The average flow in cubic feet per second for a month (c.f.m.) is used for the monthly records. The total surficial flow may be measured in terms of a unit volume, the acre foot, the volume of water required to cover one acre to a depth of one foot. The unit chosen will depend on the purpose, cubic feet per second indicating a flow rate, acre feet in quantity, usually of total sur­ ficial runoff. Discharge varies primarily in terms of 110

precipitation* A record of this variation enables us to

examine the regimen of the streams in the area.

In some parts of the basin it is necessary to dis­

tinguish between the natural and the actual flow of streams* Prom the stream gauge a measurement of the actual discharge

is obtained, but if there has been some modification of the

volume or regimen, the natural flow has to be found by adding or subtracting the historical upstream uses of the water. The differences between natural and actual flow will have to be considered in studying the characteristics of the South Saskatchewan River and its tributaries. Also, in making an examination of stream flow it is desirable to fix the year’s

end at a time when stream flow Is at a minimum and when the amount of water In temporary storage as ground water is

least, and likely to be most nearly the same from year to year. In the Saskatchewan River Basin the water year, as this is called, extends from October 1 to of the following year. The concept of a water year has been

Introduced into hydrology "in order to insure as far as possible that the runoff volume of the preceding twelve months Is essentially all chargeable to the precipitation of the same 12 months."3 Actually It is not until about December that these conditions prevail in Canada and not until January or February that the minimum discharge is

3. Don Johnstone and William P. Cross, Elements of Applied Hydrology, New York, 1949, p. 103. Ill

recorded. Perhaps October as the start of a water year was chosen to coincide with the water year in the United States. In hydrologic problems common to both areas uniformity In the dates of the water year would have distinct advantages. The Saskatchewan River system drains an area of 131,500

square miles. Some tributaries have their sources high In the main divide of the Rocky Mountains; others meander aim­ lessly over the irregular terrain of the prairies draining sloughs and coulees. This complex drainage system may be

studied in three sections: (1) the North Saskatchewan River and its tributaries which, after leaving the Rockies, flow through a parkland belt of moderate precipitation, (2) the

South Saskatchewan River and its tributaries which, after

leaving the Rockies, flow through the prairie belt where

sub-humid conditions prevail, and (3) the Saskatchewan River formed by the confluence of the North and South Saskatchewan rivers and flowing east through the coniferous forest region.

The North Saskatchewan River

Prom its source In the meltwater of the , the North Saskatchewan River flows approximately 700 miles to join the South Saskatchewan River at The Porks. It drains an area of 84,000 square miles.

The Saskatchewan Glacier Is one of the great tongues of ice extending from the , a remnant of the Cordilleran lee-sheet which is estimated to hold 17,600,000 112

acre feet of water. Other tributaries join the North Saskatchewan River from this icefield carrying meltwater

from the snouts of glaciers, or from falls below hanging

glaciers. Some meltwater seeps to the main stream through colluvial material deposited against the valley sides* Seven miles to the north of the North Saskatchewan headwaters a gauging station was established in 1949 on the Sunwapta River. It measures the flow of meltwater from the Athabaska Glacier in a similar situation, and under similar

conditions to those existing in the Saskatchewan area.4 In that year, July and August were the months in which maximum runoff was recorded, the runoff per month being just over 10,000 acre feet. In June and September the runoff was 4250 and 3960 acre feet, respectively. Hence there Is a marked concentration of runoff In the two summer months. By October

the flow has fallen off considerably with the return of freezing conditions, which last until May the following year. The regimen for 1952 was similar although there was a greater concentration of maximum runoff in August.

4. Unless otherwise stated discharge figures are the most re­ cent, assembled by the Water Resources Division, Depart­ ment of Northern Affairs and National Resources and sup­ plied by E. P. Collier, District Engineer, Calgary,Alberta. Water Resources papers were referred to for figures of gauging stations which have been discontinued. Published by the Water Resources Division, Ottawa, Ont., these papers are entitled, Surface Supply of Canada, Arctic and Western Hudson Bay Drainage and Mississippi Drainage in Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatohewan7 Manitoba, the Northwest Territories and Western . 113

Of some concern to hydrologists in recent years has been the recession of glaciers on the east slope. The Survey Section of the Department of Mines and Resources has confirmed local observations concerning recession. With the accompanying decrease of ice meltwater, greater dependence

will come to be placed on the melting of winter snows. This will result in a much less favorable regimen in terms of use

downstream. Snow melts quickly and runoff is at a maximum in the early summer. Runoff will be still further concen­

trated in the summer months although the total volume will decrease. Storage at the points where they are

feasible could be constructed to compensate for the deteri­

orating regimen.

Glaciers and icefalls, spilling over high cols from the

Columbia Icefield, and extending five to eight miles down tributary valleys of the North Saskatchewan River contribute to stream flow. Other tributaries may receive water from

small hanging glaciers perched in corries. Winter snow, collected on these ledges and compacted to form neve, melts but slowly through the summer. These are often ephemeral features, characteristic of the warmer west-facing slopes.

Nigel Creek is the first tributary of the North Sas­ katchewan River. It has its origin in the marshy land of

the Sunwapta divide. The Alexandra, Howse, and Mistaya rivers are tributaries carrying meltwater from glaciers such as the Castleguard, Alexandra, Lyell, Freshfield, and the 114

Barkette. Many small streams along the west-facing slope are intermittent In character. In these alpine valleys the more direct effects of run­ off on regimen are delayed. Much of this precipitation reaches the stream by lateral movement through the loose glaciofluvial and colluvial material of the valleys. In addition, there are many lakes along the river courses.

Some are cirque-head lakes; others occupy steps in the valley floors. These tend to absorb crest flows and then release the water gradually to the downstream outlet. In the course are several lakes. Peyto Lake is located below a glacier of the same name: Mistaya and the two Waterfowl lakes are located further downstream. Small lakes on tributaries such as the Caldron, Capricorn, and

Cirque occupy cirque basins at the heads of their valleys.

Most receive glacial meltwater from the east-facing slopes (Frontispiece).

A few miles downstream from of the Worth

Saskatchewan River and the Mistaya, at Saskatchewan Crossing, a gauging station was established in 1950. Although the length of record is short, some of the characteristics dis­ cussed above may be illustrated. In 1953, July and August were the months of maximum runoff, with 255,600 and 214,000 acre feet for the two months, respectively. By October, runoff had decreased to 37,940 acre feet and, although no record was kept during the winter, It may be assumed that the 115 flow was negligible until the following April. Daily flow in July is that of maximum fluctuation. In the year 1952, a similar monthly pattern was observed.

In the foothills belt, many tributaries join the North Saskatchewan. Of these the two most important are the

Brazeau and the Clearwater Rivers. Both have their head­ waters in the main ranges. The Clearwater River rises in the eastern section of the main divide several miles beyond Clearwater Lake. Roaring Creek and Martin Creek are two tributaries joining the main stream In the mountain area.

Small Intermittent streams, probably of insequent origin supplement the main river flow. The Clearwater traverses a poorly drained lowland area before flowing north to join the North Saskatchewan River near Rocky Mountain House. Its runoff is estimated to be about 698,000 acre feet from a drainage area of 1214 square miles. Prairie Creek, the largest tributary, drains 318 square miles.

Near Rocky Mountain House there Is a gauging station on the North Saskatchewan River. Records are available from June, 1913 to July, 1931, and from March, 1944 to October, 1949. The average annual runoff over this period is 3,701,000 acre feet, a considerable Increase from the last gauging station In the mountains. The annual runoff varies from a minimum of 2,770,000 acre feet to 5,133,000 acre feet. Maximum flow Is in July and August. The drainage area Is 4162 square miles so that runoff is 889 acre feet per square 116 mile.

The joins the North Saskatchewan about

45 miles downstream from Rocky Mountain House. Like the Clearwater, it has its origin in the Rocky Mountains. The northern tributary of this river taps a large icefield beyond the head of , whereas other tributaries drain small glaciers in the eastern ranges. Prom the main ranges the river flows in an easterly direction, traversing a poorly drained lowland area that borders the main range. The joins it in this area. Over the latter part of its course the Brazeau River parallels the Arctic divide. In the narrow Intervening area between divide and stream, it has few tributaries from the north of any conse­ quence. Blackstone and Nordegg rivers enter from the south.

Twelve miles west of Alder Plat It joins the North Saskatche­ wan River.

On the prairies, tributaries of the North Saskatchewan River decrease in length and volume. Usually they drain undulating lowlands. Small lakes, sloughs, and marshes are typical features along the courses of these slow-flowing streams. Conjuring Creek, draining the small , is typical of these. Its discharge was recorded from 1924 to 1931. It has a drainage area of 15 square miles at the gauging station near Wizard Lake. The average runoff from May to October was 1292 acre feet. In some years no flow was recorded; in others, flow was as high as 4590 acre feet. 117

The many small streams do add appreciably to the flow of the

North Saskatchewan River as it winds across the plains. The average annual discharge at The Forks Is almost double that

of Rocky Mountain House. In addition to their effect on volume, the cumulative effect of the prairie streams, re­

flecting a more variable precipitation regime than In the mountains, Is to Increase the range of the regimen.

At Edmonton the average annual runoff of the North

Saskatchewan River has increased to 5,611,000 acre feet.

Extremes range from a minimum of 3,679,000 to 8,467,000 acre feet. As the area of the catchment increases to include

more of the drier prairie, the runoff per square mile decreases, averaging 552 acre feet per square mile at

Edmonton.

Between Edmonton and the Alberta-Saskatchewan border, the North Saskatchewan River flows In a northeasterly direction until, near , a southeasterly trend Is

established. In this section the river parallels the height

of land to the north varying in distance from It by about

20 to 30 miles. East of St. it Is but eight miles from the divide of the River. Streams flow generally from

the northwest to join the North Saskatchewan. The is one of the longest of these, and in its course it

parallels for some distance the main river. It heads at Hoople Lake practically on the bank of the but 200 feet above It. The stream drains several lakes, Isle 118

Lake and Lake St. Ann being the two largest. These have the effect of regulating the flow on the 95 mile course which Joins the North Saskatchewan River near Port Saskatche­ wan. At a gauging station established near the mouth of the

Sturgeon, records have been kept with some discontinuity, since 1914. Annual discharge records from 1914 to 1923,

1928 to 1931 show that, on an average monthly basis, there is some flow throughout the year. But winter flow is very low averaging 23 second feet in January (fourteen year record). The bulk of the runoff leaves the Sturgeon River in the April-July period.

About 12 miles downstream from the mouth of the Sturgeon River, Beaverhill Creek joins the North Saskatchewan from the south. It drains numerous lakes and sloughs in the morainic area, and being the two largest. At least six gauging stations have been estab­ lished to measure either lake level or stream discharge, and records have been periodically kept. About four miles down­ stream from the outlet of Beaverhill Lake discharge measure­ ments were made between April and October, 1919 to 1931.

For most of the period the discharge recorded was negligible. The average annual runoff, April to September, was 85 acre feet, the annual maximum, 618 acre feet, the minimum zero.

Plow is associated with heavy storms in the 830 square miles of catchment In summer.

Only small tributaries join Beaverhill Creek downstream 119 from this point. Vermilion River, draining a large area of moraine and old lake bed, flows into the North Saskatchewan

River in the neighbourhood of Lea Park. It is a typical prairie stream with a gentle gradient and a sluggish flow. Although it occupies a broad valley, its volume is small. At the Alberta-Saskatchewan boundary the natural flow of the North Saskatchewan River has been calculated.® "For the years in which either the Fort Pitt or hydrometric stations were operating (1912 to 1922 and the summers 1944 to the present), these records were taken as the recorded flow at the boundary. For all other years the recorded flow was obtained by averaging the flows at Edmon­ ton and Prince Albert.11®

5. "Summary Report of Recorded and Natural Monthly Flows at Certain Points on the Saskatchewan River Systeja,11 Report Number 1, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1950, p. 13. 6. Ibid., p. 4. 120

A summary of the hydrologies record is given below in

Table V.

TABLE VS FLOW OF THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE ALBERTA-SASKATCHEWAN BORDER

(Source: Summary Report . . . Number One, Prairie Provinces Water Board, 1950, p. 13)

(1) Monthly Discharge (c.f.m.) Average Monthly Discharge ONDJFMA M J 5688, 2831, 1634, 1307, 1200, 1364, 6949, 11,164, 19,427, J A S 20,918, 16,005, 10,603 Maximum Monthly Discharge ONDJFMA M 11,200, 5828, 2701, 2590, 2035, 2795, 14,050, 47,400, J J A S 38,280, 51,443, 27,019, 26,550 Minimum Monthly Discharge O N DJFM A M J J 3402, 1725, 768, 644, 627, 862, 2339, 3170, 9140, 9655, A S 10,500, 5827

(2) Extremes of Stage (at Frenchman^ Butte)-* Maximum, 10:00 p.m., June 17, 1944 - 111,600 second feet Minimum March 1, 1947 - 836 second feet

(3) Annual Runoff, March to October Average Annual - 5,971,000 acre feet Maximum Annual - 9,409,000 acre feet Minimum Annual - 3,605,000 acre feet (4) Drainage Area: 21,700 square miles Discharge per Square Mile: 271 acre feet.

•» Water Resources Division, "Surface Water Supply of Canada, Arctic and Western Hudson Bay Drainage. . Water Resources Paper Number 105, Ottawa, 1953, p. 175. In the Province of Saskatchewan there are few tribu­ taries of any consequence which join the North Saskatchewan River. Turtlelake River drains a considerable area includ­ ing many lakes and sloughs. A small stream flows from , through to the North Saskatchewan. The Sturgeon River joins the North Saskatchewan upstream from Prince Albert while the small Spruce River, flowing from the north, has its outlet at Prince Albert. A hydro- metric station has recently been established on the Spruce River at the outlet from Anglin Lake. Records of flow have been kept from 1946 to 1950 and since 1952. The record is not an accurate one and measurements have been made in two different places. During the period April to October, average monthly flow has varied from one second foot to 86 second feet. An extreme stage of 529 second feet was re­ corded on April 29, 1948. Generally speaking, average monthly floiv In early summer has been about 30 second feet.

Two tributaries joining the North Saskatchewan River from the south are of some Importance. Battle River has its origin to the west of in central Alberta. It joins the North Saskatchewan at Battleford. Although a long river of about 375 miles, it is not a large one. Hydro- metric stations, established to measure lake elevations and stream discharge, have periodically been maintained along the course and on Its tributaries, but no satisfactory records have been kept. Creek, a tributary which has its 122 source near Coronation, joins Battle River near the Alberta-

Saskatchewan boundary. A hydrometric record from 1924 to

1930 has been used to determine averages. Between March and October of those years the average annual runoff was 11,270 acre feet, the maximum and minimum being 27,200 and 3760 acre feet, respectively. The stream drains a large area but, because it is within the Palliser Triangle, discharge is only 10 acre feet per square mile.

At Battleford, Sask., discharge records for the Battle River were kept from 1912 to 1921 and from March to August of 1922 to 1932. The average annual runoff was 306,600 acre feet, the maximum annual runoff was about twice that figure. Figures from the minimum annual runoff are incomplete. Re­ ferring to the regimen, it is interesting to note that the months of maximum flow are April and May, not June and July as on the main river.

Eaglehill Creek is the only other southern tributary of any size. Twenty-five miles upstream from its junction with the North Saskatchewan River, hydrometric records were kept between 1935 and 1940 inclusive. The average monthly flow varied during this period from 159 second feet in April to

0.04 second feet in January. Extremes varied from 977 second feet to zero at various times. The annual runoff averaged

13,900 acre feet from a drainage area of 1820 square miles. Hence, runoff is 716 acre feet per square mile.

The flow of the North Saskatchewan at The Forks was 123 estimated 1lby adding to the recorded flows at Prince Albert

the proportional inflow, calculated by dividing, propor­ tionately as to drainage area, the recorded flow at The Pas minus the recorded Saskatchewan flow minus recorded Prince Albert flow. As the consumptive uses upstream from this

point in the river are negligible, recorded flow was also assumed to be natural.

TABLE VIS PLOW OF THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE FORKS (Source: Summary Report . . .Number One, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1950, p. 5) (1) Monthly Discharge (c.f.m.) Average Monthly Discharge ONDJFMAM J 6441, 3161, 1784, 1353, 1255, 1349, 7689, 12,228, 18,680 J A S 22,116, 16,679, 11,689

Maximum Monthly Discharge ONDJFMA M 12,290, 6415, 3186, 2709, 2034, 2165, 17,578, 52,922 J J A S 36,898, 59,476, 30,044, 25,597

Minimum Monthly Discharge 0 ND JFM A M J J 3768, 1838, 734, 703, 679, 705, 3361, 3038, 7030, 9650, A S 10,748, 7091 (2) Extremes of Stage#

Maximum, July 2, 1915 - 200,000 second feet Minimum, Jan.23, 1935 - 395 second feet

7. Ibid., p. 5. 124

TABLE VI: PLOW OP THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE FORKS (Continued) (3) Annual Runoff Average Annual - 6,332,000 acre feet Maximum Annual - 9,966,000 acre feet Minimum Annual - 3,549,000 acre feet

(4) Drainage Area: 47,387 square miles.

(5) Discharge: 134 acre feet per square mile.

# Water Resources Division, "Surface Water Supply of Canada. . .," Water Resources Paper Number 105, Ottawa, 1953, p. 1751 The figures are for Prince Albert.

Prom a study of the flow and runoff statistics, certain

characteristics become apparent. In Table VII the relative importance of the various physiographic divisions through which the North Saskatchewan flows Is illustrated. Although

the mountain region occupies only eight per cent of the

total area, it already has contributed 58 per cent to the

total runoff. By the time the river reaches Edmonton 89 per cent of the runoff is carried in the river although only 22 per cent of the catchment has been crossed. No hydrometric

station has been established on the Brazeau River. A sta­ tion near was established on the North

Saskatchewan, but the length of record is insufficient to warrant its Inclusion* If the record here could be used it would show the Importance of that river to the headwaters system. The large drainage area of Battle River Is a quarter of the total catchment, but it contributes very little to 125

the volume of the North Saskatchewan

TABLE VII: THE ANNUAL RUNOFF OF THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER

Average An. Percent of Area of Percent of Runoff FlOw at Catchment Total Catch- (ac. feet) The Forks (sq. mls^ ment Area Rocky Moun­ tain House 3,701,000 58 4,162 8

Edmonton 5,611,000 89 10,495 22 Alberta- Saskatchewan Boundary 5,971,000 94 21,700 46

The decrease in runoff per square mile on the North

Saskatchewan River Is to he expected because the river flows through a semiarid area. The reason for this decrease be­ comes apparent when the unit runoff of mountain streams is compared with that of prairie streams. A square mile of mountain country has a much higher value in terms of river charge than has a square mile of prairie land.

The controlling effect of the western region on the volume of water passing The Forks Is seen in comparing

Edmonton and The Forks gauging points. At Edmonton the maximum annual runoff for the period of record was 8,466,700 acre feet in the water year 1914-1915. In the same year the total volume at The Forks was 9,966,000 acre feet, also a maximum. Likewise, minima may be compared with similar results. Although the period of record for Rocky Mountain 126

House is much shorter, the same trend may he observed. The water year 1914-1915 was that of maximum runoff, 1928-1929

the year of minimum. These years, over the same period, are also those for maximum and minimum runoff at The Porks.

Turning now to a consideration of the regimen patterns throughout the drainage area (Appendix A, Tables I and II), it may be said that all have in common the occurrence of but

one peak and that is associated with a concentration of flow in the summer months June, July and August. Even in May the flow has already doubled from the April average. Under average conditions February is the month of lowest flow on the North Saskatchewan River. April Is the first month of

Increased flow. The thaw and spring rains have begun. The effect of these climatic conditions are felt first on the prairies where temperatures for the month of April are generally higher than in the mountainous region. As a re­ sult of this the increase in flow is much greater on the eastern than the western prairies. By May, however, the thaw has begun in the Rockies and the Increase In flow is greatest in the western region, least at The Porks. June and

July are the months of greatest runoff. A glance at Table VIII will be sufficient to show the concentration in these two months. The inequitable distribution of flow throughout the year is an obvious characteristic when we consider that these figures are for only one-sixth of the year. The run­ off is concentrated in the early summer months. Note also 127 that there is a decrease in the concentration of flow as we move downstream. This fact is to be expected following a study of the previous tables.

TABLE VIII: CONCENTRATION OF RUNOFF ON THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER

Hydrome trie Station Percent of Annual Runoff in June and July

Rocky Mountain House 44 Edmonton 43 Alberta-Saskatchewan Boundary 41

The Forks 39

From August on there Is a marked monthly decrease In flow. This is least in the western region, maintained still by meltwater and a higher groundwater reserve, whereas prairie streams are rapidly decreasing In flow to become but dry beds in some areas. The September flow becomes more rapid in the western region and relatively less In the east.

The overall decrease In flow continues in October and into the winter months. The December figures indicate character­ istic winter flows which decrease to reach a minimum in February.

In these regimens are revealed the Interaction of various factors - the time and rate of snow melt in various portions of the basin, the distribution of precipitation, the amount and rate of groundwater charge and the relation­ ship between mountain, foothills, and prairie areas as NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER c f m 000

20

15 i j 10 II 1 5 I 0 111IihltmdII II mam jjnnn

ROCKY MOUNTAIN EDMONTON THE FORKS HOUSE

HYDROGRAPHS FOR AVERAGE MONTHLY FLOW

aero foot million

10

8

6

4

2

0 150 300 450 600 750 milt •

ANNUAL RUNOFF FROM SOURCE TO MOUTH

Figure 9 129 sources of supply. The variation from the average annual runoff is an im­ portant characteristic of the regimen. Annual variation from the mean may he almost 60 per cent. There appears to be a regional trend in variation, increasing as the river flows over the plains.

Turning to the more detailed analysis of monthly variations, greater irregularities become apparent. The maximum variation from the average is in terms of the maxi­ mum summer flow month. Minimum monthly flows are less far removed from the average. Regional differences in variation from the mean point appear to show a greater variation on the plains than in the mountains where precipitation is less erratic. June is the month when greatest variation may be expected in the mountains, July on the plains. Variation from the average decreases considerably for the month of minimum flow, and it may be Inferred, for the winter months.

Before turning to a discussion of the South Saskatche­ wan River system mention should be made of the large areas of interior drainage within the confines of the basin.

There is little doubt that some of this interior drainage water does find its way to tributaries of the main system as ground water, but in' this study of surface water supply these streams must be considered as terminating in inland lakes and sloughs.

Because of the irregular terrain, small undrained sloughs are a common feature of the whole of the basin. These may be disconnected kettleholes and should not be considered as interior drainage systems. Where several

tributaries flow to a central lake, developed inland systems may be said to exist. In the northern part of the Saskatche­ wan River Basin the streams centering on Birch and Redberry lakes in Alberta and Saskatchewan, respectively, are in­ terior drainage tributaries. A great area between the North and South Saskatchewan rivers may be similarly considered. Gough Lake, Sullivan Lake, and Kirkpatrick Lake are all focii for independent Inland drainage systems. Eastward, In the Province of Saskatchewan, streams and lakes are more ephemeral features because of the lower precipitation, but Manito Lake, south of the Battle River, is the terminal point for the best developed Interior drainage system in this portion of the basin. Eyehill Creek and its main tributary, Sounding Creek, flow northeast to the lake. Plow records have been kept on Eyehill Creek just before It enters the Lake. These illustrate the flow characteristics of the basin. Between 1920 and 1931, the average annual runoff, March to October, was 6460 acre feet. An annual maximum of 12,932 acre feet was recorded; the minimum was 3470 acre feet. As an Indication of the paucity of precipi­ tation, discharge was two acre feet per square mile.

South of the South Saskatchewan River several areas of Interior drainage are located which terminate at the 131

Missouri-Saskatchewan water divide. Coulee, which

flows into , is one of these. , Ketchum, and creeks are tributaries from the east. Manyberries Creek at Brodin’s farm has a drainage area of 137 square miles. The average annual discharge over the

period from 1911 has been 6440 acre feet. The months of

maximum flow are March and April; a zero flow for several months of some years is not uncommon.

North of the Cypress Hills, a number of streams flow towards the South Saskatchewan River but terminate in lakes and sloughs. Of these Brltter Lake, Bigstick, Crane, and

Antelope lakes are the most important. Many temporary lakes like Hay Lake and Whltegull Lake collect water from in the Cypress Hills. Maple Creek, the largest of these streams, has had its flow recorded above Tenaille Lake

. Runoff in the period from March to October, 1944 to 1949, varied considerably, being 620 acre feet in 1949 and 10,150 acre feet in 1948.

The South Saskatchewan River

The South Saskatchewan River is formed by the conflu­ ence of the Bow and the Oldman rivers. In its course east and north, it has few tributaries, the Red Deer, joining it

near the Alberta-Saskatchewan boundary being the only one of

any size. In the western portion of the basin, streams are more numerous, the pattern more complex. Rivers, tapping 132

plentiful mountain sources, furnish the bulk of the South

Saskatchewan's flow. Because of their importance as sources of supply for both hydroelectric power and irrigation, many hydrometric stations have been located along their courses. Some of the tributaries in the extreme southwest have their headwaters in the United States. Detailed records of these streams have been kept in order to obtain a satisfactory record for purposes of international allocation. Hydrologic analysis of flow patterns is facilitated by the great number of stations, but, because discharge patterns are modified by reservoir retention and withdrawal, actual flow statistics may not be as conveniently used for analysis as in the North Saskatchewan River system. The writer will indicate some­ thing of the worth of the statistics used. Natural flow averages have been calculated for several points on the rivers in the South Saskatchewan Basin, and these will be used for comparative purposes.

The Bow River

The Bow River has its source about four and one half miles east of the Rocky Mountain divide. Prom Bow Pass, at an elevation of 6878 feet, the river flows southeastward in­ to the . Tributaries, many intermittent, drain the slopes to the east and west of the main stream. Some receive their flow from melting snow which has collected in high alpine basins during the winter monthsj others flow from the 133

terminal faces of glaciers located high, upon the main divide.

Glaciers, such as the Bow, the Crowsfoot, the Balfour, Waputik, and the Bath all discharge their meltwater to the

Bow River. Near Lake Louise , , the first large alpine tributary, joins the Bow. Many other tribu­

taries, all draining the mountain mass, flow into the Bow as

it parallels the main ranges of the Rockies. At Banff,

hydrometric records have been kept since 1909. Average annual runoff is about 1,000,000 acre feet with an annual maximum of 1,370,000 acre feet. Maximum monthly discharge

occurs during June and July. A significant figure is that

for discharge per square mile. At Banff it is 1207 acre

feet, indicating the tremendous importance of the mountain catchment to the flow of the major rivers.

The joins the Bow from the south, down­

stream from Banff. It Is typical of the alpine tributaries.

Its headwaters are located near on the main divide. Several of its tributaries have their origins under small glaciers while lakes and tarns are dotted along the headwater valleys. The Spray flows in a northwesterly direction to join the Bow. A gauging point is located just above the confluence of the Bow River and records have been kept since 1910. As In the case of the Bow, discharge in terms of catchment area is high, in this case being 1249 acre feet per square mile. The average annual runoff is 134

361,000 acre feet. Records have also been kept on the Forty Mile, the

Cascade, and the Kananaskis rivers. The latter Is an Im­ portant tributary which, since 1932, has been controlled for

power purposes. Like the Spray, It has several smalllakes near Its headwaters. From these it flows north to join the

Bow River at Seebe. Its average annual discharge is 400,600 acre feet. Of the rivers joining the Bow from the north, the Ghost, with its main tributary Waiparous Creek, is the most important. Flow characteristics are similar to those

already described.

Near the confluence, the Bow leaves the mountains and flows on to the high plains of the Third

Prairie Level. Records of flow of the Bow River at Calgary have been kept since May, 1908. As these are actual flow

statistics modified by reservoir storage, It is necessary to calculate the natural flow from reservoir Intake and discharge statistics. The following table Is a summary of natural flow statistics calculated by the Calgary Power Company, Limited. 135 TABLE IXS PLOW OP THE BOW RIVER AT CALGARY

(1) Monthly Discharge (c.f.m.) Average Monthly Discharge ONDJFMAMJJ 2205, 1420, 988, 881, 831, 897, 1338, 4254, 9718, 7982, A S 5051, 3433

Maximum Monthly Discharge O N D J P M A M J 3794, 2241, 1505, 1593, 1148, 2172, 2284,8801, 16,277, J A S 15,381, 8365, 6822

Minimum Monthly Discharge O N D JFMA M J J 1271, 863, 606, 476, 544, 556, 789, 2041, 4577, 3987, A S 3252, 2234

(2) Extremes of Stage

Maximum, June 3, 1932 - 53,600 second feet Minimum, March 10, 1936 - 105 second feet (under Ice conditions) (3) Annual Runoff

Average Annual - 2,362,000 acre feet Maximum Annual - 3,652,286 acre feet Minimum Annual - 1,557,012 acre feet (4) Drainage Area: 3,136 square miles.

(5) Discharge: 753 acre feet per square mile.

With Increasing distance from the adequate source of water In the mountains, the volume of water carried by tributaries decreases, variations In flow increase and some become Intermittent streams. Only those which reach back Into the mountains are of Importance. The Elbow, joining the Bow River about one-half mile below the hydrometric 136

station, is one of these. Its headwaters are in a swampy valley close to the main divide and from there it flows in a northeasterly direction. Hydrometric stations on the Elbow have been maintained at and above and below the

Glenmore Dam. Although the record above the dam has been kept from 1933 only, it is more indicative of the natural flow than that below the dam. Average annual runoff is

215,500 acre feet. An annual maximum of 375,740 acre feet has been recorded and a minimum of 113,500 acre feet. June

is the month of maximum flow, and the flow in May is

slightly higher than that of July. Instantaneous peaks, coinciding with summer thunderstorms, have been as high as 25,200 c.f.s. The average discharge is 469 acre feet per

square mile, a contrast to the upper tributaries of the Bow. The , with its many tributaries, Is the only other river of any size to join the Bow. Like the

Elbow, its headwaters are but a few miles from the main divide and but a short distance from the headwaters of that river. It is formed by the confluence of the Storm and Mist creeks and flows eastwards on to the prairies. From the Highwood to the mouth of the Bow, the river has few tributaries. The desultory flow in Interfluve areas is so often dissipated before It Is able to reach the main stream. An area of 9770 square miles is Included within the catchment of the Bow River and approximately 2,700,000 acre feet annually flow into the South Saskatchewan River. 137

The Oldman River The drainage area of the Oldman River occupies all of

southwest Alberta and a portion of the adjoining State of Montana. The tributaries flow from the important mountain region across the plains to be collected in the waters of the Oldman. With its source in the extreme northwest, the

river has its source against the main divide. It flows southeastward through mountain chains to be joined in turn by the Livingstone, Dutch Creek, and Racecourse Creek, the

two latter flowing from the south. At the Gap the river

drains 454 square miles and between 1944 and 1949 had an average annual runoff, from March to October, of 253,700

acre feet. Near Cowley records have been kept from 1907 to 1949. Although some of these are incomplete and others only partial records, an indication of stream flow may be obtained from them. There is some control upstream from this point; so they are not completely indicative of natural flow. At

this location, the Oldman has an average annual runoff of 403,100 acre feet. Runoff has reached an annual maximum of 653,725 acre feet and a minimum of 266,174 acre feet. May and June are the months of maximum monthly flow. Discharge is 552 acre feet per square mile.

About a mile downstream from this hydrometric station, a major tributary joins the Oldman from the west. This is the Crowsnest flowing from a pass of the same name. A record of discharge was kept for 10 years at the town of Frank. In 138

that period the average annual runoff was 135,340 acre feet*

Castle River and Pincher Creek join the Oldman from the southwest. These and other smaller tributaries more than double the flow of the Oldman by the time it reaches Port Macleod. There it has an annual average discharge of

1,022,000 acre feet.

Willow Creek, to the east of , is pre­ dominantly a prairie stream. Its headwaters are in the foothills. Total annual runoff averages 112,700 acre feet

or 112 acre feet per square mile.

Between Fort Macleod and Lethbridge two important tributaries join the Oldman from the south. These are the

Belly and the St. Mary rivers. The Belly River has its origin in the United States and flows about 15 miles north­ ward before entering Canada. Along with its main tributary, the Waterton River, it has its source in the mountains of Glacier National Park, Montana. Remnants of old glaciers like the Ahern, the Old Sun, Chaney, Whitecrow and Miche

Wabun stand at the head of the Belly River and its main tributaries. Lakes in the valley floors are characteristic of the upper courses of these rivers; lakes Helen and

Elizabeth are in the main valley, with Ipasha, Margaret, Mokowanis, Glenns, Crossley and Miche Wabun in the tribu­ taries. The glaciers are small and do not greatly affect discharge. The lakes influence the regimen of streams in temporarily storing precipitation in upstream portions of the 139

catchment. Near Mountain View, complete hydrometrlc records have

been kept for the Belly River. To obtain the natural flow,

the diversion into the Mountain View Irrigation Canal was added. The average annual runoff is 222,487 acre feet, the

annual maximum 363,000 acre feet, and the annual minimum 133,137 acre feet. As this runoff is obtained from only 121 square miles, the discharge is high but typical of the moun­

tain region. June is the month of maximum stream flow.

About 35 miles downstream from this gauging station an important tributary, the Waterton River, joins the Belly.

It also has its origin in Glacier National Park, Montana.

Waterton Lake occupies part of its upper valley. Near the exit from the lake a record was kept between 1908 and 1933,

The average annual runoff was 483,220 acre feet, with a maximum 710,000 acre feet, and a minimum 290,000 acre feet. The catchment area is one of 238 square miles, hence the run­

off per square mile is 2040 acre feet. The Belly River

joins the Oldman near .

The St. Mary Is the largest of those rivers within the Saskatchewan River Basin to have its origin In the United States. Meltwater from small glaciers like the Blackfoot and Red Eagle In Glacier National Park Is a feature of the headwaters. The water flows Into small cirque head lakes. Larger lakes, occupying about 15 miles of the valley, are the St. Mary and Lower St. Mary lakes. Swiftcurrent Creek, 140 flowing from Lake Sherburne, is an Important tributary.

Between May to October, Inclusive, it has a total runoff of 124,300 acre feet. At the International Boundary a hydro- metric station has been recording flow since 1901. This has been corrected to give the natural flow of the St. Mary at this point. The figures are similar to those for other mountain areas. Average annual runoff is 658,700 acre feet; the discharge per square mile is high, and the month of maximum flow Is June.

The actual flow of the St. Mary is reduced by diver­ sions for irrigation. Two streams join the St. Mary below the hydrometrlc station. Lee Creek, at Cardston, has a mean annual runoff of 38,530 acre feet. Pothole Creek at Magrath has a mean runoff, March to October inclusive, of 27,460 acre feet. It joins the St. Mary near Lethbridge.

At Lethbridge all the major tributaries of the Oldman except the have been accounted for. The mean annual runoff, as recorded at the Lethbridge hydrometrlc station, Is 2,414,000 acre feet. The maximum variation from this average has been 50 per cent (1910-1949). The drainage area is 6710 square miles, so runoff per square mile Is 360 acre feet.

The has its source in a spring which

Is practically on the banks of the Highwood River. For the first few miles, its flow is dependent on a number of springs until it is joined by Mosquito Creek, which drains the 141

foothills country In the southwest portion of Its basin.

Diversions from the Highwood make an estimate of flow difficult. The area of the is 1745 square miles and the average annual runoff at the mouth is approxi- 8 mately 22,976 acre feet or 13 acre feet per square mile.

About 55 miles downstream from this junction, the Oldman joins the Bow to form the South Saskatchewan River.

The South Saskatchewan River The South Saskatchewan River, flowing for most of Its

course through the arid area of the Palliser Triangle, has

few tributaries. The Bow and the Oldman rivers, under average conditions, contribute 70 per cent to the total runoff of the South Saskatchewan or 5,484,115 acre feet. This runoff is almost evenly divided between the two rivers. At Medicine Hat, 50 miles to the east of the confluence, the

South Saskatchewan River has an average annual runoff of 5,906,558 acre feet. The annual maximum runoff is 10,259,804 acre feet and the minimum 3,150,124 acre feet. June is

still the month of maximum flow, but July and not May has become the second highest month. Flow in June, over the period of record from 1911, has varied from a minimum of

10,652 c.f.m. to 55,817 c.f.m. The extreme stage occurred

8. Ben Russell, Report on Surface Water Supplies and Water Power of Alberta - Their Present and Uses, Edmonton, Alta., 1948, p. 23. 142 also In June when 145,000 c.f.s. were recorded. Discharge per square mile is decreasing as the semiarid area over which the river flows increases. Downstream from this gauging station at Medicine Hat the River joins the South Saskatchewan. Its headwaters are in the western section of the Cypress Hills upland from which it flows northeastward. Records have been kept spasmodically from 1912, some from March to October, others from February. Average runoff for the latter period Is 12,380 acre feet. Flow beyond that period is often meagre and from July, zero measurements have often been recorded. The river has a catchment of 744 square miles, giving 17 acre feet runoff per square mile. Bull's head and Ross creeks join just east of Medicine

Hat to flow into the South Saskatchewan River. A hydrometrlc station has been maintained on the latter near Irvine since 1910 with a fairly continuous record. An average annual runoff of 10,350 acre feet has been obtained. About 80 per cent of the flow Is in spring. The drainage basin is 233 square miles so that annual runoff is 44 acre feet per square mile. Other stream systems flow northward from the catch­ ment In the Cypress Hills. Many are ephemeral; most fail to reach the South Saskatchewan, terminating In lakes and sloughs.

Near Empress, the Red Deer, a large tributary of the

South Saskatchewan, joins it from the north. It has Its 143 origin In the Sawtooth Range, east of the main divide of the

Rocky Mountains and has a length of about 400 miles. The headwater tributaries have their origins in the meltwater of numerous glaciers on the slopes of Mount McConnell, Mount

Drummond, and Mount St. Bride. The largest headwater tribu­ tary is in the south flowing from the Bonnet Glacier into

Douglas Lake. Small lakes are a feature of the upper course. Panther River and Burnt Timber Creek reach well back into the mountains for their supply of water, but they join the Red Deer well downstream. A hydrometrlc station has only recently been established in the headwater region. Tribu­ taries continue to tap foothill sources of water. The last to join the Red Deer and longest of these is the Little Red

Deer River. Prom the north the flows into the Red Deer. At the town of Red Deer hydrometrlc records have been kept since 1911. The average annual runoff is 1,326,000 acre feet, the maximum 2,133,000 acre feet and the minimum 566,000 acre feet. June and July are the months of maximum flow.

Downstream from the town of Red Deer, many tributaries join the river. All are prairie streams and individual con­ tributions to the main flow are small. has an average runoff, February to October, of 63,300 acre feet;

Berry Creek, farther downstream, about 25,000 acre feet. Collectively, however, these and other smaller tributaries do affect the regimen of the Red Deer River. At Empress, Figure 10 The plains: Red Deer River near Drumheller, Alta., White bentonitic Sandstone and coal seams outcrop on valley sides 145 near the mouth of the Red. Deer River, complete hydrometric

records have been kept. Some interesting comparisons with those at the town of Red Deer may be made. There is, as would "be expected, an increase in total runoff at the down­

stream station, but the discharge per square mile shows a

spectacular decrease. Although the size of the catchment area more than triples, the discharge per square mile drops from 351 acre feet to 89 acre feet, an indication of the climate over the lower course. Prairie streams, starting

their flow earlier than those in the mountains, augment the

spring and early summer flow of the Red Deer at Empress.

The regimen for the town of Red Deer has a much smaller in­ crease over those months. Flow in January and February is higher at Red Deer than it is at Empress. Chinooks are not a characteristic at Red Deer, but modified temperatures re­

sulting from chinook effects may account for this anomaly. Downstream from Empress the Red Deer joins the South

Saskatchewan River. The natural Canadian flow below the Q junction has been calculated. By adding the United States* share of the St. Mary River, the total natural flow is obtained. This is given in summary form in Table X.

9. Summary Report Number 1, op. cit., p. 8. 146

TABLE X: THE FLOW OF THE SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER NEAR THE ALBERTA-SASKATCHEWAN BORDER

(1) Monthly Discharge (c.f.m.) Average Monthly Discharge ONDJFMA M 6449, 3982, 2416, 2118, 2212, 4498, 10,326, 18,944, J J A S , 32,341, 20,948, 11,508, 8717 Maximum Monthly Discharge ONDJFM A M 15,710, 7482, 4402, 7530, 6022, 13,641, 28,082, 56,276, J J A S 66,453, 55,364, 27,139, 24,690 Minimum Monthly Discharge ONDJFMA M J 2245, 1550, 478, 424, 945, 1663, 3222, 8412, 13,280, J A S 8166, 5744, 4257 (2) Annual Runoff Average Annual - 7,530,285 acre feet Maximum Annual - 13,455,112 acre feet Minimum Annual - 4,295,012 acre feet

(3) Drainage area: 42,287 square miles.

(4) Discharge: 178 acre feet per square mile.

Swift Current Creek is the only tributary of any size to join the South Saskatchewan River downstream from the

Saskatchewan border. It has Its source In the eastern end of the Cypress Hills and flows northward. An annual record of flow was kept at Swift Current from 1910 to 1931. After a break of two years, records from March to October, to the present day have been kept. Runoff for the period averaged 53,050 acre feet.

At Saskatoon there is little appreciable difference 147 from flow patterns at the border. The average annual runoff has Increased 200,000 acre feet, supplied mainly from ground­ water and from small streams like Swift Current Creek. The discharge has decreased from 178 acre feet per square mile to 150. At The Forks a similar regimen is found. No large streams have joined the river. Inflow supplementing the exotic flow Is in the form of spring runoff from streams, dry for most of the year, and from groundwater. The natural flow of the South Saskatchewan River at The Forks Is given in Table XI.

TABLE XI: FLOW OF THE SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE FORKS

(1) Monthly Discharge (c.f.m.) Average Monthly Discharge ONDJFM A M 7240, 4187, 2488, 1994, 1922, 3584, 12,940, 17,040, J J A S 30,902, 24,830, 13,263, 10,044.

Maximum Monthly Discharge ONDJFM A M 18,076, 9620, 5188, 8795, 4260, 14,217, 26,072, 52,080, J J A S 63,317, 58,137, 35,415, 30,555

Minimum Monthly Discharge ONDJFMA M J J 2916, 1060, 464, 353, 344, 808, 4809, 8091, 10,161, 9920, A S 6012, 5524

(2) Annual Runoff

Average Annual - 7,894,285 acre feet Maximum Annual - 14,658,000 acre feet Minimum Annual - 4,476,012 acre feet 148 TABLE XI: PLOW OP THE SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE FORKS (Continued) (3) Drainage Area: 62,500 square miles.

(4) Discharge: 126 acre feet per square mile.

At The Porks, the South Saskatchewan River joins the North and the main Saskatchewan River flows in an easterly direction to Lake Winnipeg.

An analysis of the figures used in illustrating flow patterns In the South Saskatchewan tributary basin has been made. The characteristics associated with the area are more complex than those of the northern tributary. Average annual runoff figures again emphasize the Importance of the mountain region as a source area. The Bow River has an average annual runoff of 2,687,769 acre feet. At Banff,

1,028,000 or 38 per cent has been cdLlected from about nine per cent of the total area. The Spray River, a typical mountain tributary, has an area of three per cent of the total catchment, yet it contributes 361,000 acre feet or 13 per cent of the Bow's discharge. Other mountain tributaries also make substantial contributions to the flow of the main stream.

The Red Deer and the Oldman have similar character­ istics. The first reliable measuring point on the Red Deer is beyond the mountains at a town of the same name. The rion- off of 27 per cent of the catchment is measured and the 149

annual average is 1,326,000 acre feet or 83 per cent of the

total runoff. The Oldman at Port Macleod, again on the plains tout collecting mainly mountain runoff, has an annual average of 1,022,000 acre feet. The Belly and the St. Mary rivers add another 681,187 acre feet. In all 61 per cent of the runoff is collected in tout 2848 square miles or 29 per cent of the Oldman catchment. The St. Mary River near the International Boundary, where it leaves the uplands, has an annual runoff of 658,700 acre feet. This is atoout 24 per cent of the total runoff of the Oldman River, although it is collected from only 497 square miles of five per cent of the Oldman catchment.

Relationships between the Oldman, Bow, and South Sas­ katchewan rivers emphasize again the importance of the moun­ tains. The Bow River contributes 2,687,789 acre feet or 34 per cent to the average annual volume of the South Saskatche­ wan. The catchment area is 9,705 square miles or 16 per cent of the total. Hence, as already pointed out, the average contribution of these two rivers is atoout 70 per cent of the total volume of the South Saskatchewan River.

At Medicine Hat the South Saskatchewan River has flowed through only atoout 33 per cent of Its drainage area, yet it has collected as runoff, 5,906,558 acre feet, of 75 per cent of the total volume. The addition of runoff from the Red Peer tributary adds a considerable volume to the flow of the South Saskatchewan. At Empress the runoff is 20 per 150

cent of the total. The drainage area is about three-tenths

of the catchment of the South Saskatchewan River. The combined runoff of the Red Deer and the South Saskatchewan rivers brings the total volume to 7,530,285 acre feet or 95 per cent, although over 30 per cent of the drainage area has still to be covered. At Saskatoon the runoff of the South Saskatchewan River is 98 per cent of the

total. This analysis tends to emphasize the importance of the mountain region to the total catchment. In the long journey eastward over the plains, the rivers, to a large extent, function as canals conveying the surface water from the mountains to its destination in Lake Winnipeg. The runoff supplied by the prairie streams is of little significance in terms of total volume when compared with the quantity in the mountains.

The contributions of the various streams may also be compared in terms of volume per square mile. There are, however, limitations to comparisons in terms of these statistics. The periods of record vary so that the figures are not strictly comparable, the basin areas are approxima­ tions, and the hydrometrlc stations are located under differ­ ing situations. It is permissable, however, to make some useful comparisons.

The high yield per square mile of rivers In mountainous areas Immediately becomes apparent. The still higher yield 151 of soma of the tributaries could lead to interesting specu­ lations relating yield to situation within the mountain area. The headwater areas of rivers in the southwest have a particularly high per acre runoff. As the tributaries ex­ tend over the plains, the catchment yield diminishes con­ siderably. Streams with their sources on the plains have very low per square mile yields - 13 acre feet for the Little Bow, 20 for Berry Creek, 44 for Ross Creek, figures which hardly compare with those in themountain region. The South Saskatchewan River, as its distance from the mountains increases, reflects the paucity of replenishment from the plains. At Medicine Hat, runoff from the basin averages 287 acre feet per square mile, while at the Porks the runoff average is but two-thirds of that. The Bow River has regimen characteristics that are similar to those of the upper reaches of the North Saskatche­ wan River. The increase in flow from the winter minimum begins later than it does farther downstream. The Red Deer in its headwaters area probably has a similar delay, but figures are not available to confirm this observation. This retardation is not noticeable in the southwest, the spring increase in flow having begun in March. More figures are needed from the Oldman headwaters, but it may be stated that spring flow begins later in the northern tributaries than in the southern.

On the plains, an earlier snow melt contributes to an 152 earlier Increase In river flow, the lower Bow and the Red

Deer having the trend towards the summer maximum well established by April. In the South Saskatchewan River the increase in flow begins earlier toward the east, but there Is some retarda­ tion again as the river flows to the colder north. Spring runoff from tributaries in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan contributes considerably to this early flow. A factor related to the rapid increase In flow of the South Sas­ katchewan River between Medicine Hat and Saskatoon may be found In terms of the more rapid snow melt causing freshets on the tributaries of the Red Deer and the South Saskatche­ wan.

After the .summer maximum on the major streams flow decreases, the amount of decrease being later and greater in the northern and western portions of the basin. On the Oldman system, a secondary peak appears in the September- October period, one which Is not present farther upstream.

On the South Saskatchewan River the decrease in flow occurs earlier, and is more rapid upstream than down.

The summer maximum Is then, the outstanding character­ istic of major stream flow in the South Saskatchewan tribu­ tary basin. May, June or July may be the month of highest flow. Again, a regional distinction is noted. In the southwest, May and June are the months of maximum flow, in the northwestern section of the basin, June and July. 153

The annual variation in stream regimen is a factor to be considered. (Appendix A, Tables XII and IV). In the Bow River area the variation in annual runoff increases as the river flows east. Spray River, which for the whole of Its course is within the mountain areas, has the least variation

In runoff; the , originating in the mountains but flowing over a considerable area of prairie, has the maximum runoff variation of the stations listed.

A similar pattern is characteristic of the Oldman system. The percentage variation from the average annual runoff is greater at Port Macleod than it is upstream at

Cowley. The two stations on the Red Deer River show a similar trend. By the time the river reaches the town of

Red Deer, it has traversed a considerable area of plain. The percentage variation is high. By the time it reaches

Empress, and having flowed through the sub-humid area, the variation in runoff possibly has almost doubled.

On the South Saskatchewan River this pattern is again found. An increase in the annual variation is possible as far as Saskatoon. There is, then, a regional grouping of possible variations from the average volume. It is least in mountain areas where precipitation is more reliable, it in­ creases on the high plains adjacent to the foothills where streams fed by mountain tributaries are modified by local runoff, and is greatest on the prairies where the erratic prairie streams provide a portion of the flow. 154

Finally, an analysis of variation from the monthly averages will be made. The two most critical months, the average maximum and the average minimum have been selected.

Throughout the South Saskatchewan Basin in the larger streams, June is the month of maximum flow. Considerable variation from the June average may, however, be expected. In nearly all cases the greater variation is in terms of the maximum flow. This is a characteristic similar to that for annual runoff.

Regional degrees of variation are of considerable interest. Variation from the average monthly flow is least in the mountains and lower in the northern portion of the basin than in the southern. Percentage variation in the

Upper Bow and Spray rivers are the lowest recorded. Varia­ tion appears to decrease headwards in the Oldman and tribu­ taries.

As the rivers increase in length over the plains, both maximum and minimum variation from the average flow increases. The Red Deer is a good example. At Red Deer, where the river has flowed for a considerable distance over the plains, the possible variation Is 177 per cent. At Empress, after flowing over an additional 275 miles of the prairie, the variation possible has Increased to 201 per cent.

East of Medicine Hat, variation on the South Saskatche­ wan River remains fairly constant. Flows of about double the average are possible. There is greater variation in the 155

SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER c f m 000

25

2 0

15

10 41

5

0 f t i ram onojfmamjjas ondjfhamjjas onojfmamjjas

CALGARY MEDICINE HAT SASKATOON

HYDROGRAPHS FOR AVERAGE MONTHLY FLOW

aero foot million ^ * + < «* |\ ^ T ' 7 f * T j ; ** s. •: 12 -V . ' • / * •

10 m

* •JH/: V 8

t *. /■

'♦rrr* I i*®r— *■:• l/ 1 r * j t / i i I i i i i i1!

4 *s

200 400 600 • 00 tooo mil*)

ANNUAL RUNOFF FROM SOURCE TO MOUTH

Figure 11 156

minimum flow although the relative Increase In volume is not as great.

Plow variations for the minimum month differ. In the

Bow and Red Deer rivers there Is less variation from the average than in summer. In the Oldman River and tributaries there are considerable differences In possible variations, but generally speaking greater variation from the average is

found In winter. The South Saskatchewan River also has a greater winter variation. The month of minimum flow is not the same over all of

the basin. For the greater part of the Bow River and for the Red Deer River at Red Deer, February Is the minimum

month. At Banff the month of minimum flow is March, a lag

that correlates with other alpine flow characteristics. On the prairies January is the month of minimum flow eastward

as far as Saskatoon. This observation Is applicable to the hydrometric stations of the Oldman River and all tributaries but the St. Mary. It has February as the minimum month

owing to its nearness to the mountains. A similar lag is probable In the headwaters of the Oldman.

Hence, It may be stated that there is a delay in the minimum month In the mountainous region to the west, especially in the northwest part of the basin. There also appears to be a lag In the east. Lower temperatures In both the mountains and the eastern portion of the basin may account for this delay. 157

Variations from the average minimum flow month are similar to those of the June period, although the range of variation is smaller in winter. Variation from the average is least in the mountains and in the northwest. As distance

over the plains increases, the possible variation in flow

increases. Observations down the Oldman and Red Deer illus­ trate this point. On the South Saskatchewan River the mini­ mum month varies. If the month of February is chosen to

illustrate flow variations, an increase in variation to the Saskatchewan border is possible followed by a decrease as the river turns northward and approaches The Forks.

The Saskatchewan River

After the North and South Saskatchewan rivers join at The Forks to form the Saskatchewan River, the flow patterns reflect the combined characteristics of these two major tributaries. The water year 1926-1927 may be taken as an example. In that year volume of the South Saskatchewan River at The Forks was 5,455,000 acre feet above the average, an increase of 70 per cent. In the North Saskatchewan River the increase over the same period was 2,527,000 acre feet or

40 per cent of the average figure* At The Forks the com­ bined volume was 22,085,000 acre feet, an increase of

7,960,000 acre feet or 56 per cent of the average figure* At The Pas the increase was 9,266,000 acre feet or 52 per cent. 158

TABLE XIIJ DISCHARGE INTO THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER

Volume Per- River and Year Average cent- Gauging Point 1926-27 1911-48 Deviation age North Saskatchewan at The Porks 8,859,000 6,332,000 2,527,000 40 South Saskatchewan at The Porks 13,329,000 7,791,000 5,435,000 70 Saskatchewan at The Porks 22,188,000 14,125,000 7,960,000 56 Saskatchewan at The Pas 27,088,000 17,719,000 9,266,000 52

Between The Porks and The Pas, a distance of about 230 miles, there is some modification of the influences of the two tributaries. The contributions of the Torch and the Carrot rivers would make a small but measurable difference, but a major factor must be associated with the many lakes and backwaters, a feature of the river once it has reached the First Prairie Level. These will absorb and hold for a time the excess flow of the Saskatchewan. The average volume of the North Saskatchewan at The Porks is 6,332,000 acre feet; the average volume of the South Saskatchewan is 7,894,285 acre feet. Hence, under average conditions the contribution of the South Saskatche­ wan is the larger, being 56 per cent of the total volume.

The North Saskatchewan River is, however, a more reli­ able source of water. Annual variation In runoff is lower 159 by about 30 per cent than that of the South Saskatchewan. Average monthly flow figures also show a greater variation from the mean. Although the absolute monthly maximum is higher on the South Saskatchewan than on the North, the minimum is about half that of the North Saskatchewan. The possible range on the South Saskatchewan is 62,973 c.f.m. On the North Saskatchewan it is 58,797 c.f.m. The latter also has a higher runoff per square mile. Hence, it may be said that, although the South Saskatchewan contributes a greater volume of water to the Saskatchewan River, its flow is less reliable.

Between The Porks and Lake Winnipeg several streams join the Saskatchewan. These include the Torch River from the north, the Carrot and the Pasquia rivers from the south.

Records have been kept on several of the tributaries of these streams, but only for brief periods of three or four years. On the Whitefox, a tributary of the Torch, a gauging station was located near the junction with the Torch from

1941 to 1945, records being the result of observations be­ tween March and October. During the period the maximum recorded flow occurred on July 21, 1942, when 1330 second feet was measured. The minimum has been nil at various times. 160

At The Pas records have been kept since 1911.

TABLE XIII: FLOW OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE PAS (1) Monthly Discharge (c.f.m.) Average Monthly Discharge 0 N D J F M A M 22,124, 13,430, 6029, 4517, 4037, 4471, 21,853, 40,012, J J A S 45.914, 56,077, 43,928, 31,450 Maximum Monthly Discharge 0 N D J F M A 50,151, 29,832, 13,689, 10,505, 9318, 8971, 45,079, M J J A S 78.914, 100,260, 93,388, 94,250, 69,380

Minimum Monthly Discharge 0 NDJFMA M 10,544, 5837, 2310, 1549, 1357, 1945, 4450, 14,379, J J A S 16,436, 23,432, 20,904, 16,352 (2) Extremes of Stage Maximum, , 1948 - 105,500 second feet Minimum, February 3-4, 1930 - 1790 second feet (3) Annual Runoff Average Annual - 17,822,285 acre feet Maximum Annual - 28,245,000 acre feet Minimum Annual - 9,171,112 acre feet

(4) Drainage Area: 125,151 square miles (5) Discharge: 142 acre feet per square mile

The Pas is about 200 miles east of The Forks. In that distance the average annual runoff has increased by about

3,600,000 acre feet. The catchment of the lower Saskatche­ wan River contributes more per unit area. The decrease noted over the semiarid plains is no longer a characteristic 161

In this more humid region, A major difference, when compar­ ing these figures with those for stations to the west, is to be seen in the river's regimen. There appears now a defi­ nite retardation of the summer maximum. At The Porks June is still the month of maximum flow, but by the time the river reaches The Pas, July has become the month of maximum flow and high flow remains through August. Several factors combine to account for this later summer maximum. Of these, the distance from the major source of water supply and the temporary ponding of water in the maze of waterways are the two most important. Between 1912 and 1918 a hydrometrlc station was located at Grand Rapids near the mouth of the Saskatchewan River.

The record for most of those years is incomplete, but in 1915, 1916 and 1917 the runoff was between 21,000,000 and 27,688,000 acre feet.^ The station was re-established in 1951. The regimen is similar to that of The Pas except that the July maximum becomes more definite. In 1951, August was the month of maximum flow.

Immediately to the east of Grand Rapids, the Saskatche­ wan River empties into Lake Winnipeg, and its identity is lost. Drainage from the lake is by way of the Nelson River to Hudson Bay. The general flow characteristics of the

10. Figures supplied by the Water Resources Branch, Winnipeg, Man., from old Department of the Interior Records. The flow for January and February was estimated. Saskatchewan River have been examined. Regional differences

within the major pattern have been pointed out. The high percentage of the runoff that originates in the Rocky Moun­ tains is an outstanding regional feature. On the plains, the flow in prairie streams is dependent on the less reliable summer precipitation than that which is received in the mountains. The reliability of annual flow was another characteristic considered, and again the dependence on the

headwaters area was an important factor in the general

analysis. A major feature of flow within the basin is the

prevalence of the summer maximum. Regional differences, in terms of early, middle, and late summer, are dependent on

such factors as the time of the snow thaw, the duration of the frontal rain period, the frequency of convectional rain. In the east, the factor of distance from the major source

area had to be taken into account. Generally speaking, the characteristics of the Saskatchewan River are similar to those of other great rivers which have their origins in the

Rockies and flow eastward. Differences in detail are attributable to the northern location and the consequent increased importance of the freezing period. CHAPTER V

WITHDRAWAL PROM THE SURFACE SUPPLY

Introduc t ion In the preceding chapter the natural flow patterns were described. These result from the interacting effects of various physical phenomena of the geographical landscape. Explanations have been in terms of dominating physical con­ trols. The actual or recorded flow patterns result from further modification in terms of various uses of the surface water. Of these the most important are uses for domestic, municipal, industrial, irrigation, and hydroelectric pur­ poses.

Domestic use has been defined as use for and sanitary purposes, and all purposes connected with the watering of livestock and the working of agricultural machinery by steam. It does not include the sale or barter of water for such purposes.1 Saskatchewan adds ’’fire pro­ tection’1 to this definition. The need for domestic water has increased with the growth of population in the prairies. The supply for many of the smaller towns is obtained mainly

1. The definitions of the various water uses were prepared by the Hydrology Division of the Prairie Farm Rehabilita­ tion Administration and are contained in Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Basin, Regina. Sask., 1952, pp.

163 164 from the headwaters of the small prairie streams and has little effect on the larger rivers which derive 55 to 60 per cent of their water from tributaries in uninhabited mountain regions. Municipal use of water is for household and sanitary purposes, watering of , , walks, paths, boule­ vards, lawns and gardens, fire protection, and the flushing of sewers. It includes water which is necessarily used in the construction of buildings and of civic works, and for other purposes served by water within a city, town, or . This use for domestic purposes Is directly related to the size of the urban community. Consumption, roughly speaking, is a hundred gallons per day per capita served by a municipal water works system. It is estimated that 80 per cent of this returns to the streams, so that effective con­ sumption is nearer 20 gallons per day per capita.

Water Is withdrawn to be used in industry for the opera­ tion of railways, factories, stores or warehouses, but it does not include the sale or barter of water for such use.

The principal consumptive use of Industrial water in the basin is for the production of steam power. Small reser­ voirs on tributary streams meet the needs of most users.

Those requiring a larger volume of unpolluted water are located on the main streams.

Domestic, municipal and Industrial uses have priorities over other uses in the three Prairie Provinces. After use, 165 much of the water Is returned to the streams without materi­ ally affecting the average flows. It is not a consumptive use. "In the Prairie Provinces we assume 100 per cent re­ turn of all winter withdrawal. In summer all hut the loss for watering lawns is returned."** This compares favourably with use within the United States. Referring to industrial withdrawal, it is pointed out that "most of this water re­ turns to the rivers after use as cooling water, or as sewage or as Industrial waste." Pood canning, which probably leaves the greatest percentage of water used In Its end pro­ duct, takes less than 6 per cent.® Prom another source it is stated that "on the average, cities and industries re­ turn as waste about 90 to 95 per cent of the water with­ drawn."^ However, it must be remembered that there may be a deterioration of the quality of stream flow below the point of return. A certain minimum flow is required in any stream to which polluted water is being returned if the danger of stream contamination is to be avoided. This is not a serious problem in most of the basin, but with the growth of indus­ try in Edmonton there has been noticeable deterioration

2. Statement by H. L. Hogge, Provincial Sanitary Engineer, Government of Alberta, 1954. 3. A Water Policy for American People, The Report of 's Water Resources Policy Commission, 1950, Vol. 1, U. S. Government Printing Office, , D. C., Dec., 1950, p. 178. 4. Resources for Freedom, Volume V, Selected Reports to the Commission, Th ST Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1952, p. 85. 166 during low flow periods as far downstream as Prince Albert.

It has been stated that an average monthly flow of 1000 c.f.s. at Edmonton is a minimum If pollution is to be avoided.^ Irrigation is defined as the application of water to the land for the purpose of growing crops. This use is now, and will be in the future, the largest consumer of water in the South Saskatchewan Basin. Irrigation withdrawal involves a consumptive use of water, and quantitatively this far exceeds all others. Relative to other uses this withdrawal Is uneconomic. In the United States It was found that 1!manufacturing produced fifty times as many of prod­ ucts with the same amount of water as did irrigation.

Furthermore, consumptive use of water for Irrigation was five to ten times as great as for manufacturing. For hydropower, water head Is used and the flow passes through the turbines without being consumed or without any deterioration in quality. The effect is to increase stream flow during peak power loads and to decrease stream flow, because of withdrawal for storage, during times of low power loads. Since the peak loads occur during the winter, water

Is then released to maintain a high flow through the turbines*

5. A statement by Mr. J. L. Reid, Water Resources Department, Province of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.

6. Resources for Freedom, op. cit., p. 86, 167

This does have the effect of augmenting the natural stream flow. Spillway discharge is, however, negligible and as a result this remains the period of minimum flow. Fairly con­ stant summer power loads have little effect on the regimen through that period.

Water withdrawal and regulation for other purposes are of little importance in the basin. Small reservoirs for the use of migrating wildfowl have been constructed on some streams. The use of water for mineral recovery may be important in the future. The whole subject of water withdrawal is governed by law, and, while it is not the purpose to consider the de­ tails of this law, a brief statement is necessary. The surface waters were, by an in 1884, made the property of the Dominion Government. In 1929 these resources were transferred to the Provinces. Water with­ drawal is governed by three important principles: (1) Ownership is vested in the government and none has

the right to take water, impound water or obstruct

the flow of water, unless permitted to do so under

provision of the Acts and Regulations. (2) No grant of water gives the grantee any exclusive or perpetual right to the use of surface waters.

(3) Water is granted for beneficial use only, and only as long as it is used beneficially.

In terms of this framework the law is interpreted 168 locally in ordar to protect the various users, both the small riparian and the large irrigation district.

It is proposed to examine the effect of the withdrawal of water for various uses on stream flow in the North and then the South Saskatchewan River basins. In the former only Industrial, municipal, and domestic uses will be examined. The climate is sufficiently humid to preclude the use for irrigation. In the South Saskatchewan Basin water Is used for these purposes and, In addition, for Irrigation and for the generation of hydroelectricity. The main

Saskatchewan River flows through a sparsely populated area. There is little demand for water. Some Is diverted to flood muskrat feeding areas; from other areas, water Is being drained to facilitate farming.

The North Saskatchewan Basin In the North Saskatchewan Basin, domestic, municipal, and industrial are the primary uses for water. Near Edmonton, industrial use Is becoming of Increasing importance owing to the growth of cellulose, chemical, oil, and allied Indus­ tries. There Is no use for irrigation or for hydroelectric development, although several sites have been examined In connection with the latter. Plans are at present near com­ pletion for using the water from Lake Waubamun, forty-five miles west of Edmonton, for steam generation of electricity. Many towns and make use of underground water 169

sources but where a surface supply is readily available it is usually preferable. Consumption for municipal and industrial use varies considerably. In areas without waterworks, 40 gallons per person per week is an approximate assessment of

the water used for domestic purposes. Where surface water

is supplied through a waterworks system consumption is much

greater, being nearer 40 gallons per person per day, less in

the smaller towns and much more in the larger. *7 A difference between summer and winter consumption Is a feature. Devon,

a small town south of Edmonton with a population of 1509, consumes 180,000 gallons per day in summer, 110,000 gallons per day In winter. Prince Albert, Sask., with a population

of 17,149, consumes approximately 1,800,000 gallons per day.

Edmonton, the largest city in the basin, consumes 14,500,000 gallons per day In summer, 15,900,000 gallons per day In Q winter.

The total annual withdrawal is 22,564 acre feet or 0.4

per cent of the annual runoff of the North Saskatchewan

River at The Porks. As it may be assumed that most of this water is returned to the river, there is little effect on

the total runoff, although, as pointed out earlier, there may be a deterioration of quality at times of low water.

7. Statement by H. L. Hogge, Provincial Sanitary Engineer, Province of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta.

8. Figures obtained from a questionnaire prepared and dis­ tributed by H. L. Hogge. For further details see Appendix B, Table I. 170

Many towns and villages obtaining their water supply from subterranean sources, return the sewage through surface out­ lets. The total return of 1769 acre feet per year will have little significance on the total runoff of the river. This comes from towns adjacent to the water areas. Again, there may be some variation in return as between summer and winter. Port Saskatchewan, with a population of 1500 people, returns

50,000 gallons per day in the summer, 35,000 gallons per day in the winter. , population 7473, returns approximately 40CVQ00 gallons per day which it has drawn from the wells. These examples of withdrawal and return and the totals obtained, are sufficiently representative to show the very small part these uses play in modifying the flow character­ istics of the North Saskatchewan River. Consumptive up­ stream uses from The Porks are negligible, so that, in this study, natural and recorded flow may be assumed to coincide.

The South Saskatchewan Basin

In the South Saskatchewan Basin the picture is much more complex. Water is withdrawn, temporarily or permanently, to satisfy the needs of the five major uses outlined at the beginning of this chapter. Quantitatively, the uses for producing hydroelectricity and for irrigation are the most important, but, before turning to discuss their effect on flow patterns, an analysis of domestic, municipal, and 171

Industrial uses will be made. The withdrawal of water for urban use varies from town to town and for different seasons. Banff, which obtains water from Forty Mile Creek, has a summer population of 10,000, a winter population of 2500. Water withdrawal varies from 40,000 gallons per day in summer to 10,000 in winter. Calgary, population 145,000, consumes 24,500,000 gallons per day in summer, 22,500,000 gallons per day in winter. The return of water varies and many towns obtaining water from wells return the waste to streams. Drumheller, which has a population of 5000, returns 467,500 gallons per day in summer, 306,000 gallons per day in winter, to the Red

Deer River from both industrial and domestic uses. A total of 1077 acre feet is annually returned to the rivers of the South Saskatchewan Basin, a very small portion of the total flow.

The total withdrawal for selected towns is 57,785 acre feet per year or 0.7 per cent of the total annual runoff of the South Saskatchewan River at The Forks (Appendix B, Table

II). Small in proportion to the total flow, this withdrawal also becomes insignificant when we consider that the bulk of it is returned to the river.

Thus, it may be seen that the effect of these three uses, domestic, municipal, and Industrial on the flow patterns of the major streams, is slight. Towns utilizing the supply of small tributaries may appreciably alter the 172

quantity and perhaps the quality of water In the stream.

However, the larger streams and rivers are little affected

by these diversions. In many areas, traversed by small and often unreliable tributaries, more reliable ground water

supplies are used in preference to the surface sources.

The Bow River The generation of hydroelectricity is a major water use of the Bow River. Suitable sites are located in the moun­

tain section. There the river receives most of Its runoff.

The valleys are narrow and, except where masked by uncon­ solidated glacial materials, bedrock is at the surface. In

the mountains the streams have a gradient of about 20 to 100

feet per mile. In the foothills the gradient Is from about

five to 20 feet per mile. An essential to the economic

development of water power is that the flow should be suf­ ficiently constant the year around to meet the normal de­

mands for electricity. Within the Saskatchewan River Basin,

the Bow has one of the more constant flows, but there is,

nevertheless, sufficient variation to make necessary compen­ sation in the form of storage. The monthly variation of natural flow Is, over a 40 year period, 15,801 c.f.s. The

extreme range of instantaneous flow is from a maximum of

53,600 c.f.s. to a minimum of 105 c.f.s. Storage dams at suitable sites have been constructed to compensate for these

extremes. They are essential when it is considered that peak demand for electricity coincides with the annual period 173 of minimum flow. Without storage from the summer concentra­ tion of runoff much of the hydro potential would be lost.

Table XIV shows the storage development In the Bow valley.

TABLE XIV: EXISTING STORAGE IN THE MOUNTAIN AND FOOTHILL REGION

(Source: Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Basin, Hydrology Division, P.F.R.A., Regina, Sask., P. 9)'

Storage Development Year Built Storage Capacity 1912 44.000

- extended 1942 180.000 (final) Ghost 1929 75.000

Upper Kananaskis Lake 1932 40.000 - extended 1942 100.000 (final) Barrier 1948 15.000

Spray Lake 1951 180.000

In these reservoirs water is stored to supply the eight hydroplants in the mountain and foothill region during periods of low flow. These are listed In the following table. 174

TABLE XV: EXISTING HYDROPLANTS IN THE MOUNTAIN AND FOOTHILL REGION OF THE BOW RIVER

(Source: Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Basin, Hydrology Division, P.F.R.A., Regina, Sask., p. 9) Hydroplant Year Built K.W. Capacity Horseshoe Falls 1911 14,000 Kananaskis Falls 1913 19,000 Ghost 1929 28,000 Cascade 1942 18,500 Barrier 1948 13,500 Spray 1951 50,000 Three Sisters 1951 3,000 Rundle 1951 17,000

These hydroplants are operated by the Calgary Power Company.

Three small plants are controlled by other organizations.

The Canadian Pacific Railway has a plant at Lake Louise which develops 815 horsepower. The City of Calgary operates a

station In conjunction with its water reservoir at Glenmore

Dam. It produces about 1065 horsepower. The Eastern Irriga­ tion District owns but does not now operate a small plant at g Bassano Dam.

The regimen of the Bow has been considerably modified,

especially in the section between Banff and Calgary. Cascade River, joining the Bow Immediately below Banff, has had its flow regulated by the construction of the dam at Lake Minnewanka. At the Bankhead Station, between the years

1912 and 1938, flow from the Cascade River has averaged about 200 c.f.m. for most of the year. In June and July it

9. Facts and Figures, Bureau of Statistics, Edmonton, Alta., 1950, p. 214. 175 rose to 589 and 616 c.f.m., respectively. A second peak of

269 c .f.m. In December was followed by a gradual decrease through May. Although the storage capacity of Lake Mlnnewanka was only 44,000 acre feet, or about one-fifth of the total annual runoff, the regimen of the stream has a pattern which differs considerably from natural flow patterns. The in­ crease in flow, coinciding with the increase in demand for electricity, is the main characteristic. In 1942, the storage capacity of Lake Mlnnewanka was increased to 180,000 acre feet. A hydroplant was built and nearly all the flow of the Cascade River was diverted through the Cascade River

Power Diversion to the plant. Records have been kept since 1942. The flow pattern has been completely reversed. An

Interesting comparison may be made between Cascade River and Forty Mile Creek which lies In a valley adjoining that of Cascade River. Its flow is in no way modified. Records have been kept irregularly, but In the water year 1945-1946 they overlap with those of the Cascade. Table XVI Is a comparison of the two regimen, the first controlled by hydroelectric storage, the second natural. 176

TABLE XVI: MONTHLY DISCHARGE OF CASCADE RIVER AND FORTY MILE CREEK, 1945-1946 (c.f.m.)

O N D JFMA MJ Cascade River - 128, 289, 447, 560, 633, 546, 536, 118, 29, J A S 21, 46, 67 ONDJFMA M J J Forty-Mile Cr. - 39, 23, 23, 18, 16, 16, 22, 118, 254, 139, A S 81, 95

On the Kananaskis River a similar modification is found. The Upper Lake Dam, constructed in 1932 to hold 40,000 acre feet of storage, was extended In 1942 to hold 100,000 acre feet. At the outlet of the Lower Lake, where the drainage

area Is 87.5 square miles, the average flow for the period 1931 to 1948 has been estimated. A decreased summer maximum

and an early winter secondary peak are characteristic of this flow pattern. Above the Pocaterra Creek junction,

where the drainage area of the Kananaskis is 137 square miles, the winter peak is still apparent, but a definite

June-July maximum is beginning to assert itself. Near Seebe,

where the Kananaskis River joins the Bow, records of dis­

charge have been kept since 1911. They show a winter flow

of about 300 c.f.m., a July flow of 1280 c.f.m. The high winter flow resulting from the release of water below the

Upper Dam, has been masked by the contribution of tributaries along the lower reaches of the river. The flow pattern is similar to the normal pattern for mountain streams. The recently constructed Barrier Dam, a short distance from the mouth of the Kananaskis, will tend, again, to accentuate a -£/escj//ert er&eve See? /e v e / '*? / i s e f w o b a U t - _^^icchar ke \ \ \ \ \ V Lake ______lYlimvewciivlea I Spray Reservoir* Spray / / J/ il V / ;>W I- M / § 5 s k I it $ I . fi/_ 1 t . i ^ , $.. t * /U/.'4r<- /wn'e. e ' n w / - < r 4 ' . / U / *V 0 r^F l.lM-t* ^ y ______K c m c m u s k i s > . c i t a m m a r g a i D ^ . a 5S* l.ukeis:. ___ ^eiS^OabrMr. J,> ,£^/7trt7-tA * ! 3<; $■$ ------r S / ^ O y V / S 7 t ? / r X / s / / > 7 C 7 , C f / 7 d iue 12 Figure ------V E > A R R I E R - R H K L E 5 i t J ( c a e o h s e s r o s i k s a n a n a l l e s o l

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Figure 12 178 winter maximum. At Calgary, the total effect of the hydrostorage operations may be analysed by comparing natural flow and actual or measured flow."^ These figures show the average diversions from the natural flow over the period since the first storage reservoir was constructed in 1912. Maximum retention of water for storage has coincided with the maxi­ mum flow months of May, June, and July. During August, September, and October there has been some diversion for storage. In all, over the period, an average of 118,148 acre feet have been stored annually against winter use. This represents about five per cent of the natural runoff. Prom November to April a total of 89,548 acre feet has been released to supplement the winter flow, this being equiva­ to about 3.8 per cent of the average annual runoff. In order to illustrate more recent conditions, the period May 1948 to was studied. The differ­ ence between natural and actual runoff is shown in the table below. A minus sign indicates withdrawal from the natural flow, a plus sign, a release from storage added to the natural flow.

10. The natural flow and runoff figures for the Bow River at Calgary have been calculated and supplied by the Calgary Power Company Limited, Calgary, Alta. 179

TABLE XVII! THE RUNOFF OF THE BOW RIVER; DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NATURAL AND ACTUAL RUNOFF Difference between natural and actual runoff (acre feet) M J J A S 0 -59,051, -51,178, -29,551, -8117, -9758, +14,589, N D J F M A +5851, +56,156, +29,515, +5925, +25,567, +10,888, M J J A S -20,968, -229,452, -156,756, -71,021, -2580

From May until the end of September, water was being stored against winter use, a total of 157,415 acre feet or nine per cent of the total runoff for that water year. The annual runoff for the year 1947-1948 was about two-thirds of the average. From October through , storage was used to supplement the low winter flow, 126,071 acre feet being released. This was about six per cent of the year’s runoff. From May until the end of the water year 480,557 acre feet were again withdrawn from the natural runoff for storage. This was about 51 per cent of the total natural runoff for 1948-1949, when annual runoff was the lowest on record.

What effect has hydroelectric storage had on regimen modification? First, it must be pointed out that withdrawal for storage against winter use is not a consumptive use of water. Apart from evaporation loss on the storage lakes, all live storage will eventually be released through the turbines to flow down the river. If, however, the water diverted to storage Is required further downstream about the 180

time of diversion, Its unavailability has virtually the same

effect as a consumptive use. This is the case, and the resulting conflict will have to be discussed later. In terms of stream flow, ignoring further use, it may be observed

that the control of peak flows and the supplementing of low

flows results in a very favorable regimen. Nevertheless, there is a problem associated with the local conditions that

would tend to detract from the improved flow pattern.

Annual ice jams along the Bow River at Calgary tend to back

up the water, with possible flooding within the . Many are convinced that the following two causes are respon­

sible for the flooding: First - The average increase in winter flow of the Bow River due to the release of stored water for power development. Second - The fluctuation of the winter flow at the Ghost plant in unison with the demand for electrical energy from the plant.H

Ice jams did occur at Calgary before the Ghost Dam was

constructed, but their frequency has Increased in recent years. Together, the two causes do contribute to the greater frequency of flooding.

Large scale Irrigation in Alberta was first attempted by the Alberta Railway and Irrigation Company. The Company was organized in 1883 for the purpose of irrigating a large tract of dry lands to the south and east of Lethbridge.

11. The Alberta Power Commission - December, 1951, The Alberta Power Commission, Edmonton, Alberta, 1952, p. 23. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company and the Canada Land and

Irrigation Company, both in possession of large tracts of dry lands, subsequently planned large irrigation projects in the Bow River Basin. They were never completed. Sociologi­ cal, managerial, as well as the physical handicaps to irriga­ tion farming, proved too difficult to surmount. Irrigation in Alberta today is carried on by community organizations, formed by the irrigators for the express purpose of operat­ ing irrigation systems possessing quasi-municipal status, and known as Irrigation Districts. These had been first authorized under an Ordinance of the Northwest Territories of 1894* In 1915 the Irrigation Districts Act was framed, based on a California statute. The Irrigation District would appear to be the most durable form yet devised for the » administration of Irrigation projects.

Various factors must be considered in assessing the success of an irrigation project. The first of these Is that of adequacy of storage facilities to compensate for fluctuating stream flows. The next is the feasibility of using gravity diversions. Sufficient surveys have been made of the larger streams to disclose economical points of diversion, with the result that irrigable areas may be approximately determined. Another conditioning factor is the duty of water. Under the Irrigation Act, the legal duty of water, that is, the amount of water to which the holder of the water right in an irrigation district is legally 183 entitled, is generally equivalent to 18 inches of rain fall­ ing on the land. But the quantity varies in different localities and in the same locality from year to year. Water from the Bow River is diverted to serve three major projects. The first of these is the Western Irriga­ tion District, located to the east of Calgary. Begun In

1908, It commands 50,000 irrigable acres. It was organized as a district in 1923 and draws water from the Bow River about five miles east of Calgary. Irrigation has been spasmodic In this region. The farmer, in a region where grain growing predominates, will avoid buying water except

In the driest years. "On this section of the prairies, water added too little to the productivity of the land to warrant any appreciable payment for the irrigation facili­

ties."12 Reticulation is from the main canal in an easterly

direction. In the north ditches drain to Rosebud, a tribu­ tary of the Red Deer, to the east to the Crowfoot, a tribu­

tary of the Bow, and south to the Bow itself. There is no

storage of water as is characteristic of other schemes. The water intake for the Bow River Irrigation District

is located near . There, a weir 10 feet high,

diverts water to the irrigation canal. Before reaching the

storage dam of Lake McGregor, 10,000 acre feet are withdrawn

12. Report of the Royal Commission on the South Saskatchewan River, op. cit., p. 150. 184 annually to Irrigate about 11 square miles In the Blackfoot , while the major portion flows 45 miles to the Lake McGregor Reservoir. This has a maximum capacity of

200,000 acre f e e t . ^ Several other reservoirs In the eastward course of the canal are also used for storage purposes. Of these, Traverse

Lake with a capacity of 20,000 acre feet and Little Bow Lake with a similar capacity, are the largest. The irrigable area is steadily being extended in the irrigated triangle between the.Bow and Oldman Rivers. The District centers on

Vauxhall, headquarters for the irrigation management. To the west the Retlaw-Lamond project has been planned, and across the Bow River it is proposed to pipe the water to the

Redcliff-Ronalane project, northwest of Medicine Hat. The Bow River Irrigation District has the very real advantage of storage to meet irrigation demands. In the Bow River Irriga­ tion District there is enough storage for one year without having to draw from the river.^ Water is withdrawn from the Bow during periods of high flow and stored In the vari­ ous reservoirs which have an aggregate capacity of 300,000 acre feet.

In 1914 the Canadian Pacific Railway Company sponsored

13. Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Bas'in/ op. cit.', p. 11.

14. Statement by Mark Mann, Administrative Officer, P.F.R.A., Vauxhall, Alta. 185 irrigation in the Brooks area in order to attract settlers along their route. The project was never a financial success so that when the farmers in the area offered to take over the management, the Company agreed. The Eastern Irri­ gation District was formed. It is the largest project in the Province and has an irrigable area of 200,000 acres.

This will eventually be expanded to 281,000 acres.

The Eastern Irrigation District depends on water with­ drawn from the Bassano Reservoir on the Bow. When the eastern gates are opened, water flows into the main canal. Reticulation over the area between the Bow River and the Red

Deer is by a number of canals which branch about four miles east of the dam. The North Branch Canal carries water to­ wards the Red Deer. The Spring Hill Canal carries water eastward to a tributary supplying the small One Tree Hill

Reservoir. The East Branch Canal has tributaries to Irri­ gate the Bow Slope area, but the main flow goes to the Lake

Newell Reservoir, a large but unfortunately shallow expanse of water. Its present capacity is 90,000 acre feet, its ultimate, 100,000 acre feet.

Prom water is conveyed along the Bantry

Canal, crossing the Twelve Mile Coulee by a aque­ duct. The North Bantry Canal supplies water to the area towards the Red Deer, en route placing water for storage in the Cowoki Reservoir (14,000 acre feet). Prom the Lake

Newell Reservoir the Tilley and the South Bantry branches 186

supply water to the Bow and. South Saskatchewan river slopes.

Sutherland Reservoir, near Brooks, and Rolling Hills Reservoir, adjoining Newell Reservoir, have a combined

capacity of 14,000 acre feet. It Is considered that the Eastern District has over-extended in terms of a reliable

available supply. Smaller diversions, which draw on the Bow at irregular

intervals, are the only schemes still to be considered. One

of these utilizes water of the Elbow River to irrigate hay in the western grazing area. The Springbank Irrigation

District, Incorporated In 1898 to serve 23,493 acres near Calgary, has never been fully developed. Precipitation was sufficiently plentiful for the type of farming carried on

without the farmers paying for Irrigation water. Some water is withdrawn from the Highwood River and fed into the Little

Bow for stock-watering, Irrigation and other purposes. Details of withdrawal for each of the schemes may be

obtained from gauging statistics. A hydrometric station, located near the entrance to Lake in the Vtfestern

Irrigation District, has recorded canal flow since 1908.

Until 1947 It was located near Ogden, a suburb of Calgary, so that with its movement there is some discontinuity. The later figures represent a more conservative measure, the In­ take volume minus channel wastage and evaporation. The period of flow is from April or May to September or October, depending on conditions. In order to obtain representative 187 averages in recent years only the ten years, 1945-1949 in­ clusive, will be considered. These have generally been wetter years than those in the 1930’s. The Western Irrigation District withdrew an annual average of 137,268 acre feet of water from the Bow River during the period. Variation from this average figure has been about 50,000 acre feet in individual years. The maxi­ mum flow along the main canal was in July when it reached 563 c.f.m. The irrigable area commanded by the canals is 50,000 acres, so that the gross irrigation factor is 2.8 acre feet per acre. However, if a 30 per cent water loss is allowed, the irrigation factor becomes 1.9 acre feet per 15 acre. The ultimate area allocation for this scheme is 85,700 acre feet. The irrigation factor will then be 1.7 acre feet per acre. The Irrigation requirement for this land is 1.5 acre feet per acre, so that the water supply may be considered as adequate.

Thirty-eight miles from the Intake for the Bow River District at Carseland, a gauging station has been located just north of the entrance to Lake McGregor. The average annual flow In the canals is 77,807 acre feet for the 10 year period 1940-1949. The range has been from 42,940 acre feet to 108,500 acre feet. The water was used to irrigate an area of 59,564 acres, what was then the Canada Land and

15. B. Russell, Report on the Surface Water Supplies and Water Power in Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., p. 58. 188

Irrigation Company plus the New West Irrigation District. The gross irrigation factor was 1.3 acre feet per acre; the net, allowing for a 40 per cent water loss, was 0.8 acre feet per acre. As the irrigation requirement is 1.5 acre feet per acre this area was undersupplied. In terms of the ultimate allocation for this scheme, 478,534 acre feet to Irrigate 240,000 acres, the two acre feet per acre will be adequate.

The third Irrigation district utilizing the waters of the Bow River Is the Eastern Irrigation District. Three main canals carry measuring gauges. Although these are from five to ten miles from the intake at Bassano Dam, they will be used to indicate withdrawal from the Bow.

Because of canal losses and evapotransplration in the inter­ vening area, the figures must be regarded as conservative. The combined flow In the three canals averaged 525,016 acre feet for the period 1945-1949. July was the month of maxi­ mum withdrawal from the Bow River. The water irrigates

281,000 acres, about a third of that from storage. The gross irrigation factor is 1.9 acre feet per acre. The net, allowing for a 30 per cent loss, is 1.3 acre feet per acre. As the irrigation requirement is 1.5 acre feet per acre, this area is just undersupplied. In terms of an ultimate water allocation of 562,000 acre feet the area will receive sufficient water.

An area of water loss In the Bow River basin results 189 from the diversion of the Highwood River to supplement the flow of the Little Bow River. The water is used for stock, irrigation, and other purposes and has been in operation

since 1910. Withdrawal is mainly in the summer months and has, over the period March to October inclusive, averaged

790 c.f.m. with a maximum of 1450 c.f.m. in June. Altera­ tions in allocation will result following the completion of Traverse Dam on the Little Bow to supply the Bow River

Irrigation District. The question of water allocation, particularly between hydroelectric and irrigation, has been discussed by authori­ ties working in the area. The problem is stated in the following quotation:

Water power undertakings on the Bow River, because of the low winter flow, are faced with the necessity of storing summer water for use In winter, whereas irrigation requires water during the summer months. The possibility of a conflict of interests between the two types of development there­ fore exists.

In 1945, in a complete and comprehensive report on the available supply of the Bow River, Mr. P. R. Burfield stated that, 11 It is shown by this study that, provided Alberta can control or take all of the water from the Bow River except

100 second feet, there Is sufficient water for what appears to be the ultimate development of irrigation. . .shortages have actually occurred usually at the end of a dry May when

16. Ibid., p. 56 190 temperatures have not warmed up sufficiently to start the *1 »y big snow melt in the mountains.11 It is pointed out that some of these shortages are due to an over use of the water. "Better cooperation among or more control of the large water users seems to be the remedy."

Mr. Burfield concludes that in normal years there is more than sufficient water for the operation of the proposed development. In years of low flow there may be a problem, but it is reported that the effect of operating the river for power development ". . .does not aggravate the irrigation difficulties but rather, by increasing the flow of the stream In April, September and October, makes more water available for Irrigation than would be the case if the river was unregulated for power."1® He points out that in the low water year the storage reservoirs should be drawn upon. Other problems do arise from the diurnal and weekly fluctua­ tions in power demand, creating fluctuations in flow as the water is released through the turbines. Without satis­ factory storage, irrigators require a steady flow.

The Alberta Power Commission Report, December 1951, also contains a statement on the Bow River Problem.

However, it is recognized that irrigation requirements have priority over requirements for power purposes and that, for the develop­ ment planned, the water supply study indicated

17. Ibid., p. 57-58.

18. The quotation Is from B. Russell, o j d . cit., p . 57. 191

that in low water years such as 1940 and 1941 the regulated flow of the Bow River was con­ siderably below the peak requirements indi­ cated. 19

An appreciation of the problem of allocation is seen in

the associated with the Spray River power develop­ ment. This calls for a release of water in the irrigating months should the flow of the Bow River immediately below

the Ghost Dam fall below 4600 c.f.s. But the total release should not exceed 20,000 acre feet of storage. It is con­ sidered that 4600 c.f.s. supplemented by the Elbow and

Highwood rivers is sufficient to meet the peak requirements of those lands directly dependent on the Bow River. The problem that arises could be relieved by greater cooperation between Irrigation and hydroelectric authorities. It has been suggested that the storage reservoirs be filled in the autumn when possible. The ultimate solution, as suggested by Mr. J. L. Reid, of the Water Resources Depart­ ment, lies in the construction of a large storage dam below Calgary. Several sites for a balancing reservoir are available. Then the winter release would be stored for summer use by the Bov/ River Irrigation District and the Eastern Irrigation District. The enlargement of storage space within the respective schemes would considerably alleviate a water shortage in these critical years.

19. The Alberta Power Commission - December 1951, The Alberta Power Commission, Edmonton, Alta., 1^52, p~, 23. 192

Because of the Importance of this problem in determin­ ing actual flow f igures at the mouth of the Bov; under varying

conditions, the effects of both storage and withdrawal by major users were considered. Average conditions have been examined working from the actual flow of the Bow River as measured at Calgary and averaged over the water years 1946-

1947 to 1949-1950. These years were selected for two reasons: (1) the actual flow of the Bow River has altered as every new scheme for storage and hydro-use has been con­ structed and put into operation. By 1949 all but the Spray

Lake hydroelectric and storage structures had been completed.

The figures are dated in that they do not include this last construction, completed in 1951. (2) If annual runoff were to be considered over the period mentioned, 1946-1950, the average for these years varies by only three per cent from the long term average for annual runoff. Hence, it may be said that the flow pattern is being studied under very nearly average annual conditions.

To the Bow River flow was added the actual flow of the Elbow measured below Glenmore Dam, the Highwood River at Aldersyde, and the at . These are the only major contributors to the Bow River below Calgary.

Others may be of importance in some years, but, as these are prairie streams, quantitatively their contributions would not be large enough to affect the overall picture. Another inflow factor omitted is the return flow from irrigation 195

which may be as high as 30 per cent of intake. Return flow

is a difficult factor to assess. W. L. Foss states that "30 to 35 per cent of the water provided by irrigation water

rights would find its way back to the streams. From another source it was stated that "on many projects it is

not uncommon to have a return flow equal to as much as 20 or

30 per cent of the diversions. On the Dixie Project in Southern Utah, we are estimating a 20 per cent return

flow.

Return flow and the inflow to the Bow of small tributar­ ies have not been included in the calculations for this in­ vestigation. The error resulting from this omission would be significant if it were not for a compensating omission in terms of evaporation and channel loss. While it is not

suggested that one balances the other, the error, for these purposes, is not significant.

Domestic, municipal, and industrial uses have been

ignored. The withdrawal at Calgary is large, but from a flow point of view it is not a consumptive use as all but a small fraction of the water is returned to the river.

In Table XVIII the actual flow of the Bow River under average conditions Is considered in terms of an average withdrawal of water for irrigation use. It Is first 20. Personal interview with W. L. Foss, Supervising Engineer, St. Mary - Milk River Development, Lethbridge, Alta. 21. Personal communication from George D. Clyde, of Interstate Streams, Utah. 194

Important to note the increased winter flow of the Bow re­ sulting from the release of water for hydroelectric purposes. The maintenance of a reasonably high winter flow results.

It will be seen that in spite of the interference with the regimen there is sufficient water available at all times for irrigation. At the mouth of the river more than the required amount is still flowing.

TABLE XVIII: THE ACTUAL FLOW OP THE BOW RIVER UNDER AVERAGE CONDITIONS (1) Combined flows of Bow, Elbow, HIghwood and Sheep (c.f.m.) ONDJFMAM J 2961, 2161, 1930, 1820, 1647, 1794, 2687, 6829, 12,888 J A S 7910, 5229, 3658

(2) Actual Withdrawal for irrigation (W.I.D., B.R.I.D., E.I.D.) In recent years (c.f.m.) ONDJPMAM J J A 1206, 162, — — — -- 68, 1220, 2316, 2963, 2295, S 1947 (3) Plow of Bow River at Mouth in recent years (c.f.m.) ONDJPMAM J 1755, 1999, 1930, 1820, 1647, 1794, 2619, 5609, 10,572, J A S 4947, 2934, 1711

In Table XIX the effect of the full use of the water 22 allocation on the average flow of the Bow River is presented. From these figures the flow still remains ample over the two critical months. The greater use of water that would result

22. Fifth Annual Report, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1952, Appendix B. The monthly withdrawals used In the table are in proportion to the actual withdrawals. 195 from maximum withdrawal, however, has reduced the July average by 1547 c.f.m. at the mouth. September has become a critical month when both withdrawal and storage are being undertaken. Still one may say that under average condi­ tions there is an adequate supply available at all times.

TABLE XIX: THE ACTUAL PLOW OP THE BOW RIVER UNDER AVERAGE CONDITIONS BUT WITH PULL USE OP THE ALLOCATION FOR IRRIGATION (1) Combined flows of Bow, Elbow, Highwood and Sheep Rivers (c.f.m.) ONDJPMAM J 2961, 2161, 1930, 1820, 1647, 1794, 2687, 6829, 12,888, J A S 7910, 5229, 3658

(2) Allocated withdrawal for Irrigation (W.I.D., B.R.I.D., E.I.D.) (c.f.m.) ONDJFMA M J J A 1836, 247, -- — -- — 104, 1857, 3525, 4510, 3493, S 2963

(3) Plow of Bow River at Mouth if Allocation Used (c.f.m.) O N D JPMAMJ 1125, 1914, 1930, 1820, 1647, 1794, 2583, 4972, 9363, J A S 3400, 1736, 695

In Table XX the actual flow of the Bow River under low water conditions is considered In terms of water with­ drawal. The water year 1948-1949 was selected. In that year the natural flow was the lowest on record representing a deviation of 30 per cent from the average annual runoff. 196

TABLE XX: THE ACTUAL PLOW OF THE BOW RIVER UNDER LOW WATER CONDITIONS (1) Combined flows of the Bow, Elbow, Highwood and Sheep for 1948-49 (c.f.m.) 0 N D J F M A M J 2214, 1547, 1001, 920, 1041, 1027, 1626, 5911, 7258, J A S 4939, 3811, 2622 (2) Actual withdrawal for Irrigation (W.I.D., B.R.I.D., E.I.D,) (c.f.m.) ONDJPMA M J J A 1148, 21, -- — — -- 182, 1875, 3107, 3059, 2214, S 2121

(3) Flow of the Bow River at Mouth, 1948-49 (c.f.m.) ONDJFMA MJ 1066, 1526, 1001, 920, 1041, 1027, 1444, 4036, 4151, J A S 1880, 1597, 501

The effect of a low flow year on the pattern of the Bow River is to reduce all peaks in the flow at the mouth. Flow through the winter is maintained from storage. The natural flow of the Bow at Calgary for June and July was 5234 and 3987 c.f.m., respectively. The latter is below the critical figure of 4600 c.f.s., and since this is an average figure, we may expect, during the month, instantaneous minima lower than those shown. ^ Conditions In the month of September must be far from satisfactory. A low flow year reflects, on the prairies, a decrease In precipitation. This leads to greater demands for water in the year of low flow. In the year 1948-49, a total of 836,488 acre feet were used for

23. The Alberta Power Commission - December 1951, op. cit., p. 23.------197 irrigation by the three large users. This is an increase of 13 per cent over the average withdrawal. A similar increase in water withdrawal coincided with the decreased flow of the water year 1940-41. The construction of the Spray River storage and the further granting of the Pocaterra Creek construction will accentuate the difficulties being experi­ enced down stream. If withdrawal in terms of full allocation is considered, the critical aspect of flow under these conditions becomes apparent. In July and August, flow is low and stream loss will still further reduce the figure. Riparian users would be severely restricted under these conditions. In September there would be no flow In the lower Bow River. This condi­ tion has been reached for brief periods In other years when the monthly average has been above the critical figure.*^

Until a balancing reservoir Is constructed downstream from the Ghost Dam there will continue to be a shortage In low water years. A dam on the Bow below Calgary could be built for this purpose. An increase in efficiency of water use for Irrigation is also necessary. Further hydroelectric schemes must await developments of this type. The annual runoff figures for the Bow River show very clearly the effect of storage and withdrawal on the flow of the Bow River (Appendix B, Table III). Storage, of course,

24. Figures In the possession of C. J. Anderson, Manager, Eastern Irrigation District, Brooks, Alta. Is not a consumptive use of water, but a portion of that stored must be considered as such for any one particular year, as it is over a period of years that water stored, Is released. It Is not the purpose here to show the amount of temporary withdrawal for any one year although, using de­ tailed figures, this could be determined. It Is sufficient to say that the difference between natural and actual flow at the mouth of the Bow under the four sets of conditions outlined includes some of that water In storage. It is for this period as effectively withdrawn as if the water were withdrawn for irrigation. Given average conditions of flow and withdrawal, it may be said that 26 per cent of the natural flow of the Bow is withdrawn In one year. If the full allocation were used, then 38 per cent of the volume of the Bow would be withdrawn. Under low water conditions when demand for irrigation water increases, 41 per cent of the volume would be withdrawn. In terms of the full allocation this would be raised to 54 per cent.

The Oldman River

No hydroelectric storage reservoirs complicate the regimen of the Oldman and Its tributaries. Irrigation dominates the water use of the southwest portion of the basin, and withdrawal for this purpose will be considered in some detail. But before going on to discuss this withdrawal factor, another important diversion must be considered. It 199 has been pointed out that a portion of the Saskatchewan

River Basin lies In the United States. The St. Mary, Belly,

and Waterton rivers have their headwaters in Montana. International allocations of water have been made. The possibility of a revision has played no little part in the

development of irrigable lands adjacent to the rivers.

In order to understand the full implications of the

allocations between the two countries, certain basic points

must be kept in mind.

The High Contracting Parties agree that the St. Mary and Milk Rivers and their tribu­ taries (in the State of Montana and the Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan) are to be treated as one stream for the purpose of irrigation and power and the waters thereof shall be apportioned equally between the two countries; but in making such an equal appor­ tionment, more than half may be taken from one river and less than half from the other by either country so as to afford a more bene­ ficial use to each.25

Thus an unequal division in the water allocation of one

river will result in a compensating division of the other to the mutual benefit of both countries. This interpreta­

tion of Article VI was put in a more definite form following

the meetings of The International Joint Commission on

October 4, 1921.

During the Irrigation Season (a) when the flow In the St. Mary River at the international boundary is 666 c.f.s. or less Canada gets 3/4

25. Article VI of Treaty between the and the United States, dated January 11, 1909 and under the supervision of a permanent authority, the International Joint Commission. Figure 14 The Plains: Bassano Dam on the Bow River, Eastern Irrigation District 201

of the water. United. States gets l/4 of the water. (b) When the flow exceeds 666 c.f.s. Canada gets 500 c.f.s. United States gets 166 c.f.s. The balance is divided equally between the two countries. A reciprocal arrangement governed diversion from the

Milk River. During the non-irrigating season ’’the flow of each river is divided equally at the boundary.’1

A second consideration in the Implications of water diversion of the St. Mary concerns the beneficial use of

that water. On October 6, 1921, the Commission made certain recommendations regarding storage of waters of the St. Mary

and Milk rivers. After a very thorough investigation, they found that the area of land in each country susceptible to irrigation development from the St. Mary River, the Milk

River, and their tributaries far exceeds the capacity of the rivers, even under the most carefully developed system of water conservation. Certain recommendations were made to encourage the beneficial use of the water. However, between 1922 and 1938, the United States was able to make beneficial use of only 51 per cent of its share each year,notwithstand­ ing the fact that it was operating Sherburne Lake Reservoir on the headwaters of the St. Mary. Canada, without any storage during the same period, used an average of only 46 per cent of its share. Thus 52 per cent of the average flow in the St. Mary River each year was going to waste.

In 1938 the United States completed the Fresno Reser­ voir on the North Branch of the Milk River and the whole 202

situation was changed. The United States was then able to

use all its share and more, were it available. The point of view of the United States was expressed in 1915 by P. H. Newel, before the Joint Commission*

. . . it should not be assumed that be­ cause one country is not prepared to use one- half of the water, therefore the other country must be deprived of the use of any portion which otherwise would be wasted.

The United States would like to see a reapportionment

of St. Mary water on this basis and to this end is ­

ing to have It coupled with some final decision on alloca­

tion of the Belly and Waterton waters. It is impractical for the United States to divert water from these two rivers, but they could be used to bargain for a greater allotment of the St. Mary. Canada, on the other hand, with the

development of the St. Mary and Milk River Project, will

ultimately require water to irrigate land as far east as

Medicine Hat and, consequently, does not desire any altera­ tion of the 1921 agreement.

At present only the St. Mary and its tributaries are used for Irrigation. Within the United States a dam has been constructed across Sherburne Lake, creating extra

storage and regulating the flow of water down Swiftcurrent

Creek Into Lower St. Mary Lake. Records of Swiftcurrent

Creek flow have been kept at hydrometric stations located at Many Glaciers above the Sherburne Reservoir and at Sherburne, below the dam. A comparison shows the effect of control 203 resulting in a less extreme regimen pattern. Swiftcurrent Creek flows into Lower St. Mary Lake.

Near Babb, where the St. Mary River leaves the lake, the

United States1 St. Mary Canal has been constructed to carry water across the Hudson Bay divide to the North Pork on the

Milk River. Thus the supply of the Milk River is augmented, the water flowing through Canada to be collected behind the

Fresno Dam where the river again turns into the United

States. Records have been kept at three points along the canal. At the canal intake, water flows from April to

November. In that period an average of 167,897 acre feet is withdrawn.

With the various conditions and circumstances of with­ drawal of water outlined, it is now possible to consider the effect on the regimen of the St. Mary River. Under average conditions of flow the United States diverts only a portion of its share of the water. In winter the amount diverted is least, about 20 per cent to 30 per cent of the allocation.

Prom April to June inclusive about 60 per cent Is diverted, whereas In the late summer the bulk of the allocation, about

80 per cent, is diverted. It may be assumed that in high flow years much less Is diverted. In low flow years a much greater portion is used from November to January, about 50 per cent. In February of 1944 only 19 per cent of the allocation was used. Prom April to September nearly all of the allocation was used. In four of those months more than 204 the allocation was used. This was permissable as Canada

could not utilize all Its share because of the limited

storage. Annual figures may be used to summarize the situation.

Under average conditions, the United States uses 56 per cent

of its allocation. For the year of high flow It uses 19 per cent of the allocation. For the minimum runoff year about

98 per cent of the allocation Is used.

The water left, flows down the St. Mary and comprises the actual flow of that river, Canada's allocation has been

determined by agreement. It is with the predetermined

portion that one must work in estimating availability for

irrigation use downstream, even though in most years, or

until the United States extends its waterworks, this flow will be supplemented by the excess United States’ flow.

In Canada, the St. Mary water Is used predominantly for

Irrigation. Development of the region began on a small scale with but minor diversions. Mormons, settling in the

Cardston area from 1887 onwards, brought from Utah their

irrigation techniques. Larger irrigation schemes were initiated with the formation of larger companies. The Canadian Northwest Irrigation Company had a canal constructed from the St. Mary River and withdrawal began In 1901. The

opening of a beet factory after several attempts, at Raymond further encouraged development. The assets of the Irriga­ tion Company were acquired in 1912 by the Canadian Pacific 205

Railway, and the irrigation area was operated by them until

1946, when the ownership and operation was transferred to the Government of Alberta. In 1923 the canal to the Leth­ bridge Northern Irrigation District was completed. Today farming in the irrigated areas of the southwest has an air of prosperity, but this belles the history of the Irrigation companies which sponsored settlement In an attempt to develop the area. Failure and frequent changes of hands have been features of development. Canals would be constructed only to be followed by a series of wet years during which time farmers would be very reluctant to buy water. Greater stability Is being reached today through better manage­ ment, a careful selection of settlers and substantial financial aids to those finding difficulty with the pioneer­ ing stages of the development.

Irrigation districts are located In the mountain and foothill region and in the western prairie. They utilize the water of the Oldman. 206

TABLE XXI: EXISTING IRRIGATION DISTRICTS (Source: Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Basin, Hydrology Division, P.F.R.A., Regina, Sask., 1952, p. 10)

Irrigated Acres Project Started Now______Ultimate

United Irrigation District 1921 21,000 34,000 Mountain View Irrigation District 1925 3,600 3,600

Leavitt Irrigation District 1943 2,500 4,400

Aetna Irrigation District 1945 50 7,300 Macleod Irrigation District 1948 500 10,000

St. Mary-Milk River Project 1901 150,000 510,000 Lethbridge Northern Irrigation District 1922 75,000 96,000

In the Oldman tributary basin, the first major diversion is located where the river flows through the rolling high plains. The Lethbridge Northern Irrigation District has its intake located near the town of Peigan. Water Is carried northward across the Oldman River and, about five miles from the Intake, a gauging station Is located at Menzaghies

Bridge, southwest of Mud Lake. Records are from 1925 to 1949. The annual Intake to the canal is 111,000 acre feet generally between the months of April and October. This allows an average use of 1.9 acre feet per acre (net).

East of Mud Lake some land adjacent to the canal Is irrigated. A branch canal carries water to the Monarch area, the western portion of the Irrigation District. An average 207

of 34,225 acre feet or 31 per cent Is the amount of the diversion. The bulk of the water is carried to Keho Lake

Reservoir from which it is reticulated to Irrigate the northern, southern and eastern portions of the District. The Belly River is used for Irrigation. This river,

and its main tributary, the Waterton, may ultimately be sub­

jected to some international allocation system. Basic data have been collected, but, because diversions are impracti­

cable in the United States and because Canada does not wish a re-allocatIon of St. Mary River water to be considered with the Belly-Waterton supply, little has been done. P fi

Water is diverted from the Belly River near Mountain

View. It flows Into Driggs Lake Reservoir, and from the out­ let, a branch goes north to supply irrigation water for the

Mountain View Irrigation District. The other, an eastern branch, provides water for the Leavitt and the Irriga­ tion districts.

A gauging station Is located near the Intake canal.

The hydrometric record has been kept since 1935. The annual volume through the canal averages 6450 acre feet. It has reached a maximum of 13,640 acre feet, and in some years no water was withdrawn at all. Allowing for a 20 per cent con­ veyance loss, there Is a net use of 0.8 acre feet per acre.

26. Waterton-Belly Rivers, Special Report to the Internation­ al Joint Commission, International Waterton-Belly Rivers Engineering Board, MarchSl, 1950. 208

In terms of ultimate acreage, however, a much greater area

will he irrigated. This will be about 15,300 acres. More water will have to be made available.

Downstream on the Belly River near Hillspring, is lo­ cated the Intake for the United Irrigation District Canal. The records cover periods from 1924 to 1930 and from 1946 to 1949. An average annual volume of 21,370 acre feet is with­

drawn. With its regimen pattern thus modified, the Belly River flows north to join the Oldman. Plans for the incor­

poration of the Belly River system In the St. Mary and Milk

River Development are well advanced. A dam across the Waterton River downstream from Dungarvin Creek will provide the storage. Five miles downstream from this a canal will

carry water to the Belly River. Another five miles down­ stream on the Belly River a diversion will be made to a

canal. From there the water will be carried across the interfluve to the St. Mary Reservoir, and thus become a part

of the Development.

Factors governing the flow of the St. Mary River north from the International Boundary have been discussed. Within Canada, water Is diverted to flow in the Canadian St. Mary

Canal near Kimball, about 20 miles north of the border.

Records of withdrawal have been kept since 1910. The average annual is 156,500 acre feet which may be used to irrigate

127,600 acres giving a gross water use of 1.2 acre feet per acre. Withdrawal has reached an annual maximum of 222,637 209 acre feet, an annual minimum of 68,821 acre feet.

Near water is diverted to the Magrath Irrigation District Canal. An average (1927-1929) of 4860 acre feet, or three per cent of the average annual alloca­ tion, was diverted. The Canadian St. Mary Canal near Magrath has an average flow of 152,800 acre feet. Near

Welling 16,690 acre feet, or 11 per cent of the original intake, are diverted to the Raymond Irrigation District

Canal. The final diversion, that for the Taber Irrigation

District Canal, is made near Chin, an average of 29,140 acre feet or 19 per cent of the original intake. Prom the original intake the water Is carried a considerable distance, eventually to be used in the irrigation of the Taber area.

Two reservoirs, East Pothole and Chin, with present capaci­ ties of 14,000 and 50,000 acre feet, respectively, are used to provide some storage.

The St. Mary combined with the Milk River can command

510,000 Irrigable acres of good land stretching from the St.

Mary River to Medicine Hat. The St, Mary-Milk River Project has been conceived to bring maximum development ultimately to the region.

The St. Mary-Milk Rivers Irrigation Pro­ ject, formerly called the Lethbridge South­ east Project, was visualized In nearly its present magnitude as early as 1911, and by 1919 comprehensive plans had been prepared. In 1938, the P.P.R.A. began engineering in­ vestigations, and In 1945 active construction 210

work began for the development of 390,000 acres of new irrigated land and about 16,000 h.p. of hydro p o w e r . 27

Of major importance to the project is a dam that will

store the off-season water of the St. Mary against the peak demands of the summer. When the project is completed and in

operation, peak demands will exceed the summer allocation on

the St. Mary River. The St. Mary Dam was completed in 1949 to serve that purpose. It has a storage capacity of 270,000

acre feet. In 1954, when part of the irrigation district was supplied with water, the main canal was carrying about half its capacity. When construction is completed, water will be carried as far east as Medicine Hat. Drastic reductions in the flow of the St. Mary below the dam will result from the full development. This has been shown in various water supply estimates for the scheme.^® Over the period 1928 to

1948, the net inflow, In terms of maximum development, would have averaged 13,508 c.f.m. for the period. In 1944, the minimum year, it would have been 7875 c.f.m.; In 1948, the maximum year, 18,509 c.f.m. In many years the spill over the dam would be at the minimum of 30 c.f.s. required by law to supply riparians along the lower St. Mary River.

The St. Mary joins the Oldman River near Lethbridge. Actual flow figures have been recorded since 1911. The

27. W. L. Foss, St. Mary-Milk Rivers Project, Regina. Sask.. 1949, p. 1. ; ---

28. IbId., Water Supply Study Tables I and II. 211 annual average flow has been 450,900 acre feet with the maximum flow in the months of April and May. Maximum annual runoff was 1,101,139 acre feet, minimum 72,580 acre feet. These figures are for flow prior to the completion of the

St. Mary Dam. At Lethbridge the actual flow of the Oldman has been recorded since 1911. The annual average runoff is 2,414,000 acre feet. With full development of the St. Mary Project this figure will be reduced to 1,963,100 acre feet. For a portion of the normal year the St. Mary will not have any appreciable flow into the Oldman. There will be an overall decrease in the monthly flow of the Oldman. Actual decrease will be at a maximum in winter, during the months of reser­ voir storage.

The modifications in the flow of the Oldman and its tributaries have been outlined in detail because, of the im­ portance of this region to agriculture. The region is one that is water deficient. Because temperatures are higher and the growing season longer than in other parts of the basin, maximum use is demanded of this water.

Several other projects have been planned to utilize the waters of the Oldman. Among these are the Todd, Pincher, Beaver, Cowley and Granum projects. These are in the foot­ hills region and were surveyed by the old Department of the Interior. The development of the Macleod Irrigation Dis­ trict Is at a more advanced stage. At present more than 260 212 acres are served by pumping water from the Oldman River. Gravity diversion is planned for the final development.

The South Saskatchewan River

The Bow and the Oldman join, form the South Saskatchewan River, and flow eastward. There are no large diversions along its course partly because the river is located in a deep valley. But there is some irrigation from the tribu­ taries and on the river flats.

TABLE XXII: IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN SASKATCHEWAN (Source: Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Basin, Hydrology Division, P.F.R.A., Regina, Sask., 1952, p. 11)

Year Irrigated Acres Project Started Now______Ultimate Swift Current Irrigation District 1940 7,500 21,000

French Flats-Valley Park 1949 700 6,500 Small Private Projects 4,000 8,000

Records of flow have been kept at Saskatoon and from these natural flows have been calculated. In an analysis of these figures it must be remembered that the averages have been determined under changing conditions of water use. High flow and low flow years are analogous to conditions today, although as every new dam is built, every new district developed, their value decreases. From a study of the average monthly flows it may be seen first that from November 213

to April inclusive, the release of storage water for hydro­

electricity results in an actual flow that is greater than the natural, a maximum of 19 per cent greater in February. From May to October water is withdrawn both for hydrostorage and for irrigation. Actual flows decrease to 15 per cent less than the natural in August and September.

In a recent high flow year a similar pattern to the

average described above was repeated. All the months except February and September have above average flow. The pattern is, however, more extreme. November Is the first month when actual flow exceeds the natural. By February the former is 54 per cent greater. There Is a decrease of excess flow

until the end of May when the effects of irrigation with­ drawal and storage result in flows about 15 per cent of the actual. In September the withdrawal results in a much lower actual flow.

The divergence from the natural flow was greatest In the low flow year 1943-1944. In January, flow past Saskatoon

is 75 per cent greater than the natural flow; in July, August and September it Is about 30 per cent less than

natural flow. Under conditions of low flow the effects of tributary control and water withdrawal have resulted in the maximum divergence from natural flow. There has been a minimum variation from a mean annual flow. At Saskatoon the withdrawal and control of flow upstream has been beneficial in allowing a more even flow past that city. 214

In comparing volume of flow the same years as above were chosen. The difference between the natural and the actual flows was greatest in the low flow year, least in the high. A final study of stream flow figures will be made for

The Pas. In this delta area there is unrecorded diversion of water to muskrat breeding grounds. The river meanders across a wide flood plain. Present, past, and temporary

channels intermingle with lake, slough, and swamp. Diver­

sions, in many areas, may be considered as still a part of

the river.

The characteristics of flow at The Pas are similar to those at Saskatoon. Generally speaking, there are not the

extremes which are found in the latter. The added flow of

the North Saskatchewan River tends to mask the withdrawal of water on the tributaries of the South Saskatchewan. Prom

June to November, inclusive, under average conditions, the actual flow Is less than the natural, being seven per cent less in September and October. In February the actual flow is nine per cent greater than the natural.

In the high flow year selected, the range of variation from the natural flow was from nine per cent less than the natural in October to 18 per cent greater in March. The greatest variations from the natural occurred In years of low flow. In February, actual flow was 30 per cent greater than natural; In October it was 17 per cent less. 215

If it is considered that the decrease of summer maximum and the increase in the winter minimum flow is a more de­ sirable regimen, then tributary control which exists on the

Bow River improves the regimen of the Bow and eventually of the major rivers. In terms of volume, the proportion of the natural flow that is withdrawn is about the same in the high flow as in the average year. In the high flow year, when precipitation is heavier and the demand Is consequently less, 459,000 acre feet are withdrawn. The withdrawal for the average year Is 480,000 acre feet. The former is 97 per cent of the natural flow, the latter 98 per cent. In the low flow year the volume of water diverted is much greater. The actual flow is, however, 94 per cent of the natural as the low flow Is more in the South Saskatchewan River than the North.

The major modifications in stream flow in the Saskatche­ wan River Basin have been analysed. The aim has been to assess the effect of withdrawals for use. Where major changes are at present being inaugurated, as in the case of the St. Mary area, some Idea of the final modification of stream pattern has been given. Other schemes for use of water on both the North and South Saskatchewan rivers have been planned. In the conclud­ ing chapter the major projects will be examined and their effect on the volume and regimen of the Saskatchewan River assessed. CHAPTER VI

THE SUBSURFACE WATER SUPPLY

Introduction

Groundwater wells and springs are used to supply water for domestic, municipal, and industrial needs. Most of the groundwater utilized is meteoric in origin, having reached

the aquifers mainly by percolation or by influent seepage

from streams. Waters are drawn from aquifers to charge wells. Recharge is most effective during periods of pro­

longed rain or over substained periods of snow melt. Al­ though snowfall on the plains section of the basin is

comparatively light, considerable recharge of the ground­ water supply is from that source.

In the underlying sedimentary rocks of the plains,

water, often saline in quality, Is to be found at great

depths. Much of this was trapped when the sedimentary rocks were deposited. It was retained in the interstices of the rocks and is known to geologists and hydrologists as connate water. That which is nearer the surface has become associ­ ated with the circulating groundwater. At much greater

depths, far below the water table, connate supplies have been reached In the search for oil. This water, although classified as fresh by oilmen, is often of too poor a

216 217 quality to be used for domestic or agricultural purposes.^

Hence, there are two main sources of underground water, the meteoric and the connate. The main underground supplies are meteoric in origin. > 'They are more readily available and generally are of better quality. In order to tap connate sources expensive pumping equipment Is required. At present connate water is more an undesirable byproduct of oil prospecting than a desirable source of water for general use.

Underground water is contained In aquifers. The po­ rosity of the aquifer varies with the number of the inter­ stices in the aquifer material and with the permeability of the material in which the water is contained. The ability of the water to flow through the aquifer varies with this permeability. Underlying material, whether consolidated or unconsolidated, is permeable If it permits the perceptible passage or movement of groundwater, as, for example, porous sands, gravel, and sandstone. Beds are said to be imperme­ able when they do not permit the perceptible passage or movement of groundwater. Such beds as fine clays and shale are considered to be impermeable. Either permeable or im­ permeable beds may be porous. The aquifer Is the porous bed, lens, or pocket in either unconsolidated deposits or In bedrock. Its existence depends on the relationship between

1. Personal interview with R. T. Wickenden, Department of Mines and Technical Survey, Calgary, Alta. ST

Ol Sll

1* • • •V•♦••••••••••

OQ

......

IV

SQ on SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

GEOLOGY

ALBERTA SASKATCHEWAN MANITOBA Pa&Uopoo Tcrhary C d m o nlon Rovenscro^ kxVi S i l u r i a n BearpouJ Orolo\/rcion ftelly River tielly River- Rne -Cambrian L ea PorL LOo ParU Alber4a l_r. Crdoceous 219 permeable and Impermeable layers. The determining factors of use will depend on its location, size and the quality of the water. The quality of the groundwater is a measure of its desirable and undesirable chemical properties. Water in the

Saskatchewan River Basin is said to be alkaline if it has a disagreeable taste resulting from large concentrations of sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. If not too concen­ trated, it may be used for stock water without ill effects.

The adsorption of minerals varies. Water, percolating from the surface, will dissolve soluble salts so that the longer the passage to an aquifer, the greater the liability of deterioration In the quality. Some materials have a higher concentration of mineral salts than others so the concentration of mineral salts will be greater In water coming in contact with the harmful materials. The mineral salts present are referred to as the total dissolved solids. This is expressed quantitatively In "parts per million" which refers to the proportion by weight In a million parts of water.

Calcium carbonate is one of the commonest minerals In the groundwater of the basin. It is found in mineral materials present in the surface deposits of limestone, , and dolomite. It is also found in the shells of the bedrock. Calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate are common salts present. Magnesium salts are also found, 220

usually in the form of magnesium sulphate which imparts a

bitter taste to the water. A general characteristic of groundwater is its degree

of hardness. This may be temporary or permanent. Temporary hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonate

which are soluble in water but are precipitated as insoluble,

normal carbonates by boiling. Permanent hardness results

from the presence of calcium and magnesium sulphate and is

not removed by boiling. Water is classified according to the

degree of hardness.

(1) Water under 50 parts per million is very soft. (2) Water with 50 to 100 parts per million is moderate­ ly soft.

(3) Water with 100 to 150 parts per million is moder­ ately hard.

(4) Water with more than 200 and less than 300 parts per million is hard. (5) Water with more than 300 parts per million is very hard.

The hard waters are usually high in calcium carbonate and almost all waters from glacial drift are of this type, because of the limestone in the drift material. Where sand and gravel deposits are found, the water is usually soft.

In the soft water, calcium carbonate has been replaced by

sodium carbonate due to natural reagents present in clays and sand. Sodium carbonate is present in the bentonite and 221 glauconite clays of the basin. If the surface water reaches the lower sands by percolating through the higher beds, it may be highly charged with calcium salts before it reaches the bedrock formations containing the bentonite and glau­ conite. The completeness of the exchange will depend on the length of time that the water has been in contact with the softening reagent, and also upon the amount of material present. The rate of movement of the underground water is a factor In determining the extent of the reaction. Sodium is derived from a number of Important rock-form­ ing minerals so that sodium sulphate and carbonate are common in the groundwater. If the sodium sulphate is present in amounts over 1200 parts per million, the water is unfit for domestic use or for irrigation. Sodium carbonate or

"black alkali" is particularly harmful, and if it is in excess of 200 parts per million, It is unsuitable for irriga­ tion. Chlorine is usually found as sodium chloride. Where it is in the water in excess of 400 parts per million, It renders the water unfit for domestic use. Iron, as an oxide, is found in some of the waters over the basin. It Is re­ moved by aeration and filtration.

In describing the underground water supply of the basin, references will be made to the quantity of water available. The terms poor, insufficient, fair, sufficient, good, very good, and excellent are used. A poor or insufficient supply is one from which less than 500 gallons a day, the minimum 222 requirement for ordinary farm needs, is obtained from the well. A fair supply gives enough water for minimum farm needs and is generally more than a thousand gallons a day. Often it can be obtained only by slow pumping or by pumping

several times a day. Sufficient supply indicates that enough water is available, while a good supply is one in which the well does not go dry under ordinary farm demands, and enough water for ordinary farm needs with some to spare can be obtained at one pumping. Such wells yield 2000 gallons a day and commonly as much as 5000 gallons a day. The very good supply is one where there is no trouble ­ taining sufficient water; between 7000 and 15,000 gallons a day should be available. If the amount available Is exceptionally good, the term excellent is applied.

The Geologic Conditions and Subsurface Water Supply

The geologic situation aids the storage of water (Figure 15). The whole of the plains region consists of a series of beds slightly downwarped in the great geosyncline. In the west, the smaller Alberta geosyncline was formed following the uplift of the Sweetgrass Arch. Tertiary and

Cretaceous beds outcrop in west-facing escarpments parallel to the foothills of the Rockies. Water, seeping through the pervious rock will move to the center of the downfold there to be held, often under hydrostatic pressure. The beds out­ crop again in east-facing escarpments at the Missouri Coteau 223 and the . Although the water supply is not as plentiful, some will find its way to the aquifers from the outcropping surface. Within the basin, groundwater is found in two distinct types of material, the unconsolidated surface mantle and the underlying consolidated rock. Glacial drift is the more extensive of the -unconsolidated materials. It consists of loose surface deposits of sand, gravel, and clay or a mixture of these. Clay containing Is part of the drift and is referred to as glacial till or boulder clay. It is Impervious to water Infiltration for all practical purposes, although water Is found throughout it in scattered lenses of sand and gravel. Terminal moraines form hilly tracts in which the surface Is characterized by irregular hills and underground basins. Being composed of the same material as the glacial till or ground moraine, it contains water only in the more porous lenses. Glacial outwash con­ sists of sand and gravel plains or deltas formed by streams that issued from the Ice sheets. No water is obtained from the sand and gravel of this material until it makes con­ tact with an underlying impervious layer, usually of clay.

Glacial lake deposits consist of sand and clayey silt plains formed in the proglacial and englacial lakes during the retreat of the ice front. Glacial lake clays are not thought to be water bearing although water may be obtained from scattered deposits of sand and gravel that occur In the 224

underlying boulder clay. The glacial lake sands yield some

water at shallow depths. Water is also obtained from the

scattered deposits of sand and gravel in the boulder clay

that underly the lake sand. In the dune sand areas, whether in the old beaches of

the glacial lakes or in the areas of , small quantities

of water are at shallow depths. Near the surface water is

present in recent stream deposits.

The unconsolidated deposits are the most important

source of water over the basin. Within this material, the

sand and gravel lenses in the glacial drift form the most

significant aquifers. Because of their irregular occurrence throughout the mass, they cannot be systematically located. Where there is a great depth of material an aquifer will

usually have formed or several may overlap. The volume and

the regularity of the water supply depends on the size of the aquifer and on the regularity of its replenishment.

During the summer, many wells dry out and the farmer must

await a period of rains for recharge. The groundwater from unconsolidated materials varies in quality. That obtained near the surface is free of harmful minerals but the water Increases in hardness with the depth.

Groundwater conditions in the bedrock are related to the composition. The bedrock of Pre-Cambrian origin, found in the mountains, Is compact and impermeable. There is movement of water in Paleozoic rock. Those of the Mesozoic 225 are more porous. In the residual areas, rocks of Tertiary age are loose and open In texture. Wells drilled in bedrock are seldom more than a few hundred feet deep "and usually do not penetrate below the erosional that generally marks the base of the group of rocks in which the wells have been started."^ The underlying strata of the plains consist of Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous sediments. Tertiary material is found as the surface layer of the Alberta geosyncline in the western portion of the basin. It is called the Paskapoo, and consists of 1200 to 2000 feet of soft, clayey sandstone. Clay shales are also present. A limited amount of water is found within this formation in sandstone aquifers. Other

Tertiary sediments occur in the isolated residual hills throughout the basin. In the southern part of the Province of Saskatchewan these have been called the Cypress Hills, Swift Current, and the Upper Ravenscrag formations from the upper to the lower layer. The Ravenscrag corresponds to the

Paskapoo in Alberta. The consists of coarse grained sandstone and hard, cemented in a layer about 100 feet thick. Soft to moderately Is found in small aquifers. The , with which the Swift Current is often included, consists of

2. B. R. McKay, "Canada's Groundwater Resources from a Geological Aspect," Journal of the American Waterworks Association, Volume 37, 1945, pi §4. 226

a series of light colored sandstones and shales containing

one or more lignite coal seams. This formation is 500 to 1000 feet thick. The sand and coal seams commonly form

aquifers and, although the water has a tendency to he hard,

it is generally of good quality. The Tertiary deposits are

also found along the Missouri Coteau. Beneath the Tertiary, or forming the upper bedrock over

most of the basin, lie the formations of the Upper Cre­

taceous. Outcropping on both sides of the Paskapoo is the

Edmonton formation of Alberta. Similar material forms a

much narrower band in Saskatchewan where it is called the Lower Ravenscrag, Whitemud and formations, the

particular names referring to differences in sections of the

strata. The Edmonton formation consists of non-marine sand­ stones and shales. The sandstone has a high lime content

and most water obtained from it is hard. Coal seams are also

associated with this formation in the carbonaceous shale and

they produce water often discolored and containing much

organic matter. The Whitemud formation consists of a series

of white, grey, and buff colored clays and sands which vary

in thickness up to 75 feet. The Eastend is a formation con­

sisting of a series of fine-grained sands and silts about 40 feet thick.

The outcrops to the east of the

Edmonton in Alberta andagain about the Coteau in Saskatche­ wan. It Is 600 feet thick and consists of grey, brown, and 227 green shales containing a few bands of ironstone nodules and bentonitic clays. Sodium sulphate and sodium chloride are

present in the shales producing a soft water. The Belly River formation outcrops in a crescent shape

from the northwest part of the basin in Alberta, east as far as Saskatoon and back into the southwest. It consists

of grey, greenish, and buff sandstone interstratified with grey, greenish, and shales. The formation varies in depth from 1400 to 5000 feet. Limited quantities of water, sometimes highly colored and mineralized are obtained. fh.e Belly River and Bearpaw formations underlie most of the basin in Saskatchewan. Towards the east a narrow bank of marine shales, the Lea Park and then the Alberta formations, outcrop. In Manitoba the bedrock is of Paleozoic origin.

A chemical analysis has been made of samples from some of the formations (Table XXIII). Much of the water does not meet analysis requirements as specified by the United States

Public Health , yet it is drunk by people.

In southern Alberta, the water is very highly mineralized and is often undrinkable. In Alberta, 14 municipal water distribution systems obtain water from an underground supply. Because the water is often obtained from a thin sandstone layer, It is rare that such wells can be pumped at rates exceeding 20 gallons per minute. There is also a seasonal fluctuation in the quality of the water. At the time of 228

spring runoff, water from the plains is highly colored with organic material and sediments held in suspension. Its

quality is, for this reason, lowered. A characteristic of

the mountain supply is to be seen in the marked increase in the hardness of underground water during the summer and early autumn period.

TABLE XXIII: PARTIAL ANALYSIS OF WELL WATER USED FOR MUNICIPAL PURPOSES AT SELECTED LOCATIONS (Source: Harold A. Lever in, "Industrial Water s in Canada,u Journal of the American Vvaterworks Association, Volume 30, 1938, pp. 137-151)

Location of well OLDS NANTON EDMONTON GLEICHEN Formation Paskapoo Paskapoo Edmont on Edmont on Total Solids* 981 538 1326 2056 Loss on Ignition 30 60 240 45 Sulphate 104 39 964 842 Chloride 63 52 4 31 Iron 0.1 4.5 trace Carbonate Hardness 0 0 490 48 Noncarbonate Hardness 0 0 0 0 Alkalinity (Ph.) 0 0 0 0 Alkalinity (M.O.) 645 305 580 486 pit. 8 8.4 7.3

Location of well HOLDEN BARONS Wainright Formation Bearpaw Bearpaw Belly River Belly River Total Solids* 3040 5172 1284 546 Loss on Ignition 42 294 150 236 Sulphate o 2856 440 0 Chloride 1682 51 13 3 Iron trace 1.5 1 Carbonate Hardness 90 480 200 430 Noncarbonate Hardness 0 0 0 0 Alkalinity (Ph.) 0 0 0 0 Alkalinity (M.O.) 208 765 510 490 pit. 7 . 8 7.5 * These and subsequent statistics in parts per million 229

Subsurface Water Regions

A comprehensive regional analysis of the subsurface water distribution cannot be made because of the paucity of

literature on certain areas. Some areas have been studied in detail. A survey of the underground water resource of

Alberta and Saskatchewan was begun in 1935 and is still in 5 progress. Of the two areas completed, the first lies be­ tween the North and South Saskatchewan rivers in Alberta, whereas the second, located within the Province of Saskatche­ wan, covers the watershed of the South Saskatchewan River to within about 20 miles of Saskatoon.

The Mountain Region

Groundwater as a resource is of little importance in

the mountain area because surface supplies are so readily available. Underground water is often supplied by streams unable to maintain their flow over very porous colluvial or fluvial materials. Over the floors of the valleys, glacial till, although it has a low permeability, does re­ ceive some water. Within the Cordilleran structural unit the bedrock has been rendered so impervious and the strata are generally so steeply inclined and faulted, that the run­

off is rapid and the bedrock consequently is not a source of water supply. Such supplies as are obtained from bedrock

3. ’’Groundwater Resources - Geology and Underground," Water Supply Papers, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, 1935 . . . 230 are derived almost entirely from solution channels that follow thefeults and joint planes. The main sources of groundwater are the alluvial deposits which are very porous.

These either carry abundant supplies of water or are alto­ gether dry, depending on their position relative to intake areas and to the bedrock topography.

The Alberta Plain Region

The surveyed area between the North and South Sas­ katchewan rivers in the Province of Alberta is mantled with drift and alluvium that usually contains sufficient water of good quality for domestic use. Wi'est of the town of Red Deer water percolates through to a clay layer and then remains perched. Wells are sunk into this aquifer but, because it is not continuous, a local lack of water results in particu­ lar areas. East of Red Deer, water is found in two types of till, first in the light grey till which contains scattered stones, and secondly in the dark blue till which is more compact and sticky. Water occurs in gravel aquifers but this is usually hard water containing much calcium carbonate.

Glacial lake sands near Red Deer yield a good supply but again, of hard water. In sandy materials, water is found in plentiful supply at the contact with bedrock.

Water supply from the drift material depends on the location of sand and gravel aquifers. The location and extent of these is unpredictable so wells and bores tap 221

supplies by chance. Once established, the yield varies.

The supply of water, particularly in the eastern part of the surveyed region, is very sensitive to changes in the preclpl

tation, and falls off considerably during drier periods.

Many users prefer to get their main supply from the larger and more reliable aquifers in the bedrock.

Several Cretaceous and one Tertiary formation underly

the mantle of drift. The Paskapoo is the upper formation in

the Alberta geosyncline. It contains abundant lenses of

porous sand which often overlap and form several aquifer

Bones to be tapped by the one well. The amount and rapidity

of the yield varies with the coarseness of the sand. Those

in the western part of the area are composed of particularly coarse sand and give a quick yield and a considerable flow.

Rapid replenishment is possible. If the aquifer is on high

ground It may be too easily drained, and then It would carry

but little water. Where coal seams are present these act as

impervious layers above which the water collects. The water of the Paskapoo may generally be considered as hard. That

around Olds also contains much iron.

Underlying the Paskapoo and outcropping towards the east, Is the Edmonton formation. Water in the shallow wells has qualities similar to that of the overlying drift and Is

usually hard. If It is in contact with the sodium salts at greater depths, it has been considerably softened by the re­ placement of the calcium and the magnesium. Reliable 232

supplies are found in sand aquifers. The Edmonton formation overlies the Bearpaw which out­

crops to the east of it. Salty water is a characteristic of the Bearpaw and, if Edmonton water percolates through to this formation, it tends to become brackish so that it is advisable to carry a bore through to the next, the Belly

River formation. Greensands and bentonite in the Bearpaw do, however, give soft water which is indistinguishable from that of the underlying Belly River formation. The Belly River is the lowest formation to outcrop in the surveyed area. The western outcrops are referred to as the Pale and Variegated Beds. They consist of bentonite, sand, shales, and sandy shales in intermediate lenses. Some

of the layers contain coal seams. Adequate supplies of water are found but, following tapping, recharge is often slow, especially in the sand lenses between the tightly packed shale. In the deep coulee of Battle River, Birch

Lake and Grizzley series outcrop. The is generally impervious and so forms a good base for the aquifer of the overlying Birch Lake. Supplies of water are good. The Belly River formation also yields a good supply of soft water, the rate and amount varying with the size of the sand body.

Although the Lea Park formation does not outcrop In the region, some water Is obtained from it. The upper part of this formation contains some sand and there are a few 233 aquifers below a layer of marine shale, but the sand in the upper Lea Park is the lowest fresh water aquifer tapped in a large area.

The density and average depth of the wells vary over the area studied. There is a concentration of wells around Red

Deer. The depth of wells depends on the location of the aquifers, the most important distinction being between shallow wells which tap aquifers in the drift and those which go to the bedrock. Over the Bearpaw, the source of brackish water, wells are very shallow if they are located in the drift, or they are deep if they descend into the Belly River formation.

The average depth of wells in the region is between 100 and 150 feet with about 35 per cent of the wells deeper than this average figure. The deepest well is in the Edmonton formation near Lacombe at a depth of 575 feet. The average depth of the deepest wells in the sections surveyed is about 400 feet. Both hard and soft water are supplied by wells, the quality depending on the location of the source with respect to contaminating materials. Some wells contain iron.

The amount of the supply varies but it is generally suffi­ cient. The yield from the deeper wells is good; eleven were very good and nine excellent. The remainder, the shallower wells, yield a fair to a poor supply. 234 The South Saskatchewan Region This region is located in the southwestern part of the Province of Saskatchewan. It will be convenient for purposes of description to divide the area into four sectors, the northwest, the northeast, the southeast, and the southwest although it is not the purpose to suggest that these repre­ sent distinctive .

The northwest sector stretches east from the Alberta-

Saskatchewan border and is approximately bounded in the south by the South Saskatchewan River. The till of the area is composed of a few feet of topsoil, 20 to 30 feet of oxidised or yellow clay which contains scattered pockets of sand and gravel near its base, and a compact, dark colored

Impervious clay that extends down to the underlying bedrock. This latter may be 200 feet thick and contains numerous pockets of sand and gravel. Wells reach the shallow ground­ water of undrained depressions. It is often necessary to deepen them as the wells lower In the late summer. In some cases, aquifers are tapped where dugouts are built and per­ colation helps to maintain the supply. Water bearing horizons are found at various depths. One, between 40 and 75 feet, Is located in the northern part of the region. It is formed by thin, discontinuous layers of sand and gravel in blue boulder clay, and the water is usually highly mineralized. Over most of this area the supply comes from wells which tap water, often under hydrostatic pressure, at 235 the contact between the drift and bedrock. As a general statement it may be said that aquifers in the sand carry soft water, those in the gravel carry hard.

Shallow wells are free of strong mineralization, but deep wells are highly mineralized and the water is hard. In the northeastern section wells are located in the glacial drift. The supply obtained varies considerably, but it is generally sufficient for both domestic needs and for supplying 10 to 15 head of stock. There are no continuous water bearing horizons over the area. Shallow wells tap the lake sands interbedded between impervious layers of clay. Most of this water is soft, but some, at greater depths, is moderately hard. East of the South Saskatchewan River a great belt of glacial clays is located. There are no aquifers in this material, but seepage springs flow from lenses of sand in the till below. The water is collected in dugouts and stored against future needs. Wells tap aquifers of hard water in the till below, reaching to depths of about

300 feet. In the southeast, the area from about Swift Current to the Elbow of the South Saskatchewan River, the supply of water is often limited. There are but few aquifers in the lake clays. Near Elbow, the dune sands are a good source of soft water. Bordering the river north of the town of Swift

Current, underground supplies are limited to these sandhills. Deeper wells, tapping pockets of sand, seldom give an 236 adequate yield.

Around Swift Current, two types of -unconsolidated materials are found. The first of these, the alluvial deposits, are thin and yield adequate supplies only in iso­ lated areas. Other unconsolidated material consists mostly of glacial till, a yellow to light grey and blue grey clay.

Wells tapping sand layers in this material yield hard but drinkable water.

The southwestern sector of the surveyed region reaches from the South Saskatchewan River to the Cypress Hills and includes an area of inland drainage in the Great Sandhills. Near the river, the drift is thick. Lenses of sand and gravel are found in the till which is very thick in the old preglacial channels. In the dunes area, shallow wells yield a large supply of soft water. East of Maple Creek, where the drift is about 60 feet thick, the supply is unreliable, especially during the late summer months. The Cypress Hills consist essentially of bedrock materials so that the uncon­ solidated materials are thin. Where the sand lenses of aquifers are thick enough, soft to moderately hard water is obtained at depths ranging from 10 to 45 feet.

In the underlying bedrock several formations are found. The less extensive of these, the Tertiary and late Upper

Cretaceous are associated with residual remnants in the Cypress Hills and In the Coteau. The youngest of these, the

Cypress Hills formation, consists of coarse grained 237 sandstone and hard cemented conglomerate about 100 feet thick. Water bearing aquifers are at its base where they are maintained under hydrostatic pressure. The aquifers extend for only a few miles, but they do yield large supplies of water which is soft to moderately hard. The Ravenscrag formation underlying this contains water of good quality in the aquifers where sand is interbedded with silt, soft shale, and occasionally lignite. The is of soft, grey clay, shale, and silt in which are found sands and porous sandstone. Several wells are located at depths greater than 100 feet and the wells are usually highly mineralized. The supply of water from these formations is generally good. The Bearpaw formation -underlies these Tertiary sedi­ ments at depths of from 65 to 140 feet. Springs of hard, drinkable water flow from outcrops of the sandy horizons along the northern edge of the upland area. No water is ob­ tained from the shale of the Bearpaw, but highly mineralized water is obtained below this. The Belly River formation outcrops in the western part of the surveyed area. Although there are no continuous horizons, water is contained in the sand lenses. In the northeast, the lenses are located between 200 and 332 feet, and they yield good quantities of soft water. Near Rosetown, the wells are deeper, descending from 300 to 500 feet. They yield a good supply, although the water may contain some 238

iron. At Outlook, the sand layers which form the bedrock aquifers supply water under sufficient hydrostatic pressure

for it to rise 100 feet or more above the water level. The water is soft and occasionally salty. The Belly River formation outcrops along the bank of the South Saskatchewan

River. Springs are associated with these outcrops. About

Elbow, in the southeast, a good supply of water is obtained. It is soft and often salty. In the southwest sector, the

formation consists of massive beds of coarse sandstone interbedded with shale and occasionally lignite. These con­ tain large reservoirs of groundwater. About Maple Creek

this sandstone Is loosely cemented and contains much ground­ water. Although the supply is good, the water does contain much mineral, especially calcium and magnesium carbonate which may be removed by boiling. In the deeper wells, sodium carbonate gives the water a "soda” taste.

The supply from the Belly River formation is, on the whole, highly mineralized. Sodium sulphate is the prevalent mineral, but this is often combined with iron salts to render the water unfit for drinking.

Over this area the bulk of the water Is obtained from shallow wells. More than half of them are at a depth of less than 50 feet. Of the remainder, most are less than 100 feet in depth. Only a few wells go below 500 feet. Over 60 per cent of the wells have a permanent supply of water. Of these most, being in the till gravels, supply hard water. 239

Some yield soft water, while in a few the water is salty.

Most of the wells yield sufficient water for domestic needs,

although, in this area, the supply of water, whether from

direct runoff or from wells, is an important factor ■because of the low precipitation. It becomes a critical

factor when supplies from the groundwater source are limited. CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Introduction Surface water is a surplus commodity in the Saskatchewan

River Basin. Every year over 94 per cent of all runoff Is carried to Lake Winnipeg from which it flows by way of the

Nelson River to Hudson Bay. Actual monthly flow at The Pas is consistently over 90 per cent of the estimated natural monthly flow which means that the resource Is being wasted In a basin where settlement is restricted because of the limited amount of water available. Droughts over most of the basin are a frequent occurrence. A movement of people from the climatically marginal areas has been associated with the more severe of these. Unable to get water to their land, they are forced out and land is wasted; capital is squandered. Topographically, most of the basin is suited to intensive farming. The soils are sufficiently fertile to be no deterrant. Water alone is lacking. It flows east by way of the two main tributaries, out of the basin. A paradox exists which deserves a closer examination If the basic problems within the basin are to be understood.

The surplus water flowing past The Pas originates mainly in the North and lower Saskatchewan basins.

840 241

Precipitation is higher, and its effectiveness is greater than in the south. As a result, the volume of runoff is increased; the demand for surface water is decreased. There is less need for irrigation water where the soil moisture is satisfactory. Domestic water is obtained from dugouts, tanks, and wells, local sources that are regularly replen­ ished. In terms of present and foreseeable future needs there will continue to be a surplus in these northern regions.

A different situation is encountered in the South Saskatchewan Basin. Precipitation is lower than in the north, and its effectiveness has decreased because of the higher temperatures. Surface water is required to compen­ sate for a serious lowering of soil moisture, and Irrigation practices are adopted. In meeting the demands of irrigators, considerable reduction In stream flow results. At present, the release of water from storage reservoirs partly com­ pensates for local seasonal deficiencies in flow but, as the population increases, the problem of water supply will be­ come more acute. The South Saskatchewan Basin has higher temperatures and a longer growing season than the North.

Consequently more intensive cultivation and a greater variety of crops may be grown provided water is available.

The fact of availability is one which conditions use throughout the basin and makes for local shortages in areas where it coincides with a high demand. 242

More water could be used on the land although It is realized that there are definite practical limits to the irrigable acreage. At present 614,850 acres, or 0.7 per cent of the basin is irrigated. It is hoped ultimately to increase this to 1,341,800 acres or 1.6 per cent of the basin. An overall surplus exists mainly because of insuffi­ cient demand from the 1,500,000 inhabitants of the basin, but also because it is physically difficult and economically unfeasible, at present, to convey water from the surplus, to the deficient areas of the basin. This does not mean that all the water could or should eventually be used. A minimum flow is required in the streams at all times for flushing purposes where these are used to deposit sewage and industrial waste. In the

Missouri Basin it was found that "industries associated with processing of agricultural foodstuffs form the most numerous sources of industrial pollutants with those associated with the production and refining of petroleum in second place."'1"

The lack of water available for the dilution of waste was a factor contributing to pollution. A similar situation is developing in the Saskatchewan Basin where the same two major pollutants are discharged into the larger rivers. At times of minimum flow on the North Saskatchewan River, water

1. " Drainage Basin," Water Pollution Series Number 5, Washington, D. C., 1951, p. 10, 243 for domestic use is of poor quality. The situation will deteriorate unless an increase in the minimum flow is available or treatment of waste is enforced. In other tributary basins, such treatment would reduce the amount of water required for dilutant purposes and release more water for other uses.

It has been stated that "the earth is inert and man is the active factor."^ He must apply his knowledge and his capital if he wishes to make best use of the land. As a prerequisite to development, the need for basic Information has often been stressed. The soil and water resources are basic factors. Without a good understanding of these, plan­ ning Is often unsuccessful. Two groups of conclusions have been sought in this appraisal of the water resources. The first concerns the nature of the water resource itselfj the second is in terms of use and potential use of the water.

Characteristics of the Water Resource

The Influence of Climate

Surface water characteristics are determined by the interaction of physical phenomena within the basin. Of all

2. T. Ely and George S. Wehrwein, Land Economics, New York, 1940, p. 25. 3. "A Water Policy for the American People," The Report of the Presidents Water Resources Policy Commission, Volume 1, Washington, D. C., 1950, p. 85. 244

the physical factors which influence the flow patterns of streams and rivers traversing the basin, none is more impor­

tant than the climate. The volume of runoff and the regimen

of the streams are largely determined by the precipitation. Temperature considerations modify the dominating role of precipitation in that the control of freeze and thaw periods hold and release water as temperature varies in relation to

freezing. The relationship between precipitation and runoff has received considerable attention in North America, and a mass

of literature on the subject is available. Some general

observations may be made for the basin although precipita­

tion figures are limited, particularly in the mountain region. The percentage of precipitation which becomes run­

off decreases rapidly away from the mountains. In the

catchment of the Bow River, between Banff and Calgary, run­ off is about 41 per cent of the precipitation.^ Runoff from

the Red Deer catchment above the town of Red Deer is 29 per

cent of the precipitation. Below Calgary, runoff decreases to seven per cent and on the lower Red Deer to four per cent of the precipitation. Between Edmonton and Prince Albert, runoff from the North Saskatchewan watershed is but two per cent of the recorded precipitation.

4. The upper Bow River was also considered but a satisfactory precipitation average for the area could not be estab­ lished. 245

Both the decrease in precipitation and the limited local relief of the plains contribute to the low runoff percentages. An extensive study of rainfall in relation to runoff was made in the United States by W. G. Hoyt _et alia.

They stated that "in arid and semiarid regions, and indeed in humid regions in times of drought, the flow of surface streams constitutes a surprisingly small part of the water

initially falling as rain.’1^ In the basin, precipitation totals are low, evaporation rates are higher than in the mountains and the soils absorb much of the rain that reaches the ground. Runoff from the undulating surface is compara­ tively low, further encouraging evaporation and percolation. Much less of the precipitation reaches the stream channels.

Precipitation is highest in the mountain region, the annual totals being over 20 inches. Runoff reflects these relatively high totals often exceeding 1000 feet per square mile. At the hydrometric station in the southwestern portion of the basin, the runoff Is as high as

2040 acre feet per square mile.

Across the northern plains, precipitation is about 15 inches annually. Volume per square mile decreases rapidly away from the mountains. Battle River, a prairie stream on the southern boundary of the subhumid region, has a runoff of 100 acre feet per square mile. In the semiarid region of

5. W. G. Hoyt and others, "Studies of Relations of Rainfall and Runoff In the United States," Water-Supply Paper 772, United States Geological Survey, Washington,~D. C., 1936, p. 10. 246 the south precipitation averages 10 to 12 inches per year, but there is considerable variation from place to place and from year to year. There is a rapid decrease in volume per square mile away from the mountains. The Little Bow River, a prairie tributary of the South Saskatchewan, has an average annual runoff of 13 acre feet per square mile. Seven Persons Creek, which joins the South Saskatchewan

River near Medicine Hat, has an average annual runoff of 17 acre feet per square mile. Ross Creek, with its source in the Cypress Hills, an area of slightly higher precipitation, has a runoff of 44 acre feet per square mile.

The influence of temperature on regimen is of con­

siderable significance in this northern basin. Over long periods of the winter, maximum daily temperatures are below

freezing so that winter precipitation is in the form of snow.

As such, it is not available to the streams. Total precipi­

tation is at a minimum during winter, and because it is not available as runoff, the flow of streams is still further reduced both in the mountains and on the plains. With the advent of above-freezing conditions in spring, the snow melts, first on the southern plains, then on the northern, and finally in the mountains. The period of thaw coincides with the increase in precipitation towards an early summer maximum. Peak flows are characteristic of early summer in the western part of the plains and tend to mask the contri­ bution from snow melt. In the east, on the lower 247

Saskatchewan River, two maxima are distinguishable, the first associated with the melting snow in the lower basin and the second with the flow of early summer peak from the headwaters. The summer maximum of stream flow is the result of high summer precipitation. Only in the headwaters of alpine valleys close to the main divide is there any deviation from this basic pattern. These tend to the winter maximum of the western slopes. In summary, then, It may be said that the climate of the basin contributes to stream flow characteristics in three main ways. The higher precipitation of the mountain region and its subsequent transit across the plains are dominating factors to be considered. The occurrence of a summer maxi­ mum of rainfall sets the pattern for stream flow. The temperature element, with its control of freeze and thaw, tends to accentuate the extremes of regimen.

The Influence of Physiography

Physiographically, the major differences in the basin are between the narrow but very important mountain belt and the great expanse of the plains. Indirectly relief contrib­ utes to the character of stream flow through its influence on the climate of the basin. The moisture-laden westerly winds are forced to rise in crossing the Rockies so that the air Is cooled below dew point. Clouds are formed and rain 248 falls on the windward aide of the mountains. Some of the clouds are carried over the divide and bring precipitation to the eastern slopes. The foothills and plains are in an area of rain shadow. Air, descending the slopes and flowing over the plains, is adiabatically warmed and, as a result, its relative humidity is decreased. The lack of reliable precipitation on the plains is a result of the location in relation to the intervening mountains. More directly the relief modifies flow through its contact with runoff. Vtfithin the mountains, slopes are steep and the valleys of individual streams are narrow, When rain falls or when snow melts, runoff is rapidly concentrated on the valley stream and flow increases rapidly. As a result of topographic concentration of precipitation, flow of individual streams may increase and decrease suddenly but the overall result is to maintain a steady and reliable flow in the main mountain rivers.

On the plains the catchments of individual streams cover much larger areas, but these are offset by the fact that precipitation is much lower. In addition, the plain surface is undulating, being hilly only in the areas of the residual blocks and east-facing escarpments. Runoff takes longer to reach the main streams. More is lost by evapora­ tion and depression storage thus contributing little to the water resource. Water percolates through to the ground­ water and replenishes that supply. Some of this water finds 249

Its way to the stream channels and these prairie streams are characterized by a low but steady seasonal flow. The volume and regimen of prairie streams contrast with those of the mountains. Causal factors are basically climatic but the delaying effect of the plains topography,, and the much slower runoff may be of considerable local Im­ portance. Hence, physiography has two basic effects on stream flow. The first is an indirect effect through its influence on climate, and the second is seen in the contrast

In rapidity of runoff between mountain and plain. A third distinction between the mountain region and the plains is in terms of the larger size of prairie tributary basins, but the lower precipitation reduces the effectiveness of this contrast.

The Influence of Vegetation and Soils

Vegetation modifies stream flow by reducing the amount of precipitation to reach the stream as a result of inter­ ception. Within the basin, Interception is at a maximum in coniferous forest regions. Once precipitation has reached the land surface Its progress to the stream channel Is im­ peded by the type and the density of the vegetative cover. The problem, as related to stream flow, is to find the optimum cover requirements for maximum flow and, at the same time, to reduce sufficiently, the velocity of runoff In order that sudden flood crests are averted and the catchment surface protected. 250

Conifers dominate in the headwater areas although numerous peaks rise above the timberline. In Jasper, Banff, and the Waterton National the timber is in almost a virgin state being modified but slightly by the indigenous

animals. Interception in these areas reduces runoff. In

the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve paralleling the main

ranges, controlled cutting reduces the timber stand without

radically altering the rapidity of runoff, but beneficially reducing the loss through interception.

In the parkland of the foothills and the northern portion of the basin the relationship between runoff and vegetation is good. The trees reduce the rapidity of runoff

in the foothills on steep local slopes thus serving a valuable purpose. Riparian growth along stream courses does draw on the local supply, and there is some loss, but, in

the north, this is not serious. On the southern plains, where prairie and steppe grass­ land predominate, the loss through Interception decreases. Following light showers, the grasses are effective in re­ ducing the rate of runoff, but with the typical brief but

intensive summer rains the effectiveness decreases.

Before discussing soil relationships one other factor deserves consideration. It has been pointed out that vege­ tation plays an important part in protecting the soil sur­ face from erosion. In this way it reduces siltation In the stream bed, the sediment count is reduced and a high water 251 quality Is maintained. The soils play a minor role in determining regimen characteristics. However, as development in the basin con­ tinues and water becomes an increasingly valuable commodity, the part soil plays in determining flow characteristics will receive further study. Many factors govern the flow of moisture through the soil. The sandy pockets over sections of the plains and those developed on colluvial materials in the mountainous regions, readily absorb the runoff, reducing the movement to the streams. Soils developed on till and fine-textured silty materials have a much slower infiltra­ tion rate. Runoff over these is more rapid.

The physical factors play an important role in deter­ mining the nature of flow on the main and tributary streams.

As would be expected, precipitation is the most important single element. Temperature conditions, relief, vegetation, and soils are of considerable local importance, modifying the basic relationship between precipitation and stream flow.

Water as a Resource

An assessment has been made of the character of stream flow. The value of water as a resource must now be con­ sidered. It was decided that withdrawal for domestic, municipal, and industrial requirements played but a small part in modifying the regimen. All the large cities are located on the major rivers where the return of waste to the 252 rivers results in only a slight reduction in flow. Smaller towns on the tributaries do affect the flow, but in cases

where surface flow is small or unreliable underground sup­

plies are obtained.

In terms of stream flow, the most significant uses of water in the basin are for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes. It is necessary to consider their effects on the

overall regimen of the rivers, and, In this connection, It has been noted that withdrawal for hydroelectric storage is concentrated on one river, the Bow. The storage of water Is necessary because the natural regimen of the Bov; is not

suited for power development. Maximum use is during the winter months when demands for electricity are highest. It has been shown that winter is the period of lov; flow. In

order to compensate for this deficiency dams have been con­ structed and the summer maximum drawn off to be held in reservoirs pending winter use. The effect on natural flow is to reduce the summer peak, and to increase the winter mini­ mum. «

This withdrawal conflicts with the demands for irriga­ tion. Water is required throughout the summer months. During the early summer, when peak flow is recorded, there Is adequate water for all, but from midsummer on, when precipi­ tation decreases rapidly, flow in the rivers falls off considerably. A more prolonged high flov; period is required to suit ideally the needs of irrigators. Some compensation 253

Is obtained by drawing on the supplies of reservoirs filled

during the spring and early summer period. Lake McGregor, , St. Mary Lake, and Lake Newell are

typical of these.

In low flow years there is a conflict between the two major users. Water is withdrawn for storage by the hydro­

electric. users throughout the summer, especially in the more

critical mid-summer period when flow has fallen off con­ siderably. There is a legal limit to the withdrawal for

this purpose but, with more careful management by irrigators, present deficiencies could be minimized.

Water from the Oldman River is also used for irrigation. Its flow Is adequate for all needs. The St. Mary, its main tributary, will soon be used to capacity when the Project is

completed. The allocation to the United States reduces the

amount available to Irrigators on the St. Mary. Maximum use of the water is made possible through a number of storage reservoirs on the St. Mary-MIlk River Project. Fresno

Reservoir on the Milk River stores the United States’ share

that Is diverted from the St. Mary. Through these works

compensation Is obtained for deficiencies in flow of the rivers.

What effect does withdrawal have on the cummulative flow through the basin? This may be shown by comparing 254 0 actual and natural runoff at The Pas. Under actual condi­ tions the average anmial volume is 97 per cent of the natural, assuming the same evaporation and channel losses in both cases. In a high flow year such as that which occurred in the water year 1947-1948, less water is withdrawn because the heavier precipitation adds to the soil moisture. Actual runoff is 98 per cent of natural. In a low flow year con­ ditions are more critical on individual tributaries and, at

The Pas, actual runoff is 94 per cent of the natural. These figures illustrate the point, namely, that in any one year, no matter what the conditions, nearly all of the flow finds its way into Lake Winnipeg. Prom a study of the regimen greater details of flow may be obtained. Prom December until May (June in the high flow year), actual flow past the gauging station at The Pas exceeds natural flow, reaching a maximum of 130 per cent in the low flow year. During the summer and early autumn months actual flow is lower than the natural as a result of irrigation withdrawal. In an average year actual flow de­ creases to be a minimum of 93 per cent of the natural in September. In the critical low flow year the minimum was 83 per cent In October.

Prom this summary it may be concluded that there is

6 . In Appendix B, Table III, the detail of runoff at the mouth of the Bow River is shown. In Appendix B, Table IV, actual and natural flow are compared at the last measuring point on the Saskatchewan River. 255 more than sufficient water flowing through the basin to meet present needs. The deficiency occurs as a result of loca­ tion in relation to the water. There is a concentration of demand on the Bow River. Water requirements are increasing in the Oldman tributary basin. The south and southwest is the most desirable area for irrigation and, if development is to continue, some of the large surplus from other areas will have to be used. The upper Bow River, located near the consuming area of Calgary, has the most desirable hydro­ electric sites but further development will aggravate a worsening situation there. Other sites on other rivers must be sought for this use as there are limits to the modifica­ tion desirable in a river regimen.

Future Water Demands

The population of the Saskatchewan River Basin is in­ creasing. Although the rate is slower than that of the rest of the nation, it is sufficient to result in greater demands on the resources. Today the population of the basin is about 1,500,000. The more optomistic anticipate a rapid in­ crease within the next 2 0 years, and none sees any possibili­ ty of a decrease in the overall growth of population.

The basin forms a part of the three Prairie Provinces, each with its own plans to meet future development and each with its own demands for water. In Alberta, greater amounts of water will be required for all uses but particularly for 256 hydroelectricity and for irrigation. Plans for utilization are couched in terms of this anticipated demand. In Sas­ katchewan, the most underdeveloped of the Prairie Provinces, a project has been planned to utilize the water of the South Saskatchewan River and to construct a large dam which will improve the agricultural capacity of the Palliser Triangle.

Prom 1941 to 1951 the population for the whole of Saskatche­ wan decreased from 895,992 to 831,728. Tax delinquency in­ creased considerably. If the Province is to progress, more attention must be paid to its basic resources. In Manitoba, short of energy sources for power production, the use of the waters of the Saskatchewan River is considered an important adjunct to future development. Throughout the basin conflicts In demand may arise. As one Manitoba spokesman has stated,

"The Prairie Provinces must decide between more kilowatt hours In Manitoba with the industrial development they will bring and more irrigation in the other two prairie provinces with Its resulting stimulus to farm production."^

The need for some type of coordinated planning became Increasingly urgent and led to the formation of the Prairie Provinces IVater Board In 1948.

The Board has the functions of recom­ mending the best use to be made of inter­ provincial waters in relation to associated

7. D. M. Stephens, "The Saskatchewan River and Manitoba’s Water Problem," The Engineering Journal, Volume 31, Montreal, Que., 1948, p. 470, 257

resources in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta; upon the request of any one of the three provinces or Canada, to recommend the allocation of water as between each such province of streams flowing from one province into another province; and to report on any questions relating to specific projects for the utilization or control of common river or lake systems at the request of one or more of the Ministers or authorities charged with the administration of such river or lake systems.® This coordinating Board will do much to alleviate problems of water use in the future. At present these prob­ lems are limited to particular localities but difficulties on a larger scale will have to be solved as population in­ creases, and demand becomes more urgent. It must be pointed out that for any plans it will be necessary to take cogni­ zance of the fair demands of the three Provinces. Coordinated control of the basin must involve a consideration of politi­ cal factors as well as those physical and economic.

The Province of Alberta

The Board has made certain allocations in terms of the claims of provincial users. Alberta, with an Irrigable acreage of 1,255,435 acres, has a recommended allocation of 2,237,234 acre feet.® What effect has this allocated use on runoff? Under average runoff conditions 72 per cent of the flow of the South Saskatchewan River is still not accounted for at the Alberta-Saskatchewan boundary. Under low flow

8 . Fifth Annual Report, 1952, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1954, p. 1.

9. Ibid., p. 9. LEGEND i

Surplus W ater Alberta Allocation I I III Saskatchewan Allocation

DIAGRAM SHOWING EFFECT

OF FULL DEVELOPMENT

ON THE

SASKATCHEWAN RIVER SYSTEM

S C A L E S : DIAGRAM O n e in c h - 9 0 m iles RIVER WIDTH O n e inch - 7,S0O,ooo « . ft. 259 conditions 65 per cent is available.10At The Pas, after this river has been Joined by the North Saskatchewan, the de­ ficiency is less obvious. The actual runoff amounts to 58 per cent of the natural under average conditions. Under low water conditions it amounts to 8 8 per cent. The conclusion that may be drawn from an examination of these figures is that Alberta's present allocation does not appreciably affect the major flow pattern of the Saskatchewan River. Plow in the South Saskatchewan River is, however, considerably re­ duced but there is still sufficient for the anticipated needs of the other Provinces.

The allocation includes the full use for the St. Mary- Milk River Project. This, in turn, makes use of diversions from the Waterton and Belly rivers to the west. After the completion of this scheme no other major irrigation develop­ ment is Immediately planned. Perhaps the next will be a scheme known as the North Saskatchewan Project or the Red

Deer Diversion Project. 1 1 Basically the scheme is a good one as it will bring water from the unused rivers to the arid region between the North and the South Saskatchewan rivers while any excess will flow to the South Saskatchewan

River. The Project is based on the feasibility of diverting water from the North Saskatchewan and its tributary, the

10. The period 1934-1941 was used as these were years of low flow. 11. B. Russell, op. cit., p. 37. 260

Clearwater, to the Red Deer River. Prom a reservoir to he located in the gorge east of Red Deer, water would be carried to the area south and east of the dam. The primary aim is to provide adequate stock water for the area, but some would be profitably used for irrigation. The scheme has been temporarily abandoned for it apparently is not justified in terms of the present population density, but, should demand increase within the area, development will have the definite advantage of drawing waters of the North Saskatchewan Basin as well as utilizing that of the Red Deer. It has also been proposed to divert water from the Pembina River, a tributary of the Athabaska. This would bring a little used supply into the basin. But this scheme also, although auguring well for the future, awaits a larger population to give the necessary demand.

Many hydroelectric storage sites have been examined within the Province but, for economic reasons, further de­ velopment will probably be limited to the Bow River. Unless balancing reservoirs are constructed, development on the Bow

Is limited. On the North Saskatchewan River several good sites have been examined, but most are too far from a con­ suming region. It Is considered that the Tershishner site, 40 miles west of Rocky Mountain House will be the first developed on that river. IP

12. Personal interview with Mr. J. L. Reid, Water Resources Department, Edmonton, Alta. 261

There is still much water available in Alberta, par­ ticularly in the North Saskatchewan Basin. The amount is not a limiting factor for further use by industry, but for irrigation and hydroelectric needs some planning is necessary. With more people to support the construction of capital works, the potential remains high, and there is little need to fear a shortage in the immediate future.

The Province of Saskatchewan Within the Province of Saskatchewan allocation was 13 recommended in terms of the present use. Approximately 135,000 acre feet were to be withdrawn for the needs of and the small irrigators. This allocation would not appreciably affect the runoff from the basin. But a much larger scheme to carry water to the Saskatche­ wan portion of Palliser’s Triangle has been proposed. The South Saskatchewan River Project, as it is called, includes a dam constructed on the South Saskatchewan River near Outlook, 50 miles upstream from the city of Saskatoon. The dam will create a reservoir 140 miles long which "will be adequate to irrigate nearly a half million acres of land and as well, provide a source for generating electrical energy for domestic, irrigation, and industrial uses."'1'^ At the

13. Fifth Annual Report, 1952, op. cit., p. 10.

■*-4* Report t*19 Royal Commission on the South Saskatchewan River Project, op. cit., p. 179. 262

dam site the average annual runoff of 7,115,000 acre feet

has been recorded. After deducting the Alberta quota, 5,432,000 acre feet

are available. What effect would full development in this area, combined with full development in Alberta, have on the

flow of the main Saskatchewan River? Assuming full develop­ ment, the following would apply at The Pas. The average annual flow would be 13,302,000 acre feet or 82 per cent of the natural flow (Figure 16). In a low flow period the run­ off would be 10,338,000 acre feet or 78 per cent of the natural flow.

Hence under the present conditions and without any

anticipated revision of water withdrawals other than those considered, the maximum reduction In flow would be in the

low flow year when actual runoff, 78 per cent of the natural,

would be recorded. This still allows for ample volume to flow to Lake Winnipeg. Provided sufficient water is avail­ able for the supply of Saskatoon, there will be no critical

shortage even in low flow years on the South Saskatchewan River.

The Province of Manitoba

In Manitoba some concern is being shown as a result of the allocations upstream. Although the Saskatchewan River in Manitoba is far from the major centers of population, it is considered that the river has important potential uses especially in terms of the mineral discoveries to the north 263

and the desire for industrial expansion to the south. Plat gradients and uneven regimens make other streams unsuitable

for irrigation or power. No fuel energy sources are avail­ able, a factor which increases the potential demand for water. Possible power sites are located in the lake basins

of Manitoba and various schemes have been suggested to enable best use to be made of the water. It has been proposed to

excavate a series of canals from Cedar Lake via Lake Winni- pegosis and to Lake Winnipeg. It would then

"be possible to divert the main flow of the Saskatchewan

through the course described and to concentrate a head of approximately 90 feet at a single site between Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipeg." 1 5 An adequate reservoir for the out­ flowing Nelson River is also desired as this river, which falls 700 feet to the sea, is a large potential source of power. Of lesser importance but still a factor to be considered are the needs of the muskrat industry upon which about 700 to 1000 families depend. live in the marsh areas which are periodically flooded when the Saskatchewan River overlfows its low banks at the peak flow period. If 15 to

2 0 per cent of that peak is to be withdrawn the muskrats will be forced to migrate.

To solve the conflicting Interests of the three

Provinces the coordinating organization is necessary.

15. D. M. Stephens, ojo. cit., p. 472. 264

Present and future uses must be considered in terms of two factors, the claims of the various provincial governments and in the light of dominating hydrologic conditions. The

South Saskatchewan River Project will help develop a large area of central Saskatchewan, a province losing people. If works for water storage and withdrawal are to be considered solely in terms of returns from agriculture, other areas could better be developed, but if the political factor Is also considered, this project then becomes the most urgent in the basin.

The Changing Value of the Resource

Early reports concerning the Saskatchewan River Basin were discouraging, and few settlers came to take up land*

After , a regarding Western Canada was formulated. ’’The primary economic objective of the national policy was the establishment of a new frontier, an area where commercial and financial activity could readily expand and where labor and capital might find profitable employment.’1^® To this end activities were directed. People arrived to settle the land, some in the more fertile subhumid parkland, others In the semiarid

Triangle. With settlement, the basic resource problem of the basin became apparent. A shortage of water was the limiting

16. Report of the Royal Commission on the South Saskatche­ wan River Project, op. cit., p. 89'. 265

factor wherever agricultural development was undertaken. Little was known of the characteristics of precipitation or

of its relation to surface flow in spite of the fact that this was a basic resource. Mistakes in planning a settle­

ment were inevitable and continue to this day. An agri­ cultural economist recently noted that "with inadequate

knowledge of climatic and soil conditions land, suitable only for grazing was utilized for wheat production while land suitable for wheat production was combined into units too small to be efficient."^ It must also be noted that in a dynamic environment the

status of resources is never static. Coal, once an important mineral in the western portion of the Saskatchewan River

Basin, has been superseded by oil. Today both oil and natural gas are used as energy sources, and they may soon come to replace water as the main source of power for

generating electricity. Water will then be more readily available for other uses.

Eight new power plants are under construction In the western portion of the basin. Some of these are extensions

to existing hydroelectric plants, but the largest and three others are to utilize local oil and gas as their source of energy. The most important is to be built at Lake Wabamun,

west of Edmonton. The following extract illustrates the

17. William Darcovich, "An Appraisal of Dryland Farming In Special Areas of Alberta," Ecoftomics Division Publica­ tion, Edmonton, Alta., 1955, p. 1.

nil iiimiiiiHniiiiiiiiMMUMBiniiniiiiBiiiiiim iminiiittiii i i' i~ ~ nimnf "inr rrrni -r-irr - n -in ..... 266

convenience of its location in relation to fuels and, it might he added, in relation to the consuming area of Edmonton. From the standpoint of fuel, the Wabamun plant is strategically situated. To the west is the Drayton Valley oilfield; east is the Woodbend field; and almost be­ neath the plant is a plentiful supply of coal. Pipelines are expected to bring natural gas from the nearby fields, . . . Finally, to make certain the plant will never be without fuel, the units are being constructed so that, if necessary, the boiler can be converted to coal at short notice.18

Developments such as these are changing demands on the water resource. An oil pipeline runs east through Manitoba and plans for a gas line have been discussed. With this

construction, Manitoba need no longer fear a lack of fuel

sources. The need to maintain a high flow in the lower

Saskatchewan River is considerably weakened. Steam plants, using transported fuel and local water for cooling purposes, could be constructed much nearer to the consuming areas. With an overall decrease in demand for water as a

source of energy its use for other purposes is more readily met. It must be pointed out, however, that for the year round users of water, the maintenance of an even regimen Is desirable. For those users, the temporary storage of water for hydroelectric generation was not a handicap. On the

18. "Ten New Alberta Power Projects to Double Generating Capacity," Within Our Borders, An Alberta Government Publication, Edmonton, Alta., 1954, p. 4. 267 contrary, the value of the resource was enhanced. But for the largest water consumer, the irrigator, a decrease in the demand for generating purposes will be most beneficial, especially as it is inevitable that the irrigated acreage will increase in the future. On streams, no longer control­ led by the hydroelectric user, full use will be made of the summer maximum.

It is well that the bulk of the water be available for agricultural use. The future prosperity of the basin is dependent on the increasing production from agriculture.

There is no substitute for the water that must be made available. Development of the water resources will relieve economic distress in the marginal farming area of the

Triangle, stabilize the more prosperous area of the crescent, and create opportunities for agricultural growth and expansion. 2 6 7 a HYDROIETRIC DATA

APPENDIX A - TABLE Is MONTHLY PLOW FIGURES, NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER

(a) June - July Plow

Hydrometric Average Average Maximum Maximum Difference Percentage Station Flow Plow Plow Plow from Average Variation June July June July (c.f.s.) {c.f.s.) (c.f.s.) (c.f.s.) June July June Jul:

Rocky Mtn. House 13,250 13,520 23,409 22,562 10,150 9,042 77 67 Edmonton 19,730 2 0 , 2 2 0 39,272 42,661 19,542 22,441 99 1 1 1 Alberta-Sask. Boundary 19,427 20,918 38,280 51,443 18,853 30,525 97 146 The Porks 18,680 22,116 36,989 59,476 18,218 37,360 98 169

(b) February Plow

Hydrometric Average Plow Maximum Flow Difference from Percentage Station Feb. (c.f.s.) Feb. (c.f.s.) Average Variation Rocky Mtn. House 806 1 2 1 0 404 50 Edmonton 1140 2340 1 2 0 0 105 Alberta-Sask. Boundary 1 2 0 0 2035 835 70 The Porks 1255 2034 779 62 268 APPENDIX A - TABLE II: THE REGIMEN OF THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Hydrometric Minimum Start of Percentage Increase Percentage Decrease Station Runoff Increase on the on the (c . f .m.) Flow Previous Month Previous Month______and month (c.f.s.) Mar. Apr. May July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. and month Apr.____ May June Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Rocky Mtn. House Feb. 806 Apr. 1920 54 67 56 17 42 49 46 64

Edmonton Feb. 1140 Apr. 5190 74 49 48 25 39 48 50 60

Alberta- Saskatchewan Boundary Feb. 1200 Apr. 6949 80 38 43 23 34 46 50

The Forks Feb. 1255 Apr. 7689 82 37 35 25 30 45 51 56 269 APPENDIX A-TABLE III: THE ANNUAL RUNOFF OF THE SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) River and Average Percentage of Drainage Percentage Hydrometric Annual Total So. Sas­ Area of Total Station Runoff katchewan (square So, Saskatch- (acre feet) Runoff mile) ewan Area

Bow at Calgary 2.362.000 29.9 3,136 5.0

Bow at Mouth 2,687,769 34.1 9,770 15.6

Oldman at Ft. Macloed 1.022.000 12.9 2,230 3.6 Oldman at Mouth 2,796,346 35.4 9,705 15.5 So. Saskatchewan at Medicine Hat 5,906,558 74.8 20,600 33.0 Red Deer at Empress 1,608,000 20.4 18,160 29.1 So. Saskatchewan at Saskatoon 7,713,285 97.7 50,900 81.4 270 APPENDIX A -TABLE IV: STREAM REGIMEN IN THE SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN BASIN

River and Minimum Month of Percentage Increase Percentage Decrease Hydrometric Runoff Start of on Previous Month on Previous Month Station and Increases Mar. Apr. May July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov Month & Amount Apr. May June Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec (c.f .m.) (c.f. m.)

Bow at Banff Mar. 261 Apr. 386 32 397 129 36 57 41 29 29 Bow at Calgary Feh. 831 Apr. 1338 60 218 128 37 52 36 36 30 Oldman near Ft. Macleod Jan. 331 Mar. 509 185 ( 187 24 65 + 3 + 8 13 50 St. Mary near International Boundary Feh. 173 Mar. 2 2 0 185 246 2 57 28 6 25 14 So, Sask. at Medicine Hat Jan. 1914 Feh. 2 0 0 0 87 136 81 47 27 22 33 36 Red Deer at Red Deer Feh. 282 Mar. 568 273 44 64 33 18 39 47 46 Red Deer at Empress Jan. 272 Mar. 1 0 1 0 279 1 44 32 14 33 52 49 So. Sask. at Alta.-Sask. Boundary Jan. 2118 Mar. 4498 130 83 71 45 24 26 38 39 So. Sask. at Saskatoon Feb. 1879 Mar. 3609 257 28 89 48 24 28 43 39 So. Sask. at The Forks Feb. 1922 Mar. 3584 261 ■ 39 81 47 24 28 42 41 271 273: a WATER WITHDRAWAL DATA

APPENDIX B TABLE I: THE WITHDRAWAL OP WATER FOR URBAN USE, NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

(Source: Questionnaire prepared and distributed by H. L. Hogge, Provincial Sanitary Engineer, Edmonton, Alta., 1953)

Amount Amount Annual Date of Source of of With­ Amount Instal­ Destination Town Population of With­ drawal of With­ lation of Supply drawal Ac-ft. drawal of water Sewage g.p.d. per day Ac-ft. system

Bonnyville 1,600 Lake 60,000S . 2 2 1 33.6 1951 50,000W .184 39.1

Castor 798 Battle Riv. 31,920® .118 43.1 1953 Castor Creek

Devon 1,509 No. Sask. 180,000S .662 100.7 1950 No. Sask. River HO,OOOW .405 8 6 . 2 River

Edmonton 183,417 No. Sask. 14,500,000S 53.36 8116.1 Before No. Sask. River 13,900,000W 51.15 10889.8 1940 River

Lac La 1,004 Lac La 36,000 .133 48.6 1952 Pond Biche Biche

Nordegg 1,014 No. Sask. 40,560® .149 54.4 -- — River

Red Water 1,308 No. Sask. 42,343S .16 24.3 1949 Redwater

River 38,820W .14 29.8 River 272 APPENDIX B TABLE Is THE WITHDRAWAL OP WATER FOR URBAN USE, NORTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

(Continued) Amount Amount Annual Date of Source of of With­ Amount Instal- Destination Town Population of With­ drawal of With- lation of Supply drawal Ac-ft. drawal of water Sewage Per Ac-ft. system St. Albert 625 No. Sask. 25,000e .092 33.6 1953 River

St. Paul 2,000 Lake St. 452,800S 1.67 254.0 1951 Upper Cyr 344,000W 1.27 270.4 Therian Lake

Sedgewick 560 Battle 22,40Qe .082 29.9 Pond River

Stony Plain 875 Surface 24,000S .088 13.4 1952 Creek Supply 20,000VJ .074 15.8

Battleford 1,350 No. Sask. 15,000 .055 20.1 1913 Battle River River

Prince 17,149 No. Sask. 1,800,000 6.624 2417.8 Albert River

S Summer (152 days) W Winter (213 days) e estimate at 40 gal, per person per day 273 APPENDIX B-t a BLE II: WITHDRAWAL OF WATER FOR USE, SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

(Source: Questionnaire prepared and distributed by H. L. Hogge, Provincial Sanitary Engineer, Edmonton, Alta,, 1953)

(1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) (7) (8) Amount Amount Annual Date of Source of of With­ Amount Instal­ Town Populat ion of With­ drawal of With­ lation of Supply drawal Ac-ft. drawal of water Sewage per day Ac-ft. works

Banff io,ooos Forty Mile 4Q,QQ0S .472 302.2 Before 2,500W Creek 10,000W .368 1940

Bassano 575 Bow River 23,000® .085 31.0 Before 1940

Bow Island 750 So. Sask. 3,000® .011 4.0 1948 Through River Coulee to So. Sask. Riv.

Brooks 2 , 0 0 0 Bow River 80,000s .294 107.3 Before 1940 Creek

Calgary 145,000 Elbow Riv. 24,432,000S 89.910 31276.8 Before 22,466,0001 82.675 1940

Canmore 600 Mtn. Reser­ 2 ,4 0 0 ® .009 3.3 Before voir 1940

Champian 380 Spring 7,5001 .028 1 0 . 2 1952 Runoff 274 2,525 Willow Creek ao,ooow .294 107.3 Disposal Field APPENDIX B-TABLE II: WITHDRAWAL OF WATER FOR USE, SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

(Continued.)

(1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) (7) (8 ) Amount Amount Annual Date of Source of of With­ Amount Instal­ Destination Town Population of With­ drawal of With­ lation of Supply drawal Ac-ft. drawal of water Sewage .. _g«P*d. per day Ac-fta works Cochrane 524 Bow River 2Q,Q0QS .074 11.3 1951 Bighill 15,000W .055 11.7 Creek

Ft. Macleod 2,567 Oldman Riv. 1,300,000S 4.784 727.6 Before Oldman i,ooo,ooow 3.680 783.5 1940 River

Frank 300 Mtn. Stream 1 2 ,0 0 0 © .044 16.1 Before — 1940

Granum 400 Willow 30,000S . 1 1 0 16.7 1949 Pond Creek 15,000W .055 11.7

Hanna 2,500 Storage Dam 110,0Q0S .405 61.6 1941 Bull Pond 85,000W .313 6 6 . 6 Creek

Hillcrest 300 Mtn. Stream 1 2 ,0 0 0 © .044 16.1 Before 1940

Innisfail 1,509 Red Deer Riv 45,000 .166 60.6 1947 Lake

Lethbridge 25,000 Oldman River 4,136,500S 15.222 2315.3 Before Oldman 2,267,00017 8.343 1776.2 1940 River 275 APPENDIX B-TABLE II: WITHDRAWAL OP WATER FOR USE, SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

(Continued)

(1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) (7) (8 ) Amount Amount Annual Date of Source of of With­ Amount Instal­ Destination Town Population of With­ drawal of "With­ lation of Supply drawal Ac-ft. drawal of water Sewage g.p.d. per day Ac-ft. works

Redcliff 1,700 So. Sask. 500,000s 1.840 279.9 Before Lagoon River 126,000W .464 98.8 1940

Red Deer 1 0 , 0 0 0 Red Deer 600,000 2,208 805.9 Before Red Deer River 1940 River

Taber 3,461 Belly River 239,036 .880 321.2 1948

Tilley 253 Creek 1,500S .006 1 . 8 1952 — 1,QQ0W .004

Turner 800 Sheep River 640,000S 2.355 859.9 Before — Valley 1940

Waterton 5,000S Cameron 250,000S .920 139.9 Before Waterton Park 142W Creek 7,OQOW .026 5.5 1940 Lake

Medicine 16,364 So, Sask. 654,560 24.088 8792.1 Before -- Hat River 1940

Outlook So. Sask. 24,000 .088 32.1 1910 River ro APPENDIX B-TABLE II: WITHDRAWAL OP WATER FOR USE, SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER BASIN

(Continued)

(1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) (7) (8) Amount Amount Annual Date of Source of of With- Amount Instal- Destination Town Population of With­ drawal of With- lation of Supply drawal Ac-ft. drawal of water Sewage g.p.d. per day Ac-ft. works

Saskatoon 53,268 So. Sask. 6,000,000 22.08 8059.2 1906 So. Sask. River River

Sutherland Prom City (500,000) 1912 of Saska­ toon

Swift Current 7,458 Swift Cur- 500,000 1.840 671.6 1911 Swift Cur­ Creek rent Creek

A — W sf. 1 too +:a a +■ Afl rral . per person per day. S - Summer (152 days) W a Winter (215 days)

to <3 <3 APPENDIX B -TABLE III: RUNOFF AT THE MOUTH OF THE BOW RIVER

Table A Table B Difference Percentage (acre feet) (acre feet) Table A-Table B Variation from (acre feet) Average Natural Runoff

(1) Average actual 2,378,662 Average 3,198,600* 819,938 26 runoff minus natural average with­ runoff drawal

(2) Average actual 1,986,427 Average 3,198,600 1,212,173 38 runoff minus natural allocated runoff withdrawal

(3) Low water run­ 1,223,179 Low water 2,072,989** 849,810 41 off (1948-1949) natural minus actual runoff withdrawal (1948-1949) (1948-1949)

(4) Low water run­ 948,430 Low water 2,072,989 1,124,559 54 off (1948-1949) natural minus allocated runoff withdrawal (1948-1949) * Nat. av. flow, Bow at Calgary (1912-52) 2,362,000 ac. ft. Av. flow, Elbow above Glenmore Dam 215,500 ac. ft. Av. flow, Highwood (march-October) 342,400 ac. ft. Av. withdrawal from Highwood River added 6,320 ac. ft. Av. flow Sheep River 272,380 ac. ft. 278 TOTAL 3,198,600 ac. ft. APPENDIX B -TABLE III: RUNOFF AT THE MOUTH OF THE BOW RIVER

(Continued)

## Nat. flow of Bow at Calgary (1948-1949) 1,557,012 ac. ft. Flow, Elbow above Glenmore Dam (1948-1949) 146,810 ac. ft. Flow, Highwood (March-October, 1948-1949) 179,429 ac. ft. Highwood Diversion (1948-1949) added 10,240 ac. ft. Flow of Sheep (.659 of av. 1908-1920) 179,498 ac. ft.

TOTAL 2,072,989 ac. ft. 279 280

APPENDIX B -TABUS IV; SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE PAS

(a) Average Monthly Flow (c.f.m.) Natural Plow 0 NDJFMA M 22,101, 13,389, 6006, 4500, 4025, 4455, 21,761, 39,579, J J A ‘ S 45,385, 55,697, 43,812, 31,420 Actual Plow 0 NDJFMA M 20,597, 12,798, 6219, 4829, 4377, 4808, 22,121, 39,724, J J A S 44,272, 53,816, 41,335, 29,367 Percent Actual of Natural O N D JFMA MJJAS 93, 96, 104, 107, 109, 108, 102, 100, 98, 97, 94, 93

(b) Monthly Flow 1947-1948 (High Flow Year) Natural Flow 0 NDJFMA M 24,826, 18,034, 9582, 8610, 6542, 5397, 10,636, 78,644, J J A S 99,870, 81,357, 55,438, 35,414 Actual Flow 0 NDJFMA M 22.700, 16,600, 9990, 9310, 7170, 6360, 11,700, 79,600 J J A S 100.700, 78,600, 51,400, 32,700

Percent Actual of Natural O N D JFMA MJJAS 91, 92, 104, 108, 110, 118, 110, 101, 101, 97, 93, 92 (c) Monthly Flow 1943-1944 (Low Flow Year) Natural Flow 0 NDJFMA M 14,681, 10,557, 3609, 3109, 2842, 2842, 20,319, 16,681 J J A S 34,981, 56,377, 42,819, 30,910

Actual Flow 0 NDJFMA M 12,200, 9550, 4300, 3890, 3680, 3620, 21,200, 17,500, J J A S 31,100, 52,000, 38,600, 27,500 APPENDIX B -TABLE IV: SASKATCHEWAN RIVER AT THE PAS (Continued) (c) Monthly Flow 1945-1944 (Low Flow Year) Percent Actual of Natural O N D JFMA M JJAS 83, 91, 119, 125, 130, 127, 104, 105, 90, 92, 90, 89 (d) Annual Volume High Flow Year Low Flow Year (acre feet) Average Annual 1947-1948______1945-1944 Natural Volume 17,719,000 26,355,000 14,537,000 Actual Volume 17,239,000 25,896,000 13,651,000 Difference 480,000 459,000 886,000 Percent Actual 97 98 94 of Natural A SELECTED LIST OP REFERENCES

Official Publications The Alberta Power Commission - December 1951, Edmonton, Alta., 1952.

Allan, J. A., "General Geology of Alberta," Report Number 54, Part II, Research Council of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., 1945.

______, "Geology of Alberta Soils," Report Number 54, Part III, Research Council of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., 1945.

______, "Geology of the Drumheller Coalfield, Alberta," Report Number 4, Science and Industry Research Council of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., 1922.

______and R. L. Rutherford, "Geology along the Black- stone, Brazeau, and Pembina Rivers in the Foothills Belt, Alberta," Report Number 9, Scientific and Industrial Research Council, Edmonton, Alta., 1924.

______and J. 0. G. Sanderson, "Geology of the Red Deer and Rosebud Sheets, Alberta," Report Number 15, Research Council of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., 1945.

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Annual Reports 1948-1953, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask.

Attwood, C. H., The Water Resources of Manitoba, Manitoba Economic Survey Board, Winnipeg, Man., 1938.

Barr, J. A ., Report on the Soil Inspection of the Saskatche­ wan River Delta Area East of The Pas, Department of Mines and Natural Resources, Winnipeg, Man., 1950.

Berry, W. M. and E. W. Wenhardt, Spillway Design Flood Inflow Hydrograph for the Proposed South Saskatchewan River Dam, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Regina, Sask., 1948.

282 283

Broughner, C. C. and M. K. Thomas, Climatic Summaries Tor Selected Meteorological Stations in Canada, Newfoundland, and Labrador, Volume II, Meteorological Division, Depart- ment of Transport, , Ont., 1948. The Canada Yearbook, 1954, The Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1955. Climate and Man, Yearbook of Agriculture, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1941. Climatic Summaries for Selected Meteorological Stations in the Dominion of Canada , Volume 1, Me t e or o'logle a! DI vis ion, Department of Transport, Toronto, Ont., 1948.

The Colorado River, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1946. Connor, A. J., The Climate of Manitoba, The Economic Survey Board, Winnipeg, Man., 1939. , "The Climate of Canada," The Canada Yearbook, 1949, Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1950, pp”. 41-62.

______, "Droughts in Western Canada," The Canada Year­ book, 1933, Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1934. pp. 47-59. Crossley, D. I., "The Soils of the Kananaskis Forest Experi­ ment Station in the Sub-Alpine Forest Region of Alberta," Silviculture Research Note Number 100, Ottawa, 1951.

"Evaporation from Lakes and Reservoirs on the ," Report Number 5, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1952.

Foss, W. L., St. Mary-Milk Rivers Project - Progress Report, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration^ Lethbridge, Alta., 1949.

Fraser, F. J., e_t al., "Geology of Southern Saskatchewan," Memoir 176, The Geological Survey, Ottawa, 1935.

Full Development Possibilities in the Saskatchewan River Basin, Hydrology Division, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Regina, Sask., 1952.

"Groundwater Resources of Alberta," Water Supply Papers, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa^ 1936 . . . "Groundwater Resources of Saskatchewan," Water Supply Papers, . Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, 1935 I . 284

Hoyt, W. G. e_t al., "Studies of Relations of Rainfall and Runoff in the United States," Water Supply Paper 172, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., 1936.

Hurd, W. Burton and T. W. Grindley, Agriculture, Climate, and Population of the Prairie Provinces of Canada, Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1931. Langbein, Walter B. ejb al., "Topographic Characteristics of Drainage Basins," Water Supply Paper 968-C, U. S. Geologi­ cal Survey, Washington, D. C. , 19"4V. "Missouri River Drainage," Water Pollution Series Number 3, U. S. Service, Washington, D. C., 1951.

Monthly Record - Meteorological Observations in Canada, Issued Monthly, Meteorological Divi'sion, Department' of Transport, Toronto, Ont.

"Native Trees of Canada," Bulletin 61, Forestry Branch, Ottawa, 1950.

Odynsky, W . , A. D. Paul, and V. A. Wood, Public Lands Open for Settlement in the Fringe Area of Central Alberta, Department of Forest and Lands, Edmonton, Alta., 1953. Report of the Royal Commission on the South Saskatchewan River Project, Ottawa, 1952.

Review of the Royal Commission Project on the South Sas­ katchewan River Project, Pra i'rie Farm Rehab i 1 it at ion'~ Administration, Regina, Sask., 1953.

Russell, Ben, Report on Surface 'Water Supplies and Water Power of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., 1948.

"Saskatchewan Soil Maps," Report Number 12, Saskatchewan Soil Survey, Saskatoon, Sask.

"Soil Moisture, Wind Erosion and Fertility of Some Canadian Prairie Soils," Publication 819, Department of Agriculture, Swift Current, Sask., 1948.

Spence, C. C. and E. C. Hope, "An Economic Classification of the Land," Publication Number 728, Department of Agricul­ ture, Ottawa, 1941.

______, B. H. Kristjanson, and J. L. Anderson, "Farming in the Irrigation Districts of Alberta," Publication Number 793, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 1947. 285

Stewart, A. and W. D. Porter, "Land Use Classification in the Special Areas of Alberta," Publication Number 751, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 1942.

Stupart, Sir Frederick, "Factors which Control Canadian Weather," The Canada Yearbook, 1925, Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, 1926, pp. 36-40.

"Summary Report of Recorded and Natural Monthly Flows at Certain Points on the Saskatchewan River System," Report Number 1, Prairie Provinces Water Board, Regina, Sask., 1950.

"Surface Water Supply of Canada," Water Resource Paper Number 105, Water Resources Division, Department of Re­ sources and Development, Ottawa, 1953. Thomas, Morley K., The Climatological Atlas of Canada, Meteorological Division, Ottawa, 1955".

A Water Policy for the American People - Volume I, The President1s Water Policy Commission, Washington, D. C., 1950.

"Waterton-Belly Rivers," Special Report to the International Joint Commission, Ottawa, 1950.

Williams, M. Y. and W. S. Dyer, "Geology of Southern Alberta and Southwestern Saskatchewan," Memoir 163, The Geological Survey, Ottawa, 1930.

Books

Ashley, Charles A., Ed., Reconstruction in Canada,. Univer­ sity of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont., 1043",

Ely, RIahard T. and George S. V/ehrwein, Land Economics, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1940.

Gibson, J. Douglas, Ed., Canada1 a Economy In a Changing World, The Macmillan Company of Canada, Limited, Toronto, Ont., 1948.

Huffman, Roy E., Irrigation Development and Public Water Policy, The Ronald Press Co., New York, 1949*

Johnstone, Don and William P. Cross, Elements of Applied Hydrology, The Ronald Press Co., New ^ork, 1949. 286

Koeppe, Clarence C., The Canadian Climate, McKnight and McKnight Co., Bloomington, 111., 1931. Linsley, Ray K., M. A. Kohler, and Joseph L. H. Paulhus, Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949.

Mackintosh, W. A., Prairie Settlement, the Geographical Setting,The Macmillan Company of Canada^ Limited, Toronto, Ont., 1934.

Meinzer, Oscar E., Ed., Hydrology, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1949.

Putnam, Donald F., Ed., Canadian Regions, Thomas Y. Crowell, New York, 1952.

Smith, Guy-Harold, Ed., Conservation of Natural Resources, John and Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.

Periodicals and Other Serials

Albright, Vi/. D. and J, G. Stoker, "Topography and Minimum Temperature,11 Scientific Agriculture, Volume 25, 1945, pp. 146-155.

Bretz, J. Harlen, "The Grand Coulee," Special Publication Number 15, American Geographical Society, New York, 1932.

______, "Keewatin End Moraines in Alberta, Canada," Bulletin of the Geological Society of Canada, Volume 54, 1943, pp. 31-52.

Burck, Gilbert, "The Boom that Made Canada," Fortune, Volume 46, 1952, pp. 91-97.

Connor, A. J., "The Climates of North America, Canada," Handbuch der Klimatologie, Borntraeger, Berlin, 1938, pp. 332-424.

Cormack, R, G. H., "The Study of Trout Streamside Cover in Logged-over and Undisturbed Virgin Spruce Woods," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 27, 1949, pp. 78-95.

Coupland, R. T. and T. Brayshaw, "The Fescue Grasses of Saskatchewan," Ecology, Volume 34, 1953, pp. 386-405. Cowan, I. McTaggart, "The Role of Wild Life In the Forest Land in Western Canada," The Forestry Chronicle, Volume 28, 1952, pp. 1-12. 287

Crossley, D. I., "Woodlot Promotion in Alberta,'1 Forestry Chronicle, Volume 27, 1951, pp. 216-220. Currie, B. W., "The Vegetative and Frost-Free Season of the Prairie Provinces and the Northwest Territories," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 26, 1948, pp. 1-14,

Dowding, Eleanor S., "The Vegetation of Alberta: III, Sand­ hill Areas of Central Alberta," The Journal of Ecology, Volume 17, 1929, pp. 82-105.

Dyson, James L., "The Geologic Story of Glacier National Park," Special Bulletin Number 5, Glacier National Park History Association, inc., 'West Glacier, Mont., 1949. ______"Glaciers and Glaciation in Glacier National Park," Special Bulletin Number 2, Glacier National Park History Association, Inc., West Glacier, Mont., 1948. Eggleson, Wilfred, "The South Saskatchewan River Project," Canadian Geographical Journal, Volume 46, 1953.

Faessler, Carl, "Cross Index to the Maps and Illustrations of the Geological Survey and the Mines Branch of Canada, 1843-1946," Contribution 75, Laval University, , Que., 1948.

Hake, B. F., Robin Willis and C* C. Addison, "Folded Thrust Faults In the Foothills of Alberta," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Volume 53', 1942,’ pp. 291- 334.

Halliday, W. E. D., "Climate, Soils and Forests of Canada," Forestry Chronicle, Volume 26, 1950, pp. 287-301.

______, "Forest Regions of Canada," Canadian Geographical Journal, Volume 19, 1939, pp. 229-243.

, and A.f W. A. Brown, "The Distribution of Some Important Forest Trees in Canada," Ecology, Volume 24, pp. 353-373.

Hansen, Henry P., "Postglacial Forests in South Central Alberta, Canada," American Journal of Botany, Volume 36, 1949, pp. 54-65.

Hanson, W. R., "Grazing Use in Forest Lands," Forestry Chronicle, Volume 28, 1952, pp. 22-32.

Hopkins, J. W., "Agricultural Meteorology: Some Characteris­ tics of Air Temperature in Alberta and Saskatchewan," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 15, 1937, pp.461-491. 288

Hopkins, J. W,, "Agricultural Meteorology: Some Characteris­ tics of Precipitation in Saskatchewan and Alberta," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 14, 1936, pp. 314-346.

______, "Agricultural Meteorology: Some Characteris­ tics of Winds in Alberta and Saskatchewan," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 17, 1939, pp. 4-24.

Hopkins, Oliver B., "Some Structural Features of the Plains Area of Alberta Caused by Pleistocene Glaciation," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Volume 34, 1923, pp. 419-430. “ Johnston, W. A. and R. T. D. Wickenden, "Moraines and Glacial Lakes in Southern Saskatchewan and Southern Alberta, Canada," Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Volume 25, 1931, pp. 29-44.

Lewis, Francis J., Eleanor S. Dowding, and E. H. Moss, "The Vegetation of Alberta, II The Swamp, Moor, and Bog Forest of Central Alberta," The Journal of Ecology, Volume 16, 1928, pp. 19-70.

______, and Eleanor S. Dowding, "The Vegetation and Retrogressive Changes In Peat Areas ("Muskegs") in Central Alberta," The Journal of Ecology, Volume 14, 1929, pp. 317- 3 4 1 . :

McKay, B. R., "Canada’s Groundwater Resources from a Geological Aspect," Journal of the American Waterworks Assoclation, Volume 37, pp. 84-100.

MacKenzie, G. L., "The St. Mary-Milk River Irrigation Project," Engineering Journal, Volume 31, 1948, pp. 485- 496.

Mitchell, J. and H. C. Moss, "Soils of the Canadian Section of the Great Plains," Soil Science Society of America, Volume 13, 1949, pp..431-437.

Moss, E. H., "The Poplar Association and Related Vegetation of Central Alberta," Journal of Ecology, Volume 20, 1932.

______, "The Prairie and Associated Vegetation of Southwestern Alberta," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 22, 1944, pp. 11-31.

______» and J. A. Campbell, "The Fescue Grassland of Alberta," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 25. 1947. pp. 209-227: 289

Osmond, H. L., "The East of the Canadian Rockies," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 19, 1941, pp. 57-66*

Palmer, A. E., "Irrigation in Western Canada, Its Possible Effects on Industry and Population," The Engineering Journal, Volume 31, 1948, pp. 497-499, 504.

Rawson, Donald S., "A Comparison of Some Large Alpine Lakes in Western Canada," Ecology, Volume 23, 1942, pp. 143-161.

"Report of the on Western Water Problems," The Engineering Journal, Volume 24, 1941, pp. 222-235.

Robinson, Donald H., "Trees and Forests of Glacier National Park," Special Bulletin Number 4, Glacier National History Association, Inc., West Glacier, Mont., 1950.

Russell, Ben, "The Water Resources of Alberta," The Engineer­ ing Journal, Volume 31, 1948, pp. 476-484.

Rutherford, Ralph L., "Regional Structural Features of the Alberta Foothills and Adjacent Mountain Ranges," Trans­ actions of the Royal Society of Canada, Volume 38, 1944, pp. 71-77.

Sanderson, Marie, "The Climates of Canada According to the New Thornthwaite Classification," Scientific Agriculture, Volume 28, 1948, pp. 501-517.

______, "An Experiment to Measure Evapotranspira- fcion," Canadian Journal of Research, Volume 26, 1948, pp. 445-454'.

Schaeffer, J. G., "Water Problems in Saskatchewan," Journal of the American Waterworks Association, Volume 38, 1946, pp. 537-540.

Spence, George, "Water for the Prairies," Canadian Geographi­ cal Journal, Volume 44, 1952, pp. 48-57.

Stanley, T. D., "Hydro-Power Development on the Eastern Slopes of the Canadian Rockies," The Engineering Journal, Volume 31, 1948, pp. 500-504.

Stephens, D. M., "The Saskatchewan River and Manitoba’s Water Problem," The Engineering Journal, Volume 31, 1948, pp. 470-475. Thayer, W. N., "The Northward Extension of the Physiographic Divisions of the United States," Journal of Geology, Volume 26, 1918, pp. 161-185, 237-254. 290

Toogood, J. A. and J. D. Newton, "Water Erosion in Alberta," Bulletin Number 56, University of Alberta, College of Agriculture, Edmonton, Alta., 1950.

Walton, W. C., "Groundwater Hydraulics as an Aid to Geologic Interpretation," The Ohio Journal of Science, Volume 55, 1955, pp. 12-20.

Warren, P. S., "Drainage Patterns in Alberta," Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, Volume 25, 1944, pp. 3-14. , "The Flaxville Plain in Alberta," Transac­ tions of the Royal Canadian Institute, Volume 22, 1941, pp. 341-349. Webb, J. B., "Geological History of the Plains of Western Canada," Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Volume 35, 1951, pp. 2291-2315.

Williams, M. Y., "The Canadian Rockies," Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Volume 41, 1947, pp. 73-85.

______, "The Physiography of the Southwest Plains of Canada," Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Volume 23, 1929, pp. 61-79.

Unpublished Materials

Duncan, Craig, Irrigation in Central Otago, Unpublished Thesis, Canterbury University College, Christchurch, New Zealand, 1949.

Kuiper, E., "The Lower Saskatchewan River," Interim Reports, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Winnipeg, Man., 1953.

Laycock, Arleigh H., Precipitation in the Forest Reserve: Its Distribution and Relationship to Yifatershed, Part I, mss., Eastern Rockies Forest Conservation Board, Calgary, Alta., 1953.

______, Report of the Soil and Watershed Survey for the Summer of 1952, mss., Eastern Rockies Forest Conserva­ tion Board, Calgary, Alta., 1953.

Loeffler, Manuel J., Phases in the Development of the Land- Water Resource in an Irrigated River Valley, Colorado. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash., 1953, 291 Raley, Charles and Sam G. Porter, A Brief History of the Development of Irrigation In the Lethbridge District, ms3 ., Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Lethbridge, Alta.

Rheumer, G. A., Climate and Climatic Regions of Western Canada, Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111., 1954. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Craig Duncan, was born in Oamaru, New Zealand, May 6,

1923. I received secondary school education at King's High School in Dunedin, New Zealand. In 1941 I matriculated at the University of Otago. Concurrently I followed a pre­

scribed course at the Dunedin ' Training College from which I obtained the New Zealand Teachers' Certificate.

After training as an Air Navigator with the Royal New Zealand

Airforce, I returned to the University of Otago and received the degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1948. Prom Canterbury University College I received the degree Master of Arts In

1950. In October 1951 I was offered an appointment as Graduate Assistant in the Department of Geography, Ohio State University. I held this position, and later that of Assistant, for two and a half years while studying towards the degree Doctor of Philosophy. In June, 1954, I obtained temporary employment as a geographer with the Prairie Farm Rehabilita­ tion Administration In Canada. I left the University to take up the appointment at Edmonton, Alberta. In January,

1955, I returned to the Ohio State University where I held the position of Assistant while completing the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy.

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