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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR listing if it is endangered or threatened habitat, is required. We require throughout all or a significant portion of additional time to analyze the best Fish and Wildlife Service its range. Listing a species as an available scientific data in order to endangered or threatened species can identify specific areas appropriate for 50 CFR Part 17 only be completed by issuing a rule. critical habitat designation and to [Docket No. FWS–R1–ES–2015–0125; Critical habitat is to be designated, to analyze the impacts of designating such 4500030113] the maximum extent prudent and areas as critical habitat. Accordingly, we determinable, for any species find designation of critical habitat to be RIN 1018–BB07 determined to be an endangered or ‘‘not determinable’’ at this time. threatened species under the Act. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife The basis for our action. Under the This rule makes final the listing of 10 Act, we can determine that a species is and Plants; Endangered Status for 49 animal species (the Hawaii DPS of the Species From the Hawaiian Islands an endangered or threatened species band-rumped storm-petrel based on any of five factors: (A) The AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, (Oceanodroma castro), the orangeblack present or threatened destruction, Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion Interior. modification, or curtailment of its xanthomelas), the anchialine pool ACTION: Final rule. habitat or range; (B) overutilization for shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and seven commercial, recreational, scientific, or SUMMARY: yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus anthracinus, We, the U.S. Fish and educational purposes; (C) disease or H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. Wildlife Service (Service), determine predation; (D) the inadequacy of kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana)), endangered status under the existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) and 39 plant species (Asplenium Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Act), other natural or manmade factors diellaciniatum (no common name, as amended, for 10 animal species, affecting its continued existence. We NCN), Calamagrostis expansa (Maui including the Hawaii DPS of the band- have determined that these 49 species reedgrass), Cyanea kauaulaensis (NCN), rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma are experiencing population-level castro), the orangeblack Hawaiian Cyclosorus boydiae (kupukupu makalii), Cyperus neokunthianus (NCN), impacts as the result of the following damselfly (Megalagrion xanthomelas), current and ongoing threats: the anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris Cyrtandra hematos (haiwale), Deparia • hawaiana), and seven yellow-faced bees kaalaana (NCN), Dryopteris glabra var. Habitat loss and degradation due to (Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. pusilla (hohiu), Exocarpos menziesii urbanization; nonnative feral ungulates facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. (heau), Festuca hawaiiensis (NCN), (hoofed mammals, e.g., pigs, goats, axis longiceps, and H. mana), and for 39 Gardenia remyi (nanu), Huperzia deer, black-tailed deer, mouflon, and plant species from the Hawaiian Islands. stemmermanniae (NCN), Hypolepis cattle); nonnative plants; wildfire; and This rule adds these species to the hawaiiensis var. mauiensis (olua), water extraction. Federal Lists of Endangered and Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens • Predation or herbivory by nonnative Threatened Wildlife and Plants. (ohe), Kadua fluviatilis (kamapuaa), feral ungulates, rats, slugs, bullfrogs, DATES: This rule is effective October 31, Kadua haupuensis (NCN), Labordia Jackson’s chameleons, ants, and wasps. 2016. lorenciana (NCN), Lepidium orbiculare • Stochastic events such as (anaunau), Microlepia strigosa var. ADDRESSES: This final rule is available landslides, flooding, drought, tsunami, mauiensis (NCN), Myrsine fosbergii on the Internet at http:// and hurricanes. (kolea), Nothocestrum latifolium (aiea), • www.regulations.gov and at http:// Ochrosia haleakalae (holei), Human activities such as www.fws.gov/pacificislands. Comments Phyllostegia brevidens (NCN), recreational use of anchialine pools, and materials we received, as well as Phyllostegia helleri (NCN), Phyllostegia dumping of nonnative fish and trash supporting documentation we used in stachyoides (NCN), Portulaca villosa into anchialine pools, and manmade preparing this rule, are available for (ihi), Pritchardia bakeri (Baker’s loulu), structures and artificial lighting. public inspection at http:// Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. • Vulnerability to extinction due to www.regulations.gov, or, by molokaiense (enaena), Ranunculus small numbers of individuals and appointment, during normal business hawaiensis (makou), Ranunculus occurrences and lack of regeneration. hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, mauiensis (makou), Sanicula • Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, Competition with nonnative plants sandwicensis (NCN), Santalum and nonnative invertebrates. 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu, HI involutum (iliahi), Schiedea diffusa ssp. Existing regulatory mechanisms and 96850; telephone 808–792–9400; or diffusa (NCN), Schiedea pubescens conservation efforts are not adequate to facsimile 808–792–9581. (maolioli), Sicyos lanceoloideus FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: (anunu), Sicyos macrophyllus (anunu), ameliorate the impacts of these threats Mary M. Abrams, Ph.D., Field Solanum nelsonii (popolo), Stenogyne on any of the 49 species such that listing Supervisor, Pacific Islands Fish and kaalae ssp. sherffii (NCN), and is not warranted. Environmental effects Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (akia), as from climate change are likely to Boulevard, Honolulu, HI 96850; endangered species. exacerbate the impacts of these threats. telephone 808–792–9400; or facsimile Delineation of critical habitat requires Peer review and public comment. We 808–792–9581. Persons who use a identification of the physical or sought comments from independent telecommunications device for the deaf biological features essential to the specialists to ensure that our (TDD) may call the Federal Information species’ conservation. A careful designation is based on scientifically Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. assessment of the biological needs of the sound data, assumptions, and analyses. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: species and the areas that may have the We invited these peer reviewers to physical or biological features essential comment on our listing proposal. We Executive Summary for the conservation of the species and also considered all comments and Why we need to publish a rule. Under that may require special management information we received during two the Endangered Species Act (Act), a considerations or protections, and thus comment periods, including at one species may warrant protection through qualify for designation as critical public hearing.

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Previous Federal Actions provided comments or testimony at the cause further loss of anchialine pool Please refer to the proposed listing public hearing). The National Park habitat. Our Response: We have added sea- rule for the 49 species from the Service (NPS) provided new level rise and coastal inundation as Hawaiian Islands (80 FR 58820; information about the numbers and threats to P. hawaiana and its habitat September 30, 2015) for a detailed range of species in this rule that occur under the discussion in this rule titled description of previous Federal actions on NPS lands, and about graduate ‘‘Climate Change’’ (Factor E. Other concerning these species. research on the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. We appreciate the time and Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Summary of Comments and effort taken by all commenters to submit Their Continued Existence). Recommendations their views and information, and we (2) Comment: One peer reviewer stated that because sea-level rise could On September 30, 2015, we published have incorporated all substantive new increase surface connectivity between a proposed rule to list 49 species (39 information, e.g., from the National Park currently isolated anchialine pools, plants and 9 animals) from the Service, into this final rule. However, invasion by nonnative fish would be Hawaiian Islands as endangered we received some comments from the public on the possible future exacerbated. throughout their ranges and the Hawaii Our Response: In this rule, we have population (distinct population segment designation of critical habitat and on a variety of other topics. To the extent added surface connectivity to our (DPS)) of the band-rumped storm-petrel summary description of the status and as endangered (80 FR 58820). The that comments do not pertain to the proposed listing rule, we do not address stressors to P. hawaiana as a factor comment period for the proposed rule likely to exacerbate the threat posed by lasted 60 days, ending November 30, them in this final rule. In this final rule, we address only those comments nonnative fish to this species and its 2015 We published a public notice of anchialine pool habitat (see Anchialine the proposed rule in the local Honolulu relevant to the listing of the 49 species from the Hawaiian Islands. pool shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), under Star Advertiser, West Hawaii Today, Summary of Biological Status of the 49 Hawaii Tribune-Herald, Molokai All substantive information related to the listing action provided during the Hawaiian Islands Species). Dispatch, The Maui News, and The (3) Comment: One peer reviewer comment periods has either been Garden Island newspapers at the recommended that the island of Lanai, incorporated directly into this final rule, beginning of the comment period. We and coastal habitat, be included as or is addressed below. For readers’ received two requests for a public habitat for the band-rumped storm- convenience, we have combined similar hearing. On January 22, 2016 (81 FR petrel, as birds were observed during comments into a single comment and 3767), we reopened the comment period the breeding season transiting this response. for an additional 30 days, ending on habitat, which is conducive to nesting February 22, 2016, and we announced a Peer Review where crevices and ledges are numerous public meeting and public hearing for and can provide some protection from In accordance with our peer review the proposed rule. We again published feral cats (Felis catus), goats (Capra policy published in the Federal Register a public notice in local newspapers and hircus), and mouflon (Ovis gmelini on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we provided the public notice to local musimon). media. For both comment periods, we solicited expert opinions from 29 Our Response: We have added coastal requested that all interested parties knowledgeable individuals with habitat on Lanai in our description of submit comments or information scientific expertise on one or more of habitat for the band-rumped storm- concerning the proposed listing of the the 49 Hawaiian Islands species, which petrel in this final listing rule. 49 species. We contacted all appropriate include 39 plants, a seabird, a (4) Comment: One peer reviewer State and Federal agencies, county damselfly, an anchialine pool shrimp, recommended that coastal habitat on governments, elected officials, scientific and seven yellow-faced bees, and their leeward east Maui be included for the organizations, and other interested habitats. This expertise also included band-rumped storm-petrel, as remains parties and invited them to comment. familiarity with the geographic region in of a chick were found there in 1999. The public meeting and hearing were which these species occur and Our Response: We understand that held in Hilo, Hawaii, on February 9, conservation biology principles. We coastal habitat on east Maui may be part 2016. received responses from 21 of these of the species’ historical range, but we During the comment periods, we individuals. We reviewed all comments have not added coastal areas on leeward received a total of 41 unique public we received from the peer reviewers for east Maui as currently occupied habitat comment letters (including comments substantive issues and new information for the band-rumped storm-petrel in this received at the public hearing) on the regarding the 49 species. Of these 21 final rule. Unlike coastal Lanai, in proposed listing of the 49 species. Of peer reviewers, 18 provided comments coastal areas on leeward east Maui, no the 41 commenters, 21 were peer or new information on one or more of indication of the species’ presence or reviewers, 3 were Federal agencies the 49 species. Ten peer reviewers use of this habitat has been observed for (Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, stated support for the proposed listing, 17 years. Haleakala National Park, and Kaloko- and 11 were neutral regarding the (5) Comment: One peer reviewer Honokohau and Puuhonua o Honaunau proposed listing. These peer reviewers stated that predation by bullfrogs National Historical Parks (NHPs)), 4 generally supported our methodology (Lithobates catesbeianus) should be were State of Hawaii agencies (Hawaii and conclusions. Peer reviewer included as a threat to the orangeblack Department of Health, Hawaii comments are either addressed below or Hawaiian damselfly, and that impacts of Department of Land and Natural are incorporated into this final rule as backswimmers (Notonectidae family) Resources Division of Aquatic appropriate. and caddisflies (Trichoptera order) on Resources, Hawaii Division of Forestry (1) Comment: One peer reviewer the damselfly are speculative. and Wildlife, and Hawaii Department of stated that sea-level rise and coastal Our Response: We have included in Hawaiian Home Lands), and 13 were inundation collectively are also this final rule that bullfrogs are a threat nongovernmental organizations or potential future threats to the welfare of to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, individuals (including those who Procaris hawaiana, because they may and clarified that the effects of

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predation by backswimmers and hawaiana, is the most accurate and up- healthy ecosystems; to incorporate caddisflies are not well understood. to-date information available, and native intelligence and knowledge of supported listing the species as Comments From State Agencies species, habitat, and place-based endangered under the Act (16 U.S.C. management and protection; to (6) Comment: The Hawaii Department 1531 et seq.). acknowledge that tribal lands are not of Land and Natural Resources’ Division Our Response: We appreciate this subject to the same controls as Federal of Forestry and Wildlife did not support for the proposed listing of the public lands; to remain sensitive to comment in support of, or in opposition anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris Indian culture; and to make information to, the proposed listing of the 49 species hawaiana. from the Hawaiian Islands. District (9) Comment: The Department of available to tribes. In addition, a 2004 botanists from Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL) asked consolidated appropriations bill (Pub. L. Hawaii Island provided plant species that the Secretary of the Interior 108–199, see section 148) established occurrence updates by island. consider the effects of designation of the Office of Native Hawaiian Relations Our Response: We appreciate the endangered species that may potentially within the Secretary of the Interior’s information provided regarding the 49 have critical habitat on Hawaiian Home Office, and its duties include plant species from the Hawaiian Islands, Lands in a similar manner to the effects effectuating and implementing the and have incorporated it into the such designation has on tribal lands, special legal relationship between the Summary of Biological Status of the 49 including the impact on tribal Native Hawaiian people and the United Hawaiian Islands Species for the sovereignty. DHHL is aware that States, and fully integrating the appropriate species in this final rule. Secretarial Order 3206, issued in June principle and practice of meaningful, (7) Comment: The Hawaii Department 1997, establishes guidelines for the regular, and appropriate consultation of Health acknowledged that protecting Service when dealing with Indian tribes with the Native Hawaiian people by wildlife and plants can often be relating to endangered species. assuring timely notification of and prior important for human and environmental Secretarial Order 3206 recognizes that, consultation with the Native Hawaiian health. They further commented that in order to respect the cultural and people before any Federal agency takes managing and controlling wild social aspects of Indian tribes, some any actions that may have the potential ungulates is necessary for 95 percent of environmental restrictions on Indian these proposed plant species, the to significantly affect Native Hawaiian tribal lands are not appropriate, and it resources, rights, or lands. A 2011 orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly calls on the Service to preserve memorandum of understanding (MOU) (Megalagrion xanthomelas), and the endangered species while respecting signed by the Department of the Interior yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus spp.), but tribal authority over their own lands. that it is also essential to preventing While native Hawaiians are not an states that ‘‘Federal agencies are erosion, and, therefore, protecting water ‘‘Indian tribe’’ under the Order, DHHL’s required to consult with Native quality. Fire is a natural process that is mission, to place native Hawaiians on Hawaiian organizations before taking now unnaturally frequent, intense, and its lands for residential, agricultural, any action that may have the potential destructive to the Hawaiian Islands, in and pastoral homesteading purposes, is to significantly affect Native Hawaiian part due to invasive grasses. Mitigating analogous to the circumstances of resources, rights, or lands.’’ Although wildfires is essential to caring for 38 Indian tribes. The Department also native Hawaiians are not technically a percent of the plant species, the recommends that the Secretaries of the ‘‘recognized Federal tribe’’ as referenced damselfly, and yellow-faced bees, but it Interior and Commerce, in determining in the above Executive and Secretarial also limits the release of air pollutants endangered species and critical habitat Orders, we endeavor to fully engage and that are known to be harmful to human designations, consult directly with the work directly with native Hawaiians as health. Protection of coastal and Hawaiian Homes Commission, DHHL, much as possible. At the time we wetland habitat such as that populated Office of Native Hawaiian Relations, published our proposed rule (80 FR by the anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris and beneficiaries of the Hawaiian 58820; September 30, 2015), we notified hawaiana) limits further human Homes Commission Act to include several Hawaiian organizations pressures on our sensitive coastlines native intelligence and knowledge on including the DHHL, Kamehameha and aquatic environments. species, habitat, and place-based Schools, the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, Our Response: We agree that management and protection. the Kahoolawe Island Reserve managing and controlling ungulates Our Response: In accordance with the Commission (KIRC), and Kahea-The would provide significant conservation President’s memorandum of April 29, Hawaiian-Environmental Alliance. We benefits to listed plant and animal 1994 (Government-to-Government contacted the Department of the species, and would also prevent erosion Relations With Native American Tribal Interior’s Office of Native Hawaiian and protect water quality of the islands Governments; 59 FR 22951), Executive Relations on September 28, 2015, to and near shore reefs. We also Order 13175 (Consultation and inform them of our proposed listing acknowledge that nonnative grasses Coordination With Indian Tribal contribute to the increase in numbers Governments), and the Department of action. We also conducted in-person and intensity of wildfires in Hawaii. the Interior’s manual at 512 DM 2, we meetings with staff of the Department of Protection of coastal habitat (through readily acknowledge our responsibility Hawaiian Home Lands, Kamehameha nonnative plant and ungulate control, to communicate meaningfully with Schools, and KIRC. We considered all and prevention of wildfires) would recognized Federal Tribes on a comments and recommendations provide a conservation benefit to the government-to-government basis. In provided by these organizations in anchialine pool shrimp, and to other accordance with Secretarial Order 3206 developing this final listing rule. At the species that depend on coastal habitat. of June 5, 1997 (American Indian Tribal time we prepare a proposed critical (8) Comment: The Hawaii Department Rights, Federal-Tribal Trust habitat rule for these species, we will of Land and Natural Resources Division Responsibilities, and the Endangered notify these groups and organizations, of Aquatic Resources concurred that the Species Act), we readily acknowledge and carefully consider any comments information in the proposed rule for the our responsibilities to work directly and new information they provide anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris with tribes in developing programs for regarding habitat for these species.

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Public Comments protection enforcement and that those a Federal agency), and that analysis will Seven public commenters supported in the field of endangered species be conducted as we prepare a rule listing of all 49 Hawaiian Islands protection have a single focus, with proposing critical habitat for the multi- species. Seven public commenters little or no concern for cultural and island species. (14) Comment: Four commenters were opposed the listing of the 49 Hawaiian historical values. Another commenter concerned that listing a species would Islands species, and one of these stated that this listing would cause a entail removal of nonnative species with commenters supported the intent of further loss for the public of cultural, cultural significance, or removal of listing but opposed designation of historical, and economic resources. A those used for food and sport hunting, critical habitat on their lands. third commenter stated that native and that control of nonnative ungulates (10) Comment: One commenter Hawaiian society believes they should would not be conducted humanely. supported this rule because of the facts be able to manage their people, land, and resources autonomously. Our Response: Habitat destruction and analysis stated in the proposed rule. and modification by ungulates is a Our Response: Listing a species as Two commenters stated that humans threat to 37 of the 39 plants, and to 9 endangered or threatened does not need to be a voice for plants and of the 10 animals proposed for listing. cause loss of historical and cultural animals, and that this listing will Herbivory by ungulates is a threat to 27 opportunities; in fact, it highlights the positively impact the conservation of of the 39 plants proposed for listing. need to protect the characteristics that many animals and positively lead other Hawaii was inhabited as early as the are unique to the Hawaiian Islands. We conversations in the right direction. 2nd century; therefore, hunting of game acknowledge that some economic Our Response: We appreciate the mammals is a relatively recent activity impacts are a possible consequence of comments and believe that listing status (Tomich 1986, p. 1). The first will help provide conservation benefits listing a species under the Act; for Polynesian settlers brought domestic to the species and their habitats. example, there may be costs to the pigs of southeast Asia (Sus scrofa or a (11) Comment: One commenter stated landowner associated with the species derived from Sus scrofa vittatus) that the 49 species also play a pivotal development of a habitat conservation with them that were small in size, role in promoting tourism and building plan (HCP). In other cases, if the domesticated, and allowed to run freely the economy of Hawaii and that they landowner does not acquire a permit for around habitations (Tomich 1986, p. deserve to be put onto the Lists of incidental take (for animals), the 120). Cook brought English pigs on his Endangered and Threatened Wildlife landowner may choose to forego certain first voyage to Hawaii and landed a boar and Plants. Two commenters stated that activities on their property to avoid and sow on Niihau in 1778 (Tomich listing these species will attract wildlife violating the Act, resulting in potential 1986, p. 121). Goats and European boars enthusiasts and nature lovers from all lost income. However, the Act does not were introduced and released (on around the world, and their spending provide for the consideration of such Niihau in 1778) by ship captains with and tourism helps to build and maintain impacts when making a listing decision. the intent of establishing feral sources of revenue in Hawaii; most Section 4(b)(1)(a) of the Act specifies populations of these animals to be an markets within the islands depend on that listing determinations be made available food source in future visits to the tourism dollars that wildlife attracts. ‘‘solely on the basis of the best scientific the islands. Cattle (Bos taurus) and Our Response: We do not consider and commercial data available.’’ The domestic sheep (Ovis aries) were economic consequences in our language provided by Congress in the released in 1794, by Vancouver. Deer decisions to list or not list species as Act thus precludes such costs from were released later; first, axis deer in endangered or threatened under the Act. consideration in association with a 1867, and then mule deer (black-tailed Section 4(b)(1)(a) of the Act specifies listing determination. We work deer) in 1961 (Tomich 1986, pp. 127, that listing determinations be made collaboratively with private landowners, 133, 141, 150, 158). These ungulates ‘‘solely on the basis of the best scientific and strongly encourage those with listed multiplied rapidly, with immense and commercial data available.’’ species on their property to work with negative impacts to native vegetation (12) Comment: One commenter stated us to develop incentive-based measures (Loope 1988, pp. 274–276). The need for that the potential negative impacts of such as strategic habitat areas (SHAs) control of feral cattle was recognized as listing to landowners is very small, as and HCPs, which have the potential to early as 1918, by C.S. Judd (Tomich the vast majority of the habitat for these provide conservation measures that 1986, p. 146). The commenter may be rare species occurs on State and Federal effect positive results for the species and referring to the Federal court order lands, or in private lands devoted to their habitat while providing regulatory mandating the removal of sheep and conservation. relief for landowners. The conservation goats for protection of the palila Our Response: We agree that many of and recovery of endangered and (Loxioides bailleui), an endangered bird the 49 species occur or were known threatened species, especially of those endemic to Hawaii. Aerial hunting is an from State and Federal lands, or in in Hawaii that occur nowhere else in the efficient control method and was chosen undeveloped areas already dedicated to world, and the ecosystems upon which by the State to comply with this order. conservation. However, listing a species they depend, is the ultimate objective of Carcasses taken during hunts (in both as endangered or threatened is based on the Act, and the Service recognizes the 2014 and 2015) were available to the the species’ biological status; the vital importance of voluntary, permitted public for salvage (DLNR development of a proposed rule for nonregulatory conservation measures 2014, in litt.; DLNR 2015, in litt.). Aerial critical habitat for these species will be that provide incentives for landowners hunting is not conducted by the Service completed in a separate rule, and the in achieving that objective. In regards to in Hawaii. effects of critical habitat on landowners land management by native Hawaiians, (15) Comment: One commenter stated will be analyzed upon preparation of see our response to Comment (9), above. that once species are listed for that proposed rule. The Act does provide for the protection under the Act, there is no (13) Comment: One commenter stated consideration of potential economic public recourse. that island residents have entirely lost impacts in the course of designating Our Response: There is public historical and cultural opportunities critical habitat (limited to activities that recourse after a rulemaking is published and rights as a result of species are funded, authorized, or carried out by in the Federal Register. Under the Act,

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an interested person may petition to add listing a species under the Act; for new information we received changed a species to, or to remove a species example, there may be costs to the our evaluation of the threats to these from, either of the Lists of Endangered landowner associated with the species or our determinations in this and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. development of an HCP. In other cases, final rule that they are endangered. Within 12 months of the petition, the if the landowner does not acquire a (1) We made revisions to the Secretary will make a finding as to permit for incidental take, the demographic status or distribution of 31 whether the petition presents landowner may choose to forego certain species of plants, based on comments substantial scientific or commercial activities on their property to avoid from peer reviewers, by correcting information indicating that the violating the Act, resulting in potential current locations or numbers of petitioned action may be warranted. lost income. However, the statute does individuals for: Asplenium Persons may also petition to designate not provide for the consideration of diellaciniatum, Calamagrostis expansa, or revise a critical habitat designation. such impacts when making a listing Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus Our petition regulations are set forth at decision. Listing determinations are boydiae, Cyrtandra hematos, Dryopteris 50 CFR 424.14. made ‘‘solely on the basis of the best glabra var. pusilla, Exocarpos menziesii, (16) Comment: Two commenters scientific and commercial data Gardenia remyi, Huperzia expressed concern that the magnitude of available.’’ This rule only lists the 49 stemmermanniae, Joinvillea ascendens the proposed listing rule and the species from the Hawaiian Islands; it ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, subsequent designation of critical does not designate critical habitat. Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, habitat will have negative effects on (17) Comment: Two commenters Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum Hawaii’s economy, property values, and stated that listing species and latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, land use. designating critical habitat on private Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, P. Our Response: We understand there is property in Hawaii will alienate stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, confusion and concern about the effects ranchers, a group that can help with Pritchardia bakeri, Pseudognaphalium of listing the 49 multi-island species. species and habitat conservation. The sandwicensium var. molokaiense, Listing provides certain protections to commenters state that conservation can Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, the species under the Act. Section 7 of best be achieved by cooperation and Sanicula sandwicensis, Santalum the Act states that each Federal agency coordination with private landowners. involutum, Schiedea diffusa ssp. (through consultation) shall insure that Our Response: This rule only diffusa, S. pubescens, Sicyos any action authorized, funded, or addresses the listing of 49 species from lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus, carried out by the agency is not likely the Hawaiian Islands and does not Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and to jeopardize the continued existence of designate critical habitat. We agree that Wikstroemia skottsbergiana. any endangered or threatened species. partnerships can provide benefits for (2) We made revisions to specific For endangered species of fish or listed species and their habitat through threats to 31 plant species, based on wildlife, section 9 of the Act prohibits development of conservation plans and comments from peer reviewers, any person subject to the jurisdiction of implementation of management actions. including: Asplenium diellaciniatum, the United States to import or export; (18) Comment: One commenter stated Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea ‘‘take’’ (defined as harass, harm, pursue, that the Service should include the kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, public now, not after designating critical Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra collect, or attempt any of these actions) habitat, with outreach, public forums, hematos, Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris within the United States or the presentations, and meetings on every glabra var. pusilla, Exocarpos menziesii, territorial sea of the United States; take island for community groups, industry Huperzia stemmermanniae, Hypolepis upon the high seas; deliver, receive, and business groups, the Soil and Water hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Joinvillea carry, transport, or ship in interstate or Conservation Districts, the Farm Bureau, ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua foreign commerce in the course of a Hawaii Cattlemen’s Council, and fluviatilis, K. haupuensis, Labordia commercial activity; or sell or offer for schools. lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, sale in interstate or foreign commerce. Our Response: As described above, Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, For endangered plants, section 9 of the the publication of the proposed listing Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum Act prohibits any person subject to the rule did not include a critical habitat latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, jurisdiction of the United States to proposal. We opened a 60-day comment Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, P. import or export; deliver, receive, carry, period on the proposed listing rule, stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, Sanicula transport, or ship in interstate or foreign obtained extensive peer review, sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, commerce in the course of a commercial published notices in numerous local Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, S. activity; sell or offer for sale in interstate newspapers, reopened the comment pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, or foreign commerce; remove and period, and held a public hearing and Solanum nelsonii, and Wikstroemia reduce the species to possession from information meeting. We considered all skottsbergiana. areas under Federal jurisdiction; comments we received in preparing this (3) We corrected the taxonomy for the maliciously damage or destroy any such final listing rule, and this rule nonnative plant, California grass, from species on areas under Federal incorporates new, substantive Brachiaria mutica to Urochloa mutica. jurisdiction; or remove, cut, dig up, or information provided to us by (4) We added further references damage or destroy any species species commenters. concerning genetic research that in knowing violation of any State law or supports differences in populations of regulations or in the course of any Summary of Changes From the the band-rumped storm-petrel breeding violation of a State criminal trespass Proposed Rule in different oceans and archipelagos. law. Section 10 of the Act provides for In preparing this final rule, we (5) We added additional information permitting of actions that may enhance reviewed and fully considered on current nesting sites of the band- the propagation or survival of the comments from the public and peer rumped storm-petrel on Lehua Island, species, or that may ‘‘take’’ a species. reviewers on the proposed rule, and Kauai, Molokai (coastal), Lanai (coastal), We acknowledge that some economic incorporated the following substantive Hawaii Island (Hawaii Volcanoes impacts are a possible consequence of changes into this final rule. None of the National Park), and subalpine habitat

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(Hawaii Island), based on comments (11) We changed ‘‘Australian colletid’’ Background regarding audio detections. to ‘‘alien Hylaeus’’ bees, and included (6) We added information regarding competition with sweat bees Please refer to the proposed listing additional populations of the (Lasioglossum spp.) as a threat to the rule for the 49 species from the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly on yellow-faced bees. Hawaiian Islands (80 FR 58820; September 30, 2015), available at http:// Hawaii Island. (12) We noted that transmission of www.regulations.gov (see ADDRESSES), (7) We added information on diseases carried by nonnative insects for the following information: predation of the orangeblack Hawaiian through shared food sources could be a • damselfly by Jackson’s chameleons, threat to the yellow-faced bees, but we For background information on the backswimmers, and bullfrogs as a threat, have no specific evidence of this type of Hawaii Islands, see ‘‘The Hawaiian and predation by the black twig borer as disease transmission. Islands’’ under Background; a threat to Labordia lorenciana and (13) We added drought as a potential • For ecosystem descriptions, see An Nothocestrum latifolium. threat to all seven yellow-faced bees. Ecosystem-Based Approach To (8) We added competition with Assessing the Conservation Status of the caddisflies for resources, prey, and (14) We added infiltration of waste water, fertilizers, or pesticides resulting 49 Species in the Hawaiian Islands; space as a potential threat to the • orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. from development activities as a For detailed descriptions of the (9) We made revisions to the potential threat to the anchialine pool species and their taxonomy, see demographic status or distribution of shrimp. Description of the 49 Hawaiian Islands the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus (15) We added sea-level rise and Species. anthracinus, H. facilis, and H. coastal inundation as a potential threat Hawaiian Islands Species Addressed in longiceps. to Solanum nelsonii, as occurrences in This Final Rule (10) We added tsunami as a threat to low-lying coastal areas are at risk, and the yellow-faced bees that occur in to the anchialine pool shrimp, as these Table 1A (plants) and Table 1B coastal areas (Hylaeus anthracinus, H. events could increase connectivity of (animals), below, provide the common assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. anchialine pools leading to further name, scientific name, and range (by longiceps), and to Solanum nelsonii, incursion by nonnative fish from one Hawaiian Island) for the 49 species also in coastal areas. pool to another. addressed in this final rule.

TABLE 1A—PLANT SPECIES LISTED AS ENDANGERED

Scientific name Common name Hawaiian Island

Plants Asplenium diellaciniatum ...... No common name (NCN) .. Kauai. Calamagrostis expansa ...... Maui reedgrass ...... Hawaii, Maui. Cyanea kauaulaensis ...... NCN ...... Maui. Cyclosorus boydiae ...... kupukupu makalii ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Oahu. Cyperus neokunthianus ...... NCN ...... Maui (H). Cyrtandra hematos ...... haiwale ...... Molokai. Deparia kaalaana ...... NCN ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Kauai (H). Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla ...... hohiu ...... Kauai. Exocarpos menziesii ...... heau ...... Hawaii, Lanai (H). Festuca hawaiiensis ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Gardenia remyi ...... nanu ...... Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Kauai. Huperzia stemmermanniae ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis ...... olua ...... Maui. Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens ...... ohe ...... Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai. Kadua fluviatilis ...... kamapuaa ...... Oahu, Kauai. Kadua haupuensis ...... NCN ...... Kauai (H). Labordia lorenciana ...... NCN ...... Kauai. Lepidium orbiculare ...... anaunau ...... Kauai. Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui, Oahu. Myrsine fosbergii ...... kolea ...... Oahu, Kauai. Nothocestrum latifolium ...... aiea ...... Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu, Kauai (H). Ochrosia haleakalae ...... holei ...... Hawaii, Maui. Phyllostegia brevidens ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui. Phyllostegia helleri ...... NCN ...... Kauai. Phyllostegia stachyoides ...... NCN ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Molokai. Portulaca villosa ...... ihi ...... Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu (H), Kaula (H), Lehua (H), Nihoa (H). Pritchardia bakeri ...... Baker’s loulu ...... Oahu. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense ..... enaena ...... Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu (H). Ranunculus hawaiensis ...... makou ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Ranunculus mauiensis ...... makou ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Molokai (H), Oahu (H), Kauai. Sanicula sandwicensis ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui. Santalum involutum ...... iliahi ...... Kauai. Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa ...... NCN ...... Maui, Molokai (H). Schiedea pubescens ...... maolioli ...... Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai. Sicyos lanceoloideus ...... anunu ...... Oahu, Kauai. Sicyos macrophyllus ...... anunu ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Solanum nelsonii ...... popolo ...... Hawaii, Maui (H), Molokai, Niihau (H), Pearl & Hermes, Kure, Midway, Laysan, Nihoa. Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii ...... NCN ...... Oahu (H).

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TABLE 1A—PLANT SPECIES LISTED AS ENDANGERED—Continued

Scientific name Common name Hawaiian Island

Wikstroemia skottsbergiana ...... akia ...... Kauai. (H) = historically known from island, but not observed in the past 20 years.

TABLE 1B—ANIMAL SPECIES LISTED AS ENDANGERED

Common name Scientific name Hawaiian Island

Animals Band-rumped storm-petrel ...... Oceanodroma castro ...... Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai (H), Oahu (H), Kauai, Lehua. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus anthracinus ...... Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus assimulans ...... Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Oahu (H). Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus facilis ...... Maui (H), Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus hilaris ...... Maui (H), Lanai (H), Molokai. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus kuakea ...... Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus longiceps ...... Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus mana ...... Oahu. Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly .... Megalagrion xanthomelas ...... Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai (H). Anchialine pool shrimp ...... Procaris hawaiana ...... Hawaii, Maui. (H) = Historically known from the island, but not observed in the last 20 years.

Summary of Biological Status of the 49 or competition. This study provides a these ongoing threats and further reduce Hawaiian Islands Species landscape- or island-scale picture of the likelihood that these species will The Act directs us to determine potential climate-change vulnerability persist in the future. of Hawaiian plants; the results are less whether any species is an endangered Plants species or a threatened species because clear at finer spatial scales (Fortini et al. of any one of the factors listed in section 2013, p. 42). However, all 27 of these Asplenium diellaciniatum (no 4(a)(1). We summarize, below, the plant species scored moderately or common name, NCN), a terrestrial or biological condition of, and factors extremely vulnerable in the analysis epipetric (growing on rocks) fern in the affecting, each of the 49 species and because of their relative inability to spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae), is determine whether each species is exhibit the possible responses necessary endemic to Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. 117). endangered or threatened. The for persistence under projected climate Little is known of the historical summaries below include only brief change (Fortini et al. 2013, 134 pp.). distribution of this species. It was lists of factors affecting each species. These responses include the migration described from a collection from Each of these factors is fully considered, response (dispersal and establishment ‘‘Halemanu,’’ the Knudsen homestead in detail, in the subsequent section, in new areas beyond their current area on western Kauai. Currently, this Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 distribution), the microrefugia response fern is found in montane mesic forest at Species From the Hawaiian Islands. (persistence in topographically complex Kawaiiki and Kaluahaulu Ridge (Palmer areas that are less exposed), 2003, p. 117; HBMP 2010; Lorence et al. Climate Change Vulnerability evolutionary adaptation response 2013, p. 167) in 3 occurrences, totaling Assessment for the Hawaiian Plants (morphological changes in response to approximately 100 individuals, 30 of Twenty-seven of the plant species the changing environment), and which are in an ungulate exclosure described below were evaluated for toleration response (adaptation to (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Lorence et al. their vulnerability to climate change as environmental changes through 2013, p. 167; Wood 2013, in litt.; Plant part of a comprehensive vulnerability phenotypic plasticity). In the study, Extinction Prevention Program (PEPP) analysis of native Hawaiian plants, as response probabilities ranged from 0 2014, pp. 33, 59; Kishida 2015, in litt.; indicated in Table 2 (Fortini et al. 2013, (not vulnerable at all) to 1.0 (extremely Williams 2015, in litt.). 134 pp.). This analysis used ‘‘climate vulnerable; species likely to disappear Feral pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra envelopes’’ (geographic ranges or ‘‘wink out’’ by the year 2100) (Fortini hircus), and black-tailed deer encompassing suitable climate for each et al. 2013, pp. 6–7). Many species (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) species, as defined by temperature and found to be moderately vulnerable in modify and destroy the habitat of moisture (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 17)) this study, with scores of 0.5 or greater, Asplenium diellaciniatum on Kauai, developed from field records by Price et already are listed as endangered; some with evidence of the activities of these al. (2012) to project each species’ already are extinct (Fortini et al. 2013, animals reported in the areas where A. potential range in the year 2100. The pp. 24, 93). Therefore, because the diellaciniatum occurs (Service 1999, p. location and spatial extent of these species in this rule were found by the 72; HBMP 2010). Feral pigs, goats, and future ranges, and their overlap with Fortini et al. (2013) study to be black-tailed deer also forage on A. current ranges, allows calculation of a moderately (0.5) to extremely (1.0) diellaciniatum. Ungulates are managed vulnerability score. Estimates of vulnerable, we deem the likelihood of in Hawaii as game animals, but public vulnerability based on climate-envelope their persistence to be low with the hunting does not adequately control the modeling are conservative in that they impacts of climate change in addition to numbers of ungulates to eliminate do not take into account potential other threats these species face. The habitat modification and destruction or changes in interspecific interactions environmental changes associated with herbivory by these animals (Anderson et such as predation, disease, pollination, climate change are likely to exacerbate al. 2007, in litt; Hawaii Administrative

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Rule-Hawaii Department of Land and above 6,000 feet (ft) (1,830 meters (m)), expansa populations are decreasing on Natural Resources (HAR–DLNR) 2010, or on raised hummocks in wet forest Maui and Hawaii Island, and this in litt.). Nonnative plants, such as and bogs, in the montane wet ecosystem species continues to be negatively Adiantum hispidulum (rough (Wood 2005a, in litt.; TNCH 2007; affected by habitat modification and maidenhair fern), Blechnum Welton 2008 and 2010, in litt.; Fay destruction by feral pigs, and by direct appendiculatum (no common name), 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer competition from nonnative plants, Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), 2010, in litt.; Agorastos 2011, in litt.; combined with herbivory by feral pigs and Rubus argutus (prickly Florida Vetter 2015, in litt.). Most of the east and rats. This species is vulnerable to blackberry), compete with A. Maui occurrences are in exclosures the effects of climate change, and the diellaciniatum, modify and destroy (Duvall 2015, in litt.). On the island of likelihood of its persistence with the native habitat, and displace native plant Hawaii, there are 3 occurrences in the impacts of climate change, exacerbated species by competing for water, Kohala Mountains (totaling several by the ongoing threats, is low. We find nutrients, light, and space; they may hundred individuals) and 1 occurrence that this species is endangered also produce chemicals that inhibit of 6 individuals last observed in 2004 in throughout all of its range, and, growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. Upper Waiakea Forest Reserve, in the therefore, find that it is unnecessary to 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in montane wet ecosystem (Perry 2006, in analyze whether it is endangered or Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; litt; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Perry threatened in a significant portion of its Williams 2015, in litt.). Additionally, 2015, in litt.). range. the small number of individuals of A. Feral pigs modify and destroy the Cyanea kauaulaensis (NCN), a shrub diellaciniatum limits this species’ habitat of Calamagrostis expansa on in the bellflower family ability to adapt to environmental Maui and Hawaii, with evidence of the (Campanulaceae), is endemic to Maui change. activities of feral pigs reported in the (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 15). The remaining occurrences of areas where C. expansa occurs on east Cyanea kauaulaensis occurs on leeward Asplenium diellaciniatum are at risk; A. Maui, and on Hawaii Island in the west Maui, on talus or basalt boulder- diellaciniatum numbers are decreasing Kohala Mountains and in the Waiakea strewn slopes along perennial streams on Kauai, and both the species and its Forest Reserve (Hobdy 1996, in litt.; from 2,400 to 3,000 ft (730 to 900 m), habitat continue to be negatively Perlman 1996, in litt.; Wood 1996, in in the lowland wet ecosystem (TNCH affected by destruction and modification litt.; Perry 2006, in litt.; HBMP 2010). 2007; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer and by ungulates and by direct competition Some occurrences on east and west Lorence 2012, pp. 17–18). This species by nonnative plants, combined with Maui are currently fenced; however, was first collected during a botanical herbivory by nonnative ungulates. ungulate and weed control activities survey in 1989. Further surveys (in Because of the threats described above, must be maintained to provide 2008, 2009, and 2011) revealed more we find that this species is endangered continued protection (Duvall 2015, in individuals, and study of the collections throughout all of its range, and, litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii indicated that it was a new species of therefore, find that it is unnecessary to as game animals, but public hunting Cyanea. Currently, C. kauaulaensis is analyze whether it is endangered or does not adequately control the known from Kauaula Valley threatened in a significant portion of its numbers of ungulates to eliminate (approximately 100 individuals) range. habitat modification and destruction or (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. Calamagrostis expansa (Maui herbivory by these animals (Anderson et 15–16, 20; Duvall 2015, in litt.; reedgrass), a perennial in the grass al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). family (Poaceae), is known from the litt.). Rats have been noted by biologists The greatest threats to this species islands of Maui and Hawaii (O’Connor as a threat to C. expansa at currently are the low numbers of 1999, p. 1509; Wagner and Herbst 2003, Laupahoehoe Natural Area Reserve occurrences and individuals, its limited p. 59). Historically, C. expansa was (NAR) on Hawaii Island, by consuming range, poor seedling recruitment, and known from wet forest, open bogs, and seeds (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants loss of pollinators and dispersal agents bog margins on Maui at 17 locations on compete with this species and modify (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. east Maui, and in a large occurrence and destroy native habitat, negatively 20–21; Duvall 2015, in litt.). Rats and covering nearly the entire summit on affecting C. expansa on east and west slugs are noted as a threat to Cyanea west Maui, and was discovered in 7 Maui and Hawaii Island. Additionally, kauaulaensis because of their herbivory occurrences totaling approximately 750 the small number of individuals limits and seed predation. Additionally, individuals on the island of Hawaii in this species’ ability to adapt to nonnative plants modify and destroy 1995 (O’Connor 1999, p. 1509; HBMP environmental change. Fortini et al. native habitat and outcompete native 2010; Smithsonian National Museum of (2013, p. 68) found that, as species, negatively affecting C. Natural History (NMNH) Botany environmental conditions are altered by kauaulaensis and its habitat. Although Collections 2014, in litt.; Vetter 2015, in climate change, C. expansa is unlikely feral ungulates are present on west litt.). Currently, this species is known to tolerate or adapt to projected changes Maui, the known occurrences of C. from 13 to 33 occurrences totaling fewer in temperature and moisture, and is kauaulaensis may be less at risk from than 750 individuals. This species is unlikely to be able to move to areas with this particular threat because of their rhizomatous (growing from more suitable climatic conditions. location in extremely steep and rugged underground stems), making it difficult Although we cannot predict the timing, terrain; however, erosion, landslides, to determine exact numbers of distinct extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, flooding, and drying due to climate individuals and populations, and we do expect the effects of climate change affect this species because of the botanists’ estimations vary. On the change to exacerbate the threats to C. terrain where it occurs (Oppenheimer island of Maui, there are 2 occurrences expansa described above (see ‘‘Climate and Lorence 2012, pp. 20–21; Duvall in the west Maui Mountains Change’’ under Factor E. Other Natural 2015, in litt.). The remaining occurrence (approximately 100 individuals) and or Manmade Factors Affecting Their of Cyanea kauaulaensis is at risk. from 7 to as many as 40 occurrences in Continued Existence, below). Because of the threats described above, the east Maui Mountains (totaling at The remaining occurrences of we find that this species is endangered least 200 individuals), often along ridges Calamagrostis expansa are at risk; C. throughout all of its range, and,

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therefore, find that it is unnecessary to declined in numbers or disappeared as (PEPP 2013, p. 32; PEPP 2014, p. 59; analyze whether it is endangered or a result of habitat modification and Duvall 2015, in litt.). threatened in a significant portion of its destruction, landslides and flooding, Feral pigs modify and destroy the range. invasion of lower elevation stream habitat of Cyperus neokunthianus on Cyclosorus boydiae (previously courses by nonnative plants, and west Maui, with evidence of the Christella boydiae) (kupukupu makalii) manmade stream diversions (Medeiros activities of feral pigs reported in the is a small to medium-sized member of et al. 1993, p. 88; Palmer 2003, p. 88). area where this species was last the thelypteroid fern family Nonnative plants, such as Tibouchina observed (HBMP 2010). Habitat (Thelypteridaceae) (Pukui and Elbert herbacea (glorybush), modify and modifications resulting from activities 1986, p. 186; Palmer 2003, pp. 87–88). destroy native habitat of. C. boydiae and of feral pigs that affect C. neokunthianus Typical habitat for C. boydiae is outcompete this and other native include direct destruction of this exposed, rocky, or moss-covered banks species for water, nutrients, light, and species and other native plants, of stream courses in dense-wet space (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; disruption of topsoil leading to erosion, Metrosideros-Acacia (ohia-koa) forest, Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and and establishment and spread of from 2,300 to 4,400 ft (700 to 1,350 m), Stone 1990, p. 74). Herbivory by feral nonnative plants. Ungulates are with other native ferns, grasses, and pigs negatively impacts this species managed in Hawaii as game animals, dwarfed woody species, in the lowland (HBMP 2010). This species occurs on but public hunting does not adequately wet and montane wet ecosystems stream banks at or just above water control the numbers of ungulates to (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; Medeiros et al. level, and flash floods or drought can eliminate habitat modification and 1993, p. 87; Wagner (W.H.) et al. 1999, damage and destroy it (Ching Harbin destruction or herbivory by these p. 156; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Gates 2015, in litt.). Fortini et al. (2013, p. 72) animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; 2015, in litt.). Historically, this fern was found that, as environmental conditions HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, known from near sea level to 4,400 ft are altered by climate change, C. nonnative plants modify and destroy (1,350 m) on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii boydiae is unlikely to tolerate or adapt native habitat and outcompete native Island (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; to projected changes in temperature and species, also negatively affecting habitat Medeiros et al. 1993, pp. 86–87; Palmer moisture, and is unlikely to be able to of C. neokunthianus on west Maui. 2003, pp. 87–88). Currently, C. boydiae move to areas with more suitable Currently, there are no known extant is found on Oahu and east Maui, in 13 climatic conditions. Although we individuals, and low numbers makes occurrences totaling approximately 400 cannot predict the timing, extent, or this species more vulnerable to individuals (Palmer 2003, pp. 87–88; magnitude of specific impacts, we do extinction because of the higher risks Oppenheimer 2008, in litt.; Fay 2010, in expect the effects of climate change to from genetic bottlenecks, random litt.; HBMP 2010; Welton 2010, in litt.). exacerbate the threats to C. boydiae demographic fluctuations, and localized On east Maui, there are at least 11 described above. catastrophes. occurrences (over 1,000 individuals) in The remaining occurrences of Cyperus neokunthianus is at risk and the lowland wet and montane wet Cyclosorus boydiae are at risk; C. continues to be negatively affected by ecosystems, and on Oahu there are 2 boydiae populations are decreasing on modification and destruction by occurrences in the Koolau Mountains in Oahu and Maui, and the species nonnative animals and plants (Duvall the montane wet ecosystem, totaling 40 continues to be negatively affected by 2015, in litt.). Because of the threats individuals, and one historic occurrence habitat loss and destruction by described above, we find that this in Kaluanui Drainage, but the status of ungulates, direct competition with species is endangered throughout all of the species at this location is currently nonnative plants, and herbivory by its range, and, therefore, find that it is unknown (Palmer 2003, pp. 87–88; ungulates. Flash floods and drought can unnecessary to analyze whether it is Wood 2007a, in litt.; Kam 2008, in litt.; damage and destroy this species. The endangered or threatened in a Oppenheimer 2008 and 2010, in litt.; effects of climate change are likely to significant portion of its range. HBMP 2010; Welton 2010, in litt.; Ching further exacerbate these threats. Because Cyrtandra hematos (haiwale), a shrub 2011, in litt.; Ching Harbin 2015, in litt.; of the threats describe above, we find in the African violet family Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). The that this species is endangered (Gesneriaceae), is endemic to Molokai historical occurrence of C. boydiae on throughout all of its range, and, (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). the island of Hawaii was found in the therefore, find that it is unnecessary to Cyrtandra hematos occurs in wet forest lowland wet ecosystem (HBMP 2010). analyze whether it is endangered or from 3,400 to 3,800 ft (1,030 to 1,150 m) Feral pigs modify and destroy the threatened in a significant portion of its on eastern Molokai, in the montane wet habitat of Cyclosorus boydiae on Maui range. ecosystem (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, and Oahu, with evidence of their Cyperus neokunthianus (NCN) is a 762; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007). activities reported at three occurrences perennial plant in the sedge family Historically, this species was known of C. boydiae on east Maui and at two (Cyperaceae) (Koyama 1999, p. 1420). from four locations on Molokai (Wagner occurrences on Oahu. However, on east Cyperus neokunthianus occurs in et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). Currently, Maui, two of the five occurrences are riparian areas of the lowland wet there are fewer than 100 individuals at provided protection in Haleakala ecosystem on west Maui (Koyama 1999, two locations on Molokai (Duvall 2015, National Park (Wood 2007a, in litt.; p. 1420; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). in litt.; Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). HBMP 2010; Kawelo 2011, in litt.). Historically, this species was known Feral pigs and goats modify and Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as from Honokohau Falls and Waihee destroy the habitat of Cyrtandra game animals, but public hunting does Valley (HBMP 2010; Global Biodiversity hematos on Molokai, with evidence of not adequately control the numbers of Information Facility (GBIF) database the activities of these animals reported ungulates to eliminate habitat 2014, in litt.). This species was last in the areas where this species occurs modification and destruction or observed in 1996. Currently, there are (Service 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are herbivory by these animals (Anderson et no known individuals in the wild; managed in Hawaii as game animals, al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in however, Waihee Valley and Maui but public hunting does not adequately litt.). Historical occurrences of C. County lands have been suggested as control the numbers of ungulates to boydiae on Oahu have dramatically potential habitat for further surveys eliminate habitat modification and

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destruction or herbivory by these growing along a perennial stream on the Kauai (National Tropical Botanical animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; western side of a small pool with other Garden (NTBG) Herbarium Database HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, native ferns and herbaceous plants 1995, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Wood 2015, nonnative plants modify and destroy (Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, in litt.). native habitat and outcompete this and pp. 103–107; PEPP 2014, p. 95). Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla is at risk other native species for water, nutrients, Feral pigs modify and destroy habitat from habitat modification and light, and space, or a nonnative plant of Deparia kaalaana by facilitating the destruction by nonnative plants, feral may produce chemicals that inhibit spread of nonnative plants, which pigs, and black-tailed deer (Wood 2015, growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. converts vegetation communities from in litt.). Most individuals occur in the 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in native to nonnative (Cuddihy and Stone Alakai Wilderness Preserve; however, Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Service 1990, p. 63; Oppenheimer and only portions of the Preserve are fenced 2015, in litt.). This species experiences Bustamente 2014, p. 106). Ungulates are to prevent ungulate incursion. reduced reproductive vigor due to low managed in Hawaii as game animals, Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as numbers and lack of regeneration, but public hunting does not adequately game animals, but public hunting does leading to diminished capacity to adapt control the numbers of ungulates to not adequately control the numbers of to environmental changes, and thereby eliminate habitat modification and ungulates to eliminate habitat lessening the probability of long-term destruction or herbivory by these modification and destruction or persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt; herbivory by these animals (Anderson et 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in This species hybridizes with C. grayana plants, such as Blechnum litt.). Nonnative plants modify and (Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). Fortini et appendiculatum (NCN), Clidemia hirta destroy native habitat and outcompete al. (2013, p. 72) found that, as (Koster’s curse), Hedychium this and other native species for water, environmental conditions are altered by gardnerianum (kahili ginger), Prunella nutrients, light, and space, or a climate change, C. hematos is unlikely vulgaris (selfheal), and Rubus argutus, nonnative plant may produce chemicals to tolerate or adapt to projected changes are capable of displacing all of the that inhibit growth of other plants, also in temperature and moisture, and is riparian habitat elements, including negatively affecting habitat of D. glabra unlikely to be able to move to areas with native plants, in the area where D. var. pusilla (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; more suitable climatic conditions. kaalaana occurs. Nonnative slugs such Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Although we cannot predict the timing, as Derocerus laeve and Limax maximus Stone 1990, p. 74). Herbivory by rats extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, are common in the area and can and slugs is a threat to D. glabra var. we do expect the effects of climate consume young plants (Joe and Daehler pusilla (Wood 2015, in litt.). In addition, change to exacerbate the threats to C. 2008, pp. 252–253). Flash floods and the limited number of occurrences and hematos described above. drought can damage and destroy this few individuals lead to a diminished The remaining occurrences of species at its only known location. A capacity to adapt to environmental Cyrtandra hematos are at risk. The single catastrophic event may result in changes, thereby lessening the known individuals are restricted to a extirpation of the remaining individual. probability of long-term persistence, and small area on Molokai and continue to The remaining occurrence of Deparia a single catastrophic event may result in be negatively affected by habitat kaalaana is at risk, and both the species extirpation of remaining occurrences. modification and destruction by and its habitat on Hawaii, Maui, and Landslides along streambanks have been ungulates and nonnative plants, and by Kauai continues to be negatively known to destroy populations of this direct competition with nonnative affected by modification and destruction fern (Wood 2015, in litt.). plants. The low number of remaining by nonnative ungulates, and by direct Fortini et al. (2013, p. 74) found that, individuals limits this species’ ability to competition with nonnative plants, as environmental conditions are altered adapt to environmental changes. combined with herbivory by nonnative by climate change, D. glabra var. pusilla Hybridization results in a reduction of ungulates and slugs. Although we is unlikely to tolerate or adapt to the numbers of C. hematos. The effects cannot predict the timing, extent, or projected changes in temperature and of climate change are likely to further magnitude of specific impacts, we do moisture, and is unlikely to be able to exacerbate these threats. We find that expect the effects of climate change to move to areas with more suitable this species is endangered throughout exacerbate the threats to D. kaalaana climatic conditions. Although we all of its range, and, therefore, find that described above. We find that this cannot predict the timing, extent, or it is unnecessary to analyze whether it species is endangered throughout all of magnitude of specific impacts, we do is endangered or threatened in a its range, and, therefore, find that it is expect the effects of climate change to significant portion of its range. unnecessary to analyze whether it is exacerbate the threats to D. glabra var. Deparia kaalaana (NCN), a small, endangered or threatened in a pusilla described above. Because of terrestrial fern in the ladyfern family significant portion of its range. these threats, we find that this variety is (Athyriaceae), is recognized as a distinct Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla (hohiu) endangered throughout all of its range, taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. 109–111) is a small, terrestrial fern in the wood and, therefore, find that it is and Christenhusz et al. (2012, p. 16). fern family (Dryopteridaceae) (Palmer unnecessary to analyze whether it is This fern is historically known from the 2003, p. 144). Habitat for D. glabra var. endangered or threatened in a islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii, on pusilla is deep shade on rocky, mossy significant portion of its range. rocky stream banks and in wet forest, in streambanks in wet forest at about 4,000 Exocarpos menziesii (heau) is a shrub the lowland mesic and lowland wet ft (1,200 m), in the montane wet in the sandalwood family (Santalaceae) ecosystems (Palmer 2003, pp. 109–111; ecosystem on Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1218). This TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer 144; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). species occurs in Metrosideros and Bustamente 2014, p. 103; PEPP Historically, D. glabra var. pusilla was shrubland or drier forest areas, and on 2014, p. 95). Deparia kaalaana was known from the Kawaikoi stream area lava flows with sparse vegetation, from presumed extinct on all three islands (HBMP 2010). Currently, this variety is 4,600 to 6,900 ft (1,400 to 2,100 m), in where it previously occurred until one known from fewer than 250 individuals the montane dry ecosystem on the individual was discovered on east Maui, in the Alakai Wilderness Preserve on island of Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, p.

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1218; TNCH 2007), and historically persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. not adequately control the numbers of occurred in the lowland mesic (Lanai 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). ungulates to eliminate habitat and Hawaii Island) and montane mesic Fire is a likely threat to this species; modification and destruction or ecosystems (Hawaii Island) (TNCH although the U.S. Army has constructed herbivory by these animals (Anderson et 2007; Bishop Museum 2014). Exocarpos firebreaks and has standard operating al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in menziesii is historically known from the procedures (SOPs) in place for litt.). Feral ungulate management is island of Lanai and was wide-spread on prevention and suppression of wildfires incorporated into the U.S. Army’s PTA the island of Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, at the PTA, wildfires may encroach from management plan, and these plants are p. 1218; TNCH 2007; Bishop Museum other areas (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in provided some protection within fenced 2014). Currently, there are seven litt.). The small number of individuals management units in the training area scattered occurrences on Hawaii Island, outside the larger occurrence at the PTA (Evans 2015a, in litt.); however, feral six of which consist of only a few limits this species’ ability to adapt to goats are still being removed from inside individuals, the seventh totals an environmental changes. Fortini et al. the fenced area (Nadig 2015, in litt.). In estimated 1,800 individuals (PEPP 2013, (2013, p. 76) found that, as addition, any individuals of F. pp. 10, 33; Thomas 2014, in litt.; Evans environmental conditions are altered by hawaiiensis outside of fenced 2015a, in litt.; Orlando 2015, in litt.; climate change, E. menziesii is unlikely exclosures or outside of the managed Perry 2015, in litt.). There are no to tolerate or adapt to projected changes area are at risk. Nonnative plants, such currently known occurrences of this in temperature and moisture, and is as Cenchrus setaceus (Pennisetum species on Lanai. unlikely to be able to move to areas with setaceum; fountain grass), are Feral goats, mouflon, and sheep more suitable climatic conditions. naturalized in the area and outcompete modify and destroy the habitat of Although we cannot predict the timing, F. hawaiiensis and other native plants. Exocarpos menziesii on Hawaii Island, extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, Occurrences and numbers of and may forage on this species, with we do expect the effects of climate individuals are declining on the island evidence of the activities of these change to exacerbate the threats to E. of Hawaii, and F. hawaiiensis animals reported in the areas where this menziesii described above. experiences reduced reproductive vigor The remaining occurrences of species occurs (Service 2015, in litt.). due to reduced levels of genetic Exocarpos menziesii are at risk from Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as variability, leading to diminished modification and destruction by feral game animals, but public hunting does capacity to adapt to environmental goats, mouflon, and sheep; from changes, thereby reducing the not adequately control the numbers of herbivory by these ungulates; and by the ungulates to eliminate habitat probability of long-term persistence small number of remaining occurrences. (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman modification and destruction or Fire is a likely threat to this species. The herbivory by these animals (Anderson et and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). effects of climate change are likely to Fire is a likely threat to this species, al. 2007, in litt; HAR–DLNR 2010, in exacerbate these threats. Because of litt.). Feral ungulate management is especially because of the ingress of these threats, we find that this species nonnative grass species. Although the incorporated into the U.S. Army’s is endangered throughout all of its Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA) U.S. Army has constructed firebreaks range, and, therefore, find that it is and has SOPs in place for prevention management plan, and plants at PTA unnecessary to analyze whether it is may be provided some protection and suppression of wildfires at the PTA, endangered or threatened in a fires may encroach from other areas, within fenced management units in the significant portion of its range. exacerbated by fuel loads provided by training area (Evans 2015a, in litt.); Festuca hawaiiensis (NCN) is a nonnative grasses (U.S. Army Garrison however, it is reported that feral goats cespitose (growing in tufts or clumps) are still being removed from within the annual in the grass family (Poaceae) 2013, in litt.). Fortini et al. (2013, p. 76) fenced area (Nadig 2015, in litt.). Any (O’Connor 1999, p. 1547). Typical found that, as environmental conditions individuals of E. menziesii outside of habitat for this species is dry forest at are altered by climate change, F. fenced exclosures or outside of the 6,500 ft (2,000 m), in the montane dry hawaiiensis is unlikely to tolerate or managed area are at risk. Additionally, ecosystem (O’Connor 1999, p. 1547). adapt to projected changes in nonnative plants modify and destroy Historically, F. hawaiiensis occurred at temperature and moisture, and is native habitat and outcompete this and Hualalai and Puu Huluhulu on the unlikely to be able to move to areas with other native species for water, nutrients, island of Hawaii, and possibly at more suitable climatic conditions. light, and space, or a nonnative plant Ulupalakua on Maui; however, it is no Although we cannot predict the timing, may produce chemicals that inhibit longer found at these sites (O’Connor extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, growth of other plants, also negatively 1999, p. 1547). Currently, F. hawaiiensis we do expect the effects of climate affecting habitat of E. menziesii (Smith is only known from the U.S. Army’s change to exacerbate the threats to F. 1985, pp. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 PTA on the island of Hawaii (HBMP hawaiiensis described above. in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). 2010). These remaining four The remaining occurrences of Festuca Occurrences and numbers of occurrences are within an area of less hawaiiensis are at risk; F. hawaiiensis individuals have declined on the island than 10 square miles (mi) (26 square occurrences have decreased on Hawaii of Hawaii (HBMP 2010; Thomas 2014, kilometers (km)) and total Island, as it no longer occurs at Hualalai in litt.), where E. menziesii was once approximately 1,500 individuals (U.S. and Puu Huluhulu, and the species may widely distributed from the south to the Army Garrison 2013, in litt.; Evans be extirpated from Maui. This species west sides of the island, and are now 2015a, in litt.). continues to be negatively affected by restricted to seven locations. Habitat destruction and modification habitat modification and destruction by Consequently, E. menziesii experiences by feral goats and sheep is a threat to ungulates and by direct competition reduced reproductive vigor due to Festuca hawaiiensis. These ungulates with nonnative plants, combined with reduced levels of genetic variability, also browse on native plants such as herbivory by ungulates. Fire is a likely leading to diminished capacity to adapt grasses, including F. hawaiiensis. threat to the species and its habitat. The to environmental changes, thereby Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as effects of climate change are likely to reducing the probability of long-term game animals, but public hunting does further exacerbate these threats. Because

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of the threats described above, we find animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; species more vulnerable to extinction that this species is endangered HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative because of the higher risks from genetic throughout all of its range, and, plants, such as Clidemia hirta, bottlenecks, random demographic therefore, find that it is unnecessary to Hedychium gardnerianum, Psidium fluctuations, and localized catastrophes. analyze whether it is endangered or cattleianum (strawberry guava), and The effects of climate change are likely threatened in a significant portion of its Tibouchina herbacea on Hawaii Island to exacerbate these threats. Because of range. (Perry 2006, in litt.); Lantana camara the threats, we find that this species is Gardenia remyi (nanu) is a tree in the (lantana), Psidium guajava, and Rubus endangered throughout all of its range, coffee family (Rubiaceae) (Wagner et al. argutus on Kauai (Wood 2004, in litt.); and, therefore, find that it is 1999, p. 1133). Typical habitat for G. Ageratina adenophora (Maui unnecessary to analyze whether it is remyi is mesic to wet forest from 190 to pamakani), Rubus rosifolius endangered or threatened in a 3,000 ft (60 to 760 m), in the lowland (thimbleberry), and T. herbacea on Maui significant portion of its range. mesic (Kauai, Molokai, and Hawaii (HBMP 2010); and C. hirta and P. Huperzia stemmermanniae (NCN) is Island) and lowland wet ecosystems cattleianum on Molokai (HBMP 2010), an epiphytic hanging fir-moss (a fern (Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii modify and destroy native habitat of G. ally) in the club moss family Island) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1133; remyi and outcompete this and other (Lycopodiaceae) (Palmer 2003, pp. 257– TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer native plants for water, nutrients, light, 259). This species is epiphytic on rough 2015, in litt.). Historically, this species and space in areas where G. remyi bark of living trees or fallen logs in was found on the island of Hawaii at occurs on these islands. Landslides are Metrosideros polymorpha-Acacia koa Wao Kele O Puna NAR, Waiakea Forest a threat to occurrences and habitat of G. forest on the island of Hawaii, from Reserve, Pahoa, and Hakalau Nui. On remyi on Hawaii Island (Perry 2006, in 3,200 to 3,800 ft (975 to 1,160 m), in the Maui, this species was known from litt.). Lack of pollination was suggested montane wet ecosystem (Medeiros et al. Wailuaiki and Waikamoi in the Koolau as the cause for abortion of immature 1996b, p. 93; Palmer 2003, pp. 257, 259; Forest Reserve, and from Papaaea and fruits that were seen among plants on TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). There is little Kipahulu. On Molokai, this species was Hawaii Island (PEPP 2010, p. 73). information available on the historical known from Keopukaloa, Pukoo, Similarly, Agorastos (2011, in litt.) range of this species. Huperzia Honomuni, Halawa, and Kaluaaha reported no viable seed production in stemmermanniae was first collected in (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, this species the wild or within ex situ collections 1981, from two occurrences totaling 10 ranged across the island, and was and no recruitment in the wild among individuals in Laupahoehoe NAR on the known from Halelea, Kealia, Moloaa, the 14 individuals observed on the island of Hawaii, and was mistakenly and Lihue-Koloa Forest Reserves, island of Hawaii, Maui, and Molokai, for identified as H. mannii (Medeiros et al. including Hanakapiai Valley, unknown reasons (Duvall 2015, in litt.; 1996b, p. 93; HBMP 2010). One Mahaulepu, and east Wahiawa Bog. Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). Some individual occurred in Kaapahu Valley Currently, G. remyi is known from 16 species of Gardenia are dioecious (male on east Maui, but has not been relocated occurrences totaling approximately 90 and female flowers on separate plants) since 1995 (Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton individuals on the islands of Hawaii, and although the breeding system of G. 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai (Wood 2005b, remyi is currently unknown, this may be in litt.; Perry 2015, in litt.). In 2006, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, in litt; Perry a cause of failure to produce viable seed there were estimated to be as many as 20 individuals in Laupahoehoe (Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; in isolated individuals (Lorence 2015, in Agorastos 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; 2006, in litt.). Currently, there are only litt.). Predation of seeds by rats is Perlman 2010, in litt.). An occurrence a few individuals remaining due to reported as a threat to individuals on on east Maui has been observed to prolonged drought conditions (Perry Kauai (NTBG 2008, in litt.). Fortini et al. decline from 14 individuals in 1992, to 2015, in litt.). (2013, p. 76) found that, as only 1 individual by 2015 (Duvall 2015, Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle environmental conditions are altered by in litt.). modify and destroy the habitat of Habitat modification and destruction climate change, G. remyi is unlikely to Huperzia stemmermanniae on Maui, by feral pigs, goats, and axis deer tolerate or adapt to projected changes in and feral pigs modify and destroy the negatively affects Gardenia remyi and temperature and moisture, and is habitat of this species on Hawaii Island areas suitable for its reintroduction unlikely to be able to move to areas with (Medeiros et al. 1996b, p. 96; Wood (Perry, in litt. 2006; PEPP 2008, p. 102; more suitable climatic conditions. 2003, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by HBMP 2010). Feral pigs and signs of Although we cannot predict the timing, these ungulates is a threat to H. their activities have been reported at extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, stemmermanniae. Ungulates are occurrences of G. remyi on the island of we do expect the effects of climate managed in Hawaii as game animals, Hawaii, on Kauai, on east and west change to exacerbate the threats to G. but public hunting does not adequately Maui, and on Molokai. Goats and signs remyi described above. control the numbers of ungulates to of their activities are reported at the The remaining occurrences of eliminate habitat modification and occurrences G. remyi on Kauai and Gardenia remyi are at risk. Gardenia destruction or herbivory by these Molokai. Axis deer and signs of their remyi continues to be negatively animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; activities are reported at the occurrences affected by habitat modification and HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative of G. remyi on Molokai (HBMP 2010). destruction by ungulates, and by direct plants, such as Clidemia hirta, Miconia Herbivory by these ungulates is a threat competition from nonnative plants, calvescens, Psidium cattleianum, and to G. remyi, as they browse on leaves combined with herbivory by ungulates Cyathea cooperi (Australian tree fern), and other parts of almost any woody or and seed predation by rats. Natural modify and destroy the forest habitat fleshy plant species. Ungulates are events such as landslides are a threat to that supports the native species upon managed in Hawaii as game animals, occurrences on the island of Hawaii. which this epiphytic plant grows, and but public hunting does not adequately Pollination and seed production are drought also negatively affects this control the numbers of ungulates to observed to be limited. Low numbers of species and its habitat (Medeiros et al. eliminate habitat modification and individuals (90 total individuals 1996b, p. 96; Perry 2006, in litt.; HBMP destruction or herbivory by these distributed across 4 islands) makes this 2010). Huperzia stemmermanniae

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experiences reduced reproductive vigor 2010, in litt.). Herbivory by slugs is a Valley. On west Maui, this subspecies due to reduced levels of genetic threat (Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). This occurred in the summit area, and on the variability, leading to diminished fern experiences reduced reproductive northeastern side of east Maui it ranged capacity to adapt to environmental vigor due to low numbers of from the Koolau FR to Kaapahu (Gates changes, thereby lessening the individuals, leading to diminished 2015, in litt.). On Hawaii Island, it probability of long-term persistence capacity to adapt to environmental occurred almost island-wide. Currently, (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman changes, and thereby lessening the J. ascendens ssp. ascendens is still and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). probability of long-term persistence found on the same islands, in only 56 Fortini et al. (2013, p. 77) found that, as (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman occurrences totaling approximately 200 environmental conditions are altered by and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Fortini et al. individuals (HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, climate change, H. stemmermanniae is (2013, p. 78) found that, as in litt.). unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected environmental conditions are altered by Nonnative ungulates modify and changes in temperature and moisture, climate change, H. hawaiiensis var. destroy habitat on all of the islands and is unlikely to be able to move to mauiensis is unlikely to tolerate or where Joinvillea ascendens ssp. areas with more suitable climatic adapt to projected changes in ascendens occurs (Moses 2006, in litt.; conditions. Although we cannot predict temperature and moisture, and is Oppenheimer 2006, in litt.; Welton and the timing, extent, or magnitude of unlikely to be able to move to areas with Haus 2008, p. 16; HBMP 2010; Perlman specific impacts, we do expect the more suitable climatic conditions. 2010, in litt.). Herbivory by feral pigs, effects of climate change to exacerbate Although we cannot predict the timing, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, and the threats to H. stemmermanniae extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, rats is a threat to this subspecies (HBMP described above. we do expect the effects of climate 2010; Williams 2015, in litt.). Ungulates The remaining occurrences of change to exacerbate the threats to H. are managed in Hawaii as game animals, Huperzia stemmermanniae are at risk. hawaiiensis var. mauiensis described but public hunting does not adequately The known individuals are restricted to above. control the numbers of ungulates to a small area on Hawaii Island, and this The remaining occurrences of eliminate habitat modification and species continues to be negatively Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis destruction or herbivory by these affected by habitat modification and are at risk. Nonnative plants modify and animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; destruction by ungulates. The low destroy native habitat, and also HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Many numbers of individuals H. outcompete native plants, and this plant stemmermanniae reduces the is threatened by herbivory by slugs. This nonnative plant species, such as probability of its long-term persistence. fern is also vulnerable to the impacts of Passiflora tarminiana (banana poka), The effects of climate change are likely climate change, and the small number of Rubus ellipticus (yellow Himalayan to further exacerbate these threats. remaining individuals limits its ability raspberry), and Setaria palmifolia Because of the threats described above, to adapt to environmental change. (palmgrass) on Hawaii Island; Clidemia we find that this species is endangered Because of these threats, we find that hirta, Psidium cattleianum, and P. throughout all of its range, and, this variety is endangered throughout all guajava on Kauai; C. hirta and therefore, find that it is unnecessary to of its range, and, therefore, find that it Tibouchina herbacea on Maui; Juncus analyze whether it is endangered or is unnecessary to analyze whether it is effusus (Japanese mat rush) on Molokai; threatened in a significant portion of its endangered or threatened in a and C. hirta and P. cattleianum on range. significant portion of its range. Oahu, modify and destroy habitat and Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens outcompete this subspecies (HBMP (olua) is a small terrestrial member of (ohe) is an erect perennial herb in the 2010). Randomly occurring natural the bracken fern family joinvillea family (Joinvilleaceae) events, such as landslides, are a threat (Dennstaedtiaceae), and is recognized as (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1450). Joinvillea to the occurrences of J. ascendens ssp. a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. ascendens ssp. ascendens occurs in wet ascendens on Kauai and Molokai 168–169). Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. to mesic Metrosideros polymorpha- (HBMP 2010). Fire is likely to be a mauiensis occurs in wet forest, Acacia koa lowland and montane forest, threat to this subspecies in the drier predominately in the montane wet and along intermittent streams, from areas of the Waianae Mountains of Oahu ecosystem (Palmer 2003, pp. 168–170; 1,000 to 4,300 ft (305 to 1,300 m); in the (HBMP 2010). This subspecies is Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). This variety lowland mesic (Kauai and Oahu), usually found as widely separated is historically known from west Maui lowland wet (Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and individuals. Seedlings have rarely been (Palmer 2003, pp. 168–170). Currently, Hawaii Island), montane wet (Kauai, observed in the wild, and, although 5 to 10 individuals are known from Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii mature seeds germinate in cultivation, openings between bogs on west Maui, Island), and montane mesic ecosystems these seedlings also rarely survive to and a few individuals are known from (Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). maturity. It is uncertain if this rarity of east Maui (Maui Nui Task Force (MNTF) Historically, this subspecies was found reproduction is typical, or if it is related 2010, in litt.). in widely distributed occurrences on the to habitat disturbance, or possibly a lack Nonnative plants, such as Tibouchina islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, of soil mycorrhizae (symbiotic herbacea, modify and destroy the and Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010). On relationship between fungi and plants) habitat of Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Kauai, this subspecies was wide-ranging required for successful establishment mauiensis on east and west Maui across the mountains and into coastal (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1451; (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in litt.). areas (HBMP 2010). On Oahu, this Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). Fortini et Nonnative plants also displace this and subspecies was known from the summit al. (2013, p. 76) found that, as other native plant species by competing area of the Waianae Mountains, and environmental conditions are altered by for water, nutrients, light, and space, or ranged along the entire length of the climate change, J. ascendens ssp. they may produce chemicals that inhibit Koolau Mountain range. On Molokai, ascendens is unlikely to tolerate or growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. this subspecies was known from the adapt to projected changes in 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in eastern half of the island ranging from temperature and moisture, and is Cuddihy and Stones 1990, p. 74; MNTF Pelekunu Preserve and east to Halawa unlikely to be able to move to areas with

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more suitable climatic conditions. been observed at one location on Kauai however, there are no known extant Although we cannot predict the timing, (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs individuals of K. haupuensis; the single extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, and goats is a threat to K. fluviatilis. natural occurrence is thought to be we do expect the effects of climate Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as extirpated. Ten individuals were change to exacerbate the threats to J. game animals, but public hunting does propagated from seed collected in 1999, ascendens ssp. ascendens described not adequately control the numbers of with cuttings from these currently under above. ungulates to eliminate habitat cultivation. Seeds are in storage at The remaining occurrences of modification and destruction or NTBG’s seed bank (Lorence 2015, in Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens are herbivory by these animals (Anderson et litt.). at risk. The known individuals continue al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Feral pigs modify and destroy the to be negatively affected by habitat litt.). Nonnative plant species, such as habitat of Kadua haupuensis on Kauai modification and destruction by Lantana camara, Paspalum conjugatum (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140). Ungulates ungulates, compounded with herbivory (Hilo grass), Psidium cattleianum, P. are managed in Hawaii as game animals, by ungulates and rats. The small guajava, Rubus rosifolius, and Schinus but public hunting does not adequately number of remaining individuals, terebinthifolius (Christmas berry), control the numbers of ungulates to smaller distribution, and poor degrade habitat and outcompete this eliminate habitat modification and recruitment in the wild limits this and other native species for water, destruction or herbivory by these subspecies’ ability to adapt to nutrients, light, and space, or may animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; environmental changes. Destruction by produce chemicals that inhibit growth HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Predation of fire, landslides, rockfalls, and floods can of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180– fruits and seeds by rats is a threat. occur at any time. The effects of climate 250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy Landslides are an additional threat to change are likely to further exacerbate and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 1998, in this species at its last known these threats. Because of these threats, litt.; HBMP 2010). Kadua fluviatilis is occurrence. Nonnative plants, such as we find that this subspecies is negatively affected by landslides on Caesalpinia decapetala (wait-a-bit), endangered throughout all of its range, Kauai (HBMP 2010). Fortini et al. (2013, Passiflora laurifolia (yellow granadilla), and, therefore, find that it is p. 78) found that, as environmental and various nonnative grasses, modify unnecessary to analyze whether it is conditions are altered by climate and destroy native habitat, outcompete endangered or threatened in a change, K. fluviatilis is unlikely to native plants, and are found at the last significant portion of its range. tolerate or adapt to projected changes in known location of K. haupuensis. The Kadua fluviatilis (previously Hedyotis temperature and moisture, and is small number of remaining individuals fluviatilis) (kamapuaa) is a climbing unlikely to be able to move to areas with limits this species’ ability to adapt to shrub in the coffee family (Rubiaceae) more suitable climatic conditions. environmental change. Because of these family (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1142– Although we cannot predict the timing, threats, we find that K. haupuensis is 1144). Typical habitat for this species on extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, endangered throughout all of its range, Kauai is mixed native shrubland and we do expect the effects of climate and, therefore, find that it is Metrosideros forest from 750 to 2,200 ft change to exacerbate the threats to K. unnecessary to analyze whether it is (230 to 680 m), in the lowland mesic fluviatilis described above. endangered or threatened in a ecosystem (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010); The remaining occurrences of Kadua significant portion of its range. and in open shrubland with sparse tree fluviatilis are at risk. Numbers of Labordia lorenciana (NCN) is a small cover in the lowland mesic ecosystem occurrences and individuals are tree in the Logania family (Loganiaceae) (Wood 1998, in litt.; TNCH 2007). On decreasing on Oahu and Kauai, from 16 (Wood et al. 2007, pp. 195–197). This Oahu, K. fluviatilis occurs along rocky occurrences to 3, and from over 1,000 species occurs on the island of Kauai at streambanks in wet Metrosideros forest individuals to about 500 individuals 3,800 ft (1,160 m), in forest in the from 820 to 1,990 ft (250 to 607 m) in (HBMP 2010; OTFM 2014, in litt.). This montane mesic ecosystem (Wood et al. the lowland wet ecosystem (TNCH species continues to be negatively 2007, pp. 197–198). Currently, there are 2007; HBMP 2010). affected by habitat modification and four known individuals. Additional Historically, Kadua fluviatilis was destruction by feral pigs and goats, surveys for L. lorenciana have not been known from the island of Kauai in at stochastic events such as landslides, successful; however, experts believe this least 5 occurrences ranging from the and direct competition from nonnative species may occur in other areas (Wood north coast across the central plateau to plants, combined with herbivory by et al. 2007, p. 198). the south coast, and from the island of nonnative ungulates. Climate change is Labordia lorenciana is at risk from Oahu in at least 11 occurrences in the likely to further exacerbate these threats. habitat modification and destruction northern Koolau Mountains (HBMP Because of these threats, we find that and herbivory by nonnative mammals, 2010; Williams 2015, in litt.). Currently, this species is endangered throughout displacement of individuals through during surveys on Oahu in 2013, only all of its range, and, therefore, find that competition with nonnative plants, 20 to 25 individuals were observed in it is unnecessary to analyze whether it stochastic events, and problems one occurrence (Wood 2005b, in litt., is endangered or threatened in a associated with small populations. Feral NTBG 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Ching significant portion of its range. pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer modify Harbin 2015, in litt.). On Kauai, K. Kadua haupuensis (NCN) is a shrub and destroy the habitat of L. lorenciana fluviatilis is known from two in the coffee family (Rubiaceae) (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198; Kishida 2015, occurrences totaling approximately 500 (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 137). There is no in litt.). Ungulates are managed in individuals (HBMP 2010). historical information for this species as Hawaii as game animals, but public Feral pigs and goats modify and it was recently discovered and hunting does not adequately control the destroy habitat of Kadua fluviatilis described from one occurrence just numbers of ungulates to eliminate (HBMP 2010). Evidence of the activities below and along cliffs in an isolated habitat modification and destruction by of feral pigs has been reported at the area on southern Kauai, from 980 to these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in occurrences on Kauai and Oahu (Wood 1,640 ft (300 to 500 m), in the lowland litt; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Predation 1998, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Feral goats mesic ecosystem (TNCH 2007; Lorence of seeds by rats is a threat to this species and evidence of their activities have et al. 2010, pp. 137–144). Currently, (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). Habitat

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destruction and modification by Because there are fewer than 50 (Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.). nonnative plants, and competition with individuals, L. orbiculare experiences Hybridization with other species and nonnative plants including Lantana reduced reproductive vigor due to varieties of Microlepia is a threat to this camara, Passiflora tarminiana, Psidium reduced levels of genetic variability, plant on Oahu and is compounded by cattleianum, and Rubus argutus, are a leading to diminished capacity to adapt the low number of individuals (Kawelo threat to Labordia lorenciana, as these to environmental changes, and thereby 2010, in litt.). Because of these threats, nonnative plants have the ability to lessening the probability of long-term we find that this variety is endangered spread rapidly and cover large areas in persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. throughout all of its range, and, the forest understory (Smith 1985, pp. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; therefore, find that it is unnecessary to 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in PEPP 2014, p. 34). analyze whether it is endangered or Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood The remaining occurrence of threatened in a significant portion of its et al. 2007, p. 198). Randomly occurring Lepidium orbiculare is at risk and the range. natural events, such as landslides, flash species continues to be negatively Myrsine fosbergii (kolea) is a branched floods, fallen tree limbs, and fire, are affected by the threats described above. shrub or small tree in the myrsine threats to L. lorenciana where it occurs Because of these threats, we find that family (Myrsinaceae) (Wagner et al. on Kauai (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). this species is endangered throughout 1999, p. 940). Typical habitat for this This species experiences reduced all of its range, and, therefore, find that species on Oahu is Metrosideros-mixed reproductive vigor as there is no in situ it is unnecessary to analyze whether it native shrubland, from 2,200 to 2,800 ft seedling recruitment and a very small is endangered or threatened in a (670 to 850 m) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. number of individuals remain (Wood et significant portion of its range. 940; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Typical al. 2007, p. 198). Infestation by the black Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis habitat for this species on Kauai is twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus) is a (NCN) is a terrestrial, medium-sized fern Metrosideros-Diospyros (ohia-lama) threat to this species (Kishida 2015, in in the bracken fern family lowland mesic forest and Metrosideros- litt.). Because of these threats, we find (Dennstaedtiaceae) (Palmer 2003, p. Cheirodendron (ohia-olapa) montane that L. lorenciana is endangered 186). Typical habitat for M. strigosa var. wet forest, often on watercourses or throughout all of its range, and, mauiensis is mesic to wet forest from stream banks, from 900 to 4,300 ft (270 therefore, find that it is unnecessary to 1,400 to 6,000 ft (425 to 1,830 m), in the to 1,300 m), in the lowland mesic, analyze whether it is endangered or lowland mesic (Oahu), montane mesic lowland wet, and montane wet threatened in a significant portion of its (Hawaii Island), and montane wet (Maui ecosystems (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; range. and Hawaii Island) ecosystems (Palmer Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53). Myrsine Lepidium orbiculare (anaunau) is a 2003, p. 186; TNCH 2007: HBMP 2010). fosbergii was historically known from small, many-branched shrub in the Little is known of the historical the summit ridges of the Koolau mustard family (Brassicaceae) (St. John locations of M. strigosa var. mauiensis; Mountains of Oahu (HBMP 2010). This 1981, pp. 371–373; Wagner et al. 1999, however, it was wide-ranging on the species was first collected on Kauai in p. 409). This species occurs in mesic islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu 1987. Currently, on Oahu, there are forest on the island of Kauai, in the (HBMP 2010). Currently, M. strigosa var. fewer than 30 individuals in the Koolau lowland mesic ecosystem (Wagner et al. mauiensis is known from nine Mountains (lowland mesic and lowland 1999, p. 409; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; occurrences totaling fewer than 100 wet ecosystems) (HBMP 2010; OTFM PEPP 2014, p. 34). Historically, this individuals on the islands of Oahu 2014, in litt.; Reynolds 2015, in litt.; species was known from widely (about 40 individuals), Maui (fewer than Sailer 2015, in litt.). Propagation scattered occurrences on Kauai (Wagner 20 individuals on east and west Maui), attempts of the Oahu plants have been et al. 1999, p. 409). Currently, there is and Hawaii (35 individuals last unsuccessful (Ching Harbin 2015, in one occurrence of fewer than 50 observed in 2004) (Palmer 2003, p. 186; litt.). On Kauai, this species was once individuals (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 19; Lau 2007, pers.comm.; Oppenheimer widely scattered in the northwest and PEPP 2014, p. 34; Smithsonian 2007 and 2008, in litt.; Welton 2008, in central areas, but is currently known Institution 2015, in litt.). litt.; Ching 2011, in litt.; Ching Harbin from only 55 remaining individuals Feral pigs and goats have been 2015, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2015, in (Wood 2005e and 2007c, in litt.; HBMP documented to modify and destroy litt.). 2010). habitat of other rare and endangered Habitat modification and destruction Myrsine fosbergii is at risk from native plant species at the same location by feral pigs and goats is a threat to habitat modification and destruction by on Kauai (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140; Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis nonnative ungulates and plants. On Kishida 2015, in litt.); therefore, we (Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.; Bily 2009, Oahu, evidence of the activities of feral consider that activities of feral pigs and in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs has been reported at all summit goats also pose a threat to Lepidium pigs is a threat to M. strigosa var. occurrences (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, orbiculare. Ungulates are managed in mauiensis (Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.; evidence of the activities of feral pigs Hawaii as game animals, but public Bily 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). has been reported at the remaining hunting does not adequately control the Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as occurrence (Wood 2005e and 2007c, in numbers of ungulates to eliminate game animals, but public hunting does litt.; HBMP 2010), and evidence of the habitat modification and destruction or not adequately control the numbers of activities of feral goats has also been herbivory by these animals (Anderson et ungulates to eliminate habitat reported (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in modification and destruction or feral pigs and goats is a threat to M. litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Melinis herbivory by these animals (Anderson et fosbergii (Wood 2005e and 2007c, in minutiflora (molasses grass) and al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Jamaica litt.). Nonnative plants, such as managed in Hawaii as game animals, vervain), degrade native habitat, Ageratina adenophora, Juncus but public hunting does not adequately outcompete native plants, and are found acuminatus (rush), Plantago major control the numbers of ungulates to at the last known location of L. (broad-leaved plantain), and Tibouchina eliminate habitat modification and orbiculare (HBMP 2010). Landslides are herbacea, degrade habitat and destruction or herbivory by these an additional threat to this species. outcompete this variety on Maui animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.;

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HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). On Lanai, endangered or threatened in a plants, such as Axonopus fissifolius no individuals were found during significant portion of its range. (narrow-leaved carpetgrass), Clidemia surveys in 2012, and this species may be Ochrosia haleakalae (holei) is a tree hirta, Erigeron karvinskianus, Psidium extirpated from this island, although in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae) cattleianum, P. guajava, and Rubus there are plans to continue surveying (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 218). Typical rosifolius, compete with M. fosbergii suitable habitat (PEPP 2012, p. 129; habitat for this species is dry to mesic and modify and destroy its native Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). In forest, sometimes wet forest, and often habitat on Oahu and Kauai (HBMP summary, the species’ range on each lava, from 2,300 to 4,000 ft (700 to 1,200 2010). Hybridization is a threat to this island has decreased dramatically since m), in the dry cliff (Maui), lowland species, as M. fosbergii hybridizes with 2001 (Kawelo 2005 and 2010, in litt.; mesic (Maui and Hawaii Island), and other Myrsine species, and the number HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer 2011, in montane mesic (Maui) ecosystems of non-hybrid individuals may actually litt.). (Medeiros et al. 1986, pp. 27–28; be lower than estimated (Ching Harbin Feral pigs (Oahu, Maui, Kauai), goats Wagner et al. 1999, p. 218; TNCH 2007; 2015, in litt.). Fortini et al. (2013, p. 82) (Maui, Kauai), mouflon (Lanai), feral HBMP 2010). Historically, this species found that, as environmental conditions cattle (Maui), axis deer (Lanai, Maui), was known from east Maui and Hawaii are altered by climate change, M. and black-tailed deer (Kauai) modify Island (HBMP 2010). Currently, O. fosbergii is unlikely to tolerate or adapt and destroy habitat of Nothocestrum haleakalae is known from 4 occurrences to projected changes in temperature and latifolium (HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer totaling about 15 individuals on the moisture, and is unlikely to be able to 2015, in litt.). Herbivory by these island of Maui (Medeiros 2007, in litt.; move to areas with more suitable animals also poses a threat to this Oppenheimer 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010; climatic conditions. Although we species. Ungulates are managed in Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). On Hawaii cannot predict the timing, extent, or Hawaii as game animals, but public Island, there are two occurrences magnitude of specific impacts, we do hunting does not adequately control the totaling at least 150 individuals in expect the effects of climate change to numbers of ungulates to eliminate Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, with exacerbate the threats to M. fosbergii habitat modification and destruction or 150 outplanted in nearby kipuka described above. herbivory by these animals (Anderson et (vegetated areas surrounded by lava The remaining occurrences of Myrsine al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in flows), and one individual in the fosbergii are at risk from the threats litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Fraxinus Laupahoehoe section of Hilo Forest described above. The effects of climate uhdei (tropical ash), Grevillea robusta Reserve (Pratt 2005, in litt.; Bio 2008a, change are likely to exacerbate the (silk oak), Lantana camara, Leucaena in litt.; HBMP 2010; Pratt 2011, in litt.; threats described above. Because of leucocephala (koa haole), Melinis Conry 2012, in litt.; Orlando 2015, in these threats, we find that M. fosbergii minutiflora, Passiflora suberosa litt.; Perry 2015, in litt.). is endangered throughout all of its (huehue haole), Schinus Feral pigs and goats modify and range, and, therefore, find that it is terebinthifolius, and Toona ciliata destroy the habitat of Ochrosia unnecessary to analyze whether it is (Australian red cedar), outcompete N. haleakalae on Maui and Hawaii Island; endangered or threatened in a latifolium and modify and destroy in addition, cattle modify and destroy significant portion of its range. habitat at all known occurrences. the habitat of this species on Maui Nothocestrum latifolium (aiea) is a Wildfire, and fire caused by military (Medeiros 1995, in litt.; Pratt 2005, in small tree in the nightshade family training activities, is a threat to this litt.; Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). (Solanaceae) (Symon 1999, p. 1263). species and its habitat (Sailer 2015, in Herbivory by these animals also poses a Typical habitat for this species is dry to litt.). Low numbers of individuals limits threat to this species. Ungulates are mesic forest in the dry cliff (Kauai, this species’ ability to adapt to managed in Hawaii as game animals, Oahu, Lanai, and Maui), lowland dry environmental change. Infestation by but public hunting does not adequately (Oahu, Lanai, and Maui), and lowland the black twig borer is a threat to N. control the numbers of ungulates to mesic (Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui) latifolium (Ching Harbin 2015, in litt.). eliminate habitat modification and ecosystems (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). This species continues to decline, and, destruction or herbivory by these Historically, N. latifolium was known for unknown reasons, there is an animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; from the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, observed lack of regeneration in N. HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (HBMP 2010; latifolium in the wild (HBMP 2010; plant species, such as Cestrum diurnum Sailer 2015, in litt.). This species was Duvall 2015, in litt.). Fortini et al. (2013, (day cestrum), Fraxinus uhdei, Psidium collected once on Kauai in 1986, but has p. 83) found that, as environmental cattleianum, P. guajava, Rubus argutus, not been observed there before or after conditions are altered by climate Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass), and that time (Symon 1999, p. 1263; BISH change, N. latifolium is unlikely to Toona ciliata, modify and destroy 504035-Montgomery; Williams 2015, in tolerate or adapt to projected changes in habitat and outcompete native plants, litt.). Currently, on the island of Oahu, temperature and moisture, and is including O. haleakalae (HBMP 2010). there is one individual remaining, with unlikely to be able to move to areas with In dry areas, wildfires affecting the only one of the other previously extant more suitable climatic conditions. habitat of this species are exacerbated individuals represented in an ex situ Although we cannot predict the timing, by the presence of introduced grass collection (Moses 2006, in litt.; Starr extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, species such as Pennisetum 2006, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Kawakami we do expect the effects of climate clandestinum (kikuyu grass) (HBMP 2010, in litt.; Kawelo 2010, in litt.; change to exacerbate the threats to N. 2010; Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). Welton 2010, in litt.; Ching 2011, in litt.; latifolium described above. Herbivory and seed predation by slugs Ching Harbin 2015, in litt.; Sailer 2015, The remaining occurrences of and rats is a threat to this species in litt.). On Molokai, there a few Nothocestrum latifolium are at risk from (Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). There is individuals on the central south slope the threats described above. Because of low to no reproduction observed in the (Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). There are these threats, we find that this species wild, and this reduced reproductive 18 occurrences totaling approximately is endangered throughout all of its vigor is due to reduced levels of genetic 1,600 individuals on east and west Maui range, and, therefore, find that it is variability resulting from low numbers (Ching 2011, in litt.; HBMP 2010; unnecessary to analyze whether it is of individuals. This decreases the

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species’ capacity to adapt to Herbivory by feral pigs also poses a helleri on Kauai (HBMP 2010). environmental changes, and thereby threat to this species on Maui. Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as lessens the probability of its long-term Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat Duvall 2015, in litt.). Fortini et al. (2013, ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction or p. 83) found that, as environmental modification and destruction or herbivory by these animals (Anderson et conditions are altered by climate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in change, O. haleakalae is unlikely to al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Herbivory on fruits and seeds by tolerate or adapt to projected changes in litt.). Nonnative plants, such as rats negatively affects the remaining temperature and moisture, and is Clidemia hirta and Hedychium individuals (HBMP 2010). The only unlikely to be able to move to areas with gardnerianum, modify and destroy known occurrence of this species is more suitable climatic conditions. habitat and outcompete P. brevidens on located at the base of cliffs, and Although we cannot predict the timing, Maui (PEPP 2009, p. 90). Herbivory by landslides are an additional threat extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, slugs is a threat to the remaining (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants, such as we do expect the effects of climate individual on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. 136). Erigeron karvinskianus, Kalanchoe change to exacerbate the threats to O. In addition, natural events such as pinnata (air plant), Psidium guajava, haleakalae described above. landslides and erosion are threats to the Rubus rosifolius, and various grasses, Ochrosia haleakalae is at risk from occurrence on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. modify and destroy native habitat, habitat degradation and loss by feral 136). The small number of remaining pigs, goats, cattle, and nonnative plants; individuals limits this species’ ability to outcompete native plants, and are found the displacement of individuals due to adapt to environmental change. Fortini at the last known occurrence of competition with nonnative plants for et al. (2013, p. 84) found that, as Phyllostegia helleri (HBMP 2010). This space, nutrients, water, air, and light; environmental conditions are altered by species experiences reduced herbivory by feral pigs, goats, and cattle; climate change, P. brevidens is unlikely reproductive vigor due to reduced levels seed predation by slugs and rats; and by to tolerate or adapt to projected changes of genetic variability, leading to the small number of remaining in temperature and moisture, and is diminished capacity to adapt to individuals. The effects of climate unlikely to be able to move to areas with environmental changes, and thereby change are likely to further exacerbate more suitable climatic conditions. lessening the probability of long-term these threats. Because of these threats, Although we cannot predict the timing, persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. we find that this species is endangered extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). throughout all of its range, and, we do expect the effects of climate Fortini et al. (2013, p. 84) found that, as therefore, find that it is unnecessary to change to exacerbate the threats to P. environmental conditions are altered by analyze whether it is endangered or brevidens described above. climate change, P. helleri is unlikely to threatened in a significant portion of its The remaining occurrences of tolerate or adapt to projected changes in range. Phyllostegia brevidens are at risk. The temperature and moisture, and is Phyllostegia brevidens (NCN) is a species continues to be negatively unlikely to be able to move to areas with scandent (climbing) subshrub in the affected by habitat modification and more suitable climatic conditions. mint family (Lamiaceae) (Wagner et al. destruction by ungulates and nonnative Although we cannot predict the timing, 1999, pp. 814–815). This species occurs plants, and by direct competition from extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, in wet forest on the islands of Maui and nonnative plants, combined with we do expect the effects of climate Hawaii from 2,900 to 3,200 ft (880 to herbivory by ungulates and slugs. The change to exacerbate the threats to P. 975 m), in the lowland wet (Maui), effects of climate change are likely to helleri described above. montane wet (Hawaii Island), and wet further exacerbate these threats. We find The remaining occurrence of cliff (Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. that P. brevidens is endangered Phyllostegia helleri is at risk. The 1999, pp. 814–815; TNCH 2007; HBMP throughout all of its range, and, numbers of individuals are decreasing 2010). Phyllostegia brevidens is therefore, find that it is unnecessary to on Kauai, as this species was wide- historically known from Hilo Forest analyze whether it is endangered or ranging on the island, extending from Reserve, Mauna Kea, and Kulani on threatened in a significant portion of its Hawaii Island; and from Kipahulu range. the north and east sides throughout the Valley on Maui (Haleakala National Phyllostegia helleri (NCN) is a weakly central plateau, and is now known from Park) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 815; HBMP erect to climbing shrub in the mint only one occurrence of four individuals. 2010; Smithsonian Institution 2015, in family (Lamiaceae) (Wagner et al. 1999, These four individuals continue to be litt.). Currently, there is one individual pp. 816–817). This species occurs on negatively affected by habitat on the island of Maui and two ridges or spurs from 2,800 to 4,000 ft modification and destruction by individuals on Hawaii Island (PEPP (860 to 1,200 m) in diverse forest on ungulates and nonnative plants, direct 2009, p. 90; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 46; Kauai in the lowland wet, montane wet, competition by nonnative plants, and by PEPP 2014, p. 136; Gates 2015, in litt.; and wet cliff ecosystems (Wagner et al. seed predation by rats. Natural events Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.; Perry 2015, 1999, p. 817; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). such as landslides may damage or in litt.). Historically, P. helleri was wide-ranging destroy the remaining four individuals. Feral pigs modify and destroy habitat on the island of Kauai, from the north The small number of remaining of this species on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. and east sides throughout the central individuals limits this species’ ability to 136). The two remaining individuals on plateau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 817; adapt to environmental changes. The Hawaii Island are currently fenced HBMP 2010). Currently, this species is effects of climate change are likely to (Perry 2015, in litt.); however, owing to limited to one occurrence of four further exacerbate these threats. Because the potential for accidental damage or individuals (PEPP 2014, p. 35; Kishida of these threats, we find that P. helleri vandalism (irrespective of 2015, in litt.). is endangered throughout all of its maintenance), fences do not guarantee Feral pigs and goats modify and range, and, therefore, find that it is protection from ungulate ingress. destroy the habitat of Phyllostegia unnecessary to analyze whether it is

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endangered or threatened in a unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected occurrences totaling 10 individuals on significant portion of its range. changes in temperature and moisture, Hawaii Island (MNTF 2010, in litt.; Phyllostegia stachyoides (NCN) is a and is unlikely to be able to move to Evans 2015a, in litt.). weakly erect to climbing subshrub in areas with more suitable climatic Axis deer (Maui and Lanai), goats the mint family (Lamiaceae) (Wagner et conditions. Although we cannot predict (Maui), mouflon (Lanai), and cattle al. 1999, p. 823). This species occurs in the timing, extent, or magnitude of (Hawaii Island) modify and destroy the mesic to wet forest from 3,600 to 4,600 specific impacts, we do expect the habitat of Portulaca villosa (HBMP ft (1,000 to 1,400 m), in the montane wet effects of climate change to exacerbate 2010; Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). These (Hawaii Island, Maui, and Molokai) and the threats to P. stachyoides described ungulates also forage directly on this montane mesic (Hawaii Island and above. species. Ungulates are managed in Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, The remaining occurrences of Hawaii as game animals, but public p. 823; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Phyllostegia stachyoides are at risk. The hunting does not adequately control the Phyllostegia stachyoides is historically known individuals are restricted to numbers of ungulates to eliminate known from the eastern and central small areas on west Maui and Molokai, habitat modification and destruction or Molokai, west Maui, and wide-ranging and continue to be negatively affected herbivory by these animals (Anderson et occurrences on Hawaii Island (Wagner by habitat modification and destruction al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in et al. 1999, p. 823; HBMP 2010; by ungulates and by direct competition litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Lantana VanDeMark 2016, in litt.). Currently, with nonnative plants, combined with camara, Nicotiana glauca (tree tobacco), occurrences on west Maui total about 15 herbivory by slugs and rats. The small Pennisetum ciliare (buffelgrass), and individuals (Oppenheimer 2015, in number of remaining individuals limits Prosopis pallida (kiawe, mesquite), litt.). Those on Molokai occur at 5 this species’ ability to adapt to compete with Portulaca villosa, modify locations and total fewer than 30 environmental changes. Flooding, and destroy its native habitat, displace individuals (Orlando 2015, in litt.; PEPP drought, and the effects of climate other native plant species, and pose a 2012, p. 156). Plants on Hawaii Island change are likely to further exacerbate threat to the known occurrences on are now considered to be P. ambigua these threats. Because of these threats, Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, and (VanDeMark 2016, in litt.). we find that this species is endangered Molokai (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; Feral pigs, goats, and axis deer modify throughout all of its range, and, Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and and destroy the habitat of Phyllostegia therefore, find that it is unnecessary to Stone 1990, p. 74). P. villosa occurs in stachyoides on Maui, with evidence of analyze whether it is endangered or drier coastal and lowland habitats, all of the activities of these animals reported threatened in a significant portion of its which are affected by wildfires. Some in areas where this species occurs range. coastal habitat includes exposed cliffs, (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 141). Portulaca villosa (ihi) is a perennial which erode and cause landslides and Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as herb in the purslane family rockfalls in areas where P. villosa occurs game animals, but public hunting does (Portulacaceae) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. (Kahoolawe), posing a threat to this not adequately control the numbers of 1074). Portulaca villosa occurs on dry, species (HBMP 2010). This species ungulates to eliminate habitat rocky, clay, lava, or coralline reef sites, experiences reduced reproductive vigor modification and destruction or from sea level to 1,600 ft (490 m), in the due to low levels of genetic variability, herbivory by these animals (Anderson et coastal (Lehua, Kaula, Oahu, leading to diminished capacity to adapt al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii Island) to environmental changes, and thereby litt.). Nonnative plants, such as and lowland dry (Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, lessening the probability of long-term Ageratina adenophora, Erigeron Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii Island) persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. karvinskianus, and Tibouchina ecosystems, and one reported 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). herbacea, compete with P. stachyoides, occurrence in the montane dry (Hawaii Fortini et al. (2013, p. 86) found that, as modify and destroy its native habitat, Island) ecosystem (Wagner et al. 1999, environmental conditions are altered by and displace other native plant species p. 1074; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). climate change, P. villosa is unlikely to (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; Vitousek et Portulaca villosa is historically known tolerate or adapt to projected changes in al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. from all the main Hawaiian Islands temperature and moisture, and is 74; PEPP 2014, pp. 141–142). Herbivory except Niihau and Kauai (Wagner et al. unlikely to be able to move to areas with by slugs and rats on leaves and nutlets 1999, p. 1074). Portulaca villosa has more suitable climatic conditions. of P. stachyoides poses a threat to this been observed on the small islets of Although we cannot predict the timing, species at known locations on Maui and Kaula and Lehua (west of Kauai and extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, Molokai (PEPP 2014, pp. 140–142). On Niihau), and on Nihoa (NWHI); we do expect the effects of climate Maui, stochastic events such as floods however, the current status of these change to exacerbate the threats to P. and drought (with ensuing erosion) pose occurrences is unknown. This species villosa described above. a threat to small, isolated occurrences of has not been observed on Oahu since The remaining occurrences of P. stachyoides; rockfalls and landslides the 1960s, when it was locally abundant Portulaca villosa are at risk; the are a threat to occurrences on Molokai at Kaohikaipu Island (HBMP 2010). numbers of individuals are decreasing (PEPP 2014, pp. 140–142). This species Historically, on the island of Hawaii, on Maui, Molokai, and Hawaii Island, experiences reduced reproductive vigor this species occurred in the coastal area and the species continues to be due to reduced levels of genetic of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park west negatively affected by continued habitat variability, leading to diminished of Kamoamoa, but was extirpated in modification and destruction by feral capacity to adapt to environmental 1993 by lava flows (Orlando 2015, in ungulates and nonnative plants, and by changes, and thereby lessening the litt.). On the island of Lanai, two competition with nonnative plants. probability of long-term persistence individuals were last observed in 1996 Because of its small and isolated (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman (HBMP 2010). Currently, P. villosa is remaining occurrences, natural events and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Fortini et al. known from a few individuals on such as rockfalls, landslides, and (2013, p. 84) found that, as Molokai, 2 individuals on east Maui and wildfires may pose a threat to this environmental conditions are altered by 24 individuals on west Maui, fewer than species. The small number of remaining climate change, P. stachyoides is 15 individuals on Kahoolawe, and five individuals limits this species’ ability to

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adapt to environmental changes. The effects of climate change to exacerbate et al. (2013, p. 86) found that, as effects of climate change are likely to the threats to P. bakeri described above. environmental conditions are altered by further exacerbate these threats. Because Based on these threats, we find that this climate change, P. sandwicensium var. of these threats, we find that this species species is endangered throughout all of molokaiense is unlikely to tolerate or is endangered throughout all of its its range, and, therefore, find that it is adapt to projected changes in range, and, therefore, find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is temperature and moisture, and is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a unlikely to be able to move to areas with endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range. more suitable climatic conditions. significant portion of its range. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium Although we cannot predict the timing, Pritchardia bakeri (Baker’s loulu) is a var. molokaiense (enaena) is a perennial extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, small to medium-sized tree in the palm herb in the sunflower family we do expect the effects of climate family (Arecaceae) (Hodel 2009, pp. (Asteraceae) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. change to exacerbate the threats to P. 173–179; Hodel 2012, pp. 70–73). This 321). Typical habitat for this variety is sandwicensium var. molokaiense species occurs in the lowland mesic strand vegetation in dry consolidated described above. ecosystem in the Koolau Mountains on dunes, in the coastal ecosystem (Wagner The remaining occurrences of Oahu, from 1,500 to 2,100 ft (457 to 640 et al. 1999, p. 321; TNCH 2007; HBMP Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. m), in disturbed, windswept, and 2010). Historically, this variety was molokaiense on Molokai and Maui are mostly exposed shrubby or grassy areas, known from Molokai, Oahu, Maui, and at risk; individuals no longer occur on and sometimes on steep slopes in these Lanai (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in Oahu and Lanai. Occurrences on Maui areas (Bacon et al. 2012, pp. 1–17; litt.). Currently, P. sandwicensium var. and Molokai continue to be negatively Hodel 2012, pp. 71–73). Currently, molokaiense is known only from two affected by habitat modification and occurrences total fewer than 100 locations on Molokai (as many as 20,000 destruction by ungulates, and by direct individuals (Ching Harbin 2015, in litt.). individuals, depending on rainfall), and competition with nonnative plants. The Habitat modification and destruction from fewer than 25 individuals on the small number of remaining occurrences by feral pigs impact the range and northwest coast of Maui (Moses 2006, in limits this plant’s ability to adapt to abundance of Pritchardia bakeri. litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, environmental changes. The effects of Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as in litt.; Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). This climate change are likely to further game animals, but public hunting does variety was last observed on Lanai in exacerbate these threats. Because of not adequately control the numbers of 1960, and on Oahu (5 individuals) in these threats, we find that this variety is ungulates to eliminate habitat the 1980s (HBMP 2010). endangered throughout all of its range, modification and destruction or Goats and axis deer modify and and, therefore, find that it is herbivory by these animals (Anderson et destroy the habitat of unnecessary to analyze whether it is al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. endangered or threatened in a litt.). Nonnative plants compete with molokaiense, with evidence of the significant portion of its range. and degrade and destroy native habitat activities of these animals reported in Ranunculus hawaiensis (makou) is an of P. bakeri, and displace native plant the areas where this plant occurs (Moses erect or ascending perennial herb in the species by competing for water, 2006, in litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) nutrients, light, and space, or they may Kallstrom 2008, in litt; HBMP 2010). (Duncan 1999, p. 1088). Typical habitat produce chemicals that inhibit growth Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as is mesic forest on grassy slopes and of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180– game animals, but public hunting does scree, and in open pastures, from 6,000 250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy not adequately control the numbers of to 6,700 ft (1,800 to 2,000 m), in the and Stone 1990, p. 74). Stochastic ungulates to eliminate habitat montane mesic (Hawaii Island), events such as hurricanes modify and modification and destruction or montane dry (Hawaii Island), and destroy the habitat of P. bakeri, and can herbivory by these animals (Anderson et subalpine (Hawaii Island and Maui) directly damage or kill plants. Rats eat al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in ecosystems (Bio 2008a, in litt; Pratt the fruit before they mature, leading to litt.). Additionally, nonnative plants, 2007, in litt.; Duncan 1999, p. 1088; minimal or no recruitment (Hodel 2012, such as Atriplex semibaccata TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, pp. 42, 73). This species experiences (Australian saltbush), Chenopodium R. hawaiensis was wide-ranging on the reduced reproductive vigor due to low murale (aheahea, goosefoot), island of Hawaii. On Maui, this species levels of genetic variability caused by Pennisetum ciliare, Prosopis pallida, was known from Haleakala National seed predation by rats and widely and Setaria parviflora (foxtail), compete Park (HBMP 2010). In the 1980s and separated occurrences, leading to with and displace native plant species 1990s, this species numbered several diminished capacity to adapt to by competing for water, nutrients, light, hundred individuals on both islands. environmental changes, and thereby and space, or they may produce Currently, there are six occurrences lessening the probability of long-term chemicals that inhibit growth of other totaling 14 individuals on Hawaii Island persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; (Bio 2008a, in litt.; PEPP 2008, p. 108; 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Pratt 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Hodel 2012, p. 73). Stone 1990, p. 74; Moses 2006, in litt.). Agorastos 2011, in litt.; Imoto 2013, in The remaining occurrences of This variety experiences reduced litt.; Orlando 2015, in litt.). On Maui, a Pritchardia bakeri are at risk; the known reproductive vigor due to low levels of few individuals were observed on a cliff individuals are restricted to small areas genetic variability, leading to in 1994; however, this occurrence was on Oahu, and continue to be negatively diminished capacity to adapt to not relocated in further surveys (PEPP affected by habitat degradation and loss environmental changes, and thereby 2013, p. 177). Additionally, no by feral pigs and nonnative plants, fruit lessening the probability of long-term individuals were re-observed in predation by rats, and the small number persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. Haleakala National Park (DLNR 2006, p. and reduced range of remaining 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). 61). individuals. Although we cannot Rockfalls and landslides are a threat to Feral pigs, mouflon, and cattle modify predict the timing, extent, or magnitude the occurrence of this variety on a sea and destroy the habitat of Ranunculus of specific impacts, we do expect the cliff on west Maui (HBMP 2010). Fortini hawaiensis on Hawaii Island, with

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evidence of the activities of these is open sites in mesic to wet forest and due to low levels of genetic variability, animals reported in the areas where this along streams, from 3,500 to 5,600 ft leading to diminished capacity to adapt species occurs (HBMP 2010). These (1,060 to 1,700 m), in the montane wet to environmental changes, thereby ungulates also forage on R. hawaiensis. (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui), lessening the probability of its long-term Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as montane mesic (Kauai, Molokai, Maui, persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. game animals, but public hunting does and Hawaii Island), and wet cliff 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). not adequately control the numbers of (Molokai and Maui) ecosystems Fortini et al. (2013, p. 86) found that, as ungulates to eliminate habitat (Duncan 1999, p. 1089; TNCH 2007; environmental conditions are altered by modification and destruction or HBMP 2010). Historically, R. mauiensis climate change, R. mauiensis is unlikely herbivory by these animals (Anderson et was known from Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, to tolerate or adapt to projected changes al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Maui, and Hawaii (HBMP 2010). Oahu in temperature and moisture, and is litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Ehrharta occurrences have not been observed unlikely to be able to move to areas with stipoides (meadow ricegrass), Holcus since the 1800s, and Hawaii Island more suitable climatic conditions. lanatus (common velvetgrass), and occurrences have not been observed Although we cannot predict the timing, various grasses, modify and destroy since 1980 (HBMP 2010). Currently, R. extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, native habitat, outcompete native mauiensis is known from Kauai (53 we do expect the effects of climate plants, and have been reported in areas individuals) and east Maui (112 change to exacerbate the threats to R. where R. hawaiensis occurs (HBMP individuals). Two individuals formerly mauiensis described above. 2010). Drought and erosion pose a threat known from Molokai have not been The remaining occurrences of in the areas of the last known observed on recent surveys (Bily 2007, Ranunculus mauiensis are at risk, the occurrences of R. hawaiensis on Maui in litt.; Perlman 2007a, in litt.; Wood known individuals are restricted to (PEPP 2013, p. 177). This species 2007b, in litt.; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2010, small areas on Kauai and Maui, and experiences reduced reproductive vigor p. 105; Bakutis 2011, in litt.; PEPP 2011, continue to be negatively affected by due to low levels of genetic variability, p. 161; PEPP 2013, p. 177; Oppenheimer habitat modification and destruction by leading to diminished capacity to adapt 2015, in litt.). ungulates, direct competition with nonnative plants, and herbivory and to environmental changes, and thereby Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, black- lessening the probability of long-term predation by slugs and rats. Because of tailed deer, and cattle modify and persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. its small, isolated occurrences, destroy the habitat of Ranunculus 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). landslides, drought, and erosion also mauiensis on Kauai, Molokai, and Maui, Fortini et al. (2013, p. 86) found that, as negatively affect this species. The small with evidence of the activities of these environmental conditions are altered by number of remaining individuals limits animals reported in the areas where this climate change, R. hawaiensis is this species’ ability to adapt to species occurs (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected environmental changes. The effects of pp. 155–156). Ungulates are managed in changes in temperature and moisture, climate change are likely to further Hawaii as game animals (except for and is unlikely to be able to move to exacerbate these threats. Because of cattle), but public hunting does not areas with more suitable climatic these threats, we find that this species conditions. Although we cannot predict adequately control the numbers of is endangered throughout all of its the timing, extent, or magnitude of ungulates to eliminate habitat range, and, therefore, find that it is specific impacts, we do expect the modification and destruction or unnecessary to analyze whether it is effects of climate change to exacerbate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et endangered or threatened in a the threats to R. hawaiensis described al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in significant portion of its range. above. litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Sanicula sandwicensis (NCN) is a The remaining occurrences of Buddleja asiatica (dog tail), Clidemia stout, erect, perennial herb in the Ranunculus hawaiensis are at risk; the hirta, Erigeron karvinskianus, parsley family (Apiaceae) (Constance known individuals are restricted to Hedychium gardnerianum, Lantana and Affolter 1999, p. 210). This species small areas on Hawaii Island and camara, Passiflora edulis (passion fruit), occurs from 6,500 to 8,500 ft (2,000 to continue to be negatively affected by P. tarminiana, Psidium cattleianum, 2,600 m) in shrubland and woodland on habitat modification and destruction by Rubus argutus, R. rosifolius, and the islands of Maui and Hawaii Island, feral ungulates, and by direct Tibouchina herbacea, modify and in the montane mesic (Hawaii Island competition with nonnative plants, destroy the native habitat of Ranunculus and Maui), montane dry (Hawaii combined with predation by ungulates. mauiensis and displace native plant Island), and subalpine (Hawaii Island Drought and erosion pose a threat in the species by competing for water, and Maui) ecosystems (Constance and areas of the last known occurrences on nutrients, light, and space; they may Affolter 1999, p. 210; TNCH 2007; Maui. The small number of remaining also produce chemicals that inhibit the NTBG Database 2014, in litt.). Sanicula individuals limits this species’ ability to growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. sandwicensis is historically known from adapt to environmental changes. The 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Haleakala on Maui and from Mauna effects of climate change are likely to Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai on further exacerbate these threats. Because 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 155). Herbivory by Hawaii Island (Constance and Affolter of these threats, we find that this species slugs (Maui) and seed predation by rats 1999, p. 210). Currently, there are more is endangered throughout all of its (Maui, Kauai) are both reported as than 50 individuals of S. sandwicensis range, and, therefore, find that it is threats to R. mauiensis (HBMP 2010; on east and west Maui (MNTF 2010, in unnecessary to analyze whether it is PEPP 2014, pp. 154–155). Stochastic litt.; PEPP 2011, pp. 162–164; endangered or threatened in a events such as drought (Maui), Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). In 2008, an significant portion of its range. landslides (Kauai), and fire (Maui) are occurrence of fewer than 20 individuals Ranunculus mauiensis (makou) is an also reported as threats to R. mauiensis was found in Hawaii Volcanoes erect to weakly ascending perennial (HBMP 2010). Erosion is a threat to National Park (Benitez et al. 2008, p. herb in the buttercup family occurrences on Maui and Kauai (PEPP 59). Following ungulate removal, this (Ranunculaceae) (Duncan 1999, p. 2014, pp. 155–156). This species occurrence increased to as many as 45 1089). Typical habitat for R. mauiensis experiences reduced reproductive vigor individuals, with many juvenile plants

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(Orlando 2015, in litt.). A single competition with nonnative plants. genetic variability, leading to individual was found farther east at Stochastic events such as drought, diminished capacity to adapt to about 7,400 ft (Orlando 2015, in litt.). flooding, erosion, and fires are threats to environmental changes, thereby Feral pigs and goats modify and this species. The small number of lessening the probability of its long-term destroy the habitat of Sanicula remaining individuals limits this persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. sandwicensis on Maui, with evidence of species’ ability to adapt to 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). the activities of these animals reported environmental changes. The effects of The remaining occurrences of in the areas where this species occurs climate change are likely to further Santalum involutum are at risk; the (PEPP 2011, pp. 162–164; Oppenheimer exacerbate these threats. Because of known individuals are restricted to a 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in these threats, we find that this species small area on Kauai and continue to be Hawaii as game animals, but public is endangered throughout all of its negatively affected by habitat hunting does not adequately control the range, and, therefore, find that it is modification and destruction by numbers of ungulates to eliminate unnecessary to analyze whether it is ungulates, direct competition with habitat modification and destruction or endangered or threatened in a nonnative plants, and by herbivory and herbivory by these animals (Anderson et significant portion of its range. fruit predation by rats. The small al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Santalum involutum (iliahi) is a shrub number of remaining individuals limits litt.). Nonnative plants modify and or small tree in the sandalwood family this species’ ability to adapt to destroy the habitat of S. sandwicensis (Santalaceae) (Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp. environmental changes. Although we and displace native plant species by 827–838). Habitat for S. involutum is cannot predict the timing, extent, or competing for water, nutrients, light, mesic and wet forest on Kauai, from 400 magnitude of specific impacts, we do and space; they may also produce to 2,500 ft (120 to 750 m), in the expect the effects of climate change to chemicals that inhibit the growth of lowland mesic and lowland wet exacerbate the threats to S. involutum other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; ecosystems (TNCH 2007; Harbaugh et described above. Because of these Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and al. 2010, pp. 827–838). Historically, this threats, we find that this species is Stone 1990, p. 74; PEPP 2011, pp. 162– species was known from northern Kauai endangered throughout all of its range, 164). Those nonnative plants observed at Kee, Hanakapiai, and Wainiha, and and, therefore, find that it is to directly affect S. sandwicensis and its from southern Kauai at Wahiawa, but unnecessary to analyze whether it is habitat are Ageratina adenophora, has not been observed in these areas for endangered or threatened in a Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet 30 years (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 835). significant portion of its range. vernalgrass), Epilobium ciliatum Currently, approximately 50 to 100 Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (NCN) is (willow herb), Holcus lanatus (common individuals occur in isolated forest a reclining or weakly climbing vine in velvetgrass), Pinus spp., Prunella pockets on Kauai (Harbaugh et al. 2010, the pink family (Caryophyllaceae) vulgaris, and Rubus argutus (PEPP 2011, p. 835; Wood 2015, in litt.). (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 511–512; pp. 162–164). Stochastic events such as Feral pigs and goats modify and Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 103–106). drought, flooding, and fires are all destroy the habitat of Santalum Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa occurs in reported to pose threats to this species involutum on Kauai, with evidence of wet forest from 3,000 to 5,300 ft (915 to (PEPP 2011, pp. 162–164). Erosion is a the activities of these animals reported 1,600 m) on Molokai, and to 6,700 ft threat to occurrences on Maui (PEPP in the areas where this species occurs (2,050 m) on Maui, in the lowland wet 2011, pp. 162–163). Herbivory by rats (Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp. 835–836; (Maui) and montane wet (Maui and also is a threat because they eat the Wood 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are Molokai) ecosystems (Wagner et al. taproot, killing the plant (Oppenheimer managed in Hawaii as game animals, 1999, p. 512; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). 2015, in litt.). This species experiences but public hunting does not adequately Historically, on Molokai, this subspecies reduced reproductive vigor due to low control the numbers of ungulates to was known from Kawela to Waikolu levels of genetic variability, leading to eliminate habitat modification and valleys, and on Maui it was wide- diminished capacity to adapt to destruction or herbivory by these ranging on both the east and west environmental changes, thereby animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; mountains (Wagner et al. 2005, p. 106). lessening the probability of its long-term HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative Currently, S. diffusa ssp. diffusa is persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. plants modify and destroy the native known only from east Maui in scattered 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). habitat of S. involutum and displace occurrences (fewer than 50 individuals Fortini et al. (2013, p. 88) found that, as native plant species by competing for total), in a much smaller range, with environmental conditions are altered by water, nutrients, light, and space; they some remaining in Haleakala National climate change, S. sandwicensis is may also produce chemicals that inhibit Park (HBMP 2010; Gates 2015, in litt.). unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, Two occurrences were observed within changes in temperature and moisture, pp. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Hanawi NAR in 2005; however, their and is unlikely to be able to move to Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP current status is unknown (Vetter 2015, areas with more suitable climatic 2010). Nonnative plants reported to in litt.). On Molokai, there were two conditions. Although we cannot predict modify and destroy habitat of S. occurrences totaling fewer than 10 the timing, extent, or magnitude of involutum include Clidemia hirta, individuals; however, these have not specific impacts, we do expect the Hedychium gardnerianum, Lantana been seen since the 1990s (HBMP 2010; effects of climate change to exacerbate camara, Melinis minutiflora, Psidium Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). the threats to S. sandwicensis described cattleianum, P. guajava, and Rubus Feral pigs modify and destroy the above. argutus (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 836). habitat of Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa The remaining occurrences of Herbivory and seed predation by rats is on Maui and Molokai, with evidence of Sanicula sandwicensis are at risk; the a threat to this species (Harbaugh et al. the activities of these animals reported known individuals are restricted to 2010, p. 836; Wood 2015, in litt.). in the areas where this subspecies small areas on Maui and Hawaii Island Wildfire is a threat to this species in occurs (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 159). and continue to be negatively affected mesic areas (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as by habitat modification and destruction 836). This species experiences reduced game animals, but public hunting does by feral pigs and goats and by direct reproductive vigor due to low levels of not adequately control the numbers of

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ungulates to eliminate habitat not been observed since 1922; on Maui, move to areas with more suitable modification and destruction or it was known from the western climatic conditions. Although we herbivory by these animals (Anderson et mountains at Olowalu, Kaanapali, and cannot predict the timing, extent, or al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Waihee, with a possible occurrence the magnitude of specific impacts, we do litt.). Nonnative plants, such as eastern mountains at Makawao (HBMP expect the effects of climate change to Adiantum raddianum (NCN), Ageratina 2010). Currently, this species is known exacerbate the threats to S. pubescens adenophora, Hypochaeris radicata from one occurrence on Molokai described above. (hairy cat’s ear), Juncus planifolius totaling fewer than 30 individuals. The The remaining occurrences of (rush), Passiflora tarminiana, Prunella occurrence on east Maui has not been Schiedea pubescens are at risk. The vulgaris, Rubus argutus, and R. re-observed, but this species is found at known individuals are restricted to rosifolius, modify and destroy the native seven locations on west Maui (Wood small areas on Molokai and Maui, and habitat of S. diffusa ssp. diffusa and 2001, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, in litt.; continue to be negatively affected by displace native plant species by Bakutis 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; habitat modification and destruction by competing for water, nutrients, light, MNTF 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010, ungulates, direct competition with and space; they may also produce in litt.; PEPP 2014, pp. 162–163; nonnative plants, and herbivory and chemicals that inhibit the growth of Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). It was predation by slugs and rats. Landslides, other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; determined that the report of 4 to 6 flooding, fire, and drought impact this Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and individuals of S. pubescens at the PTA species. The small number of remaining Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010; PEPP on Hawaii Island was a individuals limits this species’ ability to 2014, p. 159). Herbivory by slugs and misidentification of individuals from adapt to environmental changes. The seed predation by rats are both reported the species Schiedea hawaiiensis effects of climate change are likely to as threats to this subspecies (HBMP (Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 93, 95). further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 159; Duvall 2015, Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle is endangered throughout all of its in litt.). This subspecies experiences modify and destroy the habitat of range, and, therefore, find that it is reduced reproductive vigor due to low Schiedea pubescens on Maui and unnecessary to analyze whether it is levels of genetic variability, leading to Molokai, with evidence of the activities diminished capacity to adapt to endangered or threatened in a of these animals reported in the areas environmental changes, thereby significant portion of its range. where this species occurs (HBMP 2010; lessening the probability of its long-term Sicyos lanceoloideus (anunu) is a PEPP 2014, p. 162). Ungulates are persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. perennial vine in the gourd family managed in Hawaii as game animals 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). (Cucurbitaceae) (Telford 1999, p. 581; The remaining occurrences of (except for cattle), but public hunting Wagner and Shannon 1999, p. 444). Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa are at risk. does not adequately control the Sicyos lanceoloideus occurs on ridges or The known individuals are restricted to numbers of ungulates to eliminate spurs in mesic forest from 1,800 to 2,700 small areas on Maui and continue to be habitat modification and destruction or ft (550 to 800 m), in the dry cliff (Oahu), negatively affected by habitat herbivory by these animals (Anderson et lowland mesic (Oahu, Kauai), and modification and destruction by al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in montane mesic (Kauai) ecosystems ungulates, direct competition with litt.). Nonnative plants, such as (Telford 1999, p. 581; TNCH 2007; nonnative plants, and herbivory and Buddleja asiatica, Cestrum nocturnum HBMP 2010). Sicyos lanceoloideus was predation by slugs and rats. The small (night cestrum), Clidemia hirta, Erigeron historically found at Kalalau Valley and number of remaining individuals limits karvinskianus, Psidium cattleianum, Waimea Canyon on Kauai and in the this subspecies’ ability to adapt to Rubus rosifolius, and Tibouchina Waianae Mountains on Oahu (Telford environmental changes. Although we herbacea, modify and destroy the native 1999, p. 581). Currently, on Kauai, there cannot predict the timing, extent, or habitat of S. pubescens and displace are four individuals in three locations magnitude of specific impacts, we do native plant species by competing for (Kishida 2015, in litt.). On Oahu, this expect the effects of climate change to water, nutrients, light, and space; they species occurs in 5 locations in the exacerbate the threats to S. diffusa ssp. may also produce chemicals that inhibit Waianae Mountains totaling fewer than diffusa described above. Because of the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, 35 individuals (HBMP 2010; U.S. Army these threats, we find that this pp. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in 2014 database). Because this species is subspecies is endangered throughout all Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP a vine, determining exact numbers is of its range, and, therefore, find that it 2010; PEPP 2014, pp. 162–163). difficult (PEPP 2013, p. 189). In is unnecessary to analyze whether it is Herbivory by slugs and seed predation addition, occurrences and numbers vary endangered or threatened in a by rats are both reported to be threats to widely as individuals have been significant portion of its range. S. pubescens on Maui (HBMP 2010; observed to persist for fewer than 7 Schiedea pubescens (maolioli) is a PEPP 2014, p. 162; Duvall 2015, in litt.). years (Sailer 2015, in litt.). reclining or weakly climbing vine in the Stochastic events such as drought, Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer pink family (Caryophyllaceae) (Wagner erosion, fire, and flooding are also modify and destroy the habitat of Sicyos et al. 1999, p. 519; Wagner et al. 2005, reported as threats to S. pubescens lanceoloideus on Kauai and Oahu, with pp. 99–102). This species occurs in (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 162; evidence of the activities of these diverse mesic to wet Metrosideros forest Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.). This animals reported in the areas where this from 2,000 to 4,000 ft (640 to 1,220 m) species is outcrossing; however, very species occurs (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2013, in the lowland wet, montane wet, low population sizes may have reduced p. 189; PEPP 2014, p. 166; Williams montane mesic, and wet cliff its genetic variation (Weller 2015, in 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, 519; litt.). Fortini et al. (2013, p. 88) found Hawaii as game animals, but public Wagner et al. 2005, p 100; TNCH 2007; that, as environmental conditions are hunting does not adequately control the HBMP 2010). Historically, on Molokai, altered by climate change, S. pubescens numbers of ungulates to eliminate this species was known from Kalae to is unlikely to tolerate or adapt to habitat modification and destruction or Pukoo ridge; on Lanai, it was known projected changes in temperature and herbivory by these animals (Anderson et from the Lanaihale summit area but has moisture, and is unlikely to be able to al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in

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litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Wagner and Shannon 1999, p. 444). changes in temperature and moisture, Clidemia hirta, Lantana camara, Melia Typical habitat is wet Metrosideros and is unlikely to be able to move to azedarach (chinaberry), Paspalum polymorpha forest and Sophora areas with more suitable climatic urvillei (vasey grass), Passiflora edulis, chrysophylla-Myoporum sandwicense conditions. Although we cannot predict Pluchea carolinensis (sourbush), (mamane-naio) forest, from 4,000 to the timing, extent, or magnitude of Psidium cattleianum, P. guajava, 6,600 ft (1,200 to 2,000 m) in the specific impacts, we do expect the Ricinus communis (castor bean), Rubus montane mesic (Hawaii Island), effects of climate change to exacerbate argutus, Schinus terebinthifolius, and montane wet (Maui), and montane dry the threats to S. macrophyllus described Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, modify and (Hawaii Island) ecosystems (Telford above. destroy the native habitat of Sicyos 1999, p. 578; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The remaining occurrences of Sicyos lanceoloideus, and displace native plant Historically, S. macrophyllus was macrophyllus are at risk. The only species by competing for water, known from Puuwaawaa, Laupahoehoe, known individuals are restricted to nutrients, light, and space; they may Puna, and South Kona on Hawaii Island, small areas on Hawaii Island and also produce chemicals that inhibit the and from Kipahulu Valley on the island continue to be negatively affected growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. of Maui (HBMP 2010). Currently, S. habitat modification and destruction by 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in macrophyllus is known from 10 ungulates, direct competition with Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP occurrences totaling between 24 and 26 nonnative plants, and seed predation by 2010; Sailer 2015, in litt.). Drought is individuals on Hawaii Island (Bio 2008, rats. Fire is also a threat to this species. also reported as a threat to S. pers. comm.; Pratt 2008, in litt.; HBMP The small number of remaining lanceoloideus (PEPP 2014, p. 166; 2010; Evans 2015b, in litt.; Orlando individuals limits this species’ ability to HBMP 2010; Sailer 2015, in litt.). Fires 2015, in litt.). This species has been adapt to environmental changes. The are a threat to the occurrence in the outplanted at several sites in Hawaii effects of climate change are likely to Waianae Mountains of Oahu (Sailer Volcanoes National Park and is further exacerbate these threats. Because 2015, in litt.). Because of the small persisting (Orlando 2015, in litt.). The of these threats, we find that this species remaining number of individuals, this individual on Maui has not been is endangered throughout all of its species experiences reduced observed since 1987 (HBMP 2010). range, and, therefore, find that it is reproductive vigor due to low levels of unnecessary to analyze whether it is Feral pigs, mouflon, and cattle modify genetic variability, leading to endangered or threatened in a and destroy the habitat of Sicyos diminished capacity to adapt to significant portion of its range. macrophyllus on the island of Hawaii, environmental changes, thereby Solanum nelsonii (popolo) is a with evidence of the activities of these lessening the probability of its long-term sprawling or trailing shrub up to 3 ft (1 animals reported in the areas where this persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. m) tall, in the nightshade family species occurs (HBMP 2010). Ungulates 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). (Solanaceae) (Symon 1999, pp. 1273– are managed in Hawaii as game animals Fortini et al. (2013, p. 89) found that, as 1274). Typical habitat for this species is (except for cattle), but public hunting environmental conditions are altered by coral rubble or sand in coastal sites up does not adequately control the climate change, S. lanceoloideus is to 490 ft (150 m), in the coastal unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected numbers of ungulates to eliminate ecosystem (Symon 1999, pp. 1273–1274; changes in temperature and moisture, habitat modification and destruction or TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, and is unlikely to be able to move to herbivory by these animals (Anderson et S. nelsonii was known from Kaalualu, areas with more suitable climatic al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in Kamilo, and Kaulana Bay, and South conditions. Although we cannot predict litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Point (5 individuals total) on Hawaii the timing, extent, or magnitude of Cenchrus setaceus, Delairea odorata Island; from Kealea Bay, Kawaewaae, specific impacts, we do expect the (German ivy), Ehrharta stipoides, and and Leahi on Niihau; and from the effects of climate change to exacerbate Pennisetum clandestinum, modify and Northwest Hawaiian Islands of Nihoa, the threats to S. lanceoloideus described destroy the native habitat of S. Laysan, Pearl and Hermes, and Kure above. macrophyllus and displace native plant Atoll (Green Island) (Lamoureux 1963, The remaining occurrences of Sicyos species by competing for water, p. 6; Clapp et al. 1977, p. 36; HBMP lanceoloideus are at risk. The known nutrients, light, and space; they may 2010). This species was last collected on individuals are restricted to small areas also produce chemicals that inhibit the Niihau in 1949 (HBMP 2010). The only on Kauai and Oahu and continue to be growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. known individual on Maui was reported negatively affected by habitat 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in to have disappeared in the mid-1990s modification and destruction by Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP after cattle had been allowed to graze in ungulates, direct competition with 2010). Seed predation by rats is reported its last known habitat (HBMP 2010; nonnative plants, and stochastic events to pose a threat to this species (HBMP Duvall 2015, in litt.). Currently, S. such as drought and fire. The small 2010). Stochastic events such as fire are nelsonii occurs in the coastal ecosystem number of remaining individuals limits also reported as a threat to S. on the islands of Hawaii and Molokai this species’ ability to adapt to macrophyllus (HBMP 2010). This (approximately 50 individuals), and on environmental change. The effects of species experiences reduced the Northwest Hawaiian Islands of Kure climate change are likely to further reproductive vigor due to low levels of (an unknown number of individuals), exacerbate these threats. Because of genetic variability, leading to Midway (approximately 260 individuals these threats, we find that this species diminished capacity to adapt to on Sand, Eastern, and Spit islands), is endangered throughout all of its environmental changes, thereby Laysan (approximately 490 individuals), range, and, therefore, find that it is lessening the probability of its long-term Pearl and Hermes (30 to 100 unnecessary to analyze whether it is persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. individuals), and Nihoa (8,000 to 15,000 endangered or threatened in a 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). individuals) (Aruch 2006, in litt.; significant portion of its range. Fortini et al. (2013, p. 89) found that, as Rehkemper 2006, in litt.; Tangalin 2006, Sicyos macrophyllus (anunu) is a environmental conditions are altered by in litt.; Bio 2008 a and 2008b, in litt.; perennial vine in the gourd family climate change, S. macrophyllus is Vanderlip 2011, in litt.; Conry 2012, in (Cucurbitaceae) (Telford 1999, p. 578; unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected litt.; PEPP 2013, pp. 190–191).

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Axis deer and feral cattle modify and exacerbate the threats to S. nelsonii modification, and herbivory by these destroy the habitat of Solanum nelsonii described above. animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; on the main Hawaiian islands of Maui, The remaining occurrences of HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative Molokai, and Hawaii, with evidence of Solanum nelsonii on the main Hawaiian plants, such as Blechnum the activities of these animals reported Islands are restricted to small areas of appendiculatum (NCN), Clidemia hirta, in the areas where this species occurs Molokai and Hawaii Island, and Cyclosorus parasiticus (NCN), Psidium (HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in continue to be negatively affected by cattleianum, and Rubus rosifolius, Hawaii as game animals (except for habitat modification and destruction by destroy and modify the native habitat of cattle), but public hunting does not ungulates, direct competition with S. kaalae ssp. sherffii and displace adequately control the numbers of nonnative plants, and herbivory and native plant species by competing for ungulates to eliminate habitat predation by rats. Even though most water, nutrients, light, and space; they modification and destruction, and individuals of S. nelsonii in the may also produce chemicals that inhibit herbivory by these animals (Anderson et Northwestern Hawaii Islands are found the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in on lands managed by the Service as part pp. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in litt.). Nonnative plants, such as Lantana of the Hawaiian Islands National Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP camara, Leucaena leucocephala, Wildlife Refuge, the relatively isolated 2010). This subspecies experiences Pennisetum ciliare, Prosopis pallida, occurrences of S. nelsonii there are reduced reproductive vigor due to low and Setaria verticillata (bristly foxtail), negatively affected by nonnative plants. levels of genetic variability, leading to modify and destroy the native habitat of The small number of remaining diminished capacity to adapt to individuals limits this species’ ability to S. nelsonii both on the main Hawaiian environmental changes, thereby adapt to environmental changes. A Islands and on some of the Northwest lessening the probability of its long-term tsunami occurred and impacted habitat Hawaiian Islands (HBMP 2010). persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. for this species, and sea level rise Nonnative plants displace native plant 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). associated with global warming will species by competing for water, Fortini et al. (2013, p. 90) found that, as modify and destroy habitat for S. nutrients, light, and space, or they may environmental conditions are altered by nelsonii in the low-lying Northwestern produce chemicals that inhibit the climate change, S. kaalae ssp. sherffii is Hawaiian Islands. Because of these growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. unlikely to tolerate or adapt to projected threats, we find that this species is 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in changes in temperature and moisture, endangered throughout all of its range, and is unlikely to be able to move to Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; PEPP and, therefore, find that it is 2008, p. 110; HBMP 2010). Seed areas with more suitable climatic unnecessary to analyze whether it is conditions. Although we cannot predict predation by rats has been reported as endangered or threatened in a a threat to S. nelsonii on Molokai (PEPP the timing, extent, or magnitude of significant portion of its range. specific impacts, we do expect the 2014, p. 167). Stochastic events such as Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii (NCN) effects of climate change to exacerbate drought, erosion, fire, and flooding are is a climbing vine in the mint family the threats to S. kaalae ssp. sherffii also reported as threats to S. nelsonii (Lamiaceae) (Wagner and Weller 1999, described above. (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 167). In pp. 448–449; Weller and Sakai 1999, p. 2011, a tsunami swept over Midway 838). This species occurs in the Koolau Any remaining occurrences of Atoll’s Eastern Island and Kure Atoll’s Mountains of Oahu, in diverse forest Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii are at risk; Green Island, inundating S. nelsonii from 1,500 to 1,600 ft (450 to 490 m) in the last known wild individuals were plants, spreading plastic debris, and the lowland wet ecosystem (Wagner and restricted to a very small area on Oahu, destroying seabird nesting areas, Weller 1999, pp. 448–449; TNCH 2007; and the habitat continues to be reaching about 500 ft (150 m) inland HBMP 2010; U.S. Army 2014 database). negatively affected by habitat (DOFAW 2011, in litt.; Starr 2011, in Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii is modification and destruction by litt.; USFWS 2011, in litt.). Occurrences historically known from diverse mesic ungulates and direct competition with of this species on the main Hawaiian forest in the Waianae Mountains of nonnative plants. The small number of Islands and on some of the Northwest Oahu, and from the lowland wet remaining individuals (outplanted only) Hawaiian Islands experience reduced ecosystem of the Koolau Mountains limits this subspecies’ ability to adapt to reproductive vigor due to low levels of (although, as described in the proposed environmental changes. The effects of genetic variability, leading to rule, it was thought to be a different climate change are likely to further diminished capacity to adapt to species, S. sherffii, until the mid-1990s). exacerbate these threats. Because of environmental changes, thereby This subspecies occurred within a very these threats, we find that this lessening the probability of its long-term small range in the northern Koolau subspecies is endangered throughout all persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. Mountains, but now all wild individuals of its range, and, therefore, find that it 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). are extirpated. There are propagules is unnecessary to analyze whether it is The effects of climate change resulting from collections from those plants that endangered or threatened in a in sea-level rise will alter environmental have been outplanted in the same areas significant portion of its range. conditions and ecosystem that support (PEPP 2014, p. 169; Ching Harbin 2015, Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (akia) is a this species. Fortini et al. (2013, p. 89) in litt.). shrub or small tree in the akia family found that, as environmental conditions Feral pigs modify and destroy the (Thymelaceae) (Peterson 1999, p. 1290). are altered by climate change, S. habitat of Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii Wikstroemia skottsbergiana occurs in nelsonii is unlikely to tolerate or adapt on Oahu, with evidence of the activities wet forest on the island of Kauai, in the to projected changes in temperature and of these animals reported in the areas lowland wet ecosystem (Peterson 1999, moisture, and is unlikely to be able to where this subspecies occurred (HBMP p. 1290; TNCH 2007). Wikstroemia move to areas with more suitable 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 169). Ungulates are skottsbergiana is historically known climatic conditions. Although we managed in Hawaii as game animals, from the Wahiawa Mountains, Hanalei cannot predict the timing, extent, or but public hunting does not adequately Valley, and Kauhao Valley, on the magnitude of specific impacts, we do control the numbers of ungulates to island of Kauai (Peterson 1999, p. 1290). expect the effects of climate change to eliminate habitat destruction and Currently, this species is limited to 30

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individuals at one location (PEPP 2012, Hemisphere subfamily Hyrdrobatinae levels and distribution, the band- p. 26; Wood 2015, in litt.). (Slotterback 2002, p. 2). This seabird is rumped storm-petrel appears to be Feral pigs and goats destroy and found in several areas of the subtropical significantly reduced in numbers and modify the habitat of Wikstroemia Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (del Hoyo et range following human occupation of skottsbergiana on Kauai, with evidence al. 1992 in Bird Life International 2015, the Hawaiian Islands, likely as a result of the activities of these animals in litt.). The Atlantic breeding of predation by nonnative mammals and reported in the areas where this species populations are restricted to islands in habitat loss. occurs (DLNR 2005, in litt.; Wood 2015, the eastern portions: Cape Verde, Taxonomists have typically combined in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Ascension, Madeira, and the Azores the Pacific populations of band-rumped Hawaii as game animals, but public Islands (Allan 1962, p. 274; Harrison storm-petrel into a single taxon, and hunting does not adequately control the 1983, p. 274). Wintering birds may currently the American Ornithologist’s numbers of ungulates to eliminate occur as far west as the mid-Atlantic; Union (AOU) regards the species as habitat destruction and modification or however, Atlantic breeding populations monotypic (2015, in litt.). However, herbivory by these animals (Anderson et are not within the borders of the United molecular studies are ongoing and al. 2007, in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in States or in areas under U.S. indicate genetic differences between litt.). Nonnative plants destroy and jurisdiction. Three widely separated populations in different oceans and modify the native habitat of W. breeding areas occur in the Pacific: in archipelagos (Friesen et al. 2007b, pp. skottsbergiana and displace native plant Japan, Hawaii, and Galapagos 18590–18952; Smith et al. 2007, p. 770; species by competing for water, (Richardson 1957, p. 19; Harris 1969, p. Taylor et al., in prep in Raine 2015, in nutrients, light, and space; they may 96; Harrison 1983, p. 274). The Japanese litt.) and between sympatric populations also produce chemicals that inhibit the population, which breeds on islets off that breed in different seasons (e.g., in growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. the east coast of Japan (Hidejima and the Galapagos Islands; Smith and 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Sanganjima in Allan 1962, p. 274; Harris Friesen 2007, pp. 1599–1560; Smith et Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 1969, p. 96), ranges within 860 mi al. 2007, p. 756). 2010). Predation of seeds by rats is a (1,400 km) east and south of the Band-rumped storm-petrels are threat to this species (DLNR 2005, in breeding colonies. Populations in Japan regularly observed in coastal waters and Galapagos total as many as 23,000 litt.). Landslides are a threat to the only around Kauai, Niihau, and Hawaii pairs (Boersma and Groom 1993, p. known occurrence of this species (Wood Island (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; 114); however, a recent survey on 2015, in litt.). This species experiences Holmes and Joyce 2009, 4 pp.), and in Hidejima Island revealed only 117 reduced reproductive vigor due to low ‘‘rafts’’ (regular concentrations) of a few burrows, some of which were occupied levels of genetic variability, leading to birds to as many as 100, possibly by Leach’s storm petrels (Oceanodroma diminished capacity to adapt to awaiting nightfall before coming ashore leucorhoa) (Biodiversity Center of Japan environmental changes, thereby to breeding colonies. Kauai likely has 2014, p. 1). Surveyors noted that the lessening the probability of its long-term the largest population, with an nesting area had been affected by persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. estimated 221 nesting pairs in cliffs extensive erosion caused by the 2011 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; along the north shore of the island in DLNR 2005, in litt.). earthquake and tsunami (Biodiversity Center of Japan 2014, p. 1). 2002, and additional observations on The remaining occurrences of the north and south side of the island Wikstroemia skottsbergiana are at risk. When Polynesians arrived about 1,500 years ago, the band-rumped storm-petrel in 2010 (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; The known individuals are restricted to Wood et al. 2002, pp. 2–3; Holmes and a very small area on Kauai and continue probably was common on all of the main Hawaiian Islands (Harrison et al. Joyce 2009, 4 pp.; Joyce and Holmes to be negatively affected by habitat 2010, pp. 1–3). Audio detections for modification and destruction by 1990, pp. 47–48). As evidenced by bones found in middens on Hawaii Kauai indicate this species may be ungulates, direct competition with predominantly breeding on the Na Pali nonnative plants, and seed predation by Island (Harrison et al. 1990, pp. 47–48) and in excavation sites on Oahu and coast and Waimea Canyon, with a very rats. The small number of remaining small number in Wainiha Valley (Raine individuals limits this species’ ability to Molokai (Olson and James 1982, pp. 30, 33), band-rumped storm-petrels were 2015, in litt.). The band-rumped storm- adapt to environmental changes. petrel is also known from Lehua Island Although we cannot predict the timing, once numerous enough to be harvested for food and possibly for their feathers (as detected there by auditory surveys) extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, (VanderWerf et al. 2007, p.1; Raine we do expect the effects of climate (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 48). In Hawaii, band-rumped storm-petrels 2015, in litt.), Maui (Mitchell et al. 2005, change to exacerbate the threats to W. are known to nest in remote cliff in litt.), Kahoolawe (Olson 1992, pp. 38, skottsbergiana described above. Because locations on Kauai and Lehua Island, in 112), Lanai (Penniman 2015, in litt.) and of these threats, we find that this species steep open to vegetated cliffs, and in Hawaii Island (Mitchell et al. 2005, in is endangered throughout all of its little vegetated, high-elevation lava litt.; Orlando 2015, in litt.). Additional range, and, therefore, find that it is fields on Hawaii Island (Wood et al. surveys have been conducted on several unnecessary to analyze whether it is 2002, p. 17–18; VanderWerf et al. 2007, islands in recent years, including endangered or threatened in a pp. 1, 5; Joyce and Holmes 2010, p. 3; surveys confirming the presence of significant portion of its range. Banko 2015 in litt.; Raine 2015, in litt.). band-rumped storm-petrels at the PTA Animals Vocalizations were heard in Haleakala on Hawaii Island, but further data are Crater on Maui in 1992 (Johnston 1992, not yet available (Swift 2015, in litt.). Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel in Wood et al. 2002, p. 2), on Lanai The species likely once nested in coastal (Oceanodroma castro)—Hawaii (Penniman 2015, in litt.), and in Hawaii Maui, where the remains of a chick were Population Volcanoes National Park (Orlando 2015, found in 1999, and islands such as The band-rumped storm-petrel, a in litt.). Based on the scarcity of known Niihau and Kaula, where surveys have small seabird, is a member of the family breeding colonies in Hawaii and their not been conducted, likely have suitable Hydrobatidae (order Procellariiformes) remote, inaccessible locations today nesting habitat and may harbor the and a member of the Northern compared to prehistoric population species (Penniman 2015, in litt.). We do

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not have a current estimate of total recovery and management of this Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and numbers in Hawaii at this time. species (USFWS 2013, in litt.). The Oahu, and in some areas was ‘‘locally Nesting sites are in burrows and in small population size and limited abundant.’’ Between 1997 and 1998, crevices, holes, and on protected ledges distribution of the band-rumped storm- surveys for Hawaiian Hylaeus were along cliff faces, where a single egg is petrel in Hawaii is a threat to this conducted at 43 sites that were either laid (Allan 1962, p. 274–275; Harris population (Soule´ 1987, p. 8; Lande historical collecting localities or 1969, pp. 104–105; Slotterback 2002, p. 1988, pp. 1455, 1458–1459; Harrison et potential suitable habitat. Hylaeus 11). Predation by nonnative animals on al. 1990, p. 50; Furness 2003, p. 33). anthracinus was observed at 13 of the nests and adults during the breeding During the breeding season, a single 43 survey sites, but was not found at season is the greatest threat to the hurricane or landslide caused by any of the 9 historically occupied sites Hawaiian population of the band- erosion could cause reproductive failure (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 217). rumped storm-petrel. These predators and kill a significant number of adult Several of the historical collection sites include feral cats (Felis catus), barn birds. Commercial fisheries and ocean have been urbanized or are dominated owls (Tyto alba), small Indian mongoose pollution have negative impacts to by nonnative vegetation (Liebherr and (Herpestes auropunctatus), black rats seabirds, and also are likely to have Polhemus 1997, pp. 346–347; Daly and (Rattus rattus), Norway rats (R. negative impacts to the band-rumped Magnacca 2003, p. 55; Magnacca 2007, norvegicus), and Polynesian rats (R. storm petrel, although the information pp. 186–188). There has been a dramatic exulans) (Scott et al. 1986, pp. 1, 363– about the impacts of fisheries and decline in abundance or presence of H. 364; Tomich 1986, pp. 37–45; Harrison plastics on storm-petrel species is anthracinus since surveys conducted in et al. 1990, pp. 47–48; Slotterback 2002, limited. In this rule, our listing 1999 through 2002, noted on surveys p. 19; Raine 2015, in litt.). Attraction of determination applies only to the conducted between 2011 and 2013 fledglings to artificial lights and Hawaiian population of the band- (Magnacca 2015, in litt.). Currently, H. collisions with structures, such as rumped storm-petrel (see Distinct anthracinus is known from 15 small communication towers and utility lines, Population Segment (DPS) Analysis, patches of coastal and lowland dry is also a threat (Reed et al. 1985, p. 377; below). Because of the deleterious and forest habitat (Magnacca 2005a, in litt., cumulative effects to the band-rumped Telfer et al. 1987, pp. 412–413; Harrison p. 2); 5 locations on the island of Hawaii storm-petrel caused by the threats et al. 1990, p. 49; Banko et al. 1991, p. in the coastal ecosystem; 2 locations on described above, we find that the 651; Cooper and Day 1998, p. 18; Maui in the coastal and lowland dry Hawaii population is endangered Podolsky et al. 1998, pp. 21, 27–30; ecosystems; 1 location on Kahoolawe in throughout its range, and, therefore, we Holmes and Joyce 2009, p. 2). the lowland dry ecosystem; 3 locations find that it is unnecessary to analyze Monitoring of power lines on Kauai has on Molokai in the coastal ecosystem, whether it is endangered or threatened recorded over 1,000 strikes by seabirds and 4 locations on Oahu in the coastal in a significant portion of its range. annually (mostly Newell’s shearwaters ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. (Puffinus newelli); Travers et al. 2014, Yellow-Faced Bees (Hylaeus spp.) 217; Magnacca 2005a, in litt., p. 2; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13–14; pp. 19, 42) that may result in injury or Bees in the genus Hylaeus (family Graham 2015, in litt.). These 15 death. Recent studies of attraction of Colletidae), which includes the seven locations supported small populations seabirds to artificial lights indicate that species in this final rule, are commonly of H. anthracinus, but the number of 40 percent of those downed by known as yellow-faced bees or masked exhaustion (from circling the lights) are bees for their yellow-to-white facial individual bees is unknown. In 2004, a killed by collisions with cars or other markings. All Hylaeus bees roughly single individual was collected in objects (Anderson 2015, p. 4–13). The resemble small wasps in appearance; montane dry forest on the island of small numbers of these birds and their however, Hylaeus bees have plumose Hawaii (possibly a vagrant); however, nesting areas on remote cliffs make (branched) hairs on the body that are the presence of additional individuals population-level impacts difficult to longest on the sides of the thorax, which has not been confirmed at this site document. However, the band-rumped readily distinguish them from wasps (Magnacca 2005a, in litt., p. 2). storm-petrel has similar behavior, life- (Michener 2000, in litt.). Bees in the Although this species was previously history traits, and habitat needs to the family Colletidae are also referred to as unknown from the island of Kahoolawe, Newell’s shearwater, a threatened plasterer bees because they line their it was observed at one location on the species that has sustained major losses nests with a self-secreted, cellophane- island in 2002 (Daly and Magnacca as a result of light attraction and like material. Eggs hatch and develop 2003, p. 55). Additionally, during collisions with lines or other objects into larvae (immature stage) and as surveys between 1997 and 2008, H. (Banko et al. 1991, p. 651; Banko 2015, larvae grow, they molt through three anthracinus was absent from 17 other in litt.; Raine 2015, in litt.). Therefore, successive stages (instars), then change sites with potentially suitable habitat we conclude that these are threats to the into pupae (a resting form) in which from which other species of Hylaeus band-rumped storm-petrel as well. they metamorphose and emerge as were collected (Daly and Magnacca Erosion and landslides at nest sites adults (Michener 2000, in litt.). The diet 2003, pp. 4, 55) on Hawaii Island, Maui, caused by the actions of nonnative of the larval stages is unknown, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu. ungulates is a threat in some locations although it is presumed the larvae feed Habitat destruction and modification on the island of Kauai (Raine 2015, in on stores of pollen and nectar collected by urbanization and land use litt.). Nonnative plants outcompete and deposited in the nest by the adult conversion lead to the direct native plants and can also affect nesting female. fragmentation of foraging and nesting sites of the band-rumped storm-petrel areas used by Hylaeus anthracinus. by accelerating erosion, leading to Yellow-Faced Bee (Hylaeus Habitat destruction and modification by landslides and rockfalls (Wood et al. anthracinus) nonnative plants adversely impacts 2002, pp. 7–19). Regulatory mechanisms Hylaeus anthracinus was historically native plant species by modifying the (e.g., the Migratory Bird Treaty Act known from numerous coastal and availability of light, altering soil-water (MBTA; 16 U.S.C. 703 et seq.)) lowland dry forest habitats up to 2,000 regimes, modifying nutrient cycling, contribute minimally to the active ft (610 m) in elevation on the islands of altering the fire characteristics

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(increasing the fire cycle), and anthracinus because the wasp is an climate change are likely to further ultimately converting native dominated aggressive, generalist predator, and exacerbate these threats. Because of plant communities to nonnative plant occurs in great numbers in many habitat these threats, we find that H. communities, and results in removal of types, from sea level to over 8,000 ft anthracinus is endangered throughout food sources and nesting sites for H. (2,450 m), including areas where H. all of its range, and, therefore, find that anthracinus (Graham 2015, in litt.). anthracinus and other yellow-faced bees it is unnecessary to analyze whether it Habitat modification and destruction by occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169; is endangered or threatened in a nonnative animals such as feral pigs, Graham 2015, in litt.). Existing significant portion of its range. goats, axis deer, and cattle, is regulatory mechanisms and agency Yellow-Faced Bee (Hylaeus assimulans) considered one of the primary factors policies do not address the primary underlying degradation of native threats to the yellow-faced bees and Historically, Hylaeus assimulans was vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and their habitat from nonnative ungulates. known from numerous coastal and these habitat changes also remove food Competition with nonnative bees lowland dry forest habitats up to 2,000 sources and nesting sites for H. (honeybees, carpenter bees, sweat bees ft (610 m) in elevation on the islands of Maui (coastal and lowland dry anthracinus (Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; (Lasioglossum spp.), and alien Hylaeus ecosystems), Lanai (lowland dry Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60–66, bees) for nectar and pollen, and by ecosystem), and Oahu (coastal and 73). Fire is a threat to H. anthracinus, exclusion from foraging, is a potential lowland dry ecosystem). There are no as it destroys native coastal and lowland threat to H. anthracinus (Magnacca collections from Molokai although it is plant communities on which the species 2007, p. 188; Graham 2015, in litt.; Magnacca 2015, in litt.). The small likely H. assimulans occurred there depends, and opens habitat for because all other species of Hylaeus increased invasion by nonnative plants. number of populations and individuals of H. anthracinus makes this species known from Maui, Lanai, and Oahu also Because of the greater frequency, occurred on Molokai (Daly and intensity, and duration of fires that have more vulnerable to extinction because of the higher risks from genetic Magnacca 2003, pp. 217–229). Between resulted from the human alteration of 1997 and 1998, surveys for Hawaiian landscapes and the introduction of bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes Hylaeus were conducted at 25 sites on nonnative plants, especially grasses, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, and fires are now more destructive to the such as hurricanes, tsunami, and drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Oahu. Hylaeus assimulans was absent coastal and lowland dry ecosystems from 6 of its historical localities on Magnacca 2007, p. 173; Magnacca 2015, (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172). A Maui, Lanai, and Oahu, and was not in litt.). Although we cannot predict the single grass-fueled fire often kills most observed at the remaining 19 sites with timing, extent, or magnitude of specific native trees and shrubs in the area potentially suitable habitat (Daly and impacts, we do expect the effects of (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) Magnacca 2003, pp. 56, 217; Magnacca climate change to exacerbate the threats and could destroy food and nesting 2005b, in litt., p. 2; Magnacca 2007, pp. to H. anthracinus described above. In resources for H. anthracinus. The 177, 181, 183; Xerces Society 2009, p. addition, disease has been suggested as number and size of wildfires are 4). Currently, H. assimulans is known a threat, as pathogens carried by increasing in the main Hawaiian from a few small patches of coastal and nonnative bees, wasps, and ants could Islands; however, their occurrences and lowland dry forest habitat (Magnacca locations are unpredictable, and could be transmitted to H. anthracinus 2005b, in litt., p. 2) in two locations on affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at through shared food sources (Graham Maui in the lowland dry ecosystem; one any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of 2015, in litt.); however, we have no location on Kahoolawe in the coastal Maui 2009, Ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, reports of this type of disease ecosystem; and two locations on Lanai in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in transmission at this time. in the lowland dry ecosystem (Daly and litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in The remaining populations of Hylaeus Magnacca 2003, p. 58; Magnacca 2005b, litt.). Random, naturally occurring anthracinus and its habitat are at risk. in litt., p. 2). This species has likely events such as hurricanes, tsunami, and The known individuals are restricted to been extirpated from Oahu because it drought can also modify and destroy 15 locations on Hawaii, Maui, has not been observed since Perkin’s habitat of H. anthracinus by creating Kahoolawe, Molokai, and Oahu and 1899 surveys, and was not found during disturbed areas conducive to invasion continue to be negatively affected by recent surveys of potentially suitable by nonnative plants and by eliminating habitat destruction and modification by habitat on Oahu at Kaena Point, food and nesting resources (Kitayama urbanization and land-use conversion, Makapuu, and Kalaeloa (Daly and and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; and by habitat destruction and removal Magnacca 2003, p. 217; Magnacca Businger 1998, pp. 1–2; Magnacca 2015, of food and nesting sites by nonnative 2005b, in litt., p. 2). in litt.). Predation by nonnative ants ungulates and nonnative plants. Habitat Habitat destruction and modification including the big-headed ant (Pheidole destruction by fire is a threat. Randomly by urbanization and land use megacephala), the yellow crazy ant occurring events such as hurricanes and conversion lead to fragmentation of, and (Anoplolepis gracilipes), Solenopsis drought modify habitat and remove food eventual loss, of foraging and nesting papuana (NCN), and S. geminata (NCN) and nesting sources for H. anthracinus. areas used by Hylaeus assimulans. on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages Predation by nonnative ants and wasps Habitat destruction and modification by is a threat to H. anthracinus, and ants is a threat. Existing regulatory nonnative plants (Asystasia gangetica also compete with H. anthracinus for mechanisms and agency policies do not (Chinese violet), Atriplex semibaccata, their nectar food and nesting resources address the primary threats to the Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), Chloris (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. yellow-faced bees and their habitat from barbata (swollen fingergrass), Digitaria 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, nonnative ungulates. Competition with insularis (sourgrass), Leucaena 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; nonnative bees for food and nesting leucocephala, Melinis minutiflora, Lach 2008, p. 155; Graham 2015, in sites is a threat. The small number of Pluchea indica (Indian fleabane), P. litt.). Predation by nonnative western remaining populations limits this carolinensis, Prosopis pallida, Schinus yellow jacket wasps (Vespula species’ ability to adapt to terebinthifolius, and Verbesina pensylvanica) is a threat to H. environmental changes. The effects of encelioides (golden crown-beard)

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adversely impact native plant species by is a threat to H. assimulans because the Yellow Faced Bee (Hylaeus facilis) modifying the availability of light, wasp is an aggressive, generalist Historically, Hylaeus facilis was altering soil-water regimes, modifying predator, and occurs in great numbers in known from Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and nutrient cycling, altering the fire many habitat types, from sea level to Oahu, in dry shrubland to wet forest characteristics, and ultimately over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including areas from sea level to 3,000 ft (1,000 m) converting native dominated plant where H. assimulans and other yellow- (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 93; Daly communities to nonnative plant faced bees occur (Gambino et al. 1987, and Magnacca 2003, pp. 81, 83). Perkins communities, and results in removal of p. 169). Existing regulatory mechanisms (1899, p. 77) remarked H. facilis was food sources and nesting sites for H. and agency policies do not address the among the most common and assimulans (Xerces Society 2009, p. 21; primary threats to the yellow-faced bees widespread Hylaeus species on Oahu, 76 FR 55170, September 6, 2011, p. and their habitat from nonnative Maui, Lanai, and Molokai (Magnacca 55184). Habitat modification and ungulates. Competition with nonnative 2007, p. 183). Although the species was destruction by nonnative animals such bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, sweat collected in a wide range of habitat as feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle bees, and alien Hylaeus bees) for nectar types, it likely prefers dry to mesic is considered one of the primary factors and pollen is a threat to H. assimulans forest and shrubland (Magnacca 2005c, underlying destruction of native (Magnacca 2007, p. 188; Graham 2015, in litt., p. 2), which are increasingly rare vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and in litt; Magnacca 2015, in litt.). The and patchily distributed habitats (Smith these habitat changes also remove food small number of populations and 1985, pp. 227–233; Juvik and Juvik sources and nesting sites of H. individuals of H. assimulans makes this 1998, p. 124; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, assimulans (Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; species more vulnerable to extinction pp. 66–67, 75; Magnacca 2005c, in litt., Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60–66, because of the higher risks from genetic p. 2). Researchers believe the wet forest 73). Fire is a threat to H. assimulans, as bottlenecks, random demographic site on Oahu where H. facilis was it destroys native plant communities on fluctuations, and localized catastrophes observed likely had a more open which the species depends, and opens such as hurricanes and drought (Daly understory (more mesic conditions), and habitat for increased invasion by represented an outlier or residual and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca nonnative plants. Because of the greater population (Perkins 1899, p.76; Liebherr 2007, p. 173). Although we cannot frequency, intensity, and duration of and Polhemus 1997; p. 347). Hylaeus predict the timing, extent, or magnitude fires that have resulted from the human facilis has almost entirely disappeared of specific impacts, we do expect the alteration of landscapes and the from most of its historical range (Maui, introduction of nonnative plants, effects of climate change to exacerbate coastal and lowland mesic; Lanai, especially grasses, fires are now more the threats to H. assimulans described lowland dry and lowland mesic; and destructive to the coastal and lowland above. Oahu, coastal and lowland dry) (Daly dry ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, The remaining populations of Hylaeus and Magnacca 2003, p. 7; Magnacca p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire assimulans and its habitat are at risk. 2007, p. 183). Between 1998 and 2006, often kills most native trees and shrubs The known individuals are restricted to 39 sites on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and in the area (D’Antonio and Vitousek 5 locations: 2 on Maui, 1 on Kahoolawe, Oahu were surveyed, including 13 1992, p. 74) and could destroy food and and 2 on Lanai, and is likely extirpated historical sites. Hylaeus facilis was nesting resources for H. assimulans. The from Oahu. This species continues to be absent from all 13 locations (Magnacca numbers of wildfires and the acreages negatively affected by habitat 2007, p. 183) and was not observed at involved are increasing in the main destruction and modification by 26 additional sites with potentially Hawaiian Islands; however, their urbanization and land-use conversion, suitable habitat (Daly and Magnacca occurrences and locations are and by habitat destruction and removal 2003, pp. 7, 81–82; Magnacca 2007, p. unpredictable, and could affect habitat of food and nesting sites by nonnative 183). Likely extirpated from Lanai, H. for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima ungulates and nonnative plants. Habitat facilis is currently known from only two 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. destruction by fire is a threat. Randomly locations, one on Molokai in the coastal 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu occurring events such as hurricanes and ecosystem, and one on Oahu in the Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster drought modify habitat and remove food coastal ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally and nesting sources for H. assimulans. 2003, pp. 81–82; Magnacca 2005c, in occurring events such as hurricanes, Predation by nonnative ants and wasps litt., p. 2). In addition, in 1990, a single tsunami, and drought modify and individual was collected on Maui near is a threat. Existing regulatory destroy habitat of H. assimulans by Makawao at 1,500 ft (460 m); however, mechanisms and agency policies do not creating disturbed areas conducive to this site is urbanized and devoid of address the primary threats to the invasion by nonnative plants, native plants, and it is likely this eliminating food and nesting sources yellow-faced bees and their habitat from collection was a vagrant individual. (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, nonnative ungulates. Competition with Habitat destruction and modification p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2; nonnative bees for food and nesting by urbanization and land use Magnacca 2015, in litt.). Predation by sites is a threat. The small number of conversion lead to fragmentation of, and nonnative ants (the big-headed ant, the remaining populations limits this eventual loss of, foraging and nesting yellow crazy ant, Solenopsis papuana, species’ ability to adapt to areas used by Hylaeus facilis. Habitat and S. geminata) on Hylaeus egg, larvae, environmental changes. The effects of destruction and modification by and pupal stages is a threat to H. climate change are likely to further nonnative plants adversely impacts assimulans; additionally, ants compete exacerbate these threats. Because of native plant species by modifying the with H. assimulans for their nectar food these threats, we find that H. assimulans availability of light, altering soil-water source (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et is endangered throughout all of its regimes, modifying nutrient cycling, al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. range, and, therefore, find that it is altering the fire characteristics, and 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; unnecessary to analyze whether it is ultimately converting native dominated Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by endangered or threatened in a plant communities to nonnative plant nonnative western yellow jacket wasps significant portion of its range. communities, and results in removal of

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food sources and nesting sites for the H. predator, and occurs in great numbers in H. anthracinus, H. assimulans, and H. facilis. In addition to the nonnative many habitat types, from sea level to longiceps likely occurred throughout plant species noted above that modify over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including areas this habitat. First collected on Maui in and destroy habitat of H. assimulans, where H. facilis and other yellow-faced 1879, H. hilaris has only been collected Urochloa mutica, Prosopis pallida, bees occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). twice in the last 100 years. Hylaeus Psidium cattleianum, and Rubus spp. Existing regulatory mechanisms and hilaris was absent from three of its are noted to negatively affect the habitat agency policies do not address the historical population sites revisited by of H. facilis (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, primary threats to the yellow-faced bees researchers between 1998 and 2006 p. 105; Hawaii Division of Forestry and and their habitat from nonnative (Magnacca 2007, p. 181). It was also not Wildlife (DOFAW) 2007, pp. 20–22). ungulates. Competition with nonnative observed in 2003 at 10 additional sites Habitat modification and destruction by bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, sweat with potentially suitable habitat (Daly nonnative animals such as feral pigs, bees, and alien Hylaeus bees) for nectar and Magnacca 2003, pp. 103, 106). goats, axis deer, and cattle is considered and pollen is a threat to H. facilis Currently, the only known population of one of the primary factors underlying (Magnacca 2007, p. 188; Magnacca 2015, H. hilaris is located on Molokai, in the destruction of native vegetation in the in litt.). The small number of coastal ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca Hawaiian Islands, and these habitat populations and individuals of H. facilis 2003, pp. 103, 106; Magnacca 2005d, in changes also remove food sources and makes this species more vulnerable to litt., p. 2; Magnacca 2007, p. 181). nesting sites for H. facilis (Stone 1985, extinction because of the higher risks Because Hylaeus hilaris is an obligate pp. 262–263; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, from genetic bottlenecks, random parasite on H. anthracinus, H. pp. 60–66, 73). Fire is a threat to H. demographic fluctuations, and localized assimulans, and H. longiceps, its facilis, as it destroys native plant catastrophes such as hurricanes and occurrences are determined by the communities on which the species drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; remaining populations of these three depends, and opens habitat for Magnacca 2007, p. 173). Although we species. Habitat destruction and increased invasion by nonnative plants. cannot predict the timing, extent, or modification by urbanization and land Because of the greater frequency, magnitude of specific impacts, we do use conversion leads to fragmentation expect the effects of climate change to intensity, and duration of fires that have of, and eventual loss of, foraging and exacerbate the threats to H. facilis resulted from the human alteration of nesting areas of H. hilaris, and of those described above. Hylaeus species that H. hilaris is landscapes and the introduction of The remaining populations of Hylaeus nonnative plants, especially grasses, facilis and its habitat are at risk. The dependent upon. Habitat destruction fires are now more destructive to the known individuals are restricted to one and modification by nonnative plants coastal and lowland dry ecosystems location on Molokai and one location on adversely impacts native plant species (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172), and a Oahu, and continue to be negatively by modifying the availability of light, single grass-fueled fire often kills most affected by habitat destruction and altering soil-water regimes, modifying native trees and shrubs in the area modification by urbanization and land- nutrient cycling, altering the fire (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) use conversion, and by habitat characteristics, and ultimately and could destroy food and nesting destruction and removal of food and converting native dominated plant resources for H. facilis. The numbers of nesting sites by nonnative ungulates and communities to nonnative plant wildfires and the acreages involved are nonnative plants. Habitat destruction by communities, and results in removal of increasing in the main Hawaiian fire is a threat. Randomly occurring food sources and nesting sites for the Islands; however, their occurrences and events such as hurricanes and drought Hylaeus species that H. hilaris is locations are unpredictable, and could modify habitat and remove food and dependent upon. Nonnative plant affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at nesting sources for H. facilis. Predation species that modify and destroy habitat any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of by nonnative ants and wasps is a threat. of H. hilaris are noted in the description Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, Existing regulatory mechanisms and for H. assimulans, above. Habitat in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in agency policies do not address the modification and destruction by litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in primary threats to the yellow-faced bees nonnative animals such as feral pigs, litt.). Random, naturally occurring and their habitat from nonnative goats, axis deer, and cattle is considered events such as hurricanes, tsunami, and ungulates. Competition with nonnative one of the primary factors underlying drought modify and destroy habitat of bees for food and nesting sites is a destruction of native vegetation in the H. facilis by creating disturbed areas threat. The small number of remaining Hawaiian Islands, and these habitat conducive to invasion by nonnative populations limits this species’ ability changes also remove food sources and plants, eliminating food and nesting to adapt to environmental changes. The nesting sites for the host species of H. resources (Kitayama and Mueller- effects of climate change are likely to hilaris (Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, further exacerbate these threats. Because Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60–66, pp. 1–2; Magnacca 2015, in litt.). of these threats, we find that H. facilis 73). Fire is a threat to H. hilaris, as it Predation by nonnative ants (the big- is endangered throughout all of its destroys native plant communities, and headed ant, the yellow crazy ant, range, and, therefore, find that it is opens habitat for increased invasion by Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) unnecessary to analyze whether it is nonnative plants. Because of the greater on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages endangered or threatened in a frequency, intensity, and duration of is a threat to H. facilis; additionally, ants significant portion of its range. fires that have resulted from the human compete with H. facilis for their nectar alteration of landscapes and the food source (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Yellow-Faced Bee (Hylaeus hilaris) introduction of nonnative plants, Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. Historically, Hylaeus hilaris was especially grasses, fires are now more 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca known from coastal habitat on Maui, destructive to the coastal and lowland 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation Lanai, and Molokai; and lowland dry dry ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, by nonnative western yellow jacket habitat on Maui. It is believed to have p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire wasps is a threat to H. facilis because occurred along much of the coast of often kills most native trees and shrubs the wasp is an aggressive, generalist these islands because its primary hosts, in the area (D’Antonio and Vitousek

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1992, p. 74) and could destroy food and continue to be negatively affected by food sources and nesting sites for H. nesting resources for H. hilaris. The habitat destruction and modification by kuakea. Nonnative plant species that numbers of wildfires and the acreages urbanization and land-use conversion, modify and destroy habitat of H. kuakea involved are increasing in the main and by habitat destruction and removal are noted in the descriptions for H. Hawaiian Islands; however, their of food and nesting sites (for host assimulans and H. facilis, above. Fire is occurrences and locations are species) by nonnative ungulates and a threat to H. kuakea because it destroys unpredictable, and could affect habitat nonnative plants. Habitat destruction by native plant communities and opens for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima fire is a threat. Randomly occurring habitat for increased invasion by 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. events such as hurricanes and drought nonnative plants. Because of the greater 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu modify habitat and remove food and frequency, intensity, and duration of Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster nesting sources for H. hilaris and its fires that have resulted from the human Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally host species. Predation by nonnative alteration of landscapes and the occurring events such as hurricanes, ants and wasps is a threat. Existing introduction of nonnative plants, tsunami, and drought can modify and regulatory mechanisms and agency especially grasses, fires are now more destroy habitat of H. hilaris by creating policies do not address the primary destructive, including in lowland mesic disturbed areas conducive to invasion threats to the yellow-faced bees and areas (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172), by nonnative plants, eliminating food their habitat from nonnative ungulates. and a single grass-fueled fire often kills and nesting sources of its host species Competition with nonnative bees for most native trees and shrubs in the area (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, food and nesting sites is a threat. The (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2; small number of remaining populations and could destroy food and nesting Magnacca 2015, in litt.). Predation by limits this species’ ability to adapt to resources for H. kuakea. The numbers of nonnative ants (the big-headed ant, the environmental changes, especially wildfires and the acreages involved are long-legged ant, Solenopsis papuana, because it is an obligate parasite of other increasing in the main Hawaiian and S. geminata) on Hylaeus egg, larvae, rare Hylaeus bees. Because of these Islands; however, their occurrences and and pupal stages is a threat to H. hilaris; threats, we find that H. hilaris is locations are unpredictable, and could additionally, ants compete with the endangered throughout all of its range, affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at and, therefore, find that it is yellow-faced bees that H. hilaris is any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of unnecessary to analyze whether it is dependent on for their food resources Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, endangered or threatened in a (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in significant portion of its range. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Yellow-Faced Bee (Hylaeus kuakea) litt.). Random, naturally occurring Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by Because the first collection of Hylaeus events such as hurricanes and drought nonnative western yellow jacket wasps kuakea was not made until 1997, its can modify and destroy habitat of H. is a threat to H. hilaris because the wasp historical range is unknown (Magnacca kuakea by creating disturbed areas is an aggressive, generalist predator, and 2005e, in litt., p. 2; Magnacca 2007, p. conducive to invasion by nonnative occurs in great numbers in many habitat 184). Phylogenetically, H. kuakea plants, eliminating food and nesting types, from sea level to over 8,000 ft belongs in a species-group primarily resources (Kitayama and Mueller- (2,450 m), including areas where H. including species inhabiting mesic Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, hilaris and other yellow-faced bees forests (Magnacca and Danforth 2006, p. pp. 1–2). Predation by nonnative ants occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). 405). Only four individuals (all males) (the big-headed ant, the long-legged ant, Existing regulatory mechanisms and have been collected from two different Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) agency policies do not address the sites in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages primary threats to the yellow-faced bees in the lowland mesic ecosystem is a threat to H. kuakea; additionally, and their habitat from nonnative (Magnacca 2007, p. 184). The species ants compete with H. kuakea for their ungulates. Competition with nonnative has never been collected in any other nectar food source (Howarth 1985, p. bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, sweat habitat type or area, including some 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et bees, and alien Hylaeus bees) for nectar sites that have been more thoroughly al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and and pollen is a threat to the host yellow- surveyed (Magnacca 2011, in litt.). Not Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). faced bees of H. hilaris (Magnacca 2007, all potentially suitable habitat has been Predation by nonnative western yellow p. 188; Graham 2015, in litt.; Magnacca surveyed due to the remote and rugged jacket wasps is a threat to H. kuakea 2015, in litt.). The small number of locations, small size, rareness, and because the wasp is an aggressive, populations and individuals of H. distant spacing among large areas of generalist predator, and occurs in great hilaris makes this species more nonnative forest (Smith 1985, pp. 227– numbers in many habitat types, from sea vulnerable to extinction because of the 233; Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 124; level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66–67, 75). including areas where H. kuakea and random demographic fluctuations, and Habitat destruction and modification other yellow-faced bees occur (Gambino localized catastrophes such as by feral pigs leads to fragmentation of, et al. 1987, p. 169). Existing regulatory hurricanes and drought (Daly and and eventual loss of, foraging and mechanisms and agency policies do not Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007, p. nesting areas of Hylaeus kuakea. Habitat address the primary threats to the 173). Although we cannot predict the destruction and modification by yellow-faced bees and their habitat from timing, extent, or magnitude of specific nonnative plants adversely impacts nonnative ungulates. Competition with impacts, we do expect the effects of native plant species by modifying the nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter climate change to exacerbate the threats availability of light, altering soil-water bees, sweat bees, and alien Hylaeus to H. hilaris described above. regimes, modifying nutrient cycling, bees) for nectar and pollen is a threat to The remaining populations of Hylaeus altering the fire characteristics, and H. kuakea (Magnacca 2007, p. 188; hilaris and its habitat are at risk. There ultimately converting native dominated Graham 2015, in litt.; Magnacca 2015, in is one known occurrence on Molokai. plant communities to nonnative plant litt.). The small number of populations Hylaeus hilaris and its host species communities, and results in removal of and individuals of H. kuakea makes this

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species more vulnerable to extinction on Oahu (in the coastal ecosystem), and invasion by nonnative plants, because of the higher risks from genetic one site on each of the islands of Maui eliminating food and nesting resources bottlenecks, random demographic (in the coastal ecosystem) and Molokai (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, fluctuations, and localized catastrophes (in the coastal ecosystem) (Daly and p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2; such as hurricanes and drought (Daly Magnacca 2003, p. 135; Magnacca and Magnacca 2015, in litt.). Predation by, and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca King 2013, pp. 11–12). and competition for food sources, by 2007, p. 173). Although we cannot Most of the coastal and lowland nonnative ants and the nonnative predict the timing, extent, or magnitude habitat of Hylaeus longiceps has been western yellow jacket wasp is a threat of specific impacts, we do expect the developed or degraded, and is no longer to H. longiceps (see H. kuakea, above) effects of climate change to exacerbate suitable (Liebherr and Polhemus 1997, (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169; Howarth the threats to H. kuakea described pp. 346–347; Magnacca 2007, pp. 186– 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; above. 188). Habitat destruction and Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly The remaining populations of Hylaeus modification by axis deer (Lanai) and and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. kuakea and its habitat are at risk. The urbanization (Maui and Molokai) leads 155). Existing regulatory mechanisms known individuals are restricted to to fragmentation of, and eventual loss and agency policies do not address the mesic forest in one area of one island of, foraging and nesting areas of H. primary threats to the yellow-faced bees (Oahu), and continue to be negatively longiceps (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. and their habitat from nonnative affected by habitat destruction and 217–229). Habitat modification and ungulates. Competition with nonnative removal of food and nesting sites by destruction by human impacts in areas bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, sweat nonnative ungulates and nonnative accessible by four-wheel drive vehicles bees, and alien Hylaeus bees) for nectar plants. Habitat destruction by fire is a on Lanai is a threat because these and pollen is a threat to H. longiceps threat. Randomly occurring events such vehicles can destroy plants used as food (Magnacca 2007, p. 188; Graham 2015, as hurricanes and drought modify sources and destroy ground nesting sites in litt.; Magnacca 2015, in litt.). The habitat and remove food and nesting for H. longiceps (Daly and Magnacca small number of populations and sources for H. kuakea. Predation by 2003, p. 135). Habitat destruction and individuals of H. longiceps makes this nonnative ants and wasps is a threat. modification by nonnative plants species more vulnerable to extinction Existing regulatory mechanisms and adversely affects native plant species because of the higher risks from genetic agency policies do not address the used by H. longiceps as a food source by bottlenecks, random demographic primary threats to the yellow-faced bees fluctuations, and localized catastrophes and their habitat from nonnative modifying the availability of light, altering soil-water regimes, modifying such as hurricanes and drought (Daly ungulates. Competition with nonnative and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca bees for food and nesting sites is a nutrient cycling, altering the fire characteristics, and ultimately 2007, p. 173). Although we cannot threat. The small number of remaining predict the timing, extent, or magnitude populations limits this species’ ability converting native-dominated plant communities to nonnative plant of specific impacts, we do expect the to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of climate change to exacerbate effects of climate change are likely to communities. Nonnative plant species that modify and destroy habitat of H. the threats to H. longiceps described further exacerbate these threats. Because above. of these threats, we find that H. kuakea longiceps are noted in the descriptions is endangered throughout all of its for H. assimulans and H. facilis, above. The remaining population of Hylaeus range, and, therefore, find that it is Fire is a threat to H. longiceps because longiceps and its habitat are at risk. The unnecessary to analyze whether it is it destroys native plant communities, known individuals are restricted to endangered or threatened in a and opens habitat for increased invasion seven locations, three on Lanai, two on significant portion of its range. by nonnative plants. Because of the Oahu, and one each on Maui and greater frequency, intensity, and Molokai, and continue to be negatively Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus longiceps) duration of fires that have resulted from affected by habitat destruction and Hylaeus longiceps is historically the human alteration of landscapes and modification by urbanization and land- known from coastal and lowland dry the introduction of nonnative plants, use conversion, by habitat destruction shrubland habitat up to 2,000 ft (610 m) especially grasses, fires are now more and removal of food and nesting sites by in numerous locations on the islands of destructive to the coastal and lowland nonnative ungulates and nonnative Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu. dry ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, plants, and by recreational use vehicles Perkins (1899, p. 98) noted H. longiceps p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire on Lanai. Habitat destruction by fire is was locally abundant, and probably often kills most native trees and shrubs a threat. Randomly occurring events occurred throughout much of the in the area (D’Antonio and Vitousek such as hurricanes and drought may leeward and lowland areas on these 1992, p. 74) and could destroy food and modify habitat and remove food and islands. Hylaeus longiceps is now nesting resources for H. longiceps. The nesting sources for H. longiceps. restricted to small populations in numbers of wildfires and the acreages Predation by nonnative ants and wasps patches of coastal and lowland dry involved are increasing in the main is a threat. Existing regulatory habitat on the Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Hawaiian Islands; however, their mechanisms and agency policies do not and Oahu (Magnacca 2005f, in litt., p. 2; occurrences and locations are address the primary threats to the Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13, 16). unpredictable, and could affect habitat yellow-faced bees and their habitat from Twenty-five sites that were either for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima nonnative ungulates. Competition with historical collecting localities or 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. nonnative bees for food and nesting contained potentially suitable habitat 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu sites is a threat. The small number of for this species were surveyed between Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster remaining populations limits this 1997 and 2008 (Magnacca and King Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally species’ ability to adapt to 2013, p. 16). Hylaeus longiceps was occurring events such as hurricanes, environmental changes. Because of observed at only seven of the surveyed tsunami, and drought modify and these threats, we find that H. longiceps sites: Three sites on Lanai (in the coastal destroy habitat of H. longiceps by is endangered throughout all of its and lowland dry ecosystems), two sites creating disturbed areas conducive to range, and, therefore, find that it is

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unnecessary to analyze whether it is threat to H. mana, as it destroys native Oahu, and continue to be negatively endangered or threatened in a plant communities on which the species affected by habitat destruction and significant portion of its range. depends, and opens habitat for removal of food and nesting sites by increased invasion by nonnative plants. nonnative ungulates and nonnative Yellow-Faced Bee (Hylaeus mana) Because of the greater frequency, plants. Habitat destruction by fire is a Hylaeus mana is known only from intensity, and duration of fires that have threat. Randomly occurring events such lowland mesic forest dominated by resulted from the human alteration of as hurricanes and drought may modify native Acacia koa in the Koolau landscapes and the introduction of habitat and remove food and nesting Mountains of Oahu, at 1,400 ft (430 m). nonnative plants, especially grasses, sources for H. mana. Predation by Few other Hylaeus species have been fires are now more destructive, nonnative ants and wasps is a threat. found in this type of forest on Oahu including in lowland mesic ecosystems Existing regulatory mechanisms and (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 138). This (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172). A agency policies do not address the type of native forest is increasingly rare single grass-fueled fire often kills most primary threats to the yellow-faced bees and patchily distributed because of native trees and shrubs in the area and their habitat from nonnative competition and encroachment into (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) ungulates. Competition with nonnative habitat by nonnative plants (Smith and could destroy food and nesting bees for food and nesting sites is a 1985, pp. 227–233; Juvik and Juvik resources for H. mana. The numbers of threat. The small number of remaining 1998, p. 124; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66– wildfires and the acreages involved are populations limits this species’ ability 67, 75). Decline of this forest type could increasing in the main Hawaiian to adapt to environmental changes. The lead to decline in populations and Islands; however, their occurrences and effects of climate change are likely to numbers of H. mana. Three additional locations are unpredictable, and could further exacerbate these threats. Because population sites were discovered on affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at of these threats, we find that H. mana Oahu in 2012, including a new any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of is endangered throughout all of its observation of the species at the original Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, range, and, therefore, find that it is site (Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 17– in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in unnecessary to analyze whether it is 18). The three new sites are within a litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in endangered or threatened in a narrow range of lowland mesic forest at litt.). Random, naturally occurring significant portion of its range. 1,400 ft (430 m), bordered by nonnative events such as hurricanes and drought Orangeblack Hawaiian Damselfly plant habitat at lower elevations and can modify and destroy habitat of H. wetter native forest habitat above (Megalagrion xanthomelas) mana by creating disturbed areas (Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 17–18). The orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly conducive to invasion by nonnative Hylaeus mana was most often observed was once Hawaii’s most abundant plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois on Santalum freycinetianum var. damselfly species likely because of its 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2). freycinetianum, which suggests that H. ability to use a variety of aquatic Predation and competition for food mana may be closely associated with habitats for breeding sites. Historically, sources by nonnative ants and the this plant species (Magnacca and King the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly nonnative western yellow jacket wasp 2013, p. 18). Additional surveys may probably occurred on all of the main are threats to H. mana (see H. kuakea, reveal more populations; however, the Hawaiian Islands (except Kahoolawe) in above) (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Gambino extreme rarity of this species, its suitable aquatic habitat within the absence from many survey sites, the fact et al. 1987, p. 169; Hopper et al. 1996, anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, that it was not discovered until very p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; and lowland mesic ecosystems (Perkins recently, and the limited range of its Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 1913, p. clxxviii; Zimmerman 1948, p. possible host plant, all suggest that few 2008, p. 155). Existing regulatory 379; Polhemus 1996, p. 30). Its populations remain (Magnacca 2005g, in mechanisms and agency policies do not historical range on Kauai is unknown. litt., p. 2; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. address the primary threats to the On Oahu, it was recorded from 17–18). yellow-faced bees and their habitat from Honolulu, Kaimuki, Koko Head, Pearl Habitat destruction and modification nonnative ungulates. Competition with City, Waialua, the Waianae Mountains, by feral pigs leads to fragmentation of, nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter and Waianae (Polhemus 1996, pp. 31, and eventual loss of, foraging and bees, sweat bees, and alien Hylaeus 33). On Molokai, it was known from nesting areas of Hylaeus mana (Daly bees) for nectar and pollen is a threat to Kainalu, Meyer’s Lake (Kalaupapa and Magnacca 2003, pp. 217–229). H. mana (Magnacca 2007, p. 188; Peninsula), Kaunakakai, Mapulehu, and Habitat destruction and modification by Graham 2015, in litt.; Magnacca 2015, in Palaau (Polhemus 1996, pp. 33–41). On nonnative plants adversely impacts litt.). The small number of populations Lanai, small populations occurred on native plant species used by H. mana as and individuals of H. mana makes this Maunalei Gulch, and in ephemeral a food source by modifying the species more vulnerable to extinction coastal ponds at the mouth of Maunalei availability of light, altering soil-water because of the higher risks from genetic Gulch drainage, at Keomuku, and in a regimes, modifying nutrient cycling, bottlenecks, random demographic mixohaline (brackish water) habitat at altering the fire characteristics, and fluctuations, and localized catastrophes Lopa (Polhemus 1996, pp. 37–41; HBMP ultimately converting native dominated such as hurricanes and drought (Daly 2010). On Maui, this species was plant communities to nonnative plant and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca recorded from an unspecified locality in communities. Nonnative plant species 2007, p. 173). Although we cannot the west Maui Mountains (Polhemus that modify and destroy habitat of H. predict the timing, extent, or magnitude 1996, pp. 41–42; Polhemus et al. 1999, mana are noted in the descriptions for of specific impacts, we do expect the pp. 27–29). On Hawaii Island, it was H. assimulans and H. facilis, above, and effects of climate change to exacerbate known from Hilo, Kona, and Naalehu can outcompete native canopy species the threats to H. mana described above. (Polhemus 1996, pp. 42–47). such as Acacia koa, the known The remaining populations of Hylaeus Currently, the orangeblack Hawaiian preferred native canopy type of H. mana mana and its habitat are at risk. The damselfly occurs on Oahu, Molokai, (GISD 2011, in litt.; State of Hawaii known individuals are restricted to Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii Island. In 2013, in litt. (S.C.R. No. 74)). Fire is a three locations of native koa forest on 1994, on Oahu, a very small population

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was discovered in pools of an and Whelan 1985, p. 4). Predation by Anchialine Pool Shrimp (Procaris intermittent stream (Englund 2001, p. the bullfrog is a threat to the hawaiana) 256). On Molokai, populations occur at orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly the mouths of two streams, and in (Englund et al. 2007, pp. 215, 219; The shrimp family Procarididae is wetlands on the south coast (Polhemus Haines 2015, in litt.). Also, caddisflies represented by a small number of 1996, p. 47). On Lanai, a large (Trichoptera spp.) compete with native species globally, with only two species population occurs in an artificial pond aquatic invertebrates for resources and within the genus Procaris (Magnacca (Polhemus 1996, p. 47). The species is space (Flint et al. 2003, p. 38; Haines 2015, in litt.). Procaris hawaiana is an present on west Maui at a stream and 2015, in litt.) and reduce prey endemic anchialine pool shrimp species near anchialine pools on east Maui abundance for orangeblack Hawaiian known only from the islands of Maui (Polhemus et al. 1999, p. 29). Several damselfly larvae. and Hawaii. The second species, P. large populations exist in coastal ascensionis, is restricted to similar Hawaii State law (State Water Code) habitat on Ascension Island in the wetlands on Hawaii Island at 14 does not provide for permanent or locations (Polhemus 1996, pp. 42–47; South Atlantic Ocean. Of the anchialine minimal instream flow standards, and pools on Hawaii Island, only 25 are Orlando 2015, in litt.). The species is channel modifications or revisions to believed to be extirpated from Kauai known to contain P. hawaiana. During flow standards can be undertaken at any (Asquith and Polhemus 1996, p. 91). nocturnal-diurnal surveys conducted time by the Water Commission, without Past and present land use and water from 2009 to 2010, 19 pools within regard for changes that degrade or Manuka NAR were found to contain P. management practices, including destroy habitat, food resources, or agriculture, urban development, ground hawaiana. Five additional pools located aquatic life stages of the orangeblack on unencumbered State land adjacent to water development, and destruction of Hawaiian damselfly. Therefore, existing perched aquifer and surface water Manuka NAR also contained P. regulatory mechansims do not hawaiana. An additional separate pool resources, and feral ungulates (pigs, adequately address the threat of goats, axis deer), modify and destroy also contains P. hawaiana, along with modification and destruction of the the endangered anchialine pool shrimp habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian aquatic habitat of the orangeblack damselfly (Harris et al. 1993, pp. 9–13; Vetericaris chaceorum (Holthuis 1973, Hawaiian damselfly (Hawaii pp. 12–19; Maciolek 1983, pp. 607–614; Meier et al. 1993, pp. 181–183). Administrative Rule (HAR)-State Water Nonnative plant species such as Brock 2004, pp. 30–57). On Maui, P. Code, title 13, chapter 169–36; Tango hawaiana occurs in two anchialine Urochloa mutica form dense, monotypic 2010, in litt.). stands that can completely eliminate pools (Holthuis 1973, pp. 12–19; any open water habitat of the The remaining populations and Maciolek 1983, pp. 607–614; Brock orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Smith habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian 2004, pp. 30–57). 1985, p. 186). Stochastic events such as damselfly are at risk; numbers are Like other anchialine pool shrimp drought, flooding, and hurricanes can decreasing on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, species, Procaris hawaiana inhabits also modify and destroy habitat, and kill Maui, and Hawaii Island, and both the extensive networks of water-filled individuals. Predation of the species and its habitat continue to be interstitial spaces (cracks and crevices) orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly by negatively affected by modification and leading to and from the open pools nonnative fish and nonnative aquatic destruction by development and water where they can be detected, a trait invertebrates on the orangeblack management practices, drought, feral which has precluded accurate estimates Hawaiian damselfly is a significant ungulates, and by nonnative plants, of population size (Holthuis 1973, p. 36; threat; predation by Jackson’s combined with predation by nonnative Maciolek 1983, pp. 613–616). Surveys chameleons (Trioceros jacksonii) may fish and other nonnative vertebrates. for many rare species of anchialine pool occur as well (Sailer 2015, in litt.). Competition with caddisflies is a shrimp, including P. hawaiana, often Hawaiian damselflies evolved with few, potential threat to the orangeblack involve baiting in likely habitat to if any, predatory fish, and the reduced Hawaiian damselfly. The orangeblack determine presence or absence. defensive and evasive behaviors of most damselfly was once the most common Absence, and presumably extirpation, of of the fully aquatic species, including Hawaiian damselfly in the State, and shrimp species from suitable habitat is the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, occurred in any suitable aquatic habitat. the best or only measure of species makes them particularly vulnerable to Populations no longer occur on Kauai. decline as population sizes are not predation by nonnative fish (Englund The Oahu populations were described easily determined or monitored 1999, pp. 225–225, 235; Haines 2015, in from seven locations, and this species (Holthuis 1973, pp. 7–12; Maciolek litt.). The damselfly is not observed in now only occurs at one location. The 1983, pp. 613–616), but owing to the any bodies of water that support populations on Molokai have declined potential for shrimp to move between nonnative fish (Henrickson 1988, p. 183; from five to three. Populations on Lanai pools through subterranean McPeek 1990a, pp. 92–96). Nonnative have declined from four to one in an connections, the lack of sighting on one backswimmers (aquatic true bugs; artificial pond. On Maui, there are only or several visits to a site is not definitive Heteroptera) are voracious predators two populations, one on east Maui, and evidence that the species is extirpated and frequently feed on prey much larger one on west Maui. Of the 21 known (Kinzie 2015, in litt.). Extirpation of than themselves, such as tadpoles, small populations on Hawaii Island, only 14 anchialine pool shrimp has been fish, and other aquatic invertebrates and remain. Because of the dramatic decline documented definitively in some cases; may be a potential threat to damselfly’s in numbers and populations, and for example, Halocaridina rubra aquatic larvae (naiads) (Borror et al. because of the ongoing threats described disappeared from an anchialine pool at 1989, p. 296). In addition, the nonnative above, we find that this species is Honokohau Harbor (Hawaii Island) as a bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana, Lithobates endangered throughout all of its range, result of the use of the pool for dumping catesbeianus), found in ponds and along and, therefore, find that it is of used oil, grease, and oil filters (Brock streams, is a generalist predator, and unnecessary to analyze whether it is 2004, p. 14). To date, however, P. eats insects and crustaceans as well as endangered or threatened in a hawaiana is not known to have been a wide variety of small vertebrates (Bury significant portion of its range. extirpated from any of the pools where

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it has been documented to occur (Wada ecosystem health, food sources of the a population segment being considered 2016, in litt.). pool shrimp, or the pool shrimp directly for listing is a DPS, then the population Habitat modification and destruction (Kinzie 2015, in litt.; Yamamoto et al. segment’s conservation status is by human activities is a significant 2015, pp. 75–83). Sea-level rise and evaluated based on the five listing threat to Procaris hawaiana. It is coastal inundation resulting from the factors established by the Act to estimated that up to 90 percent of effects of climate change is a threat to determine if listing it as either existing anchialine pools in Hawaii P. hawaiana (Sakihara 2015, in litt.). endangered or threatened is warranted. have been destroyed by filling and Sea-level rise would increase surface In the proposed rule (80 FR 58820; bulldozing (Baily-Brock and Brock 1993, connectivity between isolated September 30, 2015), we evaluated the p. 354; Brock 2004, p. i). Anchialine anchialine pools, and exacerbate the Hawaii population of the band-rumped pools are used as dumping pits for spread of nonnative fish into pools not storm-petrel to determine whether it bottles, cans, and used oil and grease, yet occupied by nonnative fish meets the definition of a DPS under our and these activities are a known cause (Sakihara 2015, in litt.). DPS Policy. of the disappearance of other anchialine Procaris hawaiana and its habitat are Discreteness pool shrimp species from the pools. at risk. There are a total of 700 known Under the DPS Policy, a population Trampling damage from use of anchialine pools in the State of Hawaii. segment of a vertebrate taxon may be anchialine pools for swimming and Procaris hawaiana is restricted to 25 anchialine pools out of 600 on Hawaii considered discrete if it satisfies either bathing has been documented (Brock one of the following conditions: (1) It is 2004, pp. 13–17). Although a permit Island and to 2 anchialine pools on Maui. These 27 anchialine pools markedly separated from other from the State is required to collect populations of the same taxon as a anchialine pool shrimp, unpermitted continue to be negatively affected by habitat destruction and modification by consequence of physical, physiological, collection of shrimp is ongoing (Fuku- ecological, or behavioral factors Bonsai 2015, in litt.). A single person human use of the pools for bathing and for dumping of trash and nonnative fish; (quantitative measures of genetic or with a handnet could do irreparable morphological discontinuity may damage to a population of P. hawaiana filling and bulldozing; water extraction; contamination; predation by and provide evidence of this separation); or (Yamamoto 2015, in litt.), but collection (2) it is delimited by international by permitted individuals is not competition with nonnative fish; and collection for the aquarium trade. The governmental boundaries within which prohibited at State Parks or City and differences in control of exploitation, County property where some anchialine small number of populations (27) limits this species’ ability to adapt to management of habitat, conservation pools occur. Predation by nonnative fish status, or regulatory mechanisms exist is a direct threat to P. hawaiana. environmental changes. Because of these threats, we find that this species that are significant in light of section Nonnative fish (tilapia, Oreochromis 4(a)(1)(D) of the Act. The Hawaii mossambica) also outcompete native is endangered throughout all of its range, and, therefore, find that it is population of the band-rumped storm- herbivorous species of shrimp that serve petrel meets the first criterion: it is as a prey-base for P. hawaiana, unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a markedly separated from other disrupting the delicate ecological populations of this species by physical significant portion of its range. balance in the anchialine pool system, (geographic) and physiological (genetic) and leading to decline of the pools and Distinct Population Segment (DPS) factors, as described below. the shrimp inhabiting them (Brock 2004, Analysis The band-rumped storm-petrel is pp. 13–17). Although anchialine pools widely distributed in the tropics and Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel within State of Hawaii NARs are subtropics, with breeding populations (Oceanodroma castro) provided some protection, these areas in numerous island groups in the are remote and signage does not prevent Under the Act, we have the authority Atlantic and in Hawaii, Galapagos, and human use and damage of the pools (see to consider for listing any species, Japan in the Pacific (Harrison 1983, p. Factor B). The persistence of P. subspecies, or, for vertebrates, any 274; Carboneras et al. 2014, p. 1 and Fig. hawaiana is hampered by the small distinct population segment (DPS) of 2). The geographic separation of these number of extant populations and the these taxa if there is sufficient breeding populations is widely small geographic range of the known information to indicate that such action recognized, with strong genetic populations. The populations of P. may be warranted. To guide the differentiation between the two ocean hawaiana are at risk of extinction implementation of the DPS provisions basins and among individual because of their increased vulnerability of the Act, we, and the National Marine populations (Friesen et al. 2007a, p. to loss of individuals from disturbance, Fisheries Service (National Oceanic and 1768; Smith et al. 2007, p. 768). habitat destruction, and the effects of Atmospheric Administration— Whether individual populations merit invasive species and because of the Fisheries), published the Policy taxonomic separation remains unclear, reduction in genetic variability that may Regarding the Recognition of Distinct and further study is needed (Friesen et make the species less able to adapt to Vertebrate Population Segments Under al. 2007b, p. 18591; Smith et al. 2007, changes in the environment (Harmon the Endangered Species Act (DPS p. 770; reviewed in Howell 2012, pp. and Braude 2010, pp. 125–128). In Policy) in the Federal Register on 349, 369–370); some populations, such addition, large-scale water extraction February 7, 1996 (61 FR 4722). Under as those in the Galapagos and Cape from underground water sources our DPS Policy, we use two elements to Verde islands, may warrant full species negatively affects the habitat and P. assess whether a population segment status (Smith et al. 2007, p. 770). Like hawaiana directly (Conry 2012, in litt.). under consideration for listing may be other storm-petrels, the band-rumped A threat from development upslope of recognized as a DPS: (1) The population storm-petrel is a highly pelagic (open- anchialine pool habitat is infiltration of segment’s discreteness from the ocean) seabird (Howell 2012, p. 349). In waste water or application of fertilizer remainder of the species to which it addition, like other species in the and pesticides that may enter the belongs, and (2) the significance of the seabird order Procellariiformes, band- ground water system of the anchialine population segment to the species to rumped storm-petrels exhibit strong pools and consequently affect the pool’s which it belongs. If we determine that philopatry, or fidelity to their natal sites

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(Allan 1962, p. 274; Harris 1969, pp. 96, northeast Atlantic breeding populations to the rest of the taxon. Genetic patterns 113, 120; Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; (Smith et al. 2007, p. 768). Hawaiian on an ocean-basin or species-wide scale, Smith et al. 2007, pp. 768–769). Both of birds have not been well-sampled for however, have implications for these characteristics contribute to genetic analysis, but the few individuals connectivity and potential gaps in the isolation of breeding populations, in from Hawaii included in a rangewide band-rumped storm-petrel’s range spite of the absence of physical barriers analysis showed that Hawaiian birds (described below). such as land masses within ocean basins differed from all other populations, and Dispersal between populations of (Friesen et al. 2007a, pp. 1777–1778). were most closely related to birds from Band-rumped storm-petrels from Japan (Friesen et al. 2007b, p. 18590). seabird species with ranges fragmented Hawaii are likely to encounter We have determined that the Hawaii by large expanses of ocean may play a individuals from other populations only population of the band-rumped storm- vital role in the persistence of very rarely. The approximate distances petrel is discrete from the rest of the individual populations (Bicknell et al. from Hawaii to other known breeding taxon because its breeding and foraging 2012, p. 2872). No evidence currently sites are much greater than the birds’ range are markedly separated from those exists of such dispersal among Pacific average foraging range of 860 mi (1,200 of other populations. The Hawaii populations of band-rumped storm- km): 4,000 mi (6,600 km) to Japan and population is geographically isolated petrels at frequencies or in numbers that 4,600 mi (7,400 km) to Galapagos (the from populations in Japan and would change the population status two other Pacific populations), and Galapagos, as well as from populations between years, for example, by 7,900 mi (12,700 km) to Madeira, 7,300 in very distant island groups in the providing immigrants that compensate mi (11,700 km) to the Azores, and 9,700 central and western Atlantic Ocean. for breeding failure or adult mortality mi (15,600 km) to Ascension Island (in Molecular evidence indicates that the resulting from predation, as has been the Atlantic). Data from at-sea surveys of genetic structure of the species reflects hypothesized for Leach’s storm-petrel in the eastern tropical Pacific conducted the spatial or temporal separation of the Atlantic (Bicknell et al. 2012, p. since 1988 show that the density of individual populations; the scant 2872). Given the remnant population of band-rumped storm-petrels attenuates molecular data from Hawaii suggest that band-rumped storm-petrels in Hawaii north and northwest of Galapagos and this holds for the Hawaii population as and recently documented decline in that the species rarely occurs in a broad well. Japan (Biodiversity Center of Japan area southeast of Hawaii (Pitman, 2014, p. 1), we would not expect to see Ballance, and Joyce 2015, unpublished). Significance exchange on such short timescales. This pattern suggests a gap in the at-sea Under our DPS Policy, once we have However, genetic evidence is suggestive distribution of this species, and low determined that a population segment is of exchange between these two likelihood of immigration on an discrete, we consider its biological and ecological timescale, between Hawaii ecological significance to the larger populations on an evolutionary and Galapagos. We are not aware of any taxon to which it belongs. This timescale (Friesen et al. 2007b, p. data describing the at-sea distribution of consideration may include, but is not 18590). this species between Hawaii and Japan, limited to: (1) Evidence of the The loss of this population would but the absence of breeding records from persistence of the discrete population result in a significant gap in the range western Micronesia (Pyle and Engbring segment in an ecological setting that is of the band-rumped storm-petrel. As 1985, p. 59) indicates a distributional unusual or unique for the taxon, (2) noted above, seabirds in the order gap between these two archipelagoes as evidence that loss of the population Procellariiformes, including the band- well. Other than occasional encounters segment would result in a significant rumped storm-petrel, exhibit very high in their foraging habitat, the vast gap in the range of the taxon, (3) natal site fidelity, and so are slow to expanses of ocean between Japan, evidence that the population segment recolonize extirpated areas or range- Hawaii, and Galapagos provide for no represents the only surviving natural gaps (Jones 2010, p. 1214), and may lack other sources of potential connectivity occurrence of a taxon that may be more local adaptations; they thus face a between band-rumped storm-petrel abundant elsewhere as an introduced potentially increased risk of extinction populations in the Pacific, such as population outside its historical range, with the loss of individual populations additional breeding sites. or (4) evidence that the discrete (Smith et al. 2007, p. 770). The Hawaii Even those disparate breeding population segment differs markedly population of the band-rumped storm populations of pelagic seabirds that do from other populations of the species in petrel constitutes the entire Central overlap at sea may remain largely its genetic characteristics. We have Pacific distribution of the species, isolated otherwise and exhibit genetic found substantial evidence that the located roughly half-way between the differentiation (e.g., Walsh and Edwards Hawaii population of the band-rumped populations in Galapagos and Japan (see 2005, pp. 290, 293). Despite the birds’ storm-petrel meets two of the capacity to move across large areas of significance criteria listed above: the Figure 1, below), and its loss would ocean, genetic differentiation among loss of this population would result in create a gap of approximately 8,500 mi breeding populations of band-rumped a significant gap in the range of the (13,680 km) between them and storm-petrels is high (Friesen et al. taxon, and this population persists in a significantly reducing the likelihood of 2007b, p. 18590; Smith et al. 2007, p. unique ecological setting. As described connectivity and genetic exchange. 768), even between populations nesting above, the physical isolation that Such exchange would be reliant on in different seasons on the same island defines the discreteness of Hawaii chance occurrences, such as severe (in Galapagos; Smith and Friesen 2007, population is likely reflected in genetic storms that could result in birds being p. 1599). Genetic analysis found low differentiation from other populations, displaced to the opposite side of the relatedness (1) between Atlantic and but at this time we lack sufficient data Pacific Ocean basin, and such chance Pacific populations; (2) among Japan, to consider genetic characteristics as an dispersal events would not necessarily Hawaii, and Galapagos populations; or independent factor in our determination result in breeding. (3) among Cape Verde, Ascension, and of the Hawaii population’s significance BILLING CODE 4333–15–P

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BILLING CODE 4333–15–C archaeological evidence suggests that In addition to the impacts of harvest by The Hawaii population of the band- band-rumped storm-petrels were once humans in prehistory, seabirds in rumped storm-petrel is significant also sufficiently common at both high (5,260 Hawaii, including the band-rumped because it persists in a unique and 6,550 ft (1,600 and 2,000 m)) and storm-petrel, were negatively affected by ecological setting. This is the only low elevations on Hawaii Island to be the proliferation of nonnative predators population of the species known to nest used as a food source by humans such as rats and pigs, and, later, cats at high-elevation sites (above 6,000 ft (Ziegler pers. comm. in Harrison et al. and mongoose, and by loss of habitat (1,800 m)) (Banko et al. 1991, pp. 651– 1990, pp. 47–48; Athens et al. 1991, pp. (reviewed in Duffy 2010, pp. 194–196). 653; Athens et al. 1991, p. 95). In prehistory, the species likely nested in 65, 78–80; Banko et al. 1991, p. 650). In Predation and habitat loss combined lowland habitats and more accessible lowland areas, the species was common likely led to the extirpation of the band- habitats in Hawaii as well as in the high- enough for the Hawaiians to name it and rumped storm-petrel from coastal and elevation and otherwise remote areas to identify it by its call (Harrison et al. lowland habitats and other accessible where the species is found today; 1990, p. 47; Banko et al. 1991, p. 650). nesting areas, as occurred in the

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endangered Hawaiian petrel also nests at high elevation in Hawaii— these factors act on the species to the (Pterodroma sandwichensis) and conditions at high elevation constitute point that the species meets the threatened Newell’s shearwater an ecological setting unique to the definition of an endangered or (Puffinus newelli), which have similar species. We conclude that the Hawaii threatened species. nesting habits and life histories (Olson population of band-rumped storm-petrel If we determine that the threats posed and James 1982, p. 43; Slotterback 2002, is a distinct vertebrate population to a species by one or more of the five p. 6; Troy et al. 2014, pp. 315, 325–326). segment under our February 7, 1996, listing factors are, or are likely to The band-rumped storm-petrel’s DPS Policy (61 FR 4722), and that it become, of such magnitude and/or persistence in sites such as the warrants review for listing under the intensity that the species meets the Southwest Rift Zone (6,900 ft (2,100 m)) Act. Therefore, we have incorporated definition of either endangered or on Mauna Loa (Hawaii Island) has the Hawaii DPS of the band-rumped threatened under section 3 of the Act, required them to surmount storm-petrel in our evaluation of threats that species may then be listed as physiological challenges posed by affecting the other 48 species addressed endangered or threatened. The Act nesting in high-elevation conditions in this rule (summarized above; see also defines an endangered species as ‘‘in (cold temperatures, low humidity, and Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 danger of extinction throughout all or a less oxygen). They may possess special Species From the Hawaiian Islands, significant portion of its range,’’ and a adaptations for this, such as reduction below). threatened species as ‘‘likely to become in porosity and other eggshell Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 an endangered species within the modifications to reduce the loss of water Species From the Hawaiian Islands foreseeable future throughout all or a and carbon dioxide during incubation at significant portion of its range.’’ The high elevation (Rahn et al. 1977, p. Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), threats to each of the individual 49 3097; Carey et al. 1982, p. 716; Carey et and its implementing regulations (50 species are summarized in Table 2, and al. 1983, p. 349). In sum, the remnant CFR part 424), set forth the procedures discussed in detail below. for adding species to the Federal Lists distribution of band-rumped storm- We acknowledge that the specific of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife petrel breeding sites in only the most threats to the individual species in this and Plants. A species may be remote and rugged terrain in Hawaii final rule are not all completely determined to be an endangered or reflects the conditions necessary for the understood. Scientific study of each of threatened species due to one or more species’ persistence in Hawaii the 49 species is limited because of their of the five factors described in section (relatively undisturbed habitat in areas rarity and the challenging logistics 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or least accessible to predators) and also associated with conducting field work threatened destruction, modification, or reflects unique adaptations that in Hawaii (areas are typically remote, facilitate the species’ persistence in curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, difficult to access, challenging work high-elevation areas. environments, and expensive to survey We have determined that the Hawaii recreational, scientific, or educational in a comprehensive manner). However, population of band-rumped storm-petrel purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) information is available on many of the is significant to the rest of the taxon. Its the inadequacy of existing regulatory threats that act on Hawaiian ecosystems, loss would result in a gap in the range mechanisms; and (E) other natural or and, for some ecosystems, these threats of the species of more than 8,500 mi manmade factors affecting its continued are well studied and understood. Each (13,680 km), reducing and potentially existence. Listing actions may be of the native species that occurs in precluding connectivity between the warranted based on any of the above Hawaiian ecosystems suffers from two remaining populations in the threat factors, singly or in combination. Pacific Basin. In addition, the Hawaii Each of these factors is discussed below. exposure to those threats to differing population nests at high elevation on In considering factors that might degrees. For the purposes of our listing some islands, constituting a unique constitute threats to a species, we must determination, the best available ecological setting represented nowhere look beyond the exposure of the species scientific information leads us to else in the species’ breeding range. to a factor to evaluate whether the conclude that the threats that act at the species responds to the factor in a way ecosystem level also act on each of the DPS Conclusion that causes impacts to the species or is species that occurs in those ecosystems. We have evaluated the Hawaii likely to cause impacts in the future. If In some cases we have additionally population of band-rumped storm-petrel a species responds negatively to such identified species-specific threats, such to determine if it meets the definition of exposure, the factor may be a threat and, as loss of host plants. a DPS, considering its discreteness and during the status review, our aim is to The following threats affect the 49 significance as required by our policy. determine whether impacts are or will species in one or more of the ecosystems We have found that this population is be of an intensity or magnitude to place addressed in this rule: markedly separated from other the species at risk. The factor is a threat (1) Modification and destruction of populations by geographic distance, and if it drives, or contributes to, the risk of habitat, including streams, ponds, and this separation is likely reflected in the extinction of the species such that the anchialine pools, by urban development population’s genetic distinctiveness. species warrants listing as an and water extraction. Human activities The Hawaii population is significant to endangered or threatened species as also contribute to increased the rest of the species because its loss those terms are defined by the Act. This sedimentation in anchialine pools. would result in a significant gap in the does not necessarily require empirical (2) Habitat destruction and species’ range; Hawaii is located proof of a threat. The combination of modification by feral ungulates roughly half-way between the other two exposure and some corroborating including pigs, goats, axis deer, black- populations in the Pacific Ocean, and evidence of how the species is likely tailed deer, mouflon, sheep, and cattle. little or no evidence exists of current affected could suffice. In sum, the mere The disturbance of soils by these overlap at sea between the Hawaii identification of factors that could affect animals causes erosion and creates population and either the Japan or a species negatively is not sufficient to fertile seedbeds for nonnative plants, Galapagos populations. The Hawaii compel a finding that listing is leading to further habitat degradation. population of band-rumped storm-petrel appropriate; we require evidence that Ungulates also trample seedlings.

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(3) Habitat destruction and (7) Herbivory or defoliation of native by nonnative ants, wasps, and bees, and modification by nonnative plants. plants by ungulates, rats, slugs, and competition for food and habitat of the Nonnative plants modify availability of black twig borers, which have been orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly by light, alter soil-water regimes, modify observed to contribute to the decline or caddisflies. Competition for space and nutrient cycling, alter fire regimes, and death of 35 the 39 plant species (except food resources of the anchialine pool ultimately convert native dominated for Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra shrimp by nonnative fish. plant communities to nonnative plant hematos, Lepidium orbiculare, and (13) Injury and mortality of the band- communities. They also cause or Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii). rumped storm-petrel caused by artificial contribute to loss of host plants used for Herbivory also destroys seeds and fruit lighting, communication towers, and food and nesting by the yellow-faced and contributes to lack of reproduction power lines. bees. in the wild and low genetic diversity (14) Injury and mortality of the band- (4) Habitat destruction by wildfires compounding the decline of native rumped storm-petrel by the activities of caused naturally or by humans. Fires plants. fisheries and encounters with marine also destroy the native plant seedbank, (8) Predation of the band-rumped debris. and contribute to habitat conversion of storm-petrel by rats, barn owls, cats, and (15) Low numbers and/or no native forest to nonnative grasslands mongoose. reproduction of all 49 species (grass/fire cycle). (9) Predation of the orangeblack exacerbated by one or more of the above (5) Habitat destruction and Hawaiian damselfly by bullfrogs, threats, combined with inability of the modification, or direct damage and backswimmers, Jackson’s chameleons, species to adapt to sea-level rise or other death, by stochastic events including and nonnative fish. factors associated with climate change. drought, erosion, flooding, tree falls, (10) Predation of the anchialine pool Existing regulatory mechanisms do rock falls, landslides, hurricanes, and shrimp by nonnative fish. not ameliorate these threats for any of tsunamis. (11) Predation of Hylaeus bees by ants the 49 species such that listing is not (6) Illegal collection of anchialine and wasps. warranted. Each of the threats listed pool shrimp for personal use or (12) Competition for food and nesting above is discussed in more detail below, commercial trade. sites of the Hylaeus yellow-faced bees and summarized in Table 2.

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NN Predation/ herbivory by invertebrates ...... X ...... LI, ST, PECIES S MO. other NN Predation/ vertebrates herbivory by SLANDS I ungulates Predation/ herbivory by AWAIIAN 49 H Over- utilization ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft...... A, W ...... X ...... LN, W, ...... A, W, ...... X ...... LN, W, A, W ...... X ...... LN, W, events RF. TS. TS. TS. Stochastic ACH OF THE E ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... L ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft...... DR ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... DR ...... X ...... X ...... LN .. Fire ...... L ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... L ...... R ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... X ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... L ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... L ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... E, F, L ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN, NR X...... L ...... X ...... X .. Non- native plants Factor A Factor B Factor C Factor D Factor E X ...... X ...... DR, E, L ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft. X ...... X ...... L ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... L, RF ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft. X ...... X ...... DR, HUR, X ...... X ...... DR, HUR, X ...... X ...... X ...... BTB ...... X ...... DENTIFIED FOR I BTD, C. BTD. C. SH, C. M, C. BTD, M, C. Ungulates HREATS T and urban Agriculture ...... P, G, D, ...... P, G, D, C X ...... X ...... DR, E, F ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft. development RIMARY P MM. WC. UMMARY OF ...... CO ...... G, D ...... X ...... L, RF ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft. 2—S ABLE molokaiense ...... LM, LW, MW, ...... MW ...... X ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X, T ...... LM, MW, MM ...... P, G ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... HY, LN X...... LW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... MW ...... P, BTD .... X ...... LW, MW ...... P ...... X ...... LW ...... P, G ...... X ...... MW ...... P, G, D, C X ...... mauiensis ascendens ...... MM ...... P, G, BTD X ...... MW, MM ...... P, G, D ... X ...... DR, E, F, L, ...... LW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... MW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... MM, MD, SA ...... P, M, C ... X ...... DR, E ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft...... LD, LM, DC ...... P, G, D, Species Ecosystem mauiensis sherffii ...... LW, MW, WC ...... P ...... X ...... E, L ...... X ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft...... MW, MM, WC ...... MM, MD, SA ...... P, G, D, ...... P, G ...... X ...... X ...... DR, E, F ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft. X, pusilla ...... LM, MM, DC ...... P, G, BTD X ...... X ...... LW ...... X .. diffusa ...... LW, MW, MM, ...... MW, MM, MD ...... P, M, C ... X ...... X ...... LM, MM, MD ...... G, M, SH X ...... X ...... LM, MM, DC ...... P, G, C ... X ...... X ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN, NR X, Ft...... MM ...... P, G, BTD X ...... X ...... F, L, TF ...... X ...... R ...... BTB ...... X ...... LN, NR X ...... LM, LW ...... P, G ...... X ...... MD ...... G, SH ..... X ...... MW ...... P, G ...... X ...... LW, MW ...... X, WE ...... P ...... X ...... DR, F, L ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... X, Ft...... LM ...... P, G ...... X ...... LM ...... P ...... X ...... L ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... LW, MW, WC ...... P, G ...... X ...... LM, LW ...... P ...... X ...... DR, F ...... X ...... S ...... X ...... LM ...... P ...... X ...... HUR ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... X...... CO ...... D, C ...... X ...... X ...... DR, E, F, TS ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN, SL .. X, Ft...... LM, LW, MW ...... P, G ...... X ...... CO, LD, MD ...... G, D, M, ...... LM, LW ...... P, G, D ... X ...... LM, LW ...... P, G ...... X . : Asplenium diellaciniatum Calamagrostis expansa Cyanea kauaulaensis Cyclosorus boydiae Cyperus neokunthianus Cyrtandra hematos Deparia kaalaana Dryopteris glabra var. Exocarpos menziesii Festuca hawaiiensis Gardenia remyi Huperzia stemmermanniae Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Joinvillea ascendens ssp. Kadua fluviatilis Kadua haupuensis Labordia lorenciana Lepidium orbiculare Microlepia strigosa var. Myrsine fosbergii Nothocestrum latifolium Ochrosia haleakalae Phyllostegia brevidens Phyllostegia helleri Phyllostegia stachyoides Portulaca villosa Pritchardia bakeri Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Ranunculus hawaiensis Ranunculus mauiensis Sanicula sandwicensis Santalum involutum Schiedea diffusa ssp. Schiedea pubescens Sicyos lanceoloideus Sicyos macrophyllus Solanum nelsonii Stenogyne kaalae ssp. Wikstroemia skottsbergiana Band-rumped storm-petrel ( Oceanodroma castro ) ...... CO, SA, DC, WC Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly ( Megalagrion xanthomelas ) ...... AP, CO, LD, LMAnchialine pool shrimp ( Procaris hawaiana ) G ...... X, WE AP X ...... P, G, D X, WE ...... E, L, HUR X ...... Yellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus anthracinus ) ...... DR, F, HUR CO, LD ...... R, O, CA, ...... X XYellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus assimulans ) ...... P, G, D, CO, LD ...... FS, BF, JC ...... FS X ...... BSYellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus facilis ) ...... P, G, D, CO, LD, LM X ...... X ...... LN, CD X FS, H, ...... P, G, D, C X. X ...... X ...... DR, HUR, LANTS P ANIMALS:

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Factor A. The Present or Threatened Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii update is currently under development Destruction, Modification, or Island are a threat to some species: (CWRM 2014, in litt.). In addition, Curtailment of Their Habitat or Range • On Oahu, the plant Cyclosorus marshes have been slowly filled and boydiae, the orangeblack Hawaiian The Hawaiian Islands are located over converted to meadow habitat as a result damselfly, and the yellow-faced bees 2,000 mi (3,200 km) from the nearest of sedimentation from increased storm Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. continent. This isolation has allowed water runoff from upslope development, facilis, and H. longiceps. the accumulation of uncontrolled the few plants and animals transported • On Molokai, the orangeblack to the islands by wind, water, or birds growth of invasive vegetation, and Hawaiian damselfly and the yellow- blockage of downslope drainage (Wilson to evolve into many varied and endemic faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. Okamoto & Associates, Inc. 1993, pp. 3– species. The only native terrestrial facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. 4–3–5). Agriculture and urban mammals on the Hawaiian Islands • On Maui, the plant Cyclosorus development have thus contributed to include two bat taxa, the Hawaiian boydiae, the orangeblack Hawaiian habitat destruction and modification, hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus), damselfly, the anchialine pool shrimp and continue to be a threat to the habitat and an extinct, unnamed insectivorous Procaris hawaiana, and the yellow- of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly bat (Ziegler 2002, p. 245). The native faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. and the fern, Cyclosorus boydiae. plants of the Hawaiian Islands therefore assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. On Hawaii Island, it is estimated that evolved in the absence of mammalian longiceps. up to 90 percent of the anchialine pools predators, browsers, or grazers, and • On Lanai, the orangeblack Hawaiian have been destroyed or altered by subsequently, many native species lost damselfly, and the yellow-faced bees human activities, including bulldozing unneeded defenses against threats Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. and filling of pools (Brock 2004, p. i; typical of continental environments facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, p. 354). • such as herbivory and competition with On Hawaii Island, the orangeblack Dumping of trash and nonnative fish aggressive, weedy plant species (Loope Hawaiian damselfly, the anchialine pool has affected anchialine pools on this 1992, p. 11; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, shrimp Procaris hawaiana, and the island (Brock 2004, pp. 13–17) (see p. 45; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 3–6). For yellow-faced bee Hylaeus anthracinus. Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade example, Carlquist (in Carlquist and (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 55, 173; Factors Affecting Their Continued Cole 1974, p. 29) notes, ‘‘Hawaiian Palmer 2003, p. 88; Magnacca 2007, p. Existence, below). Brock also noted that plants are notably nonpoisonous, free 188; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 22– garbage like bottles and cans appear to from armament, and free from many 25). have no net negative impact, while the characteristics thought to be deterrents Although we are unaware of any dumping of used oil, oil filters, and to herbivores (oils, resins, stinging hairs, comprehensive, site-by-site assessment grease has resulted in the disappearance coarse texture).’’ In addition, species of wetland development in Hawaii of the anchialine pool shrimp restricted to highly specialized habitats (Erikson and Puttock 2006, p. 40), Dahl Halaocaridina rubra from a pool (e.g., Hawaiian damselflies) or food and (1990, p. 7) estimated that at least 12 adjacent to Honokohau Harbor on nesting sources (e.g., Hawaiian yellow- percent of lowland to upper-elevation Hawaii Island. Lua O Palahemo (where faced bees) are particularly vulnerable wetlands in Hawaii had been converted Procaris hawaiana occurs) on Hawaii to changes in their habitat (Carlquist to non-wetland habitat by the 1980s. If Island is accessible to the public, and and Cole 1974, pp. 28–29; Loope 1992, only coastal plain (below 1,000 ft (300 dumping has occurred there (Brock pp. 3–6). m)) marshlands and wetlands are 2004, pp. 13–17). We are not aware of considered, it is estimated that 30 any dumping activities within the two Habitat Destruction and Modification by percent were developed or converted to Agriculture and Urban Development Maui anchialine pools known to be agricultural use (Kosaka 1990, in litt.). occupied by P. hawaiana; however, this Past land use practices such as Records show the modification and threat remains a possibility (Brock 2004, agriculture or urban development have reduction in area of these marshlands pp. 13–17). resulted in little or no native vegetation and wetlands that provided habitat for Destruction and modification of below 2,000 ft (600 m) throughout the many damselfly species, including the Hylaeus habitat by urbanization and Hawaiian Islands (TNC 2006). These orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly land use conversion, including land use practices negatively affect the (Englund 2001, p. 256; Rees and Reed agriculture, has led to the fragmentation anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, 2013, Fig 2S). Once modified, these of foraging and nesting habitat of these and lowland mesic ecosystems, areas then lack the aquatic habitat species. In particular, because native including streams and wetlands that features that the orangeblack Hawaiian host plant species are known to be occur within these areas. Hawaii’s damselfly requires for essential life- essential to the yellow-faced bees for agricultural industries (e.g., sugar cane, history needs, such as pools of foraging of nectar and pollen, any pineapple) have been declining in intermittent streams, ponds, and coastal further loss of this habitat may reduce importance, and large tracts of former springs (Polhemus 1996 pp. 30–31, 36). their long-term chances for recovery. agricultural lands are being converted Although the filling of wetlands is Additionally, further destruction and into residential areas or left fallow (TNC regulated by section 404 of the Clean modification of Hylaeus habitat is also 2007). In addition, Hawaii’s population Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.), the likely to facilitate the introduction and has increased almost 10 percent in the loss of riparian or wetland habitats spread of nonnative plants within these past 10 years, further increasing utilized by the orangeblack Hawaiian areas (see ‘‘Habitat Destruction and demands on limited land and water damselfly may still occur due to Modification by Nonnative Plants,’’ resources in the islands (Hawaii Hawaii’s population growth and below). Department of Business, Economic development, with concurrent demands Development and Tourism 2013, in on limited developable land and water Habitat Destruction and Modification by litt.). resources. The State’s Commission of Nonnative Ungulates Development and urbanization of Water Resource Management (CWRM) Nonnative ungulates have greatly anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, recognizes the need to update the 2008 affected the native vegetation, as well as and lowland mesic ecosystems on Oahu, water resource protection plan, and an the native fauna, of the Hawaiian

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Islands. Impacts to the native species recognized as a serious threat to these Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens and ecosystems accelerated following areas, and an eradication project was ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. the arrival of Captain James Cook in conducted by the Hawaii Territorial haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, 1778. The Cook expedition and Board of Agriculture and Forestry, Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia subsequent explorers intentionally which removed 170,000 pigs from brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, introduced a European race of pigs (i.e., forests Statewide (Diong 1982, p. 63). Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, boars) and other livestock such as goats Feral pigs are extremely destructive Sanicula sandwicensis, and Schiedea to serve as food sources for seagoing and have both direct and indirect pubescens. Thirty-two of the 39 plants explorers (Tomich 1986, pp. 120–121; impacts on native plant communities. (all except for Cyanea kauaulaensis, Loope 1998, p. 752). The mild climate While rooting in the earth in search of Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca of the islands, combined with lack of invertebrates and plant material, pigs hawaiiensis, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. competitors or predators, led to the directly affect native plants by mauiensis, Portulaca villosa, successful establishment of large disturbing and destroying vegetative Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. populations of these feral mammals, to cover and by trampling plants and molokaiense, and Solanum nelsonii) are the detriment of native Hawaiian seedlings. It has been estimated that at at risk of habitat destruction and species and ecosystems (Cox 1992, pp. a conservative rooting rate of 2 square modification by feral pigs, and the 116–117). The presence of introduced yards (sq yd) (1.7 square meters (sq m)) orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and six mammals is considered one of the per minute and only 4 hours of foraging of the seven yellow-faced bees (all primary factors underlying the per day, a single pig could disturb over except Hylaeus longiceps) are at risk of modification and destruction of native 1,600 sq yd (1,340 sq m) (or habitat destruction and modification by vegetation and habitats of the Hawaiian approximately 0.3 acres (ac) (0.1 feral pigs (see Table 2). Islands (Cox 1992, pp. 118–119). All of hectares (ha)) of groundcover per week Goats (Capra hircus) the 11 ecosystems on the main islands (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.). Feral pigs Feral goats currently destroy and (except Kahoolawe) are currently are a major vector for the establishment affected by habitat destruction resulting modify habitat in 10 of the 11 and spread of invasive nonnative plant ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, from the activities of various species, such as Passiflora tarminiana combinations of nonnative ungulates, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane and Psidium cattleianum, by dispersing including pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra wet, montane mesic, montane dry, seeds carried on their hooves and coats hircus), axis deer (Axis axis), black- subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) in and in their feces (which also serve to tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus which these species occur. Goats, native fertilize disturbed soil) (Diong 1982, pp. columbianus), sheep (Ovis aries), to the Middle East and India, were 169–170; Matson 1990, p. 245; Siemann mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon) and successfully introduced to the Hawaiian et al. 2009, p. 547). Pigs also feed mouflon-sheep hybrids, and cattle (Bos Islands in the late 1700s. Actions to directly on native plants such as taurus). Habitat destruction or control feral goat populations began in Hawaiian tree ferns. Pigs preferentially modification by ungulates is a threat to the 1920s (Tomich 1986, pp. 152–153). eat the core of tree-fern trunks, and 37 of the 39 plant species, the band- However, goats still occupy a wide rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack these cored trunks then fill with variety of habitats on all the main Hawaiian damselfly, and the seven rainwater and serve as breeding sites for islands (except for Kahoolawe; see yellow-faced bees (see Table 2). introduced mosquitoes that spread below), where they consume native avian malaria, with devastating vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, Pigs (Sus scrofa) consequences for Hawaii’s native forest strip tree bark, accelerate erosion, and The destruction or modification of birds (Baker 1975, p. 79). Additionally, promote the invasion of nonnative habitat by pigs is currently a threat to rooting pigs contribute to erosion, plants (van Riper and van Riper 1982, four of the ecosystems (lowland mesic, especially on slopes, by clearing pp. 34–35; Stone 1985, p. 261; Kessler lowland wet, montane wet, and vegetation and creating large areas of 2010, pers. comm.). Kahoolawe was montane mesic) in which these species disturbed soil (Smith 1985, pp. 190, negatively affected by ungulates occur. Feral pigs are known to cause 192, 196, 200, 204, 230–231; Stone beginning in 1793, with introduction of deleterious impacts to ecosystem 1985, pp. 254–255, 262–264; Medeiros goats and the addition of sheep (up to processes and functions throughout et al. 1986, pp. 27–28; Scott et al. 1986, 15,000) and cattle (about 900) by their worldwide distribution (Campbell pp. 360–361; Tomich 1986, pp. 120– ranchers between 1858 and 1941, with and Long 2009, p. 2319). Pigs have been 126; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64– the goat population estimated to be as described as having the most pervasive 65; Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; Loope et al. high as 50,000 individuals by 1988 and disruptive nonnative influences on 1991, pp. 1–21; Gagne and Cuddihy (KIRC 2014, in litt.; KIRC 2015, in litt.). the unique ecosystems of the Hawaiian 1999, p. 52; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, Beginning in 1941, the U.S. military Islands and are widely recognized as pp. 3677–3682; Dunkell et al. 2011, pp. used the entire island as a bombing one of the greatest current threats (Aplet 175–177). The resulting erosion alters range, and in 1994, control of et al. 1991. p. 56; Anderson and Stone native plant communities by damaging Kahoolawe was returned to the State 1993, p. 195; Anderson et al. 2007, in individual plants, contributing to and the Kahoolawe Island Reserve litt.). Introduced European pigs watershed degradation, and changing Commission. The remaining ungulates hybridized with smaller, domesticated nutrient availability for plants; erosion were eradicated in 1993 (McLeod 2014, Polynesian pigs, became feral, and also affects aquatic animals by in litt.). Because they are able to access invaded forested areas, especially mesic increasing sedimentation in streams and extremely rugged terrain, and have a and wet forests, from low to high pools (Vitousek et al. 2009, pp. 3074– high reproductive capacity (Clark and elevations; they are present on all the 3086; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, p. Cuddihy 1980, pp. C–19–C2–20; main Hawaiian Islands except Lanai and 3681; Cuddihy and Stone 1992, p. 667). Culliney 1988, p. 336; Cuddihy and Kahoolawe, where they have been The following 15 plants are at risk from Stone 1990, p. 64), goats are believed to eradicated (Tomich 1986, pp. 120–121; erosion and landslides resulting from have completely eliminated some plant Munro (1911–1930) 2007, p. 85). By the the activities of feral pigs: Cyclosorus species from certain islands (Atkinson early 1900s, feral pigs were already boydiae, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, and Atkinson 2000, p. 21). Goats are

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highly destructive to native vegetation move into urban and forested areas in dominated by nonnative plants and contribute to erosion by: (1) Eating search of food (Waring 1996, p. 5; (Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 6–32). young trees and young shoots of plants Nishibayashi 2001, in litt.). Like goats, While axis deer are allowed as game before they become established; (2) axis deer are highly destructive to native animals on these three islands, the State creating trails that damage native vegetation and contribute to erosion by does not permit their introduction to vegetative cover; (3) destabilizing eating young trees and young shoots of other Hawaiian Islands. In 2010–2011, substrate and creating gullies that plants before they can become axis deer were illegally introduced to convey water; and (4) dislodging stones established. Other axis deer impacts Hawaii Island as a game animal (Kessler from ledges that results in rockfalls and include stripping bark from mature 2011, pers. comm.; Aila 2012, in litt.), landslides that damage or destroy native trees, creating trails, promoting erosion and deer have now been observed across vegetation below (Cuddihy and Stone by destabilizing substrate, creating the southern portion of the island 1990, pp. 63–64). Feral goats forage gullies that convey water, and including in Kohala, Kau, Kona, and along some cliffs where band-rumped dislodging stones from ledges that can Mauna Kea (HDLNR 2011, in litt.). The Hawaii Department of Lands and storm-petrels nest on Kauai, and may result in rockfalls and landslides that Natural Resources (HDLNR) Division of trample nests and increase erosion directly damage vegetation (Cuddihy Forestry and Wildlife (HDOFAW) has (Scott et al. 1986, pp. 8, 352–357; and Stone 1990, pp. 63–64). Tomich 1986, pp. 152–153). The band- developed a response-and-removal plan, rumped storm-petrel and the following On Molokai, axis deer likely occur at including a partnership now underway 12 plants are at risk from landslides or all elevations from sea level to almost with the Hawaii Department of erosion caused by feral goats: Gardenia 5,000 ft (1,500 m) at the summit area Agriculture (HDOA), the Big Island remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. (Kessler 2011, pers. comm.). The most Invasive Species Committee (BIISC), ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, Labordia current population estimate for axis Federal natural resource management lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, deer on the island of Molokai is between agencies, ranchers, farmers, private Phyllostegia helleri, P. stachyoides, 4,000 and 5,000 individuals (Anderson landowners, and concerned citizens (Big Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium 2003, p. 119). Little management for Island.com, June 6, 2011). Also, in sandwicensium var. molokaiense, deer control has been implemented on response to the introduction of axis deer Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula Molokai, and this figure from more than to Hawaii Island, the Hawaii Invasive sandwicensis, and Schiedea pubescens. a decade ago is likely an underestimate Species Council drafted House Bill 2593 Twenty-four of the 39 plants (all except of the axis deer population on this to amend House Revised Statutes for Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea island today (Scott et al. 1986, p. 360; (H.R.S.) 91, which allows agencies to kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, Anderson 2003, p. 30; Hess 2008, p. 4). adopt emergency rules in the instances Cyperus neokunthianus, Deparia On Lanai, axis deer were reported to of imminent peril to public health, kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, number approximately 6,000 to 8,000 including to livestock and poultry Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, individuals in 2007 (The Aloha Insider health (BigIsland.com 2011, in litt.; Kadua haupuensis, Phyllostegia 2008, in litt; WCities 2010, in litt.). On Martin 2012, in litt.). This emergency brevidens, Pritchardia bakeri, Maui, five adult axis deer were released rule became permanent on June 21, Ranunculus hawaiensis, Schiedea east of Kihei in 1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 2012, when House Bill 2593 was diffusa ssp. diffusa, Sicyos 207; Hess 2008, p. 2). In 2013, the Maui enacted into law as Act 194 (State of macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, and Axis Deer Working Group estimated that Hawaii 2012, in litt.). The following 16 species in this rule Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii), the there may be 8,000 deer on southeast are at risk from the activities of axis band-rumped storm-petrel, the Maui alone, based on helicopter surveys deer: Gardenia remyi, Huperzia orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and (Star Advertiser 2015, in litt.; Hawaii stemmermanniae, Joinvillea ascendens four of the yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus News Now 2014, in litt.) According to ssp. ascendens, Nothocestrum anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, Medeiros (2010, pers. comm.) axis deer and H. hilaris) are at risk of habitat latifolium, Phyllostegia stachyoides, can be found in all but high-elevation Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium destruction and modification by feral ecosystems (subalpine and alpine) and goats. sandwicensium var. molokaiense, montane bogs on Maui, and are Ranunculus mauiensis, Schiedea Axis Deer (Axis axis) increasing in numbers at such high rates pubescens, Solanum nelsonii, the Axis deer destroy and modify 6 of the that native forests are changing in orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and 11 ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, unprecedented ways. Additionally, five of the yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane Medeiros (2010, pers. comm.) asserted anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, wet, and montane mesic) in which these that native plants will only survive in H. hilaris, and H. longiceps). species are found. Axis deer were habitat that is fenced or otherwise introduced to the Hawaiian Islands for protected from the browsing and Black-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus hunting opportunities on Molokai in trampling effects of axis deer. Kessler hemionus columbianus) 1868, on Lanai in 1920, and on Maui in (2010, pers. comm.) and Hess (2010, Black-tailed deer destroy and modify 1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 207; Erdman pers. comm.) reported the presence of habitat in 5 of the 11 ecosystems 1996, pers. comm. in Waring 1996, in axis deer up to 9,000 ft (2,700 m) on (lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane litt., p. 2; Hess 2008, p. 2). Axis deer are Maui, and Kessler suggests that no wet, montane mesic, and dry cliff) in primarily grazers, but also browse ecosystem is safe from the negative which these species occur. The black- numerous palatable plant species impacts of these animals. Montane bogs tailed deer is one of nine subspecies of including those grown as commercial are also susceptible to impacts from axis mule deer (Natural History Museum crops (Waring 1996, p. 3; Simpson 2001, deer. As the native vegetation is 2015, in litt.). Black-tailed deer were in litt.). They prefer the low, openly removed by browsing and trampling, the first introduced to Kauai in 1961, for the vegetated areas for browsing and soil dries out, and nonnative plants purpose of sport hunting (Tomich 1986, grazing, but during episodes of drought invade. Eventually, the bog habitat and pp. 131–134). Currently, these deer are (e.g., from 1998 to 2001 on Maui its associated native plants and animals only known from the western side of the (Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.)), axis deer are replaced by grassland or shrubland island, where they feed on a variety of

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native (e.g., Acacia koa and Coprosma the saddle area between the two habitat destruction and modification spp.) and nonnative plants (van Riper volcanoes have been only sporadically resulting from the activities of mouflon and van Riper 1982, pp. 42–46; Tomich effective (Hess 2008, pp. 1, 4). (see Table 2). 1986, p. 134). In addition to their direct Currently, a large population of sheep Cattle (Bos taurus) impacts on native plants (browsing), (and mouflon hybrids) extends from black-tailed deer likely affect native Mauna Kea into the saddle and northern Cattle destroy and modify habitat in 7 plants indirectly by serving as a primary part of Mauna Loa, including State of the 11 ecosystems on Maui and vector for the spread of introduced forest reserves, where they trample and Hawaii Island (coastal, lowland dry, plants by carrying their seeds or other browse all vegetation, including lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane propagules on their coats and hooves endangered plants (Hess 2008, p. 1). wet, montane mesic, and montane dry) and in feces. Black-tailed deer have One study estimated as many as 2,500 in which these species occur. Cattle, the been noted as a cause of habitat mouflon within just the Kau district of wild progenitors of which were native alteration in the Kauai ecosystems the Kahuku Unit (Volcanoes National to Europe, northern Africa, and (NTBG 2007, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Park) in 2006 (Hess et al. 2006, p. 10). southwestern Asia, were introduced to Seven of the 39 plants (Asplenium Two of the 39 plants, Exocarpos the Hawaiian Islands in 1793, and large diellaciniatum, Dryopteris glabra var. menziesii and Festuca hawaiiensis, and feral herds (as many as 12,000 on the pusilla, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. the yellow-faced bee Hylaeus island of Hawaii) developed as a result ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, anthracinus, are reported to be at risk of of restrictions on killing cattle decreed Nothocestrum latifolium, Ranunculus habitat destruction and modification by by King Kamehameha I (Cuddihy and mauiensis, and Sicyos lanceoloideus) feral sheep (see Table 2). Stone 1990, p. 40). While small cattle are at risk of habitat destruction and ranches were developed on Kauai, Mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon) modification by black-tailed deer. Oahu, Molokai, west Maui, and Mouflon destroy and modify habitat Kahoolawe, very large ranches of tens of Sheep (Ovis aries) in 6 of the 11 ecosystems on Maui, thousands of acres were created on east Four of the ecosystems on Hawaii Lanai, and Hawaii Island (lowland dry, Maui and Hawaii Island (Stone 1985, Island (lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland mesic, montane mesic, pp. 256, 260; Broadbent 2010, in litt.). montane mesic, and montane dry) in montane dry, subalpine, and dry cliff) in Feral cattle can be found today on the which these species occur are currently which these species occur. Native to islands of Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii. threatened by habitat destruction and central Asia, mouflon were introduced Feral cattle eat native vegetation, modification due to the activities of to the islands of Lanai and Hawaii in the trample roots and seedlings, cause feral sheep. Sheep were introduced to 1950s as game species, and are now erosion, create disturbed areas into Hawaii Island in 1791, when Captain widely established on these islands which alien plants invade, and spread Vancouver brought five rams and two (Tomich 1986, pp. 163–168; Cuddihy seeds of alien plants carried in their ewes from California (Tomich 1986, pp. and Stone 1990, p. 66; Hess 2008, p. 1). feces and on their bodies. The forest in 156–163). Soon after, stock was brought Due to their high reproductive rate, the areas grazed by cattle rapidly degrades from Australia, Germany, and the original population of 11 mouflon on into grassland pasture, and plant cover Mediterranean for sheep production the island of Hawaii increased to more remains reduced for many years (Tomich 1986, pp. 156–163; Cuddihy than 2,500 individuals in 36 years, even following removal of cattle from an area. and Stone 1990, pp. 65–66), and by the though they were hunted for game (Hess Increased nitrogen availability through early 1930s, herds reached close to 2008, p. 3). Mouflon have decimated the feces of cattle contributes to the 40,000 individuals (Scowcroft and vast areas of native shrubland and forest ingress of nonnative plant species Conrad 1992, p. 627). Capable of through grazing, browsing, and bark (Kohala Mountain Watershed acquiring the majority of their water stripping (Stone 1985, p. 271; Cuddihy Partnership (KMWP) 2007, pp. 54–55; needs by consuming vegetation, sheep and Stone 1990, pp. 63, 66; Hess 2008, Laws et al. 2010, in litt.). Furthermore, can inhabit dry forests in remote regions p. 3). Mouflon also create trails and several alien grasses and legumes of the mountains of Mauna Kea and pathways through vegetation, resulting purposely introduced for cattle forage Mauna Loa, including the saddle in soil compaction and increased runoff have become invasive weeds (Tomich between the two volcanoes. Feral sheep and erosion. In some areas, the 1986, pp. 140–150; Cuddihy and Stone browse and trample native vegetation interaction of browsing and soil 1990, p. 29). According to Kessler (2011, and have decimated large areas of native compaction has led to a shift from pers. comm.) approximately 300 forest and shrubland on Hawaii Island native forest to grassy scrublands (Hess individuals roam east Maui as high as (Tomich 1986, pp. 156–163; Cuddihy 2008, p. 3). Mouflon only gather in the subalpine ecosystem (i.e., to 9,800 ft and Stone 1990, pp. 65–66). Browsing herds when breeding, thus complicating (3,000 m)), and feral cattle are results in the erosion of top soil that control techniques and hunting occasional observed on west Maui. Feral alters moisture regimes and micro- efficiency (Hess 2008, p. 3; Ikagawa cattle (more than 100 individuals) are environments, leading to the loss of 2011, in litt.). Currently, many of the reported from remote regions of Hawaii native plants and animals (Tomich current and proposed fence exclosures Island, including the back of Pololu and 1986, pp. 156–163; Cuddihy and Stone on Hawaii Island constructed to protect Waipio Valleys in the Kohala 1990, pp. 65–66). In addition, nonnative rare species and habitat are designed to Mountains, and the Kona Unit of the plant seeds are dispersed into native exclude feral pigs, goats, and sheep and Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge forest by adhering to sheep’s wool coats are only 4 ft (1.3 m) in height; a fence (NWR) (KMWP 2007, p. 55; USFWS (DOFAW 2002, p. 3). In 1962, game height of at least 6 ft (2 m) is necessary 2010, pp. 3–15, 4–86). Nine of the 39 hunters intentionally crossbred feral to exclude mouflon (Ikagawa 2011, in plant species (Huperzia sheep with mouflon sheep and released litt.). Five of the 39 plant species stemmermanniae, Nothocestrum them on Mauna Kea, where they have (Exocarpos menziesii, Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, done extensive damage to the montane latifolium, Portulaca villosa, Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus dry ecosystem (Tomich 1986, pp. 156– Ranunculus hawaiensis, and Sicyos hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Schiedea 163). Over the past 30 years, attempts to macrophyllus), and the yellow-faced bee pubescens, Sicyos macrophyllus, and protect the vegetation of Mauna Kea and Hylaeus assimulans, are at risk from Solanum nelsonii) and four of the

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yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus anthracinus, affect the 49 species are provided in our cliff) and the species in this rule that are H. assimulans, H. facilis, and H. hilaris) proposed rule (80 FR 58820, September associated with them are at risk of are currently at risk of habitat 30, 2015; see pp. 58869–58881). destruction and modification by fire. destruction or modification due to the Fourteen of these nonnative plants are Fire is an increasing, human- activities of feral cattle. included in the Hawaii Noxious Weed exacerbated threat to native species and In summary, 37 of the 39 plant List (Hawaii Department of Agriculture ecosystems in Hawaii. The pre- species (all except Cyanea kauaulaensis HAR 1981-title 4, subtitle 6, chapter 68). settlement fire regime in Hawaii was and Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Nonnative plants adversely affect characterized by infrequent, low- mauiensis), and 9 of the 10 animals native habitat in Hawaii by (1) severity events, as few natural ignition (except for the anchialine pool shrimp modifying the availability of light, (2) sources existed (Cuddihy and Stone Procaris hawaiana), are at risk of habitat altering soil-water regimes, (3) 1990, p. 91; Smith and Tunison 1992, destruction and modification by modifying nutrient cycling, and (4) pp. 395–397). It is believed that prior to ungulates including pigs, goats, axis altering fire regimes of native plant human colonization fuel was sparse in deer, black-tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, communities (i.e., the ‘‘grass/fire cycle’’ wet plant communities and only and cattle (see Table 2). The effects of that converts native-dominated plant seasonally flammable in mesic and dry these nonnative animals include the communities to nonnative plant plant communities. The only ignition destruction of vegetative cover, communities; see below) (Smith 1985, sources were volcanism and lightning trampling of plants and seedlings, direct pp. 180–181; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, (Baker et al. 2009, p. 43). Although Vogl consumption of native vegetation, soil p. 74; D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. (1969, in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. disturbance and sedimentation (erosion 73; Vitousek et al. 1997, p. 6). The 91) proposed that naturally occurring and landslides), dispersal of nonnative contribution of nonnative plants to the fires may have been important in the plant seeds by animals, alteration of soil extinction of native species in the development of some of the original nitrogen availability, and creation of lowland and upland habitats of Hawaii Hawaiian flora, Mueller-Dombois (1981, open, disturbed areas conducive to is well-documented (Vitousek et al. in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 91) further invasion by nonnative pest plant 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). asserts that most natural vegetation species. All of these impacts also can The most commonly observed effect of types of Hawaii would not carry fire lead to the conversion of a native plant nonnative plants on native species is before the introduction of alien grasses. community to one dominated by displacement through competition. Smith and Tunison (in Cuddihy and nonnative species (see ‘‘Habitat Competition occurs for water or Stone 1990, p. 91) state that native plant Destruction and Modification by nutrients, or it may involve allelopathy fuels typically have low flammability. Nonnative Plants,’’ below). In addition, (chemical inhibition of growth of other Existing fuel loads were often because these animals inhabit terrain plants), shading, or precluding sites for discontinuous, and rainfall in many that is often steep and remote, foraging seedling establishment (Vitousek et al. areas on most islands was moderate to and trampling contributes to severe 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). high. Fires inadvertently or Alteration of fire regimes represents erosion of watersheds and degradation intentionally set by the Polynesian an ecosystem-level change caused by of streams and wetlands (Cuddihy and settlers probably contributed to the the invasion of nonnative plants, Stone 1990, p. 59; Dunkell et al. 2011, initial decline of native vegetation in the primarily grasses (D’Antonio and pp. 175–194). drier plains and foothills. These early Vitousek 1992, p. 73). Grasses generate settlers practiced slash-and-burn Habitat Destruction and Modification by standing dead material that burns agriculture that created open lowland Nonnative Plants readily, and grass tissues with large areas suitable for the opportunistic Ten of the 11 ecosystems (excluding surface-to-volume ratios dry out anchialine pool ecosystem) and the quickly, contributing to flammability invasion and colonization of nonnative, species in this rule that are associated (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73). fire-adapted grasses (Kirch 1982, pp. 5– with them are currently at risk of habitat The finest size classes of grass material 6, 8; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 30– destruction and modification by ignite and spread fires under a broader 31). Beginning in the late 18th century, nonnative plants. Native vegetation on range of conditions than do woody fuels Europeans and Americans introduced all of the main Hawaiian Islands has or even surface litter (D’Antonio and plants and animals that further undergone extreme alteration because of Vitousek 1992, p. 73). The grass life degraded native Hawaiian ecosystems. past and present land management form allows rapid recovery following Ranching and the creation of practices, including ranching, deliberate fire because there is little above-ground pasturelands in particular created introduction of nonnative plants and vegetative structure. Grasslands also highly fire-prone areas of nonnative animals, and agriculture (Cuddihy and support a microclimate in which surface grasses and shrubs (D’Antonio and Stone 1990, pp. 27, 58). The original temperatures are hotter, contributing to Vitousek 1992, p. 67). Although fires native flora of Hawaii (present before drier vegetative conditions that favor were infrequent in mountainous human arrival) consisted of about 1,000 fire (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. regions, extensive fires have recently taxa, 89 percent of which are endemic 73). In summary, nonnative plants occurred in lowland dry and lowland (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 3–6). Over 800 directly and indirectly affect the 39 mesic areas, leading to grass/fire cycles plant taxa have been introduced to the plants and 9 of the 10 animals in this that convert native dry forest and native Hawaiian Islands. These were brought rule (except the anchialine pool shrimp) wet forest to nonnative grassland to Hawaii for food or for cultural by destroying and modifying their (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 77). reasons, to reforest areas destroyed by habitat, by removing their native host Because of the greater frequency, grazing feral and domestic animals, or plants, or by direct competition. intensity, and duration of fires that have for horticultural or agricultural resulted from the human alteration of purposes; some were introduced Habitat Destruction and Modification by landscapes and the introduction of unintentionally (Scott et al. 1986, pp. Fire nonnative plants, especially grasses, 361–363; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. Seven of the 11 ecosystems (coastal, fires are now more destructive to native 73). Individual descriptions of 114 lowland dry, lowland mesic, montane Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith nonnative plant species that negatively mesic, montane dry, subalpine, and dry 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled

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fire often kills most native trees and section of the Molokai Forest Reserve, a eventually encompassing 5,655 ac shrubs in the area (D’Antonio and small portion of The Nature (2,289 ha) that negatively affected eight Vitousek 1992, p. 74). Fire destroys Conservancy’s (TNC’s) Kamakou endangered plant species and their dormant seeds of native plants, as well Preserve, and encroached on Onini habitat (Abutilon sandwicense, Bonamia as individual plants and animals Gulch, Kalamaula, and Kawela menziesii, Colubrina oppositifolia, themselves, even in steep, inaccessible (Hamilton 2009, in litt.). Species at risk Eugenia koolauensis, Euphorbia areas or near streams and ponds. because of wildfire on Molokai include haeleeleana, Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. Successive fires remove habitat for the plants Joinvillea ascendens ssp. mokuleianus, Nototrichium humile, and native species by altering microclimate ascendens, Nothocestrum latifolium, Schiedea hookeri) (U.S. Army Garrison conditions, creating conditions more Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus 2007b, Appendices pp. 1–5). This fire favorable to nonnative plants. mauiensis, Schiedea pubescens, and provided ingress for nonnative Nonnative grasses (e.g., Cenchrus Solanum nelsonii, and the yellow-faced ungulates (cattle, goats, and pigs) into setaceus; fountain grass), many of which bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. facilis, H. previously undisturbed areas, and may be fire-adapted, produce a high fuel hilaris, and H. longiceps. opened dense native vegetation to the load that allow fire to burn areas that Several wildfires have occurred on invasive grass Urochloa maxima would not otherwise burn easily, Lanai in the last decade. In 2006, a (Panicum maximum, guinea grass), also regenerate quickly after fire, and wildfire burned 600 ac (243 ha) between a food source for cattle and goats. The establish rapidly in burned areas Manele Road and the Palawai Basin, grass was observed to generate blades (Fujioka and Fujii 1980 in Cuddihy and about 3 mi (4 km) south of Lanai City over 2 ft (0.6 m) in length only 2 weeks Stone 1990, p. 93; D’Antonio and (The Maui News 2006, in litt.). In 2007, following the fire (U.S. Army Garrison Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73–74; Tunison a brush fire at Mahana burned about 30 2007b, Appendices pp. 1–5). In 2009, et al. 2002, p. 122). Native woody plants ac (12 ha), and in 2008, another 1,000 two smaller fires burned 200 ac (81 ha) may recover to some degree, but fire tips ac (405 ha) were burned by wildfire in at Manini Pali (Kaena Point State Park) the competitive balance toward the Palawai Basin (The Maui News and almost 4 ac (1.5 ha) at Makua Cave. nonnative species (National Park 2007, in litt.; KITV Honolulu 2008, in Both of these fires burned into area Service 1989 in Cuddihy and Stone litt.). Species at risk because of wildfire designated as critical habitat, although 1990, p. 93). During a post-burn survey on Lanai include Exocarpos menziesii, no individual plants were directly on Hawaii Island, in an area of native Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca affected (U.S. Army Natural Resource Diospyros forest with undergrowth of villosa, Schidea pubescens; and the Program 2009, Appendix 2, 17 pp.). the nonnative grass Pennisetum yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, Most recently, in 2014, two fires setaceum [Cenchrus setaceus], Takeuchi H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and affected native forest, one in the Oahu (1991, p. 2) noted that ‘‘no regeneration H. longiceps. Forest National Wildlife Refuge (350 ac, On west Maui, wildfires burned more of native canopy is occurring within the 140 ha), on the leeward side of the than 8,650 ac (3,501 ha) between 2007 Puuwaawaa burn area.’’ Takeuchi also Koolau Mountains (DLNR 2014, in litt.), and 2010 (Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in stated that ‘‘burn events served to and one above Makakilo, in the Waianae litt.; Shimogawa 2010, in litt.). These accelerate a decline process already in Mountains, just below Honouliuli FR, fires encroached into the West Maui place, compressing into days a sequence that burned more than 1,000 ac (400 ha) Forest Reserve, on the ridges of Olowalu which would ordinarily have taken (KHON 2014, in litt.). The Makakilo fire and Kealaloloa, which is habitat for decades’’ (Takeuchi 1991, p. 4), and took over 2 weeks to contain. Species at several endangered plants. In 2007, on concluded that, in addition to risk because of wildfire on Oahu east Maui, a fire consumed over 600 ac include the plants Joinvillea ascendens increasing the number of fires, the (240 ha), increasing invasion of the area nonnative Pennisetum acted to suppress by nonnative plants (Pinus spp.) (Pacific ssp. ascendens, Nothocestrum establishment of native plants after a Disaster Center 2007, in litt.; The Maui latifolium, Portulaca villosa, fire (Takeuchi 1991, p. 6). News 2011, in litt.). Species at risk Ranunculus mauiensis, and Sicyos For many decades, fires have affected because of wildfire on west and east lanceoloideus, and the yellow-faced rare or endangered species and their Maui include the plants Festuca bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. habitats on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. assimulans, H. facilis, H. kuakea, H. (Gima 1998, in litt.; Hamilton 2009, in ascendens, Nothocestrum latifolium, longiceps, and H. mana. litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Ochrosia haleakalae, Portulaca villosa, In 2012, on Kauai, a wildfire that was Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula possibly started by an unauthorized These three islands experienced sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens, camping fire burned 40 ac (16 ha) in the approximately 1,290 brush fires Sicyos macrophyllus, and Solanum Na Pali-Kona Forest Reserve on Milolii between 1972 and 1999 that burned a nelsonii, and the yellow-faced bees Ridge, forcing closure of a hiking trail. total of 64,250 ac (26,000 ha) (County of Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. Fortunately, several endangered and Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Pacific Disaster facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. threatened plants in the adjacent Kula Center 2011, in litt.). Between 2000 and Several recent fires on Oahu in the NAR were not impacted (KITV 2012, in 2003, the annual number of wildfires on Waianae Mountain range have affected litt.). The same year, another wildfire these islands jumped from 118 to 271; rare and endangered species. Between burned over 650 ac (260 ha) on Hikimoe of these, several burned more than 5,000 2004 and 2005, wildfires burned more Ridge, and threatened the Puu Ka Pele ac (2,023 ha) each (Pacific Disaster than 360 ac (146 ha) in Honouliuli section of Waimea Canyon State Park Center 2011, in litt.). On Molokai, Preserve, habitat of more than 90 rare (Hawaii News Now 2012, in litt.; Star between 2003 and 2004, three wildfires and endangered plants and animals Advertiser 2012, in litt.). Species at risk each burned 10,000 ac (4,050 ha) (TNC 2005). In 2006, a fire at Kaena of because wildfire on Kauai include the (Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). Point State Park burned 60 ac (24 ha), plants Joinvillea ascendens ssp. From August through early September and encroached on endangered plants in ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, 2009, a wildfire burned approximately Makua Military Training Area. In 2007, Nothocestrum latifolium, Ranunculus 8,000 ac (3,237 ha), including 600 ac there was a significant fire at mauiensis, Santalum involutum, and (243 ha) of the remote Makakupaia Kaukonahua that crossed 12 gulches, Sicyos lanceoloideus.

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In the driest areas on the island of nelsonii, and the yellow-faced bee Kauai, Niihau, and Oahu (Businger Hawaii, wildfires are exacerbated by the Hylaeus anthracinus. 1998, pp. 2, 6). Many forest trees were uncontrolled growth of nonnative In summary, fire is a threat to 14 plant destroyed (Perlman 1992, pp. 1–9), grasses such as Cenchrus setaceus (Fire species and their habitat (Exocarpos which opened the canopy and Science Brief 2009, in litt.). Since its menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, facilitated the invasion of native forest introduction to the island in 1917, this Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, by nonnative plants (Kitayama and grass now covers more than 200 square Labordia lorenciana, Nothocestrum Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671). mi (500 square km) of the leeward areas latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, Hurricanes therefore exacerbate the of the island (Joint Fire Science Brief Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus threats posed by nonnative plants, as (JFSB) 2009, in litt.). In the past 50 mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, described in ‘‘Habitat Destruction and years, three wildfires on the leeward Santalum involutum, Schiedea Modification by Nonnative Plants,’’ side encompassed a total of 30,000 ac pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. above. In September 1992, Hurricane (12,140 ha) (JFSB 2009, in litt.). These macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii), Iniki, a category 4 hurricane with wildfires traveled great distances at and all seven yellow-faced bees because maximum sustained winds of 130 mph rates of 4 to 8 miles per hour (mph) (7 these species and their habitat are (209 kmh, 113 knots), passed directly to 12 kilometers per hour (kph)), located in or near areas that were over the island of Kauai and close to the burning 2.5 ac (1 ha) to 6 ac (2.5 ha) per burned previously, or in areas island of Oahu, causing significant minute (the equivalent of 6 to 8 football considered at risk because of fire due to damage to Kauai and along Oahu’s fields per minute) (Burn Institute 2009, the cumulative and compounding southwestern coast (Blake et al. 2007, effects of drought and the presence of p. 4). Between 2002 and 2003, three pp. 20, 24). Biologists documented highly flammable nonnative grasses. successive lava-ignited wildfires in the damage to the habitat of six endangered east rift zone of Hawaii Volcanoes Habitat Destruction and Modification by plant species on Kauai, and one plant National Park affected native forests in Hurricanes on Oahu. Polhemus (1993a, pp. 86–87) documented the extirpation of the lowland dry, lowland mesic, and Ten of the 11 ecosystems (all except lowland wet ecosystems (JFSB 2009, p. scarlet Kauai damselfly (Megalagrion the anchialine pool ecosystem) where vagabundum) (a species related to M. 3), cumulatively burning an estimated these species occur are at risk of habitat xanthomelas), from the entire 11,225 ac (4,543 ha) (Wildfire News, destruction and modification by Hanakapiai Stream system on the island June 9, 2003; JFSP 2009, p. 3). These hurricanes. Hurricanes exacerbate the of Kauai as a result of the impacts of fires destroyed over 95 percent of the impacts of other threats such as habitat Hurricane Iniki. Damage by future canopy cover and encroached upon destruction and modification by hurricanes will further alter the forest areas that were previously ungulates and competition with remaining native-plant dominated thought to have low susceptibility to nonnative plants. By destroying native habitat for rare plants and animals in wildfires. After the fires, nonnative vegetation, hurricanes open the forest native ecosystems of Kauai, Oahu, and ferns were observed in higher elevation canopy, modify the availability of light, other Hawaiian Islands (Bellingham et rainforest where they had not and create disturbed areas conducive to al. 2005, p. 681) (see ‘‘Climate Change’’ previously been seen, and were believed invasion by nonnative pest species (see under Factor E. Other Natural or to inhibit the recovery of the native ‘‘Habitat Destruction and Modification Manmade Factors Affecting Their Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia) trees by Nonnative Plants’’, above) (Asner Continued Existence, below). (JFSP 2003, pp. 1–2). Nonnative grasses and Goldstein 1997, p. 148; Harrington In summary, hurricanes exacerbate invaded the burn area, increasing the et al. 1997, pp. 539–540). In addition, other habitat threats, such as risk of fire encroaching into the hurricanes adversely affect native competition with nonnative plants, as surrounding native forest (Ainsworth Hawaiian stream habitat by defoliating well as result in direct habitat 2011, in litt.). Extreme drought and toppling vegetation, thus loosening destruction. This is a particular problem conditions also contributed to the the surrounding soil and increasing for the plant Pritchardia bakeri, the number and intensity of wildfires on erosion. Along with catastrophic band-rumped storm-petrel, the Hawaii Island (Armstrong and Media flooding, this soil and vegetative debris orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all 2010, in litt.; Loh 2010, in litt.). This can be washed into streambeds (by seven yellow-faced bees. ‘‘extreme’’ drought classification for hurricane-induced rain or subsequent Hawaii was recently lifted to rain storms), resulting in the scouring of Habitat Modification and Destruction ‘‘moderate’’; however, drier than stream bottoms and channels (Polhemus Due to Landslides, Rockfalls, Treefall, average conditions persist, and another 1993a, 88 pp.). Natural disasters such as Flooding, Erosion, Drought, and extreme drought event may occur hurricanes can be particularly Tsunamis (NOAA 2015, in litt.). In addition, El devastating to Hawaiian plant and Habitat destruction and modification Nin˜ o conditions in the Pacific (see animal species that persist in low by landslides, rockfalls, treefall, ‘‘Climate Change’’ under Factor E, numbers and in restricted ranges flooding, erosion, and drought (singly or below), a half-century of decline in (Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 4–3). in combination) is a threat to all 11 annual rainfall, and intermittent dry Hurricanes affecting Hawaii were only ecosystems in which these species spells have contributed to the rarely reported from ships in the area occur. Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, conditions favoring wildfires in all the from the 1800s until 1949. Between flooding, and erosion change native main Hawaiian Islands (Marcus 2010, in 1950 and 1997, 22 hurricanes passed plant and animal communities by litt.). Species at risk because of wildfire near or over the Hawaiian Islands, 5 of destabilizing substrates, damaging or on Hawaii Island include the plants which caused serious damage (Businger destroying individual plants, and Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca 1998, pp. 1–2). In November 1982, altering hydrological patterns. In the hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. Hurricane Iwa struck the Hawaiian open sea near Hawaii, rainfall averages ascendens, Ochrosia haleakalae, Islands with wind gusts exceeding 100 25 to 30 inches (in) (630 to 760 Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus miles per hour (mph) (160 kilometers millimeters (mm)) per year, yet the mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, per hour (kmh)), causing extensive islands may receive up to 15 times this Sicyos macrophyllus, and Solanum damage, especially on the islands of amount in some places, caused by

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orographic features (topography) lorenciana, Phyllostegia stachyoides, reduced redundancy and resilience of (Wagner et al. 1999, adapted from Price Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea the species or extinction. (1983) and Carlquist (1980), pp. 38–39). pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii, as Tsunamis destroy and modify habitat During storms, rain may fall at rates of some individuals occur on stream banks for species in Northwestern Hawaiian 3 in (76 mm) per hour or more, and (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198; PEPP 2011, Islands and in low-lying coastal areas of sometimes may reach nearly 40 in pp. 162–164; Oppenheimer and Lorence the main Hawaiian Islands. Tsunamis in (1,000 mm) in 24 hours, resulting in 2012, pp. 20–21; PEPP 2013, p. 54; PEPP Hawaii are caused by earthquakes, destructive flash-flooding in streams 2014, pp. 95, 142). The naiad life stage submarine landslides, and volcanic and narrow gulches (Wagner et al. 1999, of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly eruptions that may occur within the adapted from Price (1983) and Carlquist would be destroyed by flooding if an archipelago or in distant parts of the (1980), pp. 38–39). Due to the steep individual is carried out of suitable Pacific. These events disturb the ocean’s topography in many mountainous areas habitat or into areas occupied by surface, and gravity combined with the on the Hawaiian Islands, disturbance nonnative fish. water’s motion produces a series of caused by introduced ungulates Drought is reported to be a threat to long-period waves that travel quickly exacerbates erosion and increases the 10 plants (Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia and can reach heights of 32 ft (10 m) or potential for landslides, rockfalls, or kaalaana, Huperzia stemmermanniae, more when reaching land. Major flooding, which in turn damages or Phyllostegia stachyoides, Ranunculus tsunamis occur worldwide about once destroys native plants and disturbs hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula every 10 years, on average, and almost 60 percent of those occur in the Pacific habitat of the band-rumped storm-petrel sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens, Ocean (Pacific Tsunami Warning (see Table 2). These events could Sicyos lanceoloideus, and Solanum Center, http://ptwc.weather.gov/ptwc/ eliminate one or more isolated nelsonii), the orangeblack Hawaiian faq.php#8, accessed June 2016). In 2011, occurrences of species that persist in damselfly (directly or by desiccation of a tsunami caused by an earthquake in low numbers and a limited geographic streams and ponds), and all seven Japan reached Hawaii and the range, resulting in reduced redundancy yellow-faced bees (Magnacca 2007, pp. Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. This and resilience of the species. 181, 183; Polhemus 2008, p. 26; Chu et tsunami swept over Midway Atoll’s Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, al. 2010, pp. 4887, 4891, 4898; PEPP Eastern Island and Kure Atoll’s Green 2011, pp. 162–164; Fortini et al. 2013, flooding, and erosion are threats to 20 Island, where it inundated plants, plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, p. 2; PEPP 2013, p. 177; PEPP 2014, pp. spread plastic debris, killed thousands Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, 140–142, 154–156, 162, 166–167). of seabirds, and destroyed seabird Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, Gardenia Between 1860 and 2002, there were 49 nesting areas as it traveled about 500 ft remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. periods of drought on Oahu, 30 periods (150 m) inland (DOFAW 2011, in litt.; ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. of drought on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui, Starr 2011, in litt.; USFWS 2011, in haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, and at least 18 serious or severe drought litt.). This threat could occur at any time Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia events on Hawaii Island (Giambelluca et and negatively affect occurrences and brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, al. 1991, pp. 3–4; Hawaii Commission habitat of the plant Solanum nelsonii Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium on Water Resource Management and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus sandwicensium var. molokaiense, (CWRM) 2009, in litt.; Hawaii Civil anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Defense 2011, pp. 14–1–14–12). The H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea most severe drought events over the past pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii) and 15 years were associated with the El Habitat Destruction and Modification by to the band-rumped storm-petrel and Nin˜ o phenomenon (Hawaii Civil Water Extraction the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. Defense 2011, p. 14–3). In 1998, the city Freshwater habitats on all the main Landslides, rockfalls, and erosion can of Hilo had the lowest January total Hawaiian Islands have been severely directly affect nests and nesting habitat rainfall (0.014 in) ever observed for any altered and degraded because of past of the band-rumped storm-petrel. month since records have been kept, and present land and water management Destabilization of cliff habitat leads to with average rainfall being almost 10 in practices, including agriculture, urban additional landslides and alteration of for January (Hawaii Civil Defense 2011, development, and development of hydrological patterns, affecting the p. 14–3). Currently, the State remains ground water, perched aquifer, and availability of soil moisture. Landslides under abnormally dry to moderate surface water resources (Harris et al. also destroy and modify riparian and drought conditions, with the onset of 1993, p. 11; Meier et al. 1993, p. 181). stream habitat by direct physical another El Nin˜ o event (U.S. Drought Extensive modification of lentic damage, and create disturbed areas Monitor 2015, in litt., National Weather (standing water) habitat in the Hawaiian leading to invasion by nonnative plants, Service 2015, in litt.). Drought events Islands began about 1100 A.D. with a as well as damaging or destroying plants dry up streams, irrigation ditches, and rapid increase in the human population directly. Kadua haupuensis, Labordia reservoirs, and deplete groundwater (Harris et al. 1993, p. 9; Kirch 1982, pp. lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, supplies (Hawaii CWRM 2009, in litt.). 5–6). Hawaiians cultivated Colocasia Phyllostegia brevidens, and P. helleri are Recent episodes of drought have driven esculenta (kalo, taro) by creating known only from a few individuals in axis deer farther into forested areas in shallow, walled ponds, or loi, in single occurrences on cliffs or steep- search of food, increasing their negative marshes and riparian areas (Meier et al. walled stream valleys, and one impacts on native vegetation from 1993, p. 181; Handy and Handy 1972, p. landslide could extirpate a species by herbivory, bark stripping, and trampling 58). By 1778, virtually all valley bottoms direct destruction. Monitoring data (see Factor C. Disease or Predation, with permanent stream flow and most presented by the Plant Extinction below) (Waring 1996, in litt; basin marshes were converted to taro Prevention Program (PEPP) and Nishibayashi 2001, in litt.). Drought cultivation (Handy and Handy 1972, pp. botanical surveys suggest that flooding events could eliminate one or more 396, 411). Hawaiians also modified is a likely threat to eight plant species, isolated populations of a species that wetlands by constructing fishponds, Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus currently persists in low numbers and a many of which were primarily fresh boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, Labordia limited geographic range, resulting in water, fed by streams or springs (Meier

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et al. 1993, p. 181). Despite this habitat 1935, pp. 380, 388; USGS 2000, in litt.). required for hunting and breeding. modification by early Hawaiians, many Most remaining streams that are not Water extraction affects the orangeblack areas of extensive marshland remained already diverted have been, and Hawaiian damselfly because it (1) intact and were used by the native continue to be, seriously degraded by Reduces the amount and distribution of damselflies. Over time, however, many the activities of feral ungulates and by stream habitat; (2) reduces stream flow of the wetlands formerly used for taro nonnative plants. Channelization has and habitat; and (3) leads to an increase were drained and filled for dry-land not been restricted to lower reaches, and in water temperature, which causes agriculture or development (Stone 1989, it results in the loss of riparian physiological stress to the damselfly p. 129; Meier et al. 1993, pp. 181–182). vegetation, increasing flow velocity, naiads. Water extraction affects the In addition, marshes are slowly filled illumination, and water temperature delicate balance of the anchialine pool and converted to meadow habitat due to (Parrish et al. 1984, pp. 83–84). These ecosystem, including salinity and biota, increased sedimentation resulting from conditions make the channels negatively affecting the anchialine pool increased storm water runoff from unsuitable as habitat for the orangeblack shrimp, Procaris hawaiana. Loss of upslope development and blockage of Hawaiian damselfly. stream-course habitat affects Cyclosorus downslope drainage (Wilson Okamoto Water extraction (e.g., withdrawal of boydiae because this is the only habitat and Associates, Inc. 1993, p. 3–5). subsurface fresh water for development where this riparian species occurs. Presently the most significant threat to and human use) from underground fresh The threat of habitat destruction and the remaining natural ponds and water sources increases salinity levels of modification by ungulates is ongoing as marshes in Hawaii, habitat for the anchialine pools and negatively affect ungulates currently occur in all orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, is the the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris ecosystems on which these species nonnative grass species Urochloa hawaiana, which relies on the delicate depend except the anchialine pool mutica. This sprawling, perennial grass balance of mixohaline (brackish water) system. Introduced ungulates pose a was first observed on Oahu in 1924, and habitats (Conry 2012, in litt.; National threat to 37 of the 39 plants (except for now occurs on all the main islands Park Service 2016, in litt.). Water Cyanea kauaulaensis and Hypolepis (O’Connor 1999, p. 1504). This species extraction also negatively affects the hawaiiensis var. mauiensis), and 9 of forms dense, monotypic stands that can plant Cyclosorus boydiae and the the 10 animal species (all except for the completely eliminate any open water by orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly by anchialine pool shrimp) in this rule that layering of its trailing stems (Smith degrading or destroying habitat for these occur in these 10 ecosystems because 1985, p. 186). species (Harris et al. 1993, pp. 9–13; ungulates: (1) Directly affect the species Medeiros et al. 1993, p. 88; Meier et al. by trampling and grazing (see Factor C Similar to the loss of wetlands in 1993, pp. 181–183; Palmer 2003, p. 88). discussion, below); (2) increase soil Hawaii, the loss of streams has been disturbance and erosion; (3) create open, significant and began with the early Habitat Destruction and Modification by disturbed areas conducive to nonnative Hawaiians who modified stream Climate Change plant invasion by dispersing fruits and systems by diverting water to irrigate Climate change affects the habitat of seeds, which results in conversion of a taro. However, these Hawaiian-made the 49 species. Discussion of climate native-dominated plant community to a diversions were closely regulated and change impacts is included in our nonnative-dominated plant community; were not permitted to take more than complete discussion of climate change and (4) increase marsh and stream half the stream flow, and were typically under Factor E. Other Natural or disturbance and sedimentation, which used to flood taro loi only periodically Manmade Factors Affecting Their negatively affects these aquatic habitats. (Handy and Handy 1972, pp. 58–59). Continued Existence, below. Habitat destruction and modification The advent of sugarcane plantations in by nonnative plants is a serious and Summary of Factor A 1835 led to more extensive stream ongoing current threat to all 39 plant diversions. These systems were Destruction and modification of the species because nonnative plants: (1) typically designed to tap water at upper habitat of each of the 49 species Adversely affect microhabitat by elevation sources (above 980 ft (300 m)) addressed in this rule is occurring modifying the availability of light; (2) by means of concrete weirs. All or most throughout the entire range of each of alter soil-water regimes; (3) modify of the stream flow was diverted into the species. These impacts include the nutrient cycling processes; (4) alter fire fields or reservoirs (Takasaki et al. 1969, effects of agriculture and urban ecology, leading to incursions of fire- p. 65; Harris et al. 1993, p. 10). By the development, introduced ungulates, tolerant nonnative plant species into 1930s, major water diversions had been nonnative plants, fire, hurricanes, native habitat; (5) outcompete, and developed on all the main islands, and landslides, rockfalls, treefall, flooding, possibly directly inhibit (through currently one-third of Hawaii’s erosion, drought, tsunamis, and water allelopathy) the growth of native plant perennial streams are diverted (Harris et extraction. species; and (6) alter habitat and al. 1993, p. 10). In addition to diverting Habitat destruction and modification substrate such that erosion leading to water for agriculture and domestic water by agriculture and urban development is rockfalls and landslides may increase. supply, streams have been diverted for an ongoing and serious threat to the Each of these processes can convert use in producing hydroelectric power plant Cyclosorus boydiae, the native-dominated plant communities to (Hawaii Stream Assessment 1990, p. orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the nonnative plant communities (Cuddihy 96). Surface flow has also been diverted anchialine pool shrimp Procaris and Stone 1990, p. 74; Vitousek 1992, into channels, and the perched aquifers hawaiana, and the yellow-faced bees pp. 33–35). which fed the streams have been tapped Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. The threat of habitat destruction and by means of tunnels (Stearns and facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. modification by fire to 14 plant species Vaksvik 1935, pp. 365, 378–434; Stearns Conversion of wetland and other aquatic (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca 1985, p. 291, 301–303). Many of these habitat (i.e., water extraction) for hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. aquifers are the sources of springs, agriculture and urban development is ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, which contribute flow to streams. The ongoing, is expected to continue into Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia draining of these aquifers causes springs the future, and affects the orangeblack haleakalae, Portulaca villosa, to become dry (Stearns and Vaksvik Hawaiian damselfly by removing habitat Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula

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sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. Parks or City and County property Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, where some anchialine pools occur, and lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus, and Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia is not expressly prohibited at Lua O Solanum nelsonii) and all seven yellow- brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, Palahemo (Hawaii Island), and thus no faced bee species is serious and ongoing Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium regulatory protection of these shrimp because fires occur frequently and sandwicensium var. molokaiense, exists at the remaining five anchialine damage and destroy native vegetation, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, pools outside of Manuka NAR that are including dormant seeds, seedlings, and Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea known to contain P. hawaiana. A Native juvenile and adult plants, including pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii), the Invertebrate Research and Collecting host plants for the bees. Many band-rumped storm-petrel, and the permit issued by DLNR’s Division of nonnative, invasive plants, particularly orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly by Forestry and Wildlife is required to fire-tolerant grasses, create more destabilizing substrates, damaging and collect anchialine pool shrimp for destructive fires, invade burned areas, killing individuals, altering hydrological research or commercial purposes, and and can out-compete native plants and patterns, and destroying or modifying the commercial market is supported by inhibit their regeneration (D’Antonio habitat—all resulting in changes to legal, permitted collection. We expect and Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73–74; native plant and animal communities. that permit holders, whether they are Tunison et al. 2002, p. 122). Successive Drought is a threat to 10 plant species collecting for scientific or commercial fires that burn farther and farther into (Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, purposes, adhere to the conditions of native habitat destroy the ecosystem and Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia their permit and do not pose a threat to its components upon which these stachyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. P. hawaiana. However, we consider species depend. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, illegal collection of this anchialine pool Habitat destruction and modification Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos shrimp, P. hawaiana, to be an ongoing by natural disasters such as hurricanes lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii), threat because, despite the prohibition represent a serious threat to the plant the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly on collecting within the NARs and the Pritchardia bakeri, the band-rumped (directly or by desiccation of streams permitting process for collection storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian and ponds), and all seven yellow-faced elsewhere, collection can occur at any damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced bee species (and the host plants upon time owing to insufficient patrolling or bee species. Hurricanes open the forest which all seven yellow-faced bees other monitoring or enforcement at the canopy, modifying available light and depend). pools where P. hawaiana occurs. creating disturbed areas that are Habitat destruction and modification conducive to invasion by nonnative by over-washing of low-lying areas by Factor C. Disease or Predation plants (Asner and Goldstein 1997, p. tsunamis is a threat to coastal species, Disease 148; Harrington et al. 1997, pp. 346– including Solanum nelsonii, Hylaeus 347). The discussion under ‘‘Habitat anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, We are not aware of any current Destruction and Modification by H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. threats to the 49 species that would be Nonnative Plants’’ provides additional attributable to disease. Disease may be information related to canopy gaps, light Factor B. Overutilization for a potential threat to the yellow-faced availability, and the establishment of Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or bee Hylaeus anthracinus, as pathogens nonnative plant species. In addition, Educational Purposes carried by nonnative bees, wasps, and hurricanes cause mortality of birds, Plants ants could be transmitted through including adults and chicks drowned shared food sources (Graham 2015, in We are not aware of any threats to the when nest sites are flooded (Schreiber litt.); however, we have no evidence of 39 plant species that would be 2002, p. 186; Hass et al. 2012, pp. 252– this type of disease transmission at this attributed to overutilization for 253). Hurricanes also destroy nesting time. commercial, recreational, scientific, or habitat, a particular problem for species educational purposes. Predation like storm-petrels that return to the same nest site each year (Schreiber Animals Hawaii’s plants and animals evolved in nearly complete isolation from 2002, p. 186). These hurricane impacts Anchialine Pool Shrimp are likely for the band-rumped storm- continental influence. Successful, petrel. Finally, hurricanes can alter and Illegal collection is a threat to the natural colonization of these remote directly damage streams and wetlands anchialine pool shrimp Procaris volcanic islands is infrequent, and many used by the orangeblack Hawaiian hawaiana because of inadequate organisms never succeeded in damselfly (Polhemus 1993a, pp. 86–87). monitoring and enforcement at the establishing populations. As an The impacts from hurricanes can be pools where this species occurs. All example, Hawaii lacks native ants and particularly devastating to these species terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates conifers, has very few families of birds, because they persist in low numbers in (including anchialine pool shrimp) are and has only had two native species of restricted ranges and are therefore less protected under (1) the State of Hawaii land mammal, both insectivorous bats resilient to such disturbances. A single Revised Statutes (1993) chapter 195D–4- (Loope 1998, p. 748; Ziegler 2002, pp. destructive hurricane holds the f license; and (2) DLNR chapter 124: 244–245). In the absence of grazing or potential of driving to extinction species Indigenous Wildlife, Endangered and browsing mammals, plants that became that persist as one or several small, Threatened Wildlife, and Introduced established did not need mechanical or isolated populations. Wild Birds. Collection of plants and chemical defenses against mammalian Landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, animals is prohibited in the State herbivory such as thorns, prickles, and flooding, and erosion (singly or Natural Area Reserves (NARs) Ahihi- toxins. Because the evolutionary combined) are a threat to 20 plant Kinau (Maui) and Manuka (Hawaii pressure to either produce or maintain species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Island), but enforcement of prohibitions such defenses was lacking, Hawaiian Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, is insufficient to prevent illegal plants either lost or never developed Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, Gardenia collecting at these remote sites. these adaptations (Carlquist 1980, p. remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. Collection is not prohibited in State 173). Likewise, native Hawaiian birds

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and insects experienced no evolutionary observed browsing on young shoots, results of the studies described above pressure to develop defense leaves, and fronds of a wide variety of suggest that foraging by pigs can directly mechanisms against mammalian or plants, of which over 75 percent were damage and destroy these plants invertebrate predators that were not endemic species. A stomach-content through herbivory. Feral pigs may also historically present on the islands. The analysis in this study showed that most consume native host plants of the native flora and fauna are thus of the pigs’ food source consisted of the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, particularly vulnerable to the impacts of endemic Cibotium (hapuu, tree fern). H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. introduced nonnative species, as Pigs were observed to fell native plants kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana. discussed below. and remove the bark from standing Feral Goats Introduced Ungulates plants of species in the genera Cibotium, Clermontia, Coprosma, Hedyotis Feral goats are able to forage in In addition to the habitat impacts [Kadua], Psychotria, and Scaevola, extremely rugged terrain and are discussed above (see ‘‘Habitat resulting in larger trees and shrubs instrumental in the decline of native Destruction and Modification by dying after a few months of repeated vegetation in many areas of the Hawaiian Islands (Cuddihy and Stone Introduced Ungulates’’ under Factor A. feeding (Diong 1982, p. 144). Beach The Present or Threatened Destruction, 1990, p. 64; Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, (1997, pp. 3–4) found that feral pigs in Modification, or Curtailment of Their p. C–20; van Riper and van Riper 1982, Texas spread disease and parasites, and Habitat or Range), grazing and browsing pp. 34–35; Tomich 1986, pp. 153–156). their rooting and wallowing behavior (predation) by introduced ungulates are Feral goats consume a variety of plants led to spoilage of watering holes and a threat to the following 27 plant species for food and have been observed to in this proposal (see Table 2, above): loss of soil through leaching and browse on (but are not limited to) native Asplenium diellaciniatum (black-tailed erosion. Rooting activity by pigs also plant species in the following genera: deer); Calamagrostis expansa (pigs), decreased the survivability of some Argyroxiphium, Canavalia, Cyclosorus boydiae (pigs), Deparia plant species through disruption at root Chamaesyce, Erythrina, Plantago, kaalaana (pigs), Exocarpos menziesii level of mature plants and seedlings Schiedea, and Stenogyne (Cuddihy and (goats, mouflon, sheep), Festuca (Beach 1997, pp. 3–4; Anderson et al. Stone 1990, p. 64; Warren 2004, p. 462; hawaiiensis (goats, sheep), Gardenia 2007, in litt.). In Hawaii, pigs dig up Wood 2007, pers. comm.). A study remyi (pigs, goats, axis deer), Huperzia forest ground cover consisting of conducted on the island of Hawaii stemmermanniae (goats, axis deer, delicate and rare species of orchids, demonstrated that native Acacia koa cattle), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ferns, mints, lobeliads, and other taxa, seedlings are unable to survive due to ascendens (pigs, goats, axis deer, black- including their roots, tubers, and browsing and grazing by goats (Spatz tailed deer), Kadua fluviatilis (pigs, rhizomes (Stone and Anderson 1988, p. and Mueller-Dombois 1973, p. 874). If goats), Labordia lorenciana (goats, 137). The following plants are goats remained in the area in high black-tailed deer), Microlepia strigosa particularly at risk of herbivory by feral numbers, mature trees eventually died var. mauiensis (pigs), Myrsine fosbergii pigs: Calamagrostis expansa on Maui and with them the root systems that (pigs, goats), Nothocestrum latifolium and Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); supported suckers and vegetative (pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, Cyclosorus boydiae on Oahu (HBMP reproduction. When feral goats were mouflon, cattle), Ochrosia haleakalae 2010); Deparia kaalaana on Maui excluded by fences for 3 years, there (goats, cattle), Phyllostegia brevidens (HBMP 2010); Gardenia remyi on was a positive height-growth response (pigs), P. stachyoides (pigs, goats), Hawaii Island (PEPP 2011, pp. 113–114; of A. koa suckers (Spatz and Mueller- Portulaca villosa (goats, axis deer, PEPP 2012, p. 102), west Maui (HBMP Dombois 1973, p. 873). Another study at mouflon), Pseudognaphalium 2010), Molokai (HBMP 2010) and Kauai Puuwaawaa on Hawaii Island sandwicensium var. molokaiense (axis (HBMP 2010); Joinvillea ascendens ssp. demonstrated that prior to management deer), Ranunculus hawaiensis (pigs, ascendens on Hawaii Island (PEPP actions in 1985, regeneration of endemic mouflon, cattle), R. mauiensis (pigs, 2011, pp. 120–121; PEPP 2012, p. 113; shrubs and trees in a goat-grazed area goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, HBMP 2010), Kauai (PEPP 2014, p. 109; was almost totally lacking, contributing cattle), Sanicula sandwicensis (goats), HBMP 2010), Maui (HBMP 2010), to the invasion of forest understory by Santalum involutum (goats), Schiedea Molokai (HBMP 2010), and Oahu exotic grasses and weeds. After the pubescens (axis deer, cattle), Sicyos (HBMP 2010); Kadua fluviatilis on removal of goats, A. koa and native lanceoloideus (goats, black-tailed deer), Kauai (HBMP 2010) and Oahu (HBMP Metrosideros seedlings were observed S. macrophyllus (mouflon, cattle), and 2010); Microlepia strigosa var. germinating by the thousands (HDLNR Solanum nelsonii (axis deer, cattle). mauiensis on Maui (Bily 2009, in litt.; 2002, p. 52). Based on these studies, and Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.); Myrsine other comparisons of fenced and Feral Pigs fosbergii on Kauai (HBMP 2010); unfenced areas, it is clear that goats We have direct evidence of ungulate Nothocestrum latifolium on Maui (PEPP devastate native Hawaiian ecosystems damage to some of the 39 plant species, 2011, p. 140; HBMP 2010) and Molokai (Loope et al. 1988, p. 277). Because feral but for many, due to their remote (HBMP 2010); Phyllostegia brevidens on goats occur in 10 of the 11 ecosystems locations or lack of study, ungulate Maui and Hawaii Island (PEPP 2014, p. (all except anchialine pool) discussed in damage is presumed based on the 36); P. stachyoides on Molokai (PEPP this proposal, the results of the studies known presence of these introduced 2014, pp. 140–141); Ranunculus described above indicate that goats ungulates in the areas where these hawaiensis on Hawaii Island (HBMP likely also alter these ecosystems and species occur and the results of studies 2010); and R. mauiensis on Kauai (PEPP directly damage or destroy native involving similar species or ecosystems 2011, p. 161; PEPP 2013, p. 177; PEPP plants. Browsing or grazing by feral conducted in Hawaii and elsewhere 2014, p. 156; HBMP 2010), Maui (PEPP goats poses a particular threat to the (Diong 1982, p. 160; Mueller-Dombois 2011, p. 144; PEPP 2013, pp. 177–178; following plant species: Exocarpos and Spatz, 1975, pp. 1–29; Hess 2008, PEPP 2014, p. 155; HBMP 2010), and menziesii on Hawaii Island (NTBG 4 pp.; Weller et al. 2011, p. 8). For Molokai (HBMP 2010). Feral pigs occur Herbarium Database 2014, in litt.), example, in a study conducted by Diong in 10 of the 11 ecosystems (all except Festuca hawaiiensis on Hawaii Island (1982, p. 160) on Maui, feral pigs were anchialine pool) discussed here; the (Wood 2001b, in litt.), Gardenia remyi

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on Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. 114; PEPP comprised more than 30 percent of axis 2005, in litt.). Black-tailed deer consume 2013, p. 107; Kishida 2011, in litt.), deer rumen volume. During the driest native vegetation on the island of Kauai Huperzia stemmermanniae on Hawaii summer months, axis deer are observed (van Riper and van Riper 1982, pp. 42– Island (HBMP 2010), Joinvillea in coastal areas in search of food 43; Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; Tomich ascendens ssp. ascendens on Kauai (Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.). Because 1986, pp. 132–134; Cuddihy and Stone (PEPP 2010, p. 80), Kadua fluviatilis on axis deer occur in 10 of the 11 1990, p. 67). In the 1990s, it was Kauai (HBMP 2010), Labordia ecosystems on Molokai, Lanai, and estimated there were about 350 animals lorenciana on Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. 124; Maui (all except anchialine pool), the in and near Waimea Canyon; however, PEPP 2013, p. 126), Myrsine fosbergii on results from the studies above, in in 2013, the population was estimated Kauai (HBMP 2010), Nothocestrum addition to direct observations from to be 1,000 to 1,200 animals in public latifolium on Maui (HBMP 2010), field biologists, suggest that axis deer hunting areas (not including private Ochrosia haleakalae on Maui and can also alter these ecosystems and lands), and was expanding into the Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010), directly damage or destroy native southern and eastern sections of the Phyllostegia stachyoides on Molokai plants. Browsing or grazing by axis deer island (Mule Deer Working Group 2013, (HBMP 2010), Portulaca villosa on poses a threat to the following plant in litt.). According to State records, Hawaii Island (PEPP 2012, p. 140), species: Gardenia remyi on Molokai black-tailed deer are feeding largely on Ranunculus mauiensis on Kauai and (HBMP 2010), Huperzia the introduced species Psidium Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 161; PEPP 2012, p. stemmermanniae on Maui (HBMP cattleianum and Rubus rosifolius, as 144; PEPP 2013, pp. 177–178; PEPP 2010), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. well as the native species Alyxia stellata 2014, pp. 155–156; Kishida 2011, in ascendens on Maui (PEPP 2014, pp. (maile), Dodonaea viscosa (aalii), litt.), Sanicula sandwicensis on Maui 108–109), Nothocestrum latifolium on Dianella sandwicensis (ukiuki), (PEPP 2011, p. 163), and Sicyos Lanai (PEPP 2012, p. 129), Portulaca Coprosma sp. (pilo), and Acacia koa lanceoloideus on Kauai (PEPP 2012, p. villosa on Lanai (HBMP 2010), (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 67). 154; PEPP 2013, p. 189). In addition, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Browsing by black-tailed deer is a threat browsing by feral goats may also damage molokaiense on Molokai (Wood 2005c, to the Kauai plant species Asplenium or destroy native host plants of the in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, in litt.; MNTF diellaciniatum, Joinvillea ascendens yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, 2010), Ranunculus mauiensis on Maui ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, H. assimulans, H. facilis, and H. hilaris. (PEPP 2013, p. 178; PEPP 2014, pp. Nothocestrum latifolium, Ranunculus 154–155), Schiedea pubescens on mauiensis, and Sicyos lanceoloideus. Axis Deer Molokai and Lanai (Wood 2004, in litt.; Mouflon and Sheep Axis deer are known to consume a Rowland 2006, in litt.; Oppenheimer wide range of forage items throughout 2001, in litt.), and Solanum nelsonii on Mouflon, feral domestic sheep, and their native range and in areas where Molokai (PEPP 2012, p. 156; PEPP 2013, mouflon-sheep hybrids browse native they have been introduced (Anderson pp. 190–191; PEPP 2014, p. 167). Axis vegetation on Lanai and Hawaii Island. 1999, p. 3). Although they prefer to deer may also damage or destroy native Domestic sheep have been raised on graze on grass, axis deer have been host plants of the yellow-faced bees Kauai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, and Hawaii, documented to eat over 75 species of Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. but today sheep farming only occurs on plants, including all plant parts facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. Hawaii Island on Mauna Kea and (Anderson 1999, p. 3). They exhibit a Hualalai (Pratt and Jacobi in Pratt et al. high degree of opportunism regarding Black-Tailed Deer 2009, p. 151). Sheep browse (eating their choice of forage, and consume Black-tailed deer are extremely shoots, leaves, flowers, and bark) on the progressively less palatable plants until adaptable, and in their native range native Sophora chrysophylla (mamane), no edible vegetation remains (Dinerstein (U.S. Pacific coast) inhabit every the primary food source of the 1987, in Anderson 1999, p. 5; Medeiros principal ecosystem including open endangered forest bird, the palila 2010, pers. comm.). Axis deer on Maui grasslands, agricultural land, shrubland, (Loxioides bailleui) (Scowcroft and follow a cycle of grazing and browsing woodland, mountain forests, semi- Sakai 1983, p. 495). Feral sheep in open lowland grasslands during the deserts, and high mountain ecosystems reductions were initiated in palila rainy season (November through March) (NRCS 2005, in litt.). Their home range habitat; however, even after most were and then migrating to the lava flows of size varies in the continental United removed, tree bark stripping continued montane mesic forest during the dry States, but has been estimated to from and some mamane populations did not summer months to graze and browse on 1 to 4 sq mi (2.5 to 10 km) and recover (Pratt and Jacobi in Pratt et al. many native plant species, for example, sometimes as large as 30 sq mi (78 sq 2009, p. 151). On Hawaii Island, Abutilon menziesii (kooloaula, listed km), with adults defending small areas vegetation browsing by mouflon led to endangered), Erythrina sandwicensis when caring for fawns (NRCS 2005, in the decline of the largest population of (wiliwili), and Sida fallax (Medeiros litt.). We do not know their home range the endangered Argyroxiphium kauense 2010, pers. comm.). During the El Nin˜ o size on Kauai; however, the island is (kau silversword, Mauna Loa drought cycles from 1988 through 2001, only 562 sq mi (1,456 sq km) in size. silversword, or ahinahina), reducing it Maui experienced an 80 to 90 percent Black-tailed deer are primarily from a ‘‘magnificent population of decline in native shrub species caused browsers, but as they have a smaller several thousand’’ (Degener et al. 1976, by axis deer browsing on and girdling rumen compared to other browsers in pp. 173–174) to fewer than 2,000 young saplings (Medeiros 2010, pers. relation to their body size, they must individuals in a period of 10 years comm.). On Lanai, grazing by axis deer select the most nutritious plants and (unpublished data in Powell 1992, p. has been reported as a major threat to parts of plants (Mule Deer Foundation 312). Mamane is also preferred browse the endangered Gardenia brighamii 2011, in litt.). Their diet consist of a for mouflon, and according to Scowcroft (nanu), and Swedberg and Walker diversity of living, wilted, dry, or and Sakai (1983, p. 495), mouflon eat (1978, in Anderson 2003, pp. 124–25) decaying vegetation, including leaves, the shoots, leaves, flowers, and bark of reported that the native plants needles, succulent stems, fruits, nuts, this species. Mouflon are also reported Osteomeles anthyllidifolia (uulei) and shrubs, herbaceous undergrowth, to strip bark from native koa trees and Leptecophylla tameiameiae (pukiawe) domestic crops, and grasses (NRCS to seek out the native plants Geranium

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cuneatum (hinahina) and Silene litt.; HBMP 2010); Sicyos macrophyllus dry to wet habitats, while the Norway hawaiiensis, and Lanai occurrences of on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2010, p. 111; rat is typically found in urban areas or Gardenia brighamii (Benitez et al. 2008, HBMP 2010); and Solanum nelsonii on agricultural fields (Tomich 1986, p. 41). p. 57; Mehrhoff 1993, p. 11). While Molokai (Wood 1999, in litt.; HBMP The black rat is widely distributed mouflon were introduced to Lanai and 2010). Because feral cattle occur in 6 of throughout the main Hawaiian Islands Hawaii Island as game mammals, a the 11 ecosystems (lowland dry, and can be found in a range of private game ranch on Maui has added lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane ecosystems and as high as 9,000 ft mouflon to its stock, and it is likely that wet, montane mesic, and subalpine) in (2,700 m), but it is most common at low- over time some individuals may escape which these species occur on Molokai, to mid-elevations (Tomich 1986, pp. 38– (Hess 2010, pers. comm.; Kessler 2010, Maui, and Hawaii Island, the results 40). Sugihara (1997, p. 194) found both pers. comm.). Browsing and grazing by from the studies cited above, in addition the black and Polynesian rats up to mouflon, feral domestic sheep, and to direct observations from field 7,000 ft (2,000 m) on Maui, but found mouflon-sheep hybrids poses a threat to biologists, indicate that grazing by feral the Norway rat only at lower elevations. the plant species Exocarpos menziesii cattle can directly damage or destroy Rats are omnivorous and eat almost any on Hawaii Island (Keitt and Island these plants. type of food (Nelson 2012, in litt.). Rats Conservation 2008, pp. 90, 92; NPS occur in 7 of the 11 ecosystems (coastal, Blackbuck 2013, pp. i, 124); Festuca hawaiiensis on lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane Hawaii Island (Oppenheimer 2001, in The blackbuck antelope (Antelope wet, montane mesic, montane dry, and litt.; HBMP 2007, in litt.); Nothocestrum cervicapra) is an endangered species wet cliff), and predation or herbivory by latifolium on Lanai (PEPP 2012, p. 129); from India brought to a private game rats is a threat to 19 plants Portulaca villosa on Lanai (HBMP reserve on Molokai about 15 years ago (Calamagrostis expansa (Maui and 2010); Ranunculus hawaiensis on from an Indian zoo (Kessler 2010, pers. Hawaii Island; HBMP 2010), Cyanea Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); and Sicyos comm.). According to Kessler (2010, kauaulaensis (Maui; PEPP 2012, pp. 71– macrophyllus on Hawaii Island (HBMP pers. comm.), a few individuals escaped 72; PEPP 2014, p. 73), Dryopteris glabra 2010). Because feral sheep and mouflon captivity and established a wild var. pusilla (Kauai; Wood 2015, in litt.); occur in all of the described ecosystems population of unknown size on the low, Gardenia remyi (Kauai, Molokai, Maui, except for the anchialine pool dry plains of western Molokai. and Hawaii Island; Wood 2004, in litt.; ecosystem, the data from studies above Blackbuck primarily use grassland HBMP 2010); Joinvillea ascendens ssp. suggest that in addition to consuming habitat for grazing. In India, foraging ascendens (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, the host plants of the yellow-faced bees consumption and nutrient digestibility and Hawaii Island; PEPP 2014, p. 109), Hylaeus anthracinus and H. assimulans are high in the moist winter months and Kadua haupuensis (Kauai; Lorence et al. on Lanai, herbivory by feral sheep and low in the dry summer months (Jhala 2010, p. 140), Labordia lorenciana mouflon also may consume host plants 1997, pp. 1348, 1351). Although most (Kauai; Wood et al. 2007, p. 198), of the other species on Lanai: H. facilis, plant species are grazed intensely when Ochrosia haleakalae (Maui; H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. they are green, some are grazed only Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.), Phyllostegia Feral Cattle after they are dry (Jhala 1997, pp. 1348, helleri (Kauai; HBMP 2010), P. 1351). Because the foraging dynamics of stachyoides (Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Grazing by cattle is considered one of blackbuck antelope in Hawaii and Island; PEPP 2012, p. 133; PEPP 2013, the most important factors in the possible habitat effects are unknown at destruction of Hawaiian forests pp. 158–159; PEPP 2014, pp. 140–142), this time, we do not currently consider (Baldwin and Fagerlund 1943, pp. 118– Pritchardia bakeri (Oahu; Hodel 2012, this ungulate a threat to the four native 122). Feral cattle are currently found pp. 42, 73), Ranunculus mauiensis plant species known from dry areas on only on the islands of Molokai, Maui, (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Molokai: Gardenia remyi, Nothocestrum and Hawaii (Tomich 1986, pp. 140–144; Hawaii Island; HBMP 2010), Sanicula latifolium, Portulaca villosa, and de Sa et al. 2013, 29 pp.). Cattle sandwicensis (Maui and Hawaii Island; Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. consume tree seedlings and browse PEPP 2012, p. 148), Santalum molokaiense, or to the yellow-faced bees saplings (Cuddihy 1984, p. 16). In involutum (Kauai; Harbaugh et al. 2010, Hylaeus anthracinus, H. facilis, H. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park pp. 835–836), Schiedea diffusa ssp. hilaris, and H. longiceps (which rely on (Hawaii Island), Cuddihy reported that diffusa (Molokai, Maui; HBMP 2010), S. there were twice as many native plant host plants that ungulates consume). pubescens (Molokai, Lanai, and Maui; species as nonnatives in areas that had Other Introduced Vertebrates Wood 2005d, in litt.; HBMP 2010), been fenced to exclude cattle (Cuddihy Sicyos macrophyllus (Maui and Hawaii Rats 1984, pp. 16, 34). Loss of the native Island; Pratt 2008, in litt.), Solanum sandalwood forest on Lanai is attributed Three species of introduced rats occur nelsonii (NWHI, Niihau, Molokai, Maui, to cattle (Skottsberg 1953 in Cuddihy in the Hawaiian Islands. Studies of and Hawaii Island; PEPP 2012, p. 156; 1984, p. 16). Browsing and grazing by Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) DNA PEPP 2014, p. 167), and Wikstroemia feral cattle poses a threat to the suggest they first appeared in the skottsbergiana (Kauai; Mitchell et al. following plant species: Huperzia islands along with emigrants from the 2005, in litt.)) and to the band-rumped stemmermanniae on Maui and Hawaii Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) in storm-petrel (Lehua, Kauai, Maui, Island (Medeiros et al. 1996b, p. 96); about 400 A.D., with a second Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Hawaii Island; Nothocestrum latifolium on Molokai introduction around 1100 A.D. (Ziegler Pyle and Pyle 2009, in litt.). and Maui (HBMP 2010); Ochrosia 2002, p. 315). The black rat (R. rattus) Rat Impacts on Plants: Rats affect haleakalae on Maui (HBMP 2010); and the Norway rat (R. norvegicus) native plants by eating fleshy fruits, Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii arrived in the islands more recently, as seeds, flowers, stems, leaves, roots, and Island (HBMP 2010); R. mauiensis on stowaways on ships sometime in the other plant parts (Atkinson and Maui and Hawaii Island (PEPP 2012, p. late 19th century (Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 23), and by stripping 144; PEPP 2013, p. 178; PEPP 2014, pp. Atkinson 2000, p. 25). The Polynesian bark and cutting small branches (twig 154–155; HBMP 2010); Schiedea rat and the black rat are primarily found cutting) in search of moisture and pubescens on Maui (Wood 2005d, in in rural and remote areas of Hawaii, in nutrients, with detrimental impacts to

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plants’ vigor and regeneration (Abe and of introduced predators on the breeding band-rumped storm-petrels are known Umeno 2011, pp. 27–39; Nelson 2012, success of the band-rumped storm- to nest (summarized in USFWS 2013, pp. 1–4, 8–9). Studies in New Zealand petrel are probably similar to the pp. 11–12). Because barn owls occur have demonstrated that differential documented effects on the breeding throughout the range of the band- regeneration as a consequence of rat success of Hawaiian petrels because rumped storm-petrel in Hawaii, they are predation alters species composition of these birds are similarly vulnerable. likely to be predators of these seabirds. Population modeling showed that forested areas (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Cat Impacts on the Band-Rumped consistent predation of Hawaiian pp. 68–69). Rats have caused declines or Storm-Petrel even the total elimination of island petrels, where reproductive success was plant species (Campbell and Atkinson reduced to 35 percent and adult survival Cats (Felis catus) were introduced to 1999 in Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. was 80 percent, could drive a Hawaii in the early 1800s, and are 24). In the Hawaiian Islands, rats may population to extinction in 20 to 30 present on all the main Hawaiian consume as much at 90 percent of the years (Simons 1984, pp. 1071–1073). Rat Islands (Tomich 1986, p. 101). Cats are seeds produced by some native plants, bones were collected from a band- notorious for their predation on birds and in some cases prevent regeneration rumped storm-petrel nest on a sheer (Tomich 1986, p. 102). Native of forest species completely (Cuddihy cliff on Kauai, and two live rats were mammalian carnivores are absent from and Stone 1990, pp. 68–69). Hawaiian observed moving along small rock oceanic islands because of their low plants with fleshy fruit, such as Cyanea ledges in the same area (Wood et al. dispersal ability, but once introduced, and Pritchardia, are particularly 2002, p. 8), demonstrating that even are significant predators on seabird susceptible to rat predation (Cuddihy remote and otherwise inaccessible nest colonies and terrestrial birds that have and Stone 1990, pp. 67–69). Predation sites are not safe from these predators. no innate defenses against predation by of seeds by rats poses a serious and Because rats are present in all three these animals (Scott et al. 1986, p. 363; ongoing threat to all the Hawaiian ecosystems in which the band-rumped Ainley et al. 1997, p. 24; Ziegler 2002, Pritchardia palms, including P. bakeri, storm-petrel occurs (coastal, dry cliff, p. 243; Hess and Banko 2006, in litt.; because rats are able to consume every and wet cliff), predation by rats likely Nogales et al. 2013, p. 804). Cats may seed in a fruiting stalk, preventing results in decreases in the numbers and have contributed to the extinction of the successful reproduction (Hodel 2012, populations of the band-rumped storm- Hawaiian rail (Porzana sandwichensis) pp. 42, 73). Fossil pollen records petrel. We do not anticipate a reduction (Stone 1985 in Stone and Scott 1985, p. 266). Although cats are more common at indicate that Pritchardia palms were of this threat in the near future. lower elevations, there are populations once among the dominant species of Barn Owl Impacts on the Band-Rumped in areas completely isolated from coastal, lowland, and interior forests of Storm-Petrel human presence, including montane Hawaii (Burney et al. 2001, pp. 630– Two species of owls, the native pueo forests and alpine areas of Maui and 631; Chapin et al. 2007, p. 21); today, (Asio flammeus sandwichensis) and the Hawaii Island (Lindsey et al. in Pratt et complete coverage by all age classes of introduced barn owl (Tyto alba), are al. 2009, p. 277; Scott et al. 1986, p. Pritchardia occurs only on small islets known to prey on native Hawaiian 363). Examination of the stomach currently unoccupied by rats (Athens birds. For example, between 1996 and contents of feral cats at Hakalau Forest 2009, p. 1498). Because rats occur in 1998, 10 percent of nest failures of the NWR (Hawaii Island) found native and seven of the ecosystems in which these puaiohi (small Kauai thrush, Myadestes introduced birds to be the most common species occur, the results from these palmeri), an endangered forest bird, on prey item (Banko et al. 2004, p. 162). studies, in addition to direct Kauai were attributed to owls Cats are believed to prey on roosting or observations by field biologists, suggest (Snetsinger et al. 1994, p. 47; Snetsinger incubating adult band-rumped storm- that predation by rats can directly et al. 2005, pp. 72, 79). The band- petrels and young, as evidenced by damage or destroy native plants. rumped storm petrel only comes to land carcasses found in Hawaii Volcanoes Rat Impacts on the Band-Rumped after dark, and likely avoids predation National Park depredated by cats (Hu, Storm-Petrel: Introduced predators are by the pueo, which hunts in daylight pers. comm. in Slotterback 2002, in litt.; the most serious threat facing the band- (Hawaii DOFAW 2005). The nonnative Hess et al. 2008, pp. 11, 14). Predation rumped storm-petrel. Rats occur on all barn owl, however, is a nocturnal by cats is well known for the the main Hawaiian Islands, and hunter and may prey on the storm- endangered Hawaiian petrel, which has populations are also high on Lehua; petrel. Barn owls were introduced to some accessible and well-studied however, attempts to control rats on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Hawaii nesting areas; this species shares life- Lehua are ongoing (Parkes and Fisher Island between 1958 and 1963, to history and evolutionary traits with the 2011, 48 pp.). Ground-, crevice-, and control rats and mice in sugar cane band-rumped storm-petrel that make burrow-nesting seabirds, as well as their plantations, and now they occur on all both vulnerable to nonnative eggs and young, are highly susceptible of the main islands (USFWS 2013, p. 9). mammalian predators. We expect the to predation by rats; storm-petrels are Barn owls are well-known predators of band-rumped storm-petrel to experience the most susceptible of seabirds to rat storm-petrels and other seabirds on impacts of cat predation similar to those predation and have experienced islands (LeCorre and Jouventin 1997, p. documented in the Hawaiian petrel. On population-level impacts and 215; Velarde et al. 2007, p. 286; Guerra Mauna Loa (Hawaii Island), feral cats extirpation as a result (Simons 1984, p. et al. 2014, p. 182; Ringler et al. 2015, were major predators of Hawaiian 1073; Jones et al. 2008, pp. 20–21). p. 79). Direct impacts of barn owls on petrels (Hu et al. 2001, p. 234), and on Evidence from the islands of Hawaii and band-rumped storm-petrels in Hawaii Haleakala (Maui), almost half of the Maui show that the Hawaiian petrel, a are not well documented, but evidence known mortalities of Hawaiian petrels much larger seabird that nests in some and numerous anecdotal reports exist of between 1964 and 1996 were attributed of the same areas as the band-rumped barn owls preying on seabirds in the to cats (Natividad Hodges and Nagata storm-petrel, suffers huge losses to main Hawaiian islands, including the 2001, p. 312; Hu et al. 2001, p. 234). introduced predators (Johnston 1992, in threatened Newell’s shearwater and Population modeling of the Hawaiian litt.; Hodges and Nagata 2001, pp. 308– endangered Hawaiian petrel, and petrel indicated that the petrel 310; Hu et al. 2001, p. 234). The effects including on Kauai and Lehua, where population would be unable to

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withstand any level of predation for significant predators of the band- number of new fish introductions began long, and even with seemingly low rumped storm-petrel. in Hawaii, originating primarily from levels of predation, the petrel the aquarium fish trade (Devick 1991, p. Nonnative Fish Impacts on the population would be reduced by half in 189). This recent wave of fish Orangeblack Hawaiian Damselfly fewer than 30 years (Simons 1984, p. introductions on Oahu corresponded 1073). The band-rumped storm petrel is Predation by nonnative fishes is a with the drastic decline and range smaller in size than the petrel, but also threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian reduction of other Hawaiian damselfly nests in burrows and rock-crevices, damselfly. Similar to the aquatic insects, species: The endangered oceanic lacks co-evolved predator avoidance Hawaii has a low diversity of freshwater Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion behavior, and has a lengthy incubation fishes, with only five native species in oceanicum), the endangered crimson and fledgling period, making this two families (gobies (Gobiidae) and Hawaiian damselfly (M. leptodemas), species highly vulnerable to predation sleepers (Eleotridae)) that occur on all and the endangered blackline Hawaiian by introduced mammals. Because feral the main islands (Devick 1991, p. 196). damselfly (M. nigrohamatum cats occur in all four ecosystems in Information on these five species nigrolineatum). Currently, these which the band-rumped storm petrel indicates that the Hawaiian damselflies damselflies are found only in drainages occurs, they are likely to be significant probably experienced limited natural or higher parts of stream systems where predators of these birds. predation pressure from these native nonnative fish are not yet established fishes (Kido 1997, p. 493; Englund 1999, (Englund and Polhemus 1994, pp. 8–9; Mongoose Impacts on the Band-Rumped p. 236). Conversely, fish predation has Englund 2004, in litt., p. 27). In Storm-Petrel been an important factor in the summary, Hawaiian damselflies evolved The small Indian mongoose evolution of behavior in damselfly with few, if any, predatory fishes and (Herpestes auropunctatus) was naiads in continental systems (Johnson the lack of defensive behavior makes the introduced to Hawaii in 1883, to control 1991, p. 13). Some species of orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly rodents in sugar cane plantations damselflies, including the native particularly vulnerable to, and are (Tomich 1986, pp. 95–96). This species Hawaiian species, are not adapted to threatened by, predation by nonnative quickly became widespread on Oahu, coexist with some fish species, and are fish. Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island, from found only in bodies of water without sea level to elevations as high as 7,000 fish (Henrikson 1988, pp. 179–180; Nonnative Fish Impacts on the ft (2,130 m) (Tomich 1986, pp. 93–94). McPeek 1990a, pp. 92–93). The naiads Anchialine Pool Shrimp Mongooses have been sighted, and two of these species tend to occupy more In Hawaii, the introduction of captured, on Kauai, but it is still exposed positions and engage in nonnative fishes into anchialine pools uncertain if the species is established conspicuous foraging behavior that and the ensuing predation by nonnative there or how large populations might be makes them susceptible to predation by fishes is considered the greatest threat to (Kauai Invasive Species Committee fishes (Macan 1977, p. 47; McPeek native shrimp within anchialine pool 2013, in litt.; The Garden Island 2012, 1990b, p. 1722). The introduction of systems (Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, in litt.; Hess et al. in Pratt et al. 2009, nonnative fishes has been implicated in p. 354). These impacts are discussed p. 429). Mongooses are omnivorous, are the extirpation of a species related to the further under Factor E. Other Natural or known to prey on Hawaiian birds and orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the Manmade Factors Affecting Their their eggs, and are considered a likely endangered Pacific Hawaiian damselfly Continued Existence, below. factor in the decline of the endangered (Megalagrion pacificum), from Oahu, Bullfrog Impacts on the Orangeblack Hawaiian goose (nene, Branta Kauai, and Lanai, and from many Hawaiian Damselfly sandvicensis) (Tomich 1986, p. 97). streams on the remaining islands where They are known or suspected predators it occurs (Moore and Gagne 1982, pp. Native to the eastern United States on other Hawaiian birds, including the 1–4). More than 70 species of fish have and the Great Plains region, the bullfrog Hawaiian crow (alala, Corvus been introduced into Hawaiian (Rana catesbeiana, Lithobates hawaiiensis), Hawaiian duck (koloa, freshwater habitats (Devick 1991, p. 189; catesbeiana), was first introduced to Anas wyvilliana), Hawaiian coot (alae Englund and Eldredge in Staples and Hawaii in 1899, to help control insects, keokeo, Fulica alai), Hawaiian stilt (aeo, Cowie 2001, p. 32; Englund 2004, in and has become established on all the Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), litt., p.27). The impact of fish main Hawaiian Islands (Bryan 1931, pp. Hawaiian gallinule (ula, Gallinula introductions prior to 1900 cannot be 62–63; Bury and Whelan 1985, p. 1; chloropus sandvicensis), Hawaiian assessed because this predates the Lever 2003, p. 203). The bullfrog is petrel, and Newell’s shearwater. Bird initial collection of damselflies in flexible in both habitat and food extinctions in other areas are attributed Hawaii (Perkins 1913, p. clxxvi). In requirements (McKeown 1996, pp. 24– to mongooses, such as the loss of the 1905, two species, the mosquito fish 27; Bury and Whelan 1984, pp. 3–7; barred-wing rail (Nesoclopeus (Gambusia affinis) and the sailfin molly Lever 2003, pp. 203–204), and can poecilopterus) in Fiji, and the Jamaica (Poecilia latipinna), were introduced for utilize any water source within a petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea) (Hays and biological control of mosquitoes (Van temperature range of 60 to 75 degrees Conant 2007, p. 6). Birds extirpated Dine 1907, pp. 6–9). In 1922, three Fahrenheit (°F) (16 to 24 degrees Celsius from islands occupied by mongooses additional species were established for (°C)) (DesertUSA 2008). Englund et al. retain their populations on islands mosquito control, the green swordtail (2007, pp. 215, 219) found a strong known to be mongoose-free (Hays and (Xiphophorus helleri), the moonfish correlation between the presence of Conant 2007, p. 7). In Hawaii, (Xiphophorus maculatus), and the bullfrogs and the absence of Hawaiian mongooses occur in habitat types where guppy (Poecilia reticulata). By 1935, the damselflies in their study of streams on they are not found within their natural orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly was all the main Hawaiian Islands. Because range, and they have no predators and found only in waters without bullfrogs are omnivorous feeders and few communicable diseases or parasites. introduced fishes (Williams 1936, p. occur in the same habitat as the Because mongooses occur in all four 289; Zimmerman 1948b, p. 341; orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, we ecosystems in which the band-rumped Polhemus 1993b, p. 591; Englund 1998, consider predation by bullfrogs a threat storm petrel occurs, they are likely to be p. 235). Beginning about 1980, a large to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.

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Introduced Invertebrates rare native plant species (Davis 1970, p. sites currently and historically occupied Slugs 39; Extension Entomology and US– by yellow-faced bee species may CTAHR Integrated Pest Management preclude these species’ recovery in Herbivory by nonnative slugs is a Program 2006, p. 1). This insect pest some of these areas (Reimer 1994, pp. threat to 10 of the 39 plant species burrows into branches, introduces a 17–18; Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 9– (Cyanea kauaulaensis (Maui); Deparia pathogenic fungus as food for its larvae, 10). Although the primary impact of kaalaana (Maui), Dryopteris glabra var. and lays its eggs (Davis 1970, p. 39). ants on Hawaii’s native invertebrate pusilla (Kauai), Hypolepis hawaiiensis Twigs, branches, and entire plants can fauna is via predation, they also var. mauiensis (Maui), Ochrosia be damaged or killed from an infestation compete for nectar (Reimer 1994, p. 17; haleakalae (Maui, Hawaii Island), (Extension Entomology and UH–CTAHR Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. Phyllostegia brevidens (Maui), P. Integrated Pest Management Program 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, stachyoides (Molokai, Maui), 2006, in litt.). On the Hawaiian Islands, 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Ranunculus mauiensis (Kauai, Maui), the black twig borer has many hosts, Lach 2008, p. 155) and nest sites Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (Maui), disperses easily, and is probably present (Krushelnycky et al. 2005, pp. 6–7). and S. pubescens (Molokai, Maui)) at most elevations up to 2,500 ft (762 m) Some ant species may affect yellow- through mechanical damage, (Howarth 1985, pp. 152–153). The black faced bee species indirectly as well, by destruction of plant parts, and mortality twig borer is reported as a threat to consuming seeds of native host plants, (see Table 2) (Joe 2006, p. 10; HBMP Labordia lorenciana and Nothocestrum thereby reducing the plants’ recruitment 2010; PEPP 2011, pp. 149, 170; PEPP latifolium (Ching-Harbin 2015, in litt.; and fecundity (Bond and Slingsby 1984, 2012, pp. 71–72, 117–118, 133, 144– Kishida 2015, in litt.). p. 1031). The threat of ant predation on 145, 153; PEPP 2013, pp. 54, 67, 91, the yellow-faced bees is amplified by 125–126, 158–159, 177–178, 185; Backswimmers the fact that most ant species have Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, p. Backswimmers are aquatic true bugs winged reproductive adults and can 106; PEPP 2014, pp. 73, 112–114, 136, (Heteroptera) in the family quickly expand their range by 141–142, 154–156, 159, 162–163). Slugs Notonectidae, so called because they establishing new colonies in suitable are known to damage individuals of swim upside down. Backswimmers are habitat (Staples and Cowie 2001, p. 55). Cyanea and Cyrtandra species in the voracious predators and frequently feed In addition, these attributes allow some wild (Wood 2001, in litt.; Sailer and on prey much larger than themselves, ants to destroy otherwise geographically Kier 2002, in litt.; PEPP 2007, p. 38; such as tadpoles, small fish, and other isolated populations of native PEPP 2008, pp. 23, 29, 52–53, 57). aquatic invertebrates including arthropods (Nafus 1993, pp. 19, 22–23). Information in the U.S. Army’s 2005 damselfly naiads (Borror et al. 1989, p. Several studies suggest a serious ‘‘Status Report for the Makua 296; Zalom 1978, p. 617). ecosystem-level effect of invasive ants Implementation Plan’’ indicates that Backswimmers (several species) were on plant pollination (Krushelnycky et herbivory by slugs can be a threat to all introduced in recent times. Buenoa al. 2005, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Where species of Cyanea, and can result in up pallipes (NCN) has been recorded from ranges overlap, ants compete with to 80 percent seedling mortality (U.S. Hawaii Island, Oahu, Maui, and Kauai native pollinators such as yellow-faced Army Garrison 2005, p. 3–51). Slug (Zimmerman 1948, pp. 232–233; Larsen bees and preclude them from damage has also been reported on other 1996, p. 40). This species is found in pollinating native plants (Howarth 1985, Hawaiian plants including streams and can be abundant in lowland Argyroxiphium grayanum (greensword), ponds and reservoirs. It feeds on any p. 157), potentially leading to a decrease Alsinidendron sp., Hibiscus sp., suitably sized insect, including in availability of the bees’ native plant Schiedea kaalae (maolioli), Solanum damselfly naiads (Zalom 1978, p. 617). food sources. Lach (2008, p. 155) found sandwicense (popolo aiakeakua), and Two additional species of that yellow-faced bees that regularly Urera sp. (Gagne 1983, pp. 190–191; backswimmers have become established consume pollen from flowers of Sailer 2006, pers. comm. in Joe 2006, in Hawaii, Anisops kuroiwae (NCN) on Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia) were pp. 28–34). Joe and Daehler (2008, p. Maui and Lanai, and Notonecta indica entirely absent from trees with flowers 252) found that native Hawaiian plants (NCN) on Hawaii Island, Oahu, and visited by the ant Pheidole are more vulnerable to slug damage than Maui (Larsen 1996, pp. 39–40). megacephala. nonnative plants. In particular, they Predation by backswimmers is a threat The four most aggressive ant species found that individuals of the to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly in Hawaii are the big-headed ant endangered plants Cyanea superba and (Haines 2015, in litt.). (Pheidole megacephala), the yellow Schiedea obovata had 50 percent higher crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), the Ants mortality when exposed to slugs as tropical fire ant (Solenopsis geminata), compared to individuals that were At least 47 species of ants are known and S. papuana (NCN). The big-headed within exclosures without slugs. to be established in the Hawaiian ant is native to central Africa and was Because slugs are reported in five Islands (Hawaii Ants 2008, 11 pp.). No first reported in Hawaii in 1879 ecosystems (lowland mesic, lowland native ant species occur in Hawaii, and (Krushelnycky et al. 2005, p. 24). This wet, montane wet, montane mesic, and the native yellow-faced bee species in species occurs from coastal to mesic wet cliff) on all the main Hawaiian Hawaii evolved in the absence of habitat up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) in Islands, the data from the studies cited predation pressure from ants. Ants are elevation. With few exceptions, native above, in addition to direct observations known to prey upon Hawaiian yellow- insects have been eliminated in habitats by field biologists, indicate that slugs faced bee (Hylaeus) species, with where the big-headed ant is present can directly damage or destroy native observations of drastic reductions in (Perkins 1913, p. xxxix; Gagne 1979, p. plants. yellow-faced bee populations in ant- 81; Gillespie and Reimer 1993, p. 22). infested areas (Medeiros et al. 1986, pp. Native habitat of the yellow crazy ant is Black Twig Borers 45–46; Reimer 1994, p. 17; Stone and not known, but it is speculated the The black twig borer (Xylosandrus Loope 1987, p. 251; Cole et al. 1992, pp. species originated in West Africa compactus) is known to infest a wide 1313, 1317, 1320). The presence of ants (MacGown 2015, in litt.). It occurs in variety of common plant taxa, including in nearly all of the low-elevation habitat low to mid elevations (less than 2,000

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ft (600 m)) in rocky areas of moderate invertebrates in Hawaii (Wong and 1977 (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170). In annual rainfall (less than 100 in (250 Wong 1988, p. 171). Found in drier temperate climates, the western yellow cm)) (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 42). areas of all the main Hawaiian Islands, jacket wasp has an annual life cycle, but Although surveys have not been it displaced Pheidole megacephala as in Hawaii’s tropical climate, colonies of conducted to ascertain this species’ the dominant ant in some localities this species persist year round, allowing presence in each of the known habitats more than 20 years ago (Wong and growth of large populations (Gambino et occupied by the seven yellow-faced Wong 1988, p. 175). Known to be a al. 1987, p. 170) and thus a greater bees, we know that the yellow crazy ant voracious predator, this ant species was impact on prey populations. Most occurs adjacent to some of the identified documented to significantly increase colonies occur between 2,000 and 3,500 populations sites based upon native fruit fly mortality in field studies ft (600 and 1050 m) in elevation observations of their expanding range in Hawaii (Wong and Wong 1988, p. (Gambino et al. 1990, p. 1088), although and their preference for coastal and dry 175). Solenopsis geminata is included they can also occur at sea level. The forest habitat (as indicated where the among the eight species ranked as western yellow jacket wasp is known to species is most commonly collected) having the highest potential risk to New be an aggressive, generalist predator and (Antweb 2015, in litt.; Magnacca and Zealand species in a detailed pest risk has been documented preying upon King 2013, pp. 13–14). Direct assessment for the country (GISD 2011, Hawaiian yellow-faced bee species observations indicate that Hawaiian in litt.), and is included as one of the (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170; Wilson et arthropods are susceptible to predation five ant species listed among the ‘‘100 al. 2009, p. 2). It has been suggested that by this ant species. Gillespie and Reimer of the World’s Worst Invaders’’ the western yellow jacket wasp may (1993, pp. 21, 26) and Hardy (1979, pp. (Manaaki Landcare Research 2015, in compete for nectar with native 37–38) documented the complete litt.). In addition to predation, S. Hawaiian invertebrates, but we have no elimination of native spiders from mesic geminata workers tend honeydew- information to suggest this represents a and dry forests after they were invaded producing members of the Homoptera threat to the seven yellow-faced bees. by the big-headed ant and the yellow suborder, especially mealybugs, which Predation by the western yellow jacket crazy ant. Lester and Tavite (2004, p. can affect plants directly and indirectly wasp is a significant threat to the seven 291) found that the yellow crazy ant in through the spread of disease (Manaaki yellow-faced bee species because of the the atolls of Tokelau (Central Polynesia) Landcare Research 2015, in litt.). wasps’ presence in habitat combined form very high densities in a relatively Although surveys have not been with the small number of occurrences short period of time with locally serious conducted to ascertain the presence of and small population sizes of the consequences for invertebrate diversity. S. geminata in each of the known seven Hawaiian yellow-faced bees. Densities of 3,600 individuals collected yellow-faced bees’ habitat sites, because in pitfall traps within a 24-hour period of its expanding range and widespread Summary of Factor C were observed, as well as predation on presence, S. geminata is a threat to all We are unaware of any information invertebrates ranging from crabs to other known populations of the seven yellow- that indicates that disease is a threat to ant species. Results from these and faced bees. the 39 plant species. We are also other studies (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 47) Although we have no direct unaware of any information that indicate that yellow crazy ants have the information that correlates the decrease indicates that disease is a threat to the potential as predators to profoundly in populations of the seven yellow-faced band-rumped storm-petrel, the affect endemic insect fauna in areas they bees in this final rule due to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, or the establishment of nonnative ants, occupy. We believe that the yellow anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris predation of and competition with other crazy ant is a threat to populations of hawaiana. It has been suggested that yellow-faced bee species by ants has the Hawaiian yellow-faced bees in areas transmission of disease from alien been documented, resulting in clear within their range. invertebrates by mutual flower Solenopsis papuana, native to the reductions in or absence of populations visitation is a threat to the seven yellow- Pacific region but not to Hawaii, is the (Magnacca and King 2013, p. 24). We faced bees (Hylaeus spp.), but we only abundant, aggressive ant that has expect similar predation impacts to the currently have no evidence that this is invaded intact mesic and wet forest, as seven yellow-faced bees to continue as occurring. well as coastal and lowland dry a result of the widespread presence of ecosystems. First detected in 1967, this ants throughout the Hawaiian Islands, We consider predation and herbivory species occurs from sea level to over their highly efficient and non-specific by one or more of the nonnative animal 3,600 ft (1,100 m) on all of the main predatory behavior, and their ability to species (pigs, goats, axis deer, black- Hawaiian Islands, and is still expanding quickly disperse and establish new tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, cattle, rats, its range (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 42; colonies. Therefore, we conclude that barn owls, cats, mongooses, fish, slugs, Reimer 1993, p. 14). Studies have been predation by nonnative ants represents ants, black twig borers, and wasps) to conducted that suggest a negative effect a serious threat to the continued pose an ongoing threat to 35 of the 39 of this ant species on indigenous existence of the seven yellow-faced plant species and to all 10 animal invertebrates (Gillespie and Reimer bees, now and into the future. species throughout their ranges for the 1993, p. 21). Although surveys have not following reasons: Wasps been conducted to ascertain the (1) Observations and reports have presence of S. papuana in each of the Predation by the western yellow documented that pigs, goats, axis deer, known ecosystems occupied by the jacket wasp (Vespula pensylvanica) is a black-tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, and seven yellow-faced bees, because of the serious and ongoing threat to the seven cattle browse 27 of the 39 plant species, expanding range of this introduced ant yellow-faced bees (Gambino et al. 1987, in addition to other studies species, and its widespread occurrence p. 170; Wilson et al. 2009, pp. 1–5). The demonstrating the negative impacts of in coastal to wet habitats, it is a possible western yellow jacket is a social wasp ungulate browsing on native plant threat to all known populations of the species native to mainland North species of the islands. If the numbers seven yellow-faced bees. America. It was first reported on Oahu and range of blackbuck antelope Solenopsis geminata is also in the 1930s (Sherley 2000, p. 121), and increase, their browsing will be a threat considered a significant threat to native an aggressive race became established in to native plants that occur on Molokai,

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including host plants for the yellow- Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing 6–195). These laws are interpreted and faced bees. Regulatory Mechanisms implemented under Hawaii administrative rules (HAR). Applicable (2) Nonnative rats and slugs (either Overview singly or combined) cause mechanical HARs include: Noxious weed rules Currently, no existing Federal, State, damage to plants and destruction of (HAR 4–6–68); plant and nondomestic or local laws, treaties, or regulations plant parts (branches, flowers, fruits, animal quarantine, microorganism specifically conserve or protect 48 of the and seeds), and are considered a threat import rules (HAR 4–6-ch 71A, 71C), 49 species (except the band-rumped to 22 of the 39 plant species. and plant intrastate rules (HAR4–6–72); storm-petrel by the Migratory Bird rules regulating game mammal hunting (3) Rats also prey upon adults, Treaty Act (MBTA; 16 U.S.C. 703–712)), (HAR 13–5–2-ch 123; indigenous juveniles, and eggs of the band-rumped or adequately address the threats to any wildlife, endangered and threatened storm-petrel, and are linked with the of the 49 species (see Table 2). There are wildlife, and introduced wild birds dramatic decline of many closely related a few small programs and organizations (HAR 13–5–2-ch 124); protection of bird species. Because rats are found in that conduct vegetation monitoring and instream uses of water (HAR 13–7-ch all of the ecosystems in which the band- nonnative species and predator control, 169), and NARs system (HAR 13–9-ch rumped storm-petrel occurs, we but these activities are nonregulatory, 208–210). consider predation by rats to be a and neither continuation of these Private and local programs that serious and ongoing threat. conservation efforts nor funding for provide protections, and that help to (4) Barn owls and cats have them is guaranteed. implement Federal and State established populations in the wild on Federal laws pertaining to the 49 environmental regulations, laws, and all the main islands, and mongooses species addressed here include rules for one or more of the 49 species, have established populations on all the Executive Order (E.O.) 13112, the include the Hawaii Invasive Species main islands except for Kauai. All of MBTA, the Lacey Act (16 U.S.C. 3371– Committee (HISC), the Coordinating these nonnative animals are known to 3378; 18 U.S.C. 42–43), the Federal Group on Alien Pest Species (CGAPS), prey on ground- and burrow-nesting Noxious Weed List (7 CFR 360.200), and and the Hawaii Association of seabirds. Predation by these animals is the Convention on International Trade Watershed Partnerships (HAWP). In a serious and ongoing threat to the in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna addition, the Plant Extinction Protection band-rumped storm-petrel. and Flora (CITES). The U.S. Department Program (PEPP) was created to protect of Agriculture (USDA) inspects Hawaii’s rare plant species in need of (5) The absence of Hawaiian propagative and restricted plant immediate conservation efforts, by damselflies (including the orangeblack materials and animals, and implements monitoring, propagating, outplanting, Hawaiian damselfly) from ponds, pools, ‘‘Special Local Needs’’ rules for and providing some protection from and other aquatic habitat on the main pesticide use, but only on a species-by- threats. Hawaiian Islands is strongly correlated species basis. The Department of We discuss Federal and State with the presence of predatory Homeland Security-Customs and Border regulatory mechanisms, along with nonnative fish; numerous observations Protection (CBP) is responsible for agencies and groups authorized to and reports suggest nonnative predatory inspecting commercial, private, and implement them, and the coordination fishes eliminate native damselflies from military vessels and aircraft, and related between them, below. these habitats. Accordingly, predation cargo and passengers arriving from by nonnative fishes is a serious and foreign locations. However, CBP focuses Federal Regulatory Mechanisms ongoing threat to the orangeblack on quarantine issues involving non- On February 3, 1999, Executive Order Hawaiian damselfly. Predation by propagative plant materials; wooden (E.O.) 13112 was signed establishing the bullfrogs, backswimmers, and Jackson’s packing materials, timber, and products; National Invasive Species Council chameleons, and competition with internationally regulated commercial (NISC). This E.O. requires that a Council caddisflies are threats to the orangeblack species under CITES; and federally of Departments dealing with invasive Hawaiian damselfly. listed noxious plants, seeds, soils, and species be created to prevent the (6) Once introduced to anchialine pests of concern to the continental introduction of invasive species; pools, nonnative fish, through predation United States, such as pests to mainland provide for their control; and minimize and competition for food sources, U.S. forests and agriculture. the economic, ecological, and human directly affect anchialine pool shrimp, Hawaii State law regarding natural health impacts that invasive species including Procaris hawaiana, and also resource protections include those cause. Invasive species include aquatic disrupt anchialine pool ecology. under Hawaii revised statutes (HRS): plant and animal species, terrestrial Plant and nondomestic animal (7) Damage and destruction by the plants and animal species, and plant quarantine and microorganism import black twig borer is a threat to two plant and animal pathogens. This E.O. was (HRS 11–3–150A) and noxious weed species, Labordia lorenciana and reviewed in 2005 (NISC 2005). NISC control (HRS 11–3–152); flood control Nothocestrum latifolium. uses a cooperative approach to enhance (HRS 12–2), water and land the Federal Government’s response to (8) Predation by nonnative ants and development (HRS 12–174), and State the threat of invasive species, and wasps poses a threat to all seven yellow- water code (HRS 12–2–174D); wildlife emphasizes prevention, early detection faced bees. (general wildlife, hunting, game birds, and rapid response, and sharing of These threats are serious and ongoing, game mammals, and wild birds and information. See our discussion below act in concert with other threats to the other wildlife) (HRS 12–4–183D); concerning the Hawaii Invasive Species species, and are expected to continue or aquatic resources and wildlife-alien Committee (HISC) regarding the increase in magnitude and intensity into aquatic organisms (HRS 12–5–187A); effectiveness of this law. the future without effective management general and miscellaneous, invasive The MBTA is the domestic law that actions to control or eradicate them. The species council (HRS 12–6–194); implements the United States’ effects of the combined threats suggest conservation of aquatic life, wildlife, commitment to four international the need for immediate implementation and land plants (HRS 12–6–195D); and conventions (with Canada, Japan, of recovery and conservation methods. Natural Area Reserves (NARs) (HRS 12– Mexico, and Russia) for the protection

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of shared migratory bird resources. The costly to control, or are not controlled and, in our proposed rule (80 FR 58820, MBTA regulates most aspects of take, at all. None of the aquatic species on the September 30, 2015; see pp. 58869– possession, transport, sale, purchase, injurious species list is present in 58881), we discuss 114 of these invasive barter, export, and import of migratory Hawaii. plants that currently have the greatest birds and prohibits the killing, The continued spread of injurious impacts on the 49 species. In addition, capturing, and collecting of individuals, species indicates the limited the USDA–APHIS–PPQ is in the process eggs, and nests, unless such action is effectiveness of the Lacey Act in of finalizing rules to include a weed risk authorized by permit. While the MBTA preventing introductions of such species assessment for plants newly imported to does prohibit actions that directly kill a to the State (Fowler et al. 2007, p. 357). Hawaii (and that may not yet appear on covered species, unlike the Endangered As an example of continued the PIER list). Species Act (Act), it does not prohibit introduction of nonnative species in Water extraction is a threat to the habitat modification that indirectly kills Hawaii, opossums (Didelphis plant species (Cyclosorus boydiae), the or injures a covered species, affords no virginiana) have been found in shipping orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and habitat protection when the birds are containers on Oahu in 2005, 2011, and the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris not present, and provides only very most recently in 2015 (Star Advertiser hawaiana. The U.S. Army Corps of limited mechanisms for addressing 2015b, in litt). This species is not Engineers (COE) has regulatory chronic threats to covered species, such included on the Lacey Act’s list of jurisdiction under section 404 of the as nonnative predators. injurious wildlife. Opossums are Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.) omnivorous scavengers, consuming a for activities that would result in a The Lacey Act authorizes the wide variety of food items including discharge of dredged or fill material into Secretary of the Interior to list as insects, small vertebrates, bird eggs, waters of the United States; however, in ‘‘injurious’’ any wildlife deemed to be slugs and snails, and fruits and berries issuing permits for such activities, the harmful to human beings, to the (Oregon Department of Fish and COE does not typically establish interests of agriculture, horticulture, Wildlife 2015, in litt.; Clermont College minimal instream flow standards (IFS) forestry, or to wildlife or the wildlife 2015, in litt.). If opossums were to as a matter of policy (U.S. Army 1985, resources of the United States. The establish wild populations in Hawaii, RGL 85–6). Service inspects arriving wildlife their predation on ground-nesting products, and enforces the injurious State Regulatory Mechanisms seabirds, insects, and snails could wildlife provisions of the Lacey Act. negatively affect the band-rumped storm The Hawaii Endangered Species law Among other provisions, the Lacey Act petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian (HRS 195D) prohibits take, possession, prohibits importation of injurious damselfly, one or more of the 39 plants, sale, transport or commerce in mammals, birds, fish, amphibians and and endangered snail species. designated species. This includes reptiles listed in the Lacey Act or which The Department of Agriculture- aquatic as well as terrestrial animal are declared by the Secretary of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection species, and terrestrial plants (not Interior through regulation to be Service-Plant Protection and Quarantine freshwater or marine plants). This State injurious to human beings, agriculture, (USDA–APHIS–PPQ) inspects law also recognizes as endangered or horticulture, forestry or wildlife; propagative plant material, provides threatened those species determined to however, these prohibitions do not identification services for arriving be endangered or threatened pursuant to apply to plants and organisms other plants and animals, conducts pest risk the Act. This Hawaii law states that a than those listed or designated by assessments, and other related matters, threatened species (under the Act) or an regulations as injurious wildlife but focuses on pests of wide concern indigenous species may be determined (USFWS 2016, in litt.). The current list across the United States (HDOA 2009, in to be an endangered species under State of animals considered as ‘‘injurious litt.). The USDA–APHIS–PPQ’s law. Protection of these species is under wildlife’’ is provided at 50 CFR part 16. Restricted Plants List restricts the the authority of Hawaii’s Department of The list includes fruit bats, mongoose, import of a limited number of noxious Land and Natural Resources, and under European rabbits and hares, wild dogs, weeds. If not specifically prohibited, administrative rule (HAR 13–5–2-Ch rats or mice, raccoon dogs, brushtail current Federal regulations allow plants 124). Although this State law can possum (the species introduced to New to be imported from international ports address threats such as habitat Zealand), starlings, house sparrows, with some restrictions. The Federal modification, light attraction, and line mynas, dioch, Java sparrows, red Noxious Weed List (see 7 CFR 360.200; collision through HCPs that address the whiskered bulbuls, walking catfish, USDA 2012) includes more than 100 of effects of individual projects or mitten crabs, zebra mussels, fish in the the many globally known invasive programs, it does not address the snakehead family, four species of carp, plants, 21 of which are already pervasive threats to the 49 species posed salmonids, brown tree snakes, and established in Hawaii. Plants on the list by nonnative predators and feral pythons (USFWS 2012, 50 CFR part 16). do not require a weed risk assessment ungulates. The Lacey Act requires declarations of prior to importation from international The importation of nondomestic importation only for formal entries (i.e., ports. animals, including aquatic species and commercial shipments), but not for A local organization (under the microorganisms, is regulated by a informal entries (i.e., personal Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry- permit system (HAR 4–71) managed shipments) (USDA–APHIS 2015, in USFS), Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk through the Hawaii Department of litt.). Additionally, a species may still be (PIER) has compiled a complete list of Agriculture (HDOA). In addition, imported or transported across State those plant species that are a threat to transport of plants and plant parts lines while it is being considered for ecosystems in the Pacific Islands, and between Hawaiian Islands is managed addition to the list of ‘‘injurious those that are potentially invasive and through the HDOA (HAR 4–6–72), but wildlife’’ (Fowler et al. 2007, pp. 357– are present in the Pacific Region, along only for those species that have already 358). Mongoose, rabbits, rats, mice, with a weed-risk assessment for most of been determined to be pest species. The house sparrows, mynas, Java sparrows, them (http://www.hear.org/pier/, last objective of these administrative rules is and red whiskered bulbuls are already updated May 15, 2013). There are over to implement the requirements of HRS established in Hawaii, are difficult and 1,000 plant species on the PIER list, 11–3–150A. The list of nondomestic

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animals (HAR 4–71) is defined by evidenced by the 2013 discovery of pulchella (wingleaf passionfruit), Piper providing a list of those animals presence of the nonnative coconut aduncum (spiked pepper), Prosopis considered domestic: dog, cat, horse, ass rhinoceros beetle (CRB, Oryctes juliflora (algarroba), Pueraria (burro or donkey), cattle and beefalo, rhinoceros), which quickly spread from phaseoloides (tropical kudzu), Rubus sheep, goat, swine, pot-bellied pig, its known point of introduction across sieboldii (Molucca raspberry), Senecio alpaca, llama, rabbit, chicken, turkeys, the island of Oahu in a few months madagascariensis (fireweed), Solanum pigeons, ducks, geese, and their hybrids. (HISC 2014, in litt. + maps; HDOA 2014, elaeagnifolium (silverleaf nightshade), Examples of regulated pests are listed at in litt.). The CRB is considered one of Solanum robustum (shrubby HAR 4–72, including nonnative insects, the most damaging insects to coconut nightshade), Solanum torvum slugs, insects, plants, and plant viruses and African oil palm trees in southern (turkeyberry), and Spartium junceum that can damage or harm commercial and southeast Asia, as well as the (Spanish broom). Thus, despite State crops. The HDOA’s Board of Agriculture western Pacific Islands, and could legislation and regulations addressing maintains lists of nondomestic animals devastate populations of native and invasive and noxious species, their that are prohibited from entry, animals nonnative palm trees in Hawaii (Giblin- entry into the State continues. without entry restrictions, or those that Davis 2001 in HISC 2014, in litt.). A The State manages the use of surface require a permit for import and rapid response team headed by HDOA and ground water resources through the possession. The HDOA requires a (with USDA, University of Hawaii, U.S. Commission on Water Resource permit to import animals, and Navy, and other partners) has set up Management (CWRM), as mandated by conditionally approves entry for pheromone traps island-wide, and the State Water Code (HRS 174, HAR individual possession, businesses (e.g., capture and range delineation efforts are 13–168–196). The State considers all pets and resale trade, retail sales, and ongoing, along with funding for support natural flowing surface water (streams, food consumption), or institutions. services to control the CRB (HISC 2014, springs, seeps) as State property (HRS However, habitat destruction and in litt.). However, existing regulatory 174C), and the DLNR has management modification, and predation, by feral mechanisms did not prevent the responsibility for the aquatic organisms domestic animals (such as goat and cats, introduction of this pest species into in these waters (HRS Annotated 1988, respectively) are two primary threats to Hawaii. These regulatory mechanisms, Title 12 1992 Cumulative Supplement). the 49 species not addressed by the such as HAR 71A and HAR 71C In Hawaii, instream flow is regulated by HDOA prohibitions and permitting (regarding release of nonnative species) establishing standards on a stream-by- process. and H.B. 1568 (pertaining to State law stream basis. The standards currently in The State of Hawaii allows to enforce biosecurity measures), effect represent flow conditions in 1987 importation of most plant taxa, with therefore, are inadequate to prevent (status quo), the year the administrative limited exceptions, if shipped from introduction of nonnative species. rules (State Water Code) were adopted domestic ports (HLRB 2002; USDA– Efforts to control the CRB continue, but (HRS 174C–71, HAR title 13, ch 169– APHIS–PPQ 2010; CGAPS 2009). whether those efforts will be effective is 44–49). Because of the complexity of Hawaii’s plant import rules (HAR 4–70) unknown at this time. establishing instream flow standards regulate the importation of 13 plant taxa (IFS) for 376 perennial streams, the of economic interest, including Hawaii’s noxious weed law was Commission retains interim IFS at status pineapple, sugarcane, palms, and pines. enacted to prevent the introduction and quo levels as set in 1987 (CWRM 2009, Certain horticultural crops (e.g., transport of noxious weeds or their in litt.; CRWM 2014, in litt). In the orchids) may require import permits seeds or vegetative reproductive parts Waiahole Ditch Combined Contested and have pre-entry requirements that into any area that is reasonably free of Hearing on Oahu (1991–2006), the include treatment or quarantine or both those noxious weeds (HRS 11–3–152), Hawaii Supreme Court determined that either prior to or following entry into and it states that the Hawaii Department status quo interim IFS were not the State. of Agriculture shall take necessary adequate, and required the Commission Critical biosecurity gaps include measures to restrict the introduction to reassess the IFS for Waiahole Ditch inadequate staffing, facilities, and and establishment of specific noxious and other streams Statewide (Cast No. equipment for Federal and State weeds in such areas. Hawaii CCH–OA95–1; Maui Now.com, in litt.). inspectors devoted to invasive species administrative rule (HAR 4–6–68) The Commission has been gathering interdiction (HLRB 2002; USDA– further defines the term ‘‘noxious weed’’ information to fulfill this requirement APHIS–PPQ 2010; CGAPS 2009). In and the criteria for designation of plants since 2006, but no IFS recognition of these gaps, a State law as such and criteria for designation of a recommendations have been made to has been passed that allows the HDOA noxious weed ‘‘free area.’’ The list of date (CWRM 2008, p. 3–153; CRWM to collect fees for quarantine inspection noxious weeds, compiled in 1992, 2014, in litt.). of freight entering Hawaii (Act 36 (2011) consists of 79 plant species, 49 of which In addition, in the Hawaii Stream HRS 150A–5.3). Legislation enacted in were not yet established in Hawaii. Assessment Report (HDLNR 1990; 2011 (H.B. 1568) requires commercial Since that time, 20 species on the list prepared in coordination with the harbors and airports to provide have become established in Hawaii: National Park Service (NPS)), the biosecurity and inspection facilities to Bocconia frutescens (plume poppy), Commission identified high-quality facilitate the movement of cargo through Cereus uruguayanus (spiny tree cactus), rivers and streams (and portions thereof) ports. This bill is a significant step Chromolaena odorata (siamweed), that may be placed within a Wild and toward optimizing biosecurity capacity Cortaderia jubata (Andean pampas Scenic River System. This report ranked in the State, but only time will grass), Cytisus scoparius (Scotch 70 out of 176 analyzed rivers and determine its effectiveness (Act 2011 broom), Hyptis suaveolens (wild streams as outstanding high-quality (11)). We believe there is a need for all spikenard), Malachra alceifolia habitat, and recommended that streams civilian and military port and airport (malachra), Melastoma spp. (melastoma; meeting certain criteria be protected operations and construction to make two species now established, M. from further development (HDLNR biosecurity concerns a core objective. candidum and M. sanguineum), 1990, pp. xxi–xxiv). However, there is As an example, the threat of Miconia spp. (miconia; M. calvescens no mechanism within the State’s Water introduction of nonnative species is now on four islands), Passiflora Code to designate and set aside these

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streams, or to identify and protect their designees from other areas (HAR– organizations involved in invasive stream habitat. Accordingly, damselfly DLNR 2010, p. 12–123; HDLNR 2009b, species work in Hawaii, was formed in populations (including the orangeblack pp. 25–30). Thirty of the 39 plant an effort to coordinate policy and Hawaiian damselfly) are at risk of species, the band-rumped storm-petrel, funding decisions, improve continued loss of habitat. the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, communication, increase collaboration, Hawaii’s DLNR Division of Aquatic and three yellow-faced bees have and promote public awareness (CGAPS Resources (DAR) is responsible for populations in areas where habitat is 2009). This group facilitated the conserving, protecting, and enhancing used for game enhancement and game formation of the Hawaii Invasive the State’s renewable resources of populations are maintained at levels for Species Council (HISC), which was aquatic life and habitat (HDAR 2015, in public hunting (Holmes and Joyce 2009, created by gubernatorial executive order litt.; DLNR–DAR 2003, p. 3–13). The 4 pp.; HAR–DLNR 2010, p. 12–123; in 2002, to coordinate local initiatives release of live nonnative fish or other HBMP 2010). Public hunting areas are for the prevention of introduction and nonnative aquatic life into any waters of defined, but not fenced, and game for control of invasive species by the State is prohibited (HRS 187A–6.5), mammals have unrestricted access to providing policy-level direction and and DAR has the authority to seize, most areas across the landscape, planning for the State departments confiscate, or destroy as a public regardless of underlying land-use responsible for invasive species issues nuisance any of these prohibited species designation. While fences are sometimes (CGAPS 2009). In 2003, the Governor (HRS 187A–2; HRS 187A–6.5). built to protect areas from game signed into law Act 85, which conveys However, the DAR recognizes that mammals, the current number and statutory authority to the HISC to nonnative species continue to enter the locations of fences are not adequate to continue to coordinate approaches State and move between islands (DLNR– prevent habitat destruction and among the various State and Federal DAR 2003, p. 2–12). modification for 46 of the 49 species. agencies, and international and local There are no existing regulatory One additional State regulation (HRS initiatives, for the prevention and mechanisms that specifically protect 12–183D) was enacted recently to control of invasive species (HDLNR Hawaii’s anchialine pools (habitat for prevent intra-island transport of axis 2003, p. 3–15; HISC 2009, in litt.; HRS the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris deer only. There are no other State 194–2). Some of the recent priorities for hawaiana and the orangeblack Hawaiian regulations than those described above the HISC include interagency efforts to damselfly); however 2 anchialine pools that address protection of the species control nonnative species such as the on Maui and 12 anchialine pool on and their habitat from feral ungulates. plants Miconia calvescens (miconia) and Hawaii Island are located within State Under statutory authorities provided Cortaderia spp. (pampas grass), coqui NARs. State NARs were created to by HRS title 12, subtitle 4, 183D frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui), the preserve and protect samples of Wildlife, the DLNR maintains HAR ch CRB, and ants (HISC 2009, 2013, and Hawaii’s ecosystems and geological 124 (2014), which defines ‘‘injurious 2015, in litt.; OISC 2015, in litt.; http:// formations, and are monitored. wildlife’’ as ‘‘any species or subspecies dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc). Budget cuts Designation as a State NAR prohibits the of animal except game birds and game beginning in 2009 restricted State removal of any native organism and the mammals which is known to be harmful funding support of HISC, resulting in a disturbance of pools (HAR 13–209–4). to agriculture, aquaculture, indigenous serious setback of conservation efforts Though signs are posted at NARs to wildlife or plants, or constitute a (HISC 2009; HISC 2015). notify the public that anchialine pools nuisance or health hazard and is listed The Hawaii Association of Watershed are off-limits to bathers, off-road vehicle in the exhibit entitled Exhibit 5, Chapter Partnerships comprises 11 separate use around the pools, and other 13–124, List of Species of Injurious partnerships on six Hawaiian Islands. activities, the anchialine pools are in Wildlife in Hawaii.’’ Under HAR 13– These partnerships are voluntary remote areas and the State does not have 124–3(d), ‘‘no person shall, or attempt alliances of public and private sufficient funding to effectively enforce to: (1) Release injurious wildlife into the landowners, ‘‘committed to the common those restrictions. wild; (2) Transport them to island or value of protecting forested watersheds Nonnative ungulates pose threats of locations within the State where they for water recharge, conservation, and habitat destruction and modification are not already established and living in other ecosystem services through and predation (herbivory) to 37 of the 39 a wild state; and (3) Export any such collaborative management’’ (http:// plants species, and of habitat species or the dead body or parts hawp.org/partnerships). Funding for the destruction and modification to 9 of the thereof, from the State. Permits for these partnerships is provided through a 10 animals in this rule (see Table 2). actions may be considered on a case-by- variety of State and Federal sources, The State provides opportunities to the case basis.’’ This law was enacted after public and private grants, and in-kind public to hunt game mammals an incident in 2012 of interisland services provided by the partners and (ungulates including feral pigs and transport of axis deer (for hunting volunteers. However, budget cuts of 40 goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, and purposes) to Hawaii Island, which was to 60 percent have occurred since 2009, mouflon, sheep and mouflon-sheep without axis deer previously. with serious impacts to the positive hybrids) on 91 State-designated public contributions of these groups to hunting areas (within 45 units) on all Local Mechanisms implementing the laws and rules that the main Hawaiian Islands except Local biologists and botanists can protect and control threats to one or Kahoolawe and Niihau (HAR–DLNR recognize the urgent need to address the more of the 49 species. 2010, 13–123; HDLNR 2009b, pp. 25– importation of nonnative, invasive Another group was established to 30). On Niihau, public hunting species, and are working to implement coordinate State and Federal agency opportunities are managed by a private actions required; however, their funding efforts in the protection of rare endemic business (Niihau Safaris Inc. 2015, in is not guaranteed. We discuss the four plant species in the State and Guam and litt.). The State’s management objectives primary groups below. the Commonwealth of the Northern for game mammals range from In 1995, the Coordinating Group on Mariana Islands (CNMI), Hawaii’s Plant maximizing public hunting Alien Pest Species (CGAPS), a Extinction Prevention Program (PEPP). opportunities (i.e., ‘‘sustained yield’’) in partnership of managers from Federal, This program identifies and supports some areas to removal by State staff or State, County, and private agencies and the ‘‘rarest of the rare’’ plant species in

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need of immediate conservation efforts. gall wasp Quadrastichus erythrinae. seeps, and anchialine pools or address The goal of PEPP is to prevent the This highly destructive wasp was the threats of water extraction and extinction of plant species that have detected in Taiwan in 2003. Despite stream modification for the anchialine fewer than 50 individuals remaining in evidence of its rapid advance across the pool shrimp and orangeblack Hawaiian the wild. Pacific Basin with concomitant loss of damselfly. All of these threats are These four partnerships, CGAPS, populations of native and ornamental ongoing and are expected to continue HISC, HAWP, and PEPP, are stop-gap trees in the genus Erythrina, this wasp into the future; therefore, we conclude measures that attempt to address issues arrived and naturalized in Hawaii in the existing regulatory mechanisms are that are not resolved by individual State 2005 (Gramling 2005, p. 1). The wasp inadequate to reduce or eliminate these and Federal agencies. The capacity of dispersed throughout the main threats to the 49 species. State and Federal agencies and their Hawaiian Islands within weeks, and as Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade nongovernmental partners in Hawaii to a result, the endemic wiliwili, Erythrina Factors Affecting Their Continued provide sufficient inspection services, sandwicensis, was quickly devastated Existence enforce regulations, and mitigate or (Rubinoff et al. 2010, p. 24). monitor the effects of nonnative species On the basis of the information Other factors that pose a threat to is limited due to the large number of provided above, existing State and some or all of the 49 species include taxa currently causing damage (CGAPS Federal regulatory mechanisms are not artificial lighting and structures, 2009). Many invasive, nonnative species preventing the introduction of ingestion of marine debris and plastics, established in Hawaii currently have nonnative species and pathogens into dumping of trash and the introduction limited but expanding ranges, and they Hawaii via interstate and international of nonnative fish into anchialine pools, cause considerable concern. Resources pathways, or via intrastate movement of recreational use of and sedimentation of available to reduce the spread of these nonnative species between islands and anchialine pools, low numbers of species and counter their negative watersheds. Nor do these mechanisms individuals and populations, effects are limited. Control efforts are address the current threats posed to the hybridization, lack of or declining focused on a few invasive species that 49 species by established nonnative regeneration, competition with cause significant economic or species. Therefore, State and Federal nonnative invertebrates, and loss of host environmental damage to commercial regulatory mechanisms do not plants. Each threat is discussed in detail crops and public and private lands. adequately protect the 49 species, or below, along with identification of Comprehensive control of an array of their habitats, from the threat of new which species are affected by these nonnative species and management to introductions of nonnative species or threats. The impacts of climate change reduce disturbance regimes that favor the continued expansion of nonnative to these species and their ecosystems them remain limited in scope. If current species populations on and between have the potential to exacerbate all of levels of funding and regulatory support islands and watersheds. The impacts the threats described below. for control of nonnative species are from these threats are ongoing and are Artificial Lighting and Structures Effects maintained, the Service expects existing expected to continue into the future. on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel programs to continue to exclude, or, on Summary of Factor D a very limited basis, control these Artificial lights are a well- species only in the highest priority Existing State and Federal regulatory documented threat to night-flying areas. Threats from established mechanisms are not preventing the seabirds such as petrels, shearwaters, nonnative species are ongoing and are introduction into Hawaii of nonnative and storm-petrels (Croxall et al. 2012, p. expected to continue into the future. species or controlling the spread of 28). A significant impact to the band- As an example of current and future nonnative species between islands and rumped storm-petrel results from the challenges for biosecurity in Hawaii, a watersheds, or establishing or effects of artificial (night) lighting on strain of the plant rust Puccinia psidii maintaining instream flow standards. fledglings and, to a lesser degree, on (ohia rust) was first noticed affecting Water extraction is a threat to one plant, adults. Lighting of roadways, resorts, stands of the nonnative rose apple Cyclosorus boydiae, to the orangeblack ballparks, residences, and other (Syzygium jambos) and the native Hawaiian damselfly, and the anchialine development, as well as on cruise ships Metrosideros (ohia) seedlings (both in pool shrimp (Factor A). Habitat-altering out at sea, both attracts and confuses the plant family Myrtaceae) in nurseries ungulates and nonnative plants (Factor night-flying storm-petrels and other in 2005. Metrosideros spp. are a A) pose major ongoing threats to all 49 seabirds (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; dominant component of native forest in species addressed in this rule. Thirty- Reed et al. 1985, p. 377; Telfer et al. Hawaii, providing watershed protection five of the 39 plants and all 10 animals 1987, pp. 412–413; Banko et al. 1991, p. and habitat for native wildlife. The experience the threat of predation or 651). Storm-petrels use the night sky to Hawaii Board of Agriculture herbivory by nonnative animals (Factor navigate and possibly to search for recommended a quarantine rule be C). The seven yellow-faced bees and the bioluminescent marine prey (Telfer et passed against the introduction of all orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly al. 1987, p. 412). Artificial lights can new strains of ohia rust (through experience competition with nonnative attract night-flying seabirds and result transmission on Myrtaceae species used insect species (Factor E). The in ‘‘fallout’’ (birds becoming grounded) in the horticulture trade), to prevent intentional or inadvertent introduction when birds become confused and destruction of ohia forests and the risk of nonnative species and their spread exhaust themselves circling around to agriculture and horticulture within Hawaii, and the damage caused lights or collide with buildings, industries (Environment Hawaii 2015, by existing populations of nonnative powerlines, or other structures. Once pp. 1,8–9). However, the rule remains in species, continues despite existing grounded, these birds are at risk of draft form and under review (HDOA regulatory mechanisms designed to predation or being run over by cars 2015, in litt.), accessed August 1, 2016). address this threat (in all its (Reed et al. 1985, p. 377; Telfer et al. An example of the failure of biosecurity manifestations described above) to all 1987, p. 410). Vulnerability to artificial in Hawaii and the speed with which a 49 species. No existing regulatory lighting varies among species and age new invader can cause widespread mechanisms effectively address classes and is influenced by season, destruction is the introduction of the maintenance of instream flow, springs, lunar phase, and weather conditions.

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Young birds are more likely than adults 21). Absent preventative measures, the Effects of Recreational Use, and to become disoriented by manmade impact to the band-rumped storm-petrel Dumping of Trash and Nonnative Fish light sources (Montevecchi 2006, pp. from artificial lighting and collisions Into Anchialine Pools 101–102). Over a 12-year period (1978 with structures is expected to increase On Hawaii Island, it is estimated that to 1990), Harrison et al. (1990, p. 49) as the human population grows and up to 90 percent of the anchialine pools reported that 15 band-rumped storm- development continues on the Hawaiian have been destroyed or altered by petrels, 13 of which were fledglings, Islands. were recovered on Kauai as a result of human activities (Brock 2004, p. i). The fallout. Between 1991 and 2008, another Other Human Effects on the Band- more recent human modification of 21 band-rumped storm-petrels were Rumped Storm-Petrel anchialine pools includes bulldozing collected on Kauai (Holmes and Joyce and filling of pools (Bailey-Brock and 2009, p. 2). Currently, fallout due to Other factors that may negatively Brock 1993, p. 354). Trampling damage light pollution is recorded almost affect the band-rumped storm-petrel from use of anchialine pools for annually on Kauai (Kauai Island Utility include commercial fisheries swimming and bathing has been Cooperative 2015, in litt.). In addition, interactions and alteration of prey base documented (Brock 2004, pp. 13–17). band-rumped storm-petrels may be upon which the band-rumped storm- Historically, pools were sometimes attracted to lights at sea and collide with petrel depends. Commercial fisheries modified with stone walls and steps by boats; this source of injury and mortality are known to adversely affect certain Hawaiians who used them for bathing. has been documented for other storm- species of seabirds (Furness 2003, pp. There are no documented negative petrel species (e.g., Black 2005, p. 67). 33–35). Seabirds are caught in fishing impacts to pond biota as a result of this The actual extent of such loss and its gear and suffer mortality by drowning. activity; however, introduction of soaps overall impact on the band-rumped Seabirds also come into contact with and shampoos is of concern (Brock storm-petrel population in Hawaii is not and consume deep-water fish to which 2004, p. 15). known because scavengers often prevent they would not normally have access, The depressional features of the detection or recovery of the dead or and can become contaminated by high anchialine pools make them susceptible injured birds, and the scattered and levels of heavy metals in these fish to dumping. Refuse found in degraded remote nesting areas of this species (Furness 2003, p. 34). Commercial pools and pools that have been filled preclude demographic monitoring to fisheries also cause depletion of small with rubble have been dated to about quantify the impacts of this source of pelagic schooling fish, a significant food 100 years old, and the practice of mortality. However, given the probable source for seabirds (Furness 2003, p. dumping trash into pools continues small total number of band-rumped 34). The potential effects of these today (Brock 2004, p. 15). For example, storm-petrels nesting in Hawaii and the activities have not been assessed for the Lua O Palahemo (Hawaii Island) is located approximately 560 ft (170 m) threats they face from nonnative band-rumped storm-petrel; however, from a sandy beach frequented by predators such as rats and cats, any storm-petrels have been observed to additional mortalities are likely to have visitors who fish and swim. There are attend fishing vessels (e.g., Yorio and negative impacts on the population. multiple dirt roads that surround the Caille 1999, p. 21; Yeh et al. 2013, p. pool making it highly accessible. Plastic A related threat to seabirds in Hawaii, 146), and the effects of fishery including the band-rumped storm- bags, paper, fishing line, water bottles, interactions on this species are likely to soda cans, radios, barbed wire, and a petrel, is collision with structures such be similar to those documented for other as communication towers and utility bicycle have been documented within seabird species in the same order lines (Cooper and Day 1998, pp. 16–18; the pool (Kensley and Williams 1986, (Procellariiformes or tubenoses; Podolsky et al. 1998, pp. 23–33). Several pp. 417–418; Bozanic 2004, p. 1; Wada seabird species that nest in the albatrosses and petrels). In addition, 2010, in litt.). Introduction of trash Hawaiian Islands, including the plastics and other debris in the open involving chemical contamination into Newell’s Townsend’s shearwater ocean can be ingested accidentally by anchialine pools, as has been observed (federally listed as threatened), the band-rumped storm-petrels and pose a elsewhere on Hawaii Island (Brock Hawaiian petrel (federally listed as threat to this species (Ryan 1989, p. 2004, pp. 15–16), drastically affects endangered), and the band-rumped 629). Although a study by Moser and water quality and results in local storm-petrel, regularly commute Lee (1992, p. 85) found no evidence of extirpation of anchialine pool shrimp between inland nest sites and the ocean. plastic ingestion by band-rumped storm- species. These birds commute at night, when petrels, the sample size was very small Anchialine pool habitats can manmade obstacles such as (4 individuals) and inadequate to gradually disappear when wind-blown communication towers and utility lines conclusively determine whether this materials accumulate through a process are difficult to see. They strike these species suffers from ingestion of known as senescence (Maciolek and unseen obstacles, and often die or are plastics. Other species of storm-petrels Brock 1974, p. 3; Brock 2004, pp. 11, injured as a result. An early study have been documented to ingest plastics 35–36). Conditions promoting rapid estimated that 340 Newell’s Townsend’s (Bond and Lavers 2013, p. 3; Ryan 2015, senescence include an increased shearwater fledglings die annually on p. 20; Wilcox et al. 2015, p. 3), and amount of sediment deposition, good the eastern and southern shores of Kauai band-rumped storm-petrels are likely to exposure to light, shallowness, and a as a result of collisions (Podolsky et al. do so also. Many closely related weak connection with the water table, 1998, p. 30); however, current analyses seabirds do suffer ill effects from resulting in sediment and detritus for all seabirds on Kauai indicate the ingestion of plastics, including physical accumulating within the pool instead of number of collisions with utility lines is damage to the digestive tract, effects of being flushed away with tidal exchanges much higher, over 2,000 strikes per year toxins carried on the plastics, and and ground water flow (Maciolek and (using site-specific strike rates), but Brock 1974, p. 3; Brock 2004, pp. 11, resulting mortality (Ryan 1989, pp. 623– numbers of birds that hit utility lines is 35–36). Sedimentation degrades the 629; Tanaka et al. 2013, pp. 2–3). site-dependent (Travers et al. 2014, pp. health of Hawaiian anchialine pool 19, 29–37; Service 2015, in litt., Slide systems in which the anchialine pool

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shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, and the pers. comm.), sometime in the 1980s, occurrences poses a threat to all 39 orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly occur. nonnative fishes were introduced into plant species addressed in this proposal. In general, the accidental or Lua O Palahemo. It is our understanding We consider the following 19 species to intentional introduction and spread of that the fish were subsequently removed be especially vulnerable to extinction nonnative fishes (bait and aquarium by illegal use of a fish poison (EPA due to threats associated with small fish) is considered the greatest threat to 2007. pp. 22–23; Finlayson et al. 2010, occurrence size or small number of p. 2), and to our knowledge the pool is occurrences because: anchialine pools in Hawaii (Brock 2004, • p. 16). Maciolek (1983, p. 612) found currently free of nonnative fish; The only known occurrences of that the abundance of shrimp in a given however, nonnative fish could be Cyanea kauaulaensis, Labordia population is indirectly related to introduced into the pool at any time. lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and predation by fish. Lua O Palahemo is Phyllostegia helleri are threatened either Low Numbers of Individuals and by landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, vulnerable to the intentional dumping Populations of nonnative bait and aquarium fishes drought, or erosion, or a combination of Species that undergo significant because the area is accessible to vehicles these factors. habitat loss and degradation, and other • Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra and human traffic, although due to its threats resulting in population decline, hematos, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea remote location, it is not monitored range reduction, and fragmentation, are ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia regularly by State agency staff. The inherently highly vulnerable to lorenciana, Nothocestrum latifolium, release of mosquito fish and tilapia into extinction because of localized and Ochrosia haleakalae numbers are the Waikoloa Anchialine Pond Preserve catastrophes such as hurricanes, floods, declining, and they have not been (WAAPA) at Waikoloa, North Kona, rockfalls, landslides, treefalls, and observed regenerating in the wild. Hawaii, resulted in the infestation of all drought; climate change impacts; • The only known wild individuals of ponds within an approximately 3-ha (8- demographic stochasticity; and the Cyperus neokunthianus, Kadua ac) area, which represented about two- increased risk of genetic bottlenecks and haupuensis, and Stenogyne kaalae ssp. thirds of the WAAPA. Within 6 months, inbreeding depression (Gilpin and Soule´ sherffii are extirpated; there is one all native hypogeal (subterranean) 1986, pp. 24–34). These conditions are remaining individual of Deparia shrimp species disappeared (Brock easily reached by island species and kaalaana, and only three individuals of 2004, p. iii). Nonnative fish drive especially species endemic to single Phyllostegia brevidens. Kadua anchialine species out of the lighted, islands that face numerous threats such haupuensis and Stenogyne kaalae ssp. higher productivity portion of the pools, as those described above (Pimm et al. sherffii only exist in propagation. into the surrounding water table bed 1988, p. 757; Mangel and Tier 1994, p. • The following single-island rock, subsequently leading to the 607). Populations that have been endemic species are known from fewer decimation of the benthic community diminished and isolated by habitat loss, than 250 individuals: Asplenium structure of the pool (Brock 2004, p. iii). predation, and other threats exhibit diellaciniatum, Cyanea kauaulaensis, In addition, nonnative fish prey on and reduced levels of genetic variability, Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra exclude native hypogeal shrimp that are which diminishes the species’ capacity hematos, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, usually a dominant and essential faunal to adapt to environmental changes, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, component of anchialine pool thereby lessening the probability of Kadua haupuensis, Labordia ecosystems (Brock 2004, p. 16; Bailey- long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, Brock and Brock 1993, pp. 338–355). 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. Phyllostegia helleri, Pritchardia bakeri, The loss of the shrimp changes 361). Very small, isolated plant Santalum involutum, Stenogyne kaalae ecological succession by reducing populations are also more susceptible to ssp. sherffii, and Wikstroemia herbivory of macroalgae, allowing an reduced reproductive vigor due to skottsbergiana. overgrowth and change of pool flora. ineffective pollination, inbreeding This overgrowth changes the system depression, and hybridization. This is Animals from clear, well-flushed basins to a particularly true for functionally Like most native island biota, the system characterized by heavy unisexual plants like Myrsine fosbergii Hawaiian population of band-rumped sedimentation and poor water exchange, of which some individuals are storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian which increases the rate of pool functionally dioecious (male and female damselfly, the anchialine pool shrimp senescence (Brock 2004, p. 16). flowers occur on separate individuals). (Procaris hawaiana), and the seven Nonnative fishes, unlike native fishes, Isolated individuals have difficulty in yellow-faced bees are particularly are able to complete their life cycles achieving natural pollen exchange, sensitive to disturbances due to their within anchialine pool habitats, and which decreases the production of diminished numbers of individuals and remain a permanent detrimental viable seed. Populations are also populations, and small geographic presence in all pools in which they are affected by demographic stochasticity, ranges. introduced (Brock 2004, p. 16). In through which populations are skewed The band-rumped storm-petrel is Hawaii, the most frequently introduced toward either male or female represented in Hawaii by very small fishes are those in the Poeciliidae family individuals by chance. The problems numbers of populations, and perhaps (freshwater fish which bear live young) associated with small occurrence size not more than a few hundred and include mosquito fish, various and vulnerability to random individuals (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49). mollies (Poecilia spp.), and tilapia, that demographic fluctuations or natural A single human-caused action such as prey on and exclude the herbivorous catastrophes are further magnified by establishment of mongoose on Kauai, or aquatic animals upon which Procaris interactions with other threats, such as a hurricane during the breeding season, hawaiana feeds. More than 90 percent those discussed above (see Factor A and could cause reproductive failure and the of the 600 to 700 anchialine habitats in Factor C, above). mortality of a significant percentage of the State of Hawaii were degraded the remaining individuals. Threats to between 1974 and 2004, due to the Plants this species include habitat destruction introduction of nonnative fishes (Brock The effects resulting from having a and modification, landslides and 2004, p. 24). According to Brock (2012, reduced number of individuals and erosion, hurricanes, predation, injury

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and mortality from lights and structures, extinction due to impacts associated No Regeneration and other human factors (such as with low numbers of individuals and Lack of, or low levels of, regeneration commercial fisheries). The effects of populations. The seven yellow-faced (reproduction and recruitment) in the these threats are compounded by the bee species currently occur in only 22 wild has been observed, and is a threat current low number of individuals and locations (with some overlap) on six to seven plants: Cyanea kauaulaensis, populations of band-rumped storm- main Hawaiian Islands, and are Cyrtandra hematos, Gardenia remyi, petrel. vulnerable to habitat change and Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, We consider the orangeblack stochastic events due to low numbers Labordia lorenciana, Nothocestrum Hawaiian damselfly vulnerable to and occurrences (Daly and Magnacca latifolium, and Ochrosia haleakalae (see extinction due to impacts associated 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007, p. 173). Plants under ‘‘Low Numbers of with low numbers of individuals and Hylaeus anthracinus occurs in 15 total Individuals and Populations,’’ above). low numbers of populations because locations from Hawaii Island, Maui, The reasons for this are not well this species is known from only five of Kahoolawe, Molokai, and Oahu, but has understood; however, seed predation by eight Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Island, not been recently observed in its last rats and ungulates, inbreeding Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu) where known location on Lanai; H. assimulans it occurred historically, and because of depression, and lack of pollinators are is found in 5 total locations on Maui, the current reduction in numbers on thought to play a role (Wagner et al. each of those five islands. Jordan et al. Lanai, and Kahoolawe, but has not been 1999, p. 1451; Wood et al. 2007, p. 198; (2007, p. 247) conducted a genetic and observed recently on Oahu or Molokai; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer and Lorence comparative phylogeography analysis (a H. facilis is found in 2 total locations on 2012, pp. 20–21; PEPP 2010, p. 73; PEPP study of historical processes responsible Oahu and Molokai, but has not been 2014, p. 34). for genetic divergence within a species) observed recently from Lanai and Maui; Competition With Nonnative of four Hawaiian Megalagrion species, H. hilaris is known from one population Invertebrates including the orangeblack Hawaiian on Molokai and has not been observed There are 15 known species of damselfly. This analysis demonstrated recently from Lanai and Maui; H. nonnative bees in Hawaii (Snelling Megalagrion populations with low kuakea is known from one small area on 2003, p. 342), including two nonnative genetic diversity are at greater risk of Oahu; H. longiceps is known from 6 Hylaeus species (Magnacca 2007, p. decline and extinction than those with total locations on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, 188). Most nonnative bees inhabit areas high genetic diversity. The authors and Oahu, but has not been collected dominated by nonnative vegetation and found that low genetic diversity was from several historical locations on observed in populations known to be those islands; and H. mana is known do not compete with Hawaiian bees for bottlenecked or relictual (groups of from 3 locations on Oahu. Threats to foraging resources (Daly and Magnacca animals or plants that exist as a remnant these species include agriculture and 2003, p. 13); however, the European of a formerly widely distributed group), urban development; habitat destruction honey bee (Apis mellifera) is an including populations of the and modification by nonnative exception. This social species is often orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. The ungulates, nonnative plants, tsunamis, very abundant in areas with native following threats to this species have all fire, drought, and hurricanes; the effects vegetation and aggressively competes been documented: habitat destruction of climate change on habitat; loss of host with Hylaeus for nectar and pollen and modification by agriculture and plants; and predation or competition by (Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 13; Snelling 2003, p. urban development, droughts, floods, nonnative ants, wasps, and bees. The 345). The European honey bee was first and hurricanes; predation by nonnative effects of these threats are compounded introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in fish, backswimmers, bullfrogs, and by the low numbers of individuals and 1875, and currently inhabits areas from Jackson’s chameleons; competition with populations of the seven yellow-faced sea level to the upper tree line boundary caddisflies; and water extraction from bees. streams and ponds. The effects of these (Howarth 1985, p. 156). Individuals of threats are compounded by the current Hybridization the European honey bee have been low number of individuals and observed foraging on Hylaeus host Natural hybridization is a frequent populations of the orangeblack plants such as Scaevola spp. and phenomenon in plants and can lead to Hawaiian damselfly. Sesbania tomentosa (ohai) (Hopper et We consider the anchialine pool the creation of new species (Orians al. 1996, p. 9; Daly and Magnacca 2003, shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, vulnerable 2000, p. 1949), or sometimes to the p. 13; Snelling 2003, p. 345). Although to extinction due to impacts associated decline of species through genetic we lack information indicating with low numbers of individuals and assimilation or ‘‘introgression’’ Hawaiian Hylaeus populations have populations because this species is (Ellstrand 1992, pp. 77, 81; Levin et al. declined because of competition with known from only 25 of over 500 1996, pp. 10–16; Rhymer and Simberloff the European honey bee for nectar and assessed anchialine pools on Hawaii 1996, p. 85). Hybridization, however, is pollen, it does forage in Hylaeus habitat Island, and from only 2 anchialine pools especially problematic for rare species and excludes Hylaeus species on Maui. Threats to P. hawaiana that come into contact with species that (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; Lach 2008, p. include: Habitat destruction and are abundant or more common (Rhymer 155). Hylaeus species do not occur in modification; agriculture and urban and Simberloff 1996, p. 83). We native habitat where there are large development; commercial trade; consider hybridization to be a threat to numbers of European honey bee dumping of nonnative fish and trash Cyrtandra hematos, Microlepia strigosa individuals, but the impact of smaller, into anchialine pools; recreation; and var. mauiensis, and Myrsine fosbergii more moderate populations is not water extraction. The effects of these because it will lead to extinction of the known (Magnacca 2007, p. 188). threats are compounded by the low original genotypically distinct species Nonnative, invasive bees are widely number of individuals and populations and varieties, as noted by biologists’ documented to decrease nectar volumes of P. hawaiana. observations of occurrences (Kawelo and usurp native pollinators (Lach 2008, We consider the seven Hawaiian 2009, in litt.; Ching Harbin 2015, in litt.; p. 155). There are also indications that yellow-faced bees vulnerable to Oppenheimer 2015, in litt.;). populations of the European honey bee

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are not as vulnerable as Hylaeus species Kauai streams (Englund et al. 2000, p. addition of water from terrestrial to predation by nonnative ant species 23; Flint et al. 2003, p. 38), and systems (Climate Institute 2011, in litt.), (see Factor C. Disease or Predation, caddisflies now inhabit every Oahu and sea-level rise negatively affects above). As described above, Hylaeus stream. Caddisflies compete with native species occurring in low-lying coastal bees that collect pollen from flowers of aquatic invertebrate for resources and areas including Solanum nelsonii (Starr the native tree Metrosideros polymorpha space (Haines 2015, in litt.), which may 2011, in litt.) and affects the stability of were absent from trees with flowers reduce prey abundance for naiads of the anchialine pools systems that are habitat visited by the big-headed ant, while orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. In for Procaris hawaiana (Sakihara 2015, visits by the European honey bee were addition, caddisflies provide a food in litt.). not affected (Lach 2008, p. 155). As a source for introduced fish species, result, Lach (2008, p. 155) concluded contributing to successful establishment The forecast of changes in that the European honey bee may have of nonnative fish (Flint et al. 2003, p. precipitation is highly uncertain a competitive advantage over Hylaeus 38), an additional threat to the because it depends, in part, on how the species because it is not excluded by the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. El Nin˜ o–La Nin˜ a weather cycle (an big-headed ant. Other nonnative bees episodic feature of the ocean- Climate Change found in areas of native vegetation and atmosphere system in the tropical overlapping with native Hylaeus Our analyses under the Act include Pacific having important global population sites include Ceratina consideration of ongoing and projected consequences for weather and climate) species (carpenter bees), Hylaeus changes in climate, and the impacts of might change (State of Hawaii 1998, pp. albonitens (Australian colletid bees), H. global climate change and increasing 2–10). The historical record indicates strenuus (NCN), and Lasioglossum temperatures on Hawaii ecosystems are that Hawaii tends to be dry (relative to impavidum (NCN) (Magnacca 2007, p. the subjects of active research. Global a running average) during El Nin˜ o 188; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 19– temperature has increased over the past phases and wet during La Nin˜ a phases 22). century, and particularly since the mid- (Chen and Chu 2005, pp. 4809–4810). 20th century (IPCC 2014, p. 5), and this However, over the past century, the Loss of Host Plants Through increase in temperature is correlated to Hawaiian Islands have experienced a Competition emissions of carbon dioxide and other decrease in precipitation of just over 9 The seven yellow-faced bees are greenhouse gasses, which have percent (US National Science and dependent upon native flowering plants increased more since 1970 than in prior Technology Council 2008, p. 61) and a for their food resources, pollen and periods (IPCC 2014, pp. 13–14). trend of decrease (from the long-term nectar, and for nesting sites. Introduced Analysis of the historical record mean) is evident in recent decades (Chu invertebrates outcompete native indicates surface temperature in Hawaii and Chen 2005, pp. 4802–4803; Diaz et Hylaeus for use of host plants for pollen, has been increasing since the early al. 2005, pp. 1–3). Stream-gauge data nectar, and nesting sites. This effect is 1900s, with relatively rapid warming provide corroborating evidence of a compounded by the impacts of over the past 30 years. The average long-term decrease in precipitation and nonnative ungulates on native host increase since 1975 has been 0.48 °F ° stream flow on the Hawaiian Islands plants for Hylaeus (see discussion under (0.27 C) per decade for annual mean (Oki 2004, p. 4). This long-term drying Factors A and C, above). Nonnative temperature at elevations above 2,600 ft trend, coupled with existing ditch (800 m) and 0.16 °F (0.09 °C) per decade plants are a threat to the seven yellow- diversions and periodic El Nin˜ o-caused faced bees and their host plants because for elevations below 800 m drying events, has created a pattern of they (1) Degrade habitat and outcompete (Giambelluca et al. 2008, pp. 3–4). severe and persistent stream dewatering native plants; (2) increase the intensity, Relative to average global temperature events (Polhemus 2008, in litt., p. 26). extent, and frequency of fire, converting from 1986 to 2005, the average ambient Models of future rainfall downscaled for native shrubland and forest to land air temperature is likely to increase Hawaii generally project increasingly dominated by nonnative grasses; and (3) globally by at least 0.5 to 4.7 °F (0.3 to as a result of fire, cause the loss of the 2.6 °C) by the year 2100 (IPCC 2013, p. wet windward slopes and mild to native host plants upon which the 20). Based on models using climate data extreme drying of leeward areas in yellow-faced bees depend (Factor A). downscaled for Hawaii, the ambient particular by the middle and end of the Drought, fire, and water extraction lead temperature is projected to increase by 21st century (Timm and Diaz 2009, p. to loss of host plants within the known 3.8 to 7.7 °F (2.1 to 4.3 °C), depending 4262; Elison Timm et al. 2015, pp. 95, ranges of populations of yellow-faced upon elevation and the emission 103–105). Altered seasonal moisture bees, and are discussed under Factor A. scenario (Liao et al. 2015, p. 4344). On regimes can have negative impacts on The Present or Threatened Destruction, the main Hawaiian Islands, predicted plant growth cycles and overall negative Modification, or Curtailment of Their changes associated with increases in impacts on native ecosystems (US– Habitat or Range, above. temperature include a shift in vegetation GCRP 2009, pp. 32–33). Long periods of zones upslope, a similar shift in animal decline in annual precipitation result in Competition With Caddisflies species’ ranges, changes in mean a reduction of moisture availability, an Caddisflies (Order Trichoptera), a precipitation with unpredictable effects increase in drought frequency and nonnative aquatic insect, were first on local environments, increased intensity, and a self-perpetuating cycle observed and identified in Hawaii in the occurrence of drought cycles, and of nonnative plant invasion, fire, and 1940s (Flint et al. 2003, p. 31); several increases in intensity and numbers of erosion (US–GCRP 2009, pp. 32–33; species are established on all the main hurricanes (Loope and Giambelluca Warren 2011, pp. 221–226) (see ‘‘Habitat Hawaiian Islands. They may have been 1998, pp. 514–515; U.S. Global Change Destruction and Modification by Fire,’’ introduced inadvertently with aquarium Research Program (US–GCRP) 2009, pp. above). Overall, the documented and plants released into streams (Flint et al. 10, 12, 17–18, 32–33; Giambelluca 2013, projected increase in variance of 2003, p. 37). Stream sampling showed p. 6). Additionally, sea level is rising as precipitation events will change that caddisflies accounted for 57 percent a result of thermal expansion of patterns of water availability for the of the stream benthos (flora and fauna warming ocean water; the melting of ice species (Parmesan and Matthews 2006, in stream sediment) in upper elevation sheets, glaciers, and ice caps; and the p. 340), changes that point to changes in

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plant communities as a consequence considered in this proposal because increased immediate risk from over the coming decades. they rely on abiotic conditions, such as stochastic events such as hurricanes, Tropical cyclone frequency and water temperature, or habitat elements, which can extinguish an important intensity are projected to change as a such as host plants and prey species, proportion of the remaining individuals, result of increasing temperature and likely to be substantively altered by and from long-term, landscape-scale changing circulation associated with climate change. environmental changes because reduced climate change over the next 100 to 200 Although we lack information about populations often lack ecological or years (Vecchi and Soden 2007, pp. the specific effects of current and genetic adaptive capacity (Fortini et al. 1068–1069, Figures 2 and 3; Emanuel et projected climate change on these 2013, pp. 3–5). al. 2008, p. 360, Figure 8; Yu et al. 2010, species, we anticipate that increased In addition to impacts resulting from p. 1371, Figure 14). In the central ambient temperature and hurricane changes in terrestrial habitat and Pacific, modeling projects an increase of intensity, changing precipitation disturbance regimes, climate change up to two additional tropical cyclones patterns, and sea-level rise and affects aquatic habitat. For example, per year in the main Hawaiian Islands inundation will create additional physiological stress in the orangeblack by 2100 (Murakami et al. 2013, p. 2, stresses on these species because they Hawaiian damselfly is caused by Figure 1d). In general, tropical cyclones are vulnerable to these disturbances. For increased water temperatures to which with the intensities of hurricanes have example, projected warmer the species is not adapted (Pounds et al. been an uncommon occurrence in the temperatures and increased storm 1999, pp. 611–612; Still et al. 1999, p. Hawaiian Islands. From the 1800s until severity resulting from climate change 610; Benning et al. 2002, pp. 14246, 1949, hurricanes were only rarely are likely to exacerbate other threats to 14248). All of these aspects of climate reported from ships in the area. Between the species, such as by enhancing the change and their impacts on native 1950 and 1997, 22 hurricanes passed spread of nonnative invasive plants into species and ecosystems will be near or over the Hawaiian Islands, and these species’ native ecosystems in exacerbated by human demands on 5 of these caused serious damage Hawaii. The drying trend, especially on Hawaii’s natural resources; for example, (Businger 1998, in litt.). A recent study leeward sides of islands, creates suitable decreased availability of fresh water will shows that, with a possible shift in the conditions for increased invasion by magnify the impact of human water path of the subtropical jet stream nonnative grasses and enhances the risk consumption on Hawaii’s natural northward, away from Hawaii, more of wildfire. Sea-level rise threatens streams and reservoirs (Giambelluca et storms will be able to approach and ecosystems and species nearest the al. 1991, p. v). Climate change impacts reach the Hawaiian Islands from an coast, including the anchialine pool contribute to the multiple threats easterly direction, with Hurricane Iselle ecosystem. affecting the status of all of these in 2014 being an example (Murakami et The risk of extinction as a result of the species, and the effects of climate al. 2015, p. 751). effects of climate change increases when change are projected to increase in the As described above (see Climate a species’ range and habitat future. Change Vulnerability Assessment for requirements are restricted, its habitat the Hawaiian Plants, above, and Table decreases, and its numbers and number Summary of Factor E 2), 27 of the 39 plant species in this of populations decline (IPCC 2014, pp. We consider the threat from artificial proposal were included in the recent 14–15). The fragmented range, lighting and structures to be a serious analysis of the vulnerability of Hawaiian diminished number of populations, and and ongoing threat to the band-rumped plants to climate changes conducted by low total number of individuals have storm-petrel in Hawaii because these Fortini et al. (2013, 134 pp.). All 27 compromised the rangewide threats cause injury and mortality, species scored as moderately to redundancy and resilience of these 49 resulting in a loss of breeding extremely vulnerable, as did most other species. Therefore, we would expect individuals and juveniles, and are species in the analysis that already are them to be particularly vulnerable to the expected to continue into the future. considered to be of conservation habitat impacts of the effects of climate Injury or mortality or loss of food concern (because they face multiple change (Loope and Giambelluca 1998, sources caused by the activities of non-climate threats) (Fortini et al. 2013, pp. 504–505; Pounds et al. 1999, pp. commercial fisheries, and injury or pp. 25, 37). The specific impacts of 611–612; Still et al. 1999, p. 610; mortality resulting from ingestion of climate change effects on the habitat, Benning et al. 2002, pp. 14,246–14,248; plastics and marine debris, are likely to biology, and ecology of individual Giambelluca and Luke 2007, pp. 13–15). contribute to further decline in the species are largely unknown and remain Although we cannot predict the timing, Hawaiian population of the band- a subject of study. However, in the extent, or magnitude of specific impacts, rumped storm-petrel. assessment of more than 1,000 Hawaiian we do expect the effects of climate We consider the threats from plants, including 319 already listed as change to exacerbate the current threats recreational use of, and dumping of endangered or threatened, a strong to these species, such as habitat loss and trash and introduction of nonnative fish relationship emerged between climate degradation. into, the pools that support the vulnerability scores and current threats In summary, based on the best anchialine pool shrimp Procaris and conservation status (Fortini et al. available information, we conclude that hawaiana to be serious threats that have 2013, p. 5). Therefore, we anticipate that climate change effects, including the potential to occur at any time, the 13 plant species not analyzed are increased inter-annual variability of although their occurrence is not likely to be similarly vulnerable to ambient temperature, precipitation, and predictable. The use of anchialine pools climate change effects. The projected hurricanes, are likely to impose for dumping of trash leads to landscape- or island-scale changes in additional stresses on all 11 ecosystems accelerated sedimentation in the pool, temperature and precipitation, as well and all of the 49 species we are listing exacerbating conditions leading to its as the potentially catastrophic impacts in this rule, thus exacerbating current senescence. Changing the anchialine of projected increases in storm threats to these species. These 49 pool system by dumping of trash, frequency and severity, also point to species all persist with small population introduction of nonnative fish, and likely adverse impacts of climate change sizes and highly restricted or sedimentation also affects habitat for the on all 10 of the animal species fragmented ranges. They thus face orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. In

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addition, recreational use of off-road We consider the threat to Cyanea face threats that are ongoing and are vehicles contributes to increased kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra hematos, expected to continue into the future sedimentation in anchialine pools, and Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens throughout their ranges. Habitat has been noted to affect the habitat of ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, destruction and modification by the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly on Nothocestrum latifolium, and Ochrosia agriculture and urban development, and Lanai. haleakalae from lack of regeneration to conversion of wetland habitat or water We consider the impacts from limited be ongoing and to continue into the extraction resulting from such activity, numbers of individuals and populations future because the reasons for the lack is a threat to one plant, Cyclosorus to be a serious and ongoing threat to all of recruitment in the wild are unknown boydiae, and seven animals (the 39 plant species, and especially for the and uncontrolled, and any competition orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the following 19 plants: Asplenium from nonnative plants or habitat anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris diellaciniatum Cyanea kauaulaensis, modification by ungulates or fire, or hawaiana), Hylaeus anthracinus, H. Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra other threats could lead to the assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. hematos, Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris extirpation of these species. longiceps) (Factor A). Habitat glabra var. pusilla, Gardenia remyi, We consider the threat of competition destruction and modification by Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, with nonnative invertebrates a serious nonnative feral ungulates poses a threat Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, and ongoing threat to the yellow-faced to 46 of the 49 species (except for Kadua haupuensis, Labordia bees, Hylaeus anthracinus, H. Cyanea kauaulaensis, Hypolepis lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, and the Myrsine fosbergii, Phyllostegia kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana. anchialine pool shrimp) (Factor A). brevidens, P. helleri, Pritchardia bakeri, Nonnative wasps and bees are Habitat destruction and modification by Santalum involutum, Stenogyne kaalae aggressive and can prevent use of the nonnative plants poses a threat to all 39 ssp. sherffii, and Wikstroemia native host plants required for food and plant species and 9 of the 10 animals skottsbergiana, as low numbers and nesting by all seven yellow-faced bees. (except for Procaris hawaiana) (Factor small occurrences of these plants result Competition with caddisflies is a threat A). Fourteen of the plant species in greater vulnerability to stochastic to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca events and can result in reduced levels Based on current and projected hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. of genetic variability leading to changes in climate, increasing ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, diminished capacity to adapt to temperature, changing precipitation Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia environmental changes. Under these regimes, increases in storm severity, and circumstances, the likelihood of long- sea-level rise will likely exacerbate the haleakalae, Portulaca villosa, term persistence is diminished, and the threats to these 49 species. The effects Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula likelihood of extirpation or extinction is of climate change on these species sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, increased. This threat applies to the include, but are not limited to, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos entire range of each of these species. physiological stress caused by increased lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus, and We also consider the impacts from water or air temperature or lack of Solanum nelsonii) and all seven yellow- limited numbers of individuals and moisture, the long-term destruction and faced bees, are at risk of habitat populations to be a serious and ongoing modification of habitat, increased destruction and modification by fire. threat to the band-rumped storm-petrel, competition by nonnative species, and Habitat loss and mortality resulting from the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the changes in disturbance regimes that lead hurricanes is a threat to the plant anchialine pool shrimp Procaris to changes in habitat and direct Pritchardia bakeri, the band-rumped hawaiana, and to the yellow-faced bees mortality of individuals (e.g., fire, storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian (Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. drought, flooding, and hurricanes). damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. bees (Factor A). Twenty of the plant Determination for 49 Species longiceps, and H. mana). The threat species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, from limited numbers of individuals Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, and populations is ongoing and is and its implementing regulations at 50 Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, Gardenia expected to continue into the future CFR part 424, set forth the procedures remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. because (1) A single catastrophic event for adding species to the Federal Lists ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. may result in extirpation of remaining of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, populations and extinction of these and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia species; (2) species with few known Act, we may list a species based on (A) brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, occurrences are less resilient to threats The present or threatened destruction, Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium that might otherwise have a relatively modification, or curtailment of its sandwicensium var. molokaiense, minor impact (on widely distributed habitat or range; (B) overutilization for Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, species); (3) these species experience commercial, recreational, scientific, or Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea reduced reproductive vigor due to educational purposes; (C) disease or pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii), the inbreeding depression; and (4) they predation; (D) the inadequacy of band-rumped storm-petrel, and the experience reduced levels of genetic existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly are variability leading to diminished other natural or manmade factors threatened by the destruction and capacity to adapt to environmental affecting its continued existence. Listing modification of their habitats from, changes, thereby lessening the actions may be warranted based on any either singly or in combination, probability of its long-term persistence. of the above threat factors, singly or in landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, flooding, The threat from hybridization is an combination. or tsunamis (Factor A). Habitat loss or unpredictable but ongoing threat to We have carefully assessed the best degradation and loss of host plants, Cyrtandra hematos, Microlepia strigosa scientific and commercial information mortality, and water extraction due to var. mauiensis, and Myrsine fosbergii, as available regarding the past, present, drought is a threat to the plants has been observed at current and future threats to each of the 49 Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, occurrences. species. We find that all of these species Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia

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stachyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. three plant species, Cyrtandra hematos, Hylaeus assimulans, Hylaeus facilis, mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, and Hylaeus hilaris, Hylaeus kuakea, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos Myrsine fosbergii (Factor E). The effects Hylaeus longiceps, and Hylaeus mana. lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii; of rising temperature and other aspects Under the Act and our implementing the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly; of climate change are likely to regulations, a species may warrant and all seven yellow-faced bees (Factor exacerbate many of these threats and listing if it is in danger of extinction or A and Factor E). Unpermitted collection likely to pose threats to the 49 species likely to become so throughout all or a for commercial purposes poses a serious (Factor E). significant portion of its range (SPR). threat to the anchialine pool shrimp The Act defines an endangered Under our SPR policy (79 FR 37578, Procaris hawaiana (Factor B). Predation species as any species that is ‘‘in danger July 1, 2014), if a species is endangered or herbivory is a serious and ongoing of extinction throughout all or a or threatened throughout a significant threat to 35 of the 39 plant species (by significant portion of its range’’ and a portion of its range and the population feral pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed threatened species as any species ‘‘that in that significant portion is a valid deer, cattle, sheep, mouflon, rats, slugs, is likely to become endangered DPS, we will list the DPS rather than the and the black twig borer), to the band- throughout all or a significant portion of entire taxonomic species or subspecies. rumped storm petrel (by barn owls, cats, its range within the foreseeable future.’’ We have determined that the Hawaii rats, and mongoose), and to the seven We find that each of the endemic population of the band-rumped storm- yellow-faced bees (by ants and wasps) Hawaiian species and the Hawaii DPS of petrel is a valid DPS, and we are listing that DPS. Each of the other 48 species (Factor C). Predation by bullfrogs, the band-rumped storm-petrel are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands that backswimmers, nonnative fish, and presently in danger of extinction we are listing in this rule is highly Jackson’s chameleons is a threat to the throughout their entire ranges. Based on restricted in its range, and the threats orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Factor the immediacy, severity, scope, and occur throughout its range. Therefore, C). Predation by nonnative fish is a interaction of the threats described we assessed the status of each species threat to the anchialine pool shrimp above, such as the pervasive threats of throughout its entire range. In each case, (Factor C). The existing regulatory predation and habitat loss and the threats to the survival of these mechanisms do not adequately address degradation posed by nonnative plants species occur throughout the species’ and animals, a determination of these threats to the 49 species (Factor range and are not restricted to any D). Injury and mortality caused by threatened status for any of these particular portion of that range. artificial lighting and structures are species is not appropriate. Therefore, on Accordingly, our assessment and serious and ongoing threats to the band- the basis of the best available scientific determination applies to each species rumped storm-petrel (Factor E). The and commercial information, we are throughout its entire range. Likewise, threats of injury or mortality, or loss of listing the following 49 species as we assessed the status of the Hawaii food sources, caused by the activities of endangered in accordance with sections DPS of the band-rumped storm-petrel commercial fisheries, and injury or 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act: the plants throughout the range of the DPS and mortality resulting from ingestion of Asplenium diellaciniatum, have determined that the threats occur plastics and marine debris, can Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea throughout the DPS and are not contribute to further decline of the kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, restricted to any particular portion of Hawaiian population of the band- Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra the DPS. Because we have determined rumped storm-petrel (Factor E). hematos, Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris that these 48 species and one DPS are Recreational use of, and dumping of glabra var. pusilla, Exocarpos menziesii, endangered throughout all of their trash and nonnative fish into, anchialine Festuca hawaiiensis, Gardenia remyi, ranges, no portion of their ranges can be pools is a threat to the anchialine pool Huperzia stemmermanniae, Hypolepis ‘‘significant’’ for purposes of the shrimp and also to the orangeblack hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Joinvillea definitions of ‘‘endangered species’’ and Hawaiian damselfly that uses that ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua ‘‘threatened species.’’ See the Final habitat (Factor E). Competition by ants, fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia Policy of Interpretation of the Phrase wasps, and bees for the food and nesting lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, ‘‘Significant Portion of Its Range’’ in the resources, including loss of native host Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, Endangered Species Act’s Definitions of plants, is a threat to all seven yellow- Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened faced bees. Competition with caddisflies latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, Species’’ (79 FR 37578, July 1, 2014). is a threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian Phyllostegia brevidens, Phyllostegia damselfly (Factor E). These threats are helleri, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Available Conservation Measures exacerbated by these species’ inherent Portulaca villosa, Pritchardia bakeri, Conservation measures provided to vulnerability to extinction from Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. species listed as endangered or stochastic events at any time because of molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, threatened species under the Act their endemism, low numbers of Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula include recognition, recovery actions, individuals and populations, and sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, requirements for Federal protection, and restricted habitats. There are serious and Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, Schiedea prohibitions against certain practices. ongoing threats to all 49 species due to pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, Sicyos Recognition through listing results in factors associated with low numbers of macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, public awareness and conservation by individuals and populations (Factor E). Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and Federal, State, and local agencies; The threat of low numbers to seven Wikstroemia skottsbergiana; and the private organizations; and individuals. plants (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra following animals: the Hawaii DPS of The Act encourages cooperation with hematos, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea the band-rumped storm-petrel the States and requires that recovery ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia (Oceanodroma castro), the orangeblack actions be carried out for all listed lorenciana, Nothocestrum latifolium, Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion species. The protection required by and Ochrosia haleakalae) is exacerbated xanthomelas), the anchialine pool Federal agencies and the prohibitions by lack of regeneration in the wild shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and the against certain activities are discussed, (Factor E). Hybridization is a threat to yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, in part, below.

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The primary purpose of the Act is the or solely on non-Federal lands. To The Act and its implementing conservation of endangered and achieve recovery of these species regulations set forth a series of general threatened species and the ecosystems requires cooperative conservation efforts prohibitions and exceptions that apply upon which they depend. The ultimate on all lands. to endangered wildlife. The prohibitions goal of such conservation efforts is the Following publication of this final of section 9(a)(1) of the Act, codified at recovery of these listed species, so that listing rule, funding for recovery actions 50 CFR 17.21, make it illegal for any they no longer need the protective will be available from a variety of person subject to the jurisdiction of the measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of sources, including Federal budgets, United States to take (which includes the Act calls for the Service to develop State programs, and cost share grants for harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, and implement recovery plans for the non-Federal landowners, the academic wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect; or conservation of endangered and community, and nongovernmental to attempt any of these) endangered threatened species. The recovery organizations. In addition, pursuant to wildlife within the United States or the planning process involves the section 6 of the Act, the State of Hawaii high seas. In addition, it is unlawful to identification of actions that are will be eligible for Federal funds to import; export; deliver, receive, carry, necessary to halt or reverse the species’ implement management actions that transport, or ship in interstate or foreign decline by addressing the threats to its promote the protection or recovery of commerce in the course of commercial survival and recovery. The goal of this the 49 species. Information on our grant activity; or sell or offer for sale in process is to restore listed species to a programs that are available to aid interstate or foreign commerce any point where they are secure, self- species recovery can be found at: http:// listed species. It is also illegal to sustaining, and functioning components www.fws.gov/grants. possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or of their ecosystems. Please let us know if you are ship any such wildlife that has been Recovery planning includes the interested in participating in recovery taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply development of a recovery outline efforts for one or more of these 49 to employees of the Service, the shortly after a species is listed and species. Additionally, we invite you to National Marine Fisheries Service, other preparation of a draft and final recovery submit any new information on these Federal land management agencies, and plan. The recovery outline guides the species whenever it becomes available State conservation agencies. immediate implementation of urgent and any information you may have for We may issue permits to carry out recovery actions and describes the otherwise prohibited activities recovery planning purposes (see FOR process to be used to develop a recovery involving endangered wildlife under FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). plan. Revisions of the plan may be done certain circumstances. Regulations Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, to address continuing or new threats to governing permits are codified at 50 requires Federal agencies to evaluate the species, as new substantive CFR 17.22. With regard to endangered their actions with respect to any species information becomes available. The wildlife, a permit may be issued for recovery plan identifies site-specific that is proposed or listed as endangered scientific purposes, to enhance the management actions that set a trigger for or threatened and with respect to its propagation or survival of the species, review of the five factors that control critical habitat, if any is designated. or for incidental take in connection with whether a species remains endangered Regulations implementing this otherwise lawful activities. There are or may be downlisted or delisted, and interagency cooperation provision of the also certain statutory exemptions from methods for monitoring recovery Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402. the prohibitions, which are found in progress. Recovery plans also establish Section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires sections 9 and 10 of the Act. a framework for agencies to coordinate Federal agencies to ensure that activities With respect to endangered plants, their recovery efforts and provide they authorize, fund, or carry out are not prohibitions outlined at 50 CFR 17.61 estimates of the cost of implementing likely to jeopardize the continued make it illegal for any person subject to recovery tasks. Recovery teams existence of a listed species or destroy the jurisdiction of the United States to (composed of species experts, Federal or adversely modify its critical habitat. import or export, transport in interstate and State agencies, nongovernmental If a Federal action may affect a listed or foreign commerce in the course of a organizations, and stakeholders) are species or its critical habitat, the commercial activity, sell or offer for sale often established to develop recovery responsible Federal agency must enter in interstate or foreign commerce, or to plans. When completed, the recovery into consultation with the Service. remove and reduce to possession any outline, draft recovery plan, and the Federal agency actions within the such plant species from areas under final recovery plan will be available on species’ habitat that may require Federal jurisdiction. In addition, for our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/ conference or consultation or both as endangered plants, the Act prohibits endangered), or from our Pacific Islands described in the preceding paragraph malicious damage or destruction of any Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR include, but are not limited to, actions such species on any area under Federal FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). within the jurisdiction of the Natural jurisdiction, and the removal, cutting, Implementation of recovery actions Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), digging up, or damaging or destroying of generally requires the participation of a the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the any such species on any other area in broad range of partners, including other U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and knowing violation of any State law or Federal agencies, States, branches of the Department of Defense regulation, or in the course of any nongovernmental organizations, (DOD). Examples of these types of violation of a State criminal trespass businesses, and private landowners. actions include activities funded or law. Exceptions to these prohibitions Examples of recovery actions include authorized under the Farm Bill Program, are outlined at 50 CFR 17.62. habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of Environmental Quality Incentives We may issue permits to carry out native vegetation), research, captive Program, Ground and Surface Water otherwise prohibited activities propagation and reintroduction, and Conservation Program, Clean Water Act involving endangered plants under outreach and education. The recovery of (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.), Partners for certain circumstances. Regulations many listed species cannot be Fish and Wildlife Program, and DOD governing permits are codified at 50 accomplished solely on Federal lands construction activities related to CFR 17.62. With regard to endangered because their range may occur primarily training or other military missions. plants, the Service may issue a permit

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authorizing any activity otherwise Questions regarding whether specific List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 prohibited by 50 CFR 17.61 for scientific activities would constitute a violation of Endangered and threatened species, purposes or for enhancing the section 9 of the Act should be directed Exports, Imports, Reporting and propagation or survival of endangered to the Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife recordkeeping requirements, FOR FURTHER INFORMATION plants. Office (see Transportation. It is our policy, as published in the CONTACT). Requests for copies of the Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR regulations concerning listed species Regulation Promulgation 34272), to identify to the maximum and general inquiries regarding Accordingly, we amend part 17, extent practicable at the time a species prohibitions and permits may be subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the is listed, those activities that would or addressed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Code of Federal Regulations, as follows: would not constitute a violation of Service, Pacific Region, Ecological section 9 of the Act. The intent of this Services, Endangered Species Permits, PART 17—ENDANGERED AND policy is to increase public awareness of Eastside Federal Complex, 911 NE. 11th THREATENED WILDLIFE AND PLANTS the effect of a listing on proposed and Avenue, Portland, OR 97232–4181 ongoing activities within the range of a (telephone 503–231–6131; facsimile ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 listed species. Based on the best 503–231–6243). continues to read as follows: available information, activities that Required Determinations Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– may potentially result in a violation of 1544; and 4201–4245, unless otherwise section 9 of the Act include but are not National Environmental Policy Act (42 noted. limited to: U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h), the List of (1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, as possessing, selling, delivering, carrying, We have determined that environmental assessments and follows: or transporting of the species, including ■ environmental impact statements, as a. By adding an entry for ‘‘Storm- import or export across State lines and petrel, band-rumped (Hawaii DPS)’’ in international boundaries, except for defined under the authority of the National Environmental Policy Act alphabetical order under BIRDS; properly documented antique ■ b. By adding entries for ‘‘Bee, yellow- specimens of these taxa at least 100 (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be prepared in connection with listing faced’’ (Hylaeus anthracinus), ‘‘Bee, years old, as defined by section yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus assimulans), 100(h)(1) of the Act; a species as an endangered or threatened species under the ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus facilis), (2) Activities that take or harm the ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus hilaris), band-rumped storm-petrel, the Endangered Species Act. We published a notice outlining our reasons for this ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus kuakea), orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris determination in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). longiceps), ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ hawaiana), and the seven yellow-faced (Hylaeus mana), and ‘‘Damselfly, bees by causing significant habitat References Cited orangeblack Hawaiian’’ (Megalagrion modification or degradation such that it xanthomelas) in alphabetical order causes actual injury by significantly A complete list of references cited in under INSECTS; and impairing essential behavior patterns. this rulemaking is available on the ■ c. By adding an entry for ‘‘Shrimp, This may include introduction of Internet at http://www.regulations.gov anchialine pool’’ (Procaris hawaiana) nonnative species that compete with or under Docket No. FWS–R1–ES–2015– before the entry for ‘‘Shrimp, anchialine prey upon the 10 animal species or the 0125 and upon request from the Pacific pool’’ (Vetericaris chaceorum) under FOR unauthorized release of biological Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see CRUSTACEANS. control agents that attack the life stage FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). The additions read as follows: of any of these 10 species; and Authors (3) Damaging or destroying any of the § 17.11 Endangered and threatened 39 plant species in violation of the The primary authors of this final rule wildlife. Hawaii State law prohibiting the take of are the staff members of the Pacific * * * * * listed species. Islands Fish and Wildlife Office. (h) * * *

Listing citations and applicable Common name Scientific name Where listed Status rules

BIRDS

******* Storm-petrel, band-rumped (Ha- Oceanodroma castro ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register waii DPS). page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* INSECTS Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus anthracinus ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus assimulans ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus facilis ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

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Listing citations and applicable Common name Scientific name Where listed Status rules

Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus hilaris ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus kuakea ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus longiceps ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Bee, yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus mana ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Damselfly, orangeblack Hawai- Megalagrion xanthomelas ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register ian. page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* CRUSTACEANS

******* Shrimp, anchialine pool ...... Procaris hawaiana ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

*******

■ 3. Amend § 17.12(h), the List of helleri, Phyllostegia stachyoides, ■ b. By adding entries for Asplenium Endangered and Threatened Plants, as Portulaca villosa, Pritchardia bakeri, diellaciniatum, Cyclosorus boydiae, follows: Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. ■ a. By adding entries for Calamagrostis molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, pusilla, Huperzia stemmermanniae, expansa, Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyperus Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, neokunthianus, Cyrtandra hematos, sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, and Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, Schiedea in alphabetical order under FERNS AND hawaiiensis, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, Sicyos ALLIES. ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia The additions read as follows: Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, § 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants. Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum Wikstroemia skottsbergiana in latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, alphabetical order under FLOWERING * * * * * Phyllostegia brevidens, Phyllostegia PLANTS; and (h) * * *

Listing citations and applicable Scientific name Common name Where listed Status rules

FLOWERING PLANTS

******* Calamagrostis expansa ...... Maui reedgrass ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Cyanea kauaulaensis ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Cyperus neokunthianus ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Cyrtandra hematos ...... Haiwale ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

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Listing citations and applicable Scientific name Common name Where listed Status rules

******* Exocarpos menziesii ...... Heau ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Festuca hawaiiensis ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Gardenia remyi ...... Nanu ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Joinvillea ascendens ssp. Ohe ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register ascendens. page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Kadua fluviatilis ...... Kamapuaa ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Kadua haupuensis ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Labordia lorenciana ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Lepidium orbiculare ...... Anaunau ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Myrsine fosbergii ...... Kolea ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Nothocestrum latifolium ...... Aiea ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Ochrosia haleakalae ...... Holei ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Phyllostegia brevidens ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Phyllostegia helleri ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Phyllostegia stachyoides ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Portulaca villosa ...... Ihi ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

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Listing citations and applicable Scientific name Common name Where listed Status rules

******* Pritchardia bakeri ...... Baker’s loulu ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Pseudognaphalium Enaena ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register sandwicensium var. page where the document molokaiense. begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Ranunculus hawaiensis ...... Makou ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Ranunculus mauiensis ...... Makou ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Sanicula sandwicensis ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Santalum involutum ...... Iliahi ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa .... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Schiedea pubescens ...... Maolioli ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Sicyos lanceoloideus ...... Anunu ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Sicyos macrophyllus ...... Anunu ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Solanum nelsonii ...... Popolo ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii .. No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Wikstroemia skottsbergiana ...... Akia ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* FERNS AND ALLIES

******* Asplenium diellaciniatum ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Cyclosorus boydiae ...... Kupukupu makalii ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

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Listing citations and applicable Scientific name Common name Where listed Status rules

Deparia kaalaana ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla .... Hohiu ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Huperzia stemmermanniae ...... No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016. Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Olua ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register mauiensis. page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

******* Microlepia strigosa var. No common name ...... Wherever found ...... E 81 FR [Insert Federal Register mauiensis. page where the document begins]; 09/30/2016.

*******

Dated: September 12, 2016. Stephen Guertin, Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2016–23112 Filed 9–29–16; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4333–15–P

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