“NICOLAE BĂLCESCU” LAND FORCES ACADEMY

TTHHEE KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE--BBAASSEEDD OORRGGAANNIIZZAATTIIOONN

THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

MILITARY SCIENCES CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 1

27-29 NOVEMBER 2008

Š “NICOLAE BĂLCESCU” LAND FORCES ACADEMY PUBLISHING HOUSE SIBIU, 2008

Scientific advisors:

Dipl.Eng. Vitězslav Jaroš, PhD Prof. Baboş Alexandru, PhD Assoc.Prof. Năbârjoiu Neculae, PhD Assoc.Prof. Stoina Neculai, PhD

Copyright: out of charge, all reproductions are authorized provided that specific references are made.

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy Address: 3-5 Revoluţiei Street, Sibiu Tel.: 0269/432990, Fax: 0269/215554 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] web: www.armyacademy.ro web: www.armyacademy.ro/editura

The authors take full responsibility of the content of their articles.

ISSN 1843 – 6722

MILITARY SCIENCES. SECURITY AND DEFENCE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Military Sciences

Historical and Economic Research of Logistics - Class II of the Bulgarian from 1977 to 1910, Assoc.Prof. Dimitrova Sevdalina, PhD, Monolov Daniel, “Vassil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, ………………...…. 7 The Role of Advanced Communication and Information Technologies in the Development of the Communication and Information Systems of the , Jivko Hristov Prodanov, “Vassil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria ………………………………………………………….... 14 Camouflage Patterns – Optical Illusions of Fusion and Decomposition, Momchil Todorov Tachev, PhD, Technical University of Varna, Bulgaria …………………. 22 Comparison of Standing Operational Procedures of the Army of the on Level Formation (Independent Unit) during Combat and Peacekeeping Operations, Dipl.Eng. Vitězslav Jaroš, PhD, University of Defence of Brno, The Czech Republic ……………………………………………………………………… 29 Management, Organization and Relevance (I), Ioan Sorin, PhD, Department of Defence General Headquarters, Bucharest ……………………………………….…. 34 Management, Organization and Relevance (II), Ioan Sorin, PhD, Department of Defence General Headquarters, Bucharest ………………………………………..… 41 Transylvanian Volunteers’ Contribution to the Decision of Unification Adopted in Alba Iulia on the 1st of December 1918, Prof. Baboş Alexandru, PhD, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………………………………. 47 The Need for an Operational Readiness Evaluation System, Prof.Eng. Bujoreanu N.Iulian, PhD, Eng. Daniel Sora, Regional Department of Defence Resources Management Studies, Braşov ……………………………………...…….. 57 The Geopolitics of Ukraine at the Black Sea, Prof. Petrescu Stan, PhD, National Intelligence Academy of Bucharest …………………………………………………. 64 The Fundamental Characteristics of the Post Conflict Period, Prof. Stăncilă Lucian, PhD, “Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Pîrgulescu Ion, M.U. 02628, Caracal ……………………………………………………………...… 71 Considerations on the Crisis and Conflict Management, Assoc.Prof. Năbârjoiu Neculae, PhD, National Registry Office for Classified Information of Bucharest ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 79

3 War Configuration from the Modern Technology’s Perspective, Assoc.Prof. Neag Mihai Marcel, PhD, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 87 The Tourism Development and the Climate Change, Assoc.Prof. Nicula Virgil, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu ………………………………………………… 94 Directions for the Efficiency of Engineer Support, Assoc.Prof. Radu Dumitru, PhD, Prof.Eng. Olaru Gheorghe, PhD, Military Technical Academy of Bucharest ……………………………………………………………………………………… 101 Aspects about Romanian Aviatic Transports Imposed by Integration, Assoc.Prof. Sima Elena, PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu Ec. Calciu Iulia Elena, GENPACT Ltd., Bucharest ……………………………………………..…………. 107 The Evolution of the Defence Expenses at the Global Level, Asst.Prof. Clipici Emilia, PhD, Asst.Prof. Popescu Ramona, PhD, University of Piteşti ………..…. 113 The Influence of Doctrines on Military Capabilities, Asst.Prof. Ispas Lucian, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………………….... 121 Bessarabian Question. Some Foreign Office Analysis Documents in 1967, Asst.Prof. Zidaru Marian, PhD, “Andrei Şaguna” University, Constanţa ….…… 129 Some Documents about Iuliu Maniu Position regarding Romanian Territorial Problems during the Secret Armistice Negotiation in Spring 1944, Asst.Prof. Zidaru Marian, PhD, “Andrei Şaguna” University, Constanţa …………………………… 136 Armed Combat Aspects within Present Conflicts, TA Mihai Sorin, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Pahonţu Alin, Sibiu County Police Inspectorate ………………………………………………………………………… 142 Aspects on the Security Non – Military Dimension, Pahonţu Alin, Sibiu County Police Inspectorate, TA Mihai Sorin, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ………………………………………………………………………………... 152 Cyberterrorism - A Real Threat against European Security Environment at the Beginning of the 21st Century, TA Neagoie Horaţiu Adrian, Giurcă Florin Daniel, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ………………………………… 162 General Approach to Military Supply Chain Management, Minculete Gheorghe, PhD, Minculete Anca, “Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Udrescu Iulian, Academy of Economic Studies of Bucharest …………………………...…. 170 General Approach to Transformation of Military Logistics Management, Minculete Gheorghe, PhD, Minculete Anca, “Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Udrescu Iulian, Academy of Economic Studies of Bucharest ……………………………………………………………………………………... 185 ’ Transformation Strategy, Ioniţă Crăişor Constantin, Romanian General Staff, Bucharest …………………………………………….…. 195 Nature of War and Strategy, Ioniţă Crăişor Constantin, Romanian General Staff, Bucharest ……………………………………………………………………. 205

4 The Modern Armoured Car, Brat Viorel, M.U. 01261, Piteşti, Bucătariu Bogdan, M.U. 02605, Bucharest ……………………………………………..…… 214 Digital Warriors, Brat Viorel, M.U. 01261, Piteşti, Bucătariu Bogdan, M.U. 02605, Bucharest …………………………………………………………..……… 223 Determinations, Conditionings and Alternatives regarding Romanian Army Involvement in Support and Stability Military Operations, Grigoraş Constantin, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ………………………………… 232 Conceptual and Action Elements regarding the Preparation and Execution of Stability Operations, Grigoraş Constantin, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ………………………………………………………………….… 241 New Security Risks and Threats, Oprean Georgel Laurean, Land Training Centre of Sibiu ………………………………………………………….... 252 Considerations concerning the New International Conflicts, Oprean Georgel Laurean, Land Artillery Training Centre of Sibiu ………………………………………………………………………………….…... 264 Terrorism - The Classification and Methods of Modern Terrorism, Popa Teodor, Gendarmery Inspectorate of Alba Iulia ………………………………………...….. 270 From Partner to Ally – Romanian Regional Interest Protection and Global War on Terrorism, Roman Vasile, Infantry and Mountain Troops Training Centre of Braşov ……………………………………………………………………………… 280 Terrorism and Modern Society, Stoian Gabriela Maria, M.U. 02231, Bucharest, Ene Vasile, M.U. 02450, Bucharest …………………………………………….… 290 The Correlation between Space-Time and Combat within Contemporary Conflicts, Guţu Neculai, Sârbu Andra, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu …………………………………………………………………………..…… 298 The Ethnocentricity (Ethnocentrism) – Factor of International Threat, Solescu Dan, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………...…… 304 Technological Advance of Armoured Vehicles from Modern , Coman Marian, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………….……… 312 Risk Management for Communication and Information Systems, Braboveanu Mioara, Ciortoloman Bogdan, National Registry Office for Classified Information of Bucharest ……………………………………………………………………...…… 318 A New Model of Transport – Sustainable Transport, Brânză Graţiela, Maritime University of Constanţa ……………………………………………………………. 327 Highlighting the Support Offered by the City of Bucharest in the Matter concerning Bread Supplies for the Army, Bulacu Iulia, University of Bucharest ……………………………………………………………………………………… 332 The Romanian Army’s Presence in Constanţa’s Daily Life Before the First World War, Dominte Paul, University of Bucharest …………………………………….. 337

5 The White Al-Qaeda, Frunzeti Daniel, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu………………………………………………………………………………… 345 Management of Classified Information in Electronic Format (Infosec), Petrescu Anca Gabriela, Government of , National Registry Office for Classified Information of Bucharest, Eng. Tudor Remus Ion, Cert Sing – UTI Group, Bucharest …………………………………………………………………………………...…. 350 Complexity in Effects-Based Approaches to Operations, Voivoda Ramona, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………………..…. 360 Considerations on the Characteristics and Factors Influencing Muscle Force in Military Physical Education, Asoc.Prof. Stănciulescu Robert, PhD, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu …………………………………………... 370 Tactic Training in Volleyball for Gymnasium in Lesons of Sports Education and Tactic Sport, Pomohaci Marcel, PhD, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu …………………………………………………………………………………….... 376 The Missions of Engineer Structures in the Context Regarding Romanian Army Transformation, Sup.Instr. Iacovescu Ion, Iacovescu Andrada, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………………………………………… 382 Morpho Functional Indices Influence in Terms of Force Motivate Quality, Sup.Instr. Vrâncianu Ionel, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu …………………………………………………………………………………..…. 387 Approach on Evaluation in the Military Training Process, Chief Instr. Aramă Ghiţă, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ………………………… 393 Psysical Education and Sport within Management, Instr. Hila Florin, “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu ……………………………………..…… 399

6 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH OF LOGISTICS – CLASS II1 OF THE BULGARIAN ARMY FROM 1877 TO 1910

Assoc.Prof. Dimitrova Sevdalina, PhD, Manolov Daniel

“Vassil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The paper examines the historical development of one of the elements of the logistics of the Bulgarian Army and the aspects of documentation from 1877 to 1910.

In each period of the national and economic development of Bulgaria, the commanders of the Bulgarian Armed Forces had the problems of logistic support – food, clothes and medicine. And although the problems of feeding of the Bulgarian Forces have been put under historic and economic research, it appears that the research of logistic support-class II remained un-examined. That denotes our goal in the present historical and economic research of the logistic support – class II of the Bulgarian Army, as a part of its logistical system of a certain period of the state’s development. The main source of our research is historical documents, that present the great contribution to the establishment of logistic structures was the experience, drawn by . In confirmation of that are the many archives, preserved even nowadays. That provoked us to follow the historical roots of one of the logistic elements –

1 By logistics /materiel/ class II we mean the supplying of clothing, footgear, camping equipment, underwear, cleaning and washing materials, wood, coal and fuel for heating, etc. That is a classification from the Bulgarian Logistics Doctrine. 7 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

logistics class II. Our research in that paper span the period from 1877 to 1910. That is theperiod of the proclamation of the war between Russia and Turkey and the establishment of an independent Bulgarian army in after-war Bulgaria. That memorable period for Bulgaria begins with the Liberation war between Russia and Turkey, when on 12th of April, 1877 Emperor Alexander II signs in the town of Kishinev/the headquarters of the Russian command/historical manifest for the declaration of the war. Bulgarian people took part actively in the fight for its liberation. The Bulgarian volunteer forces, which include revolutionary emigrants from Romania, Russia, and native volunteers is the biggest military organization of the participation of the Bulgarian people in the Liberation war. With the decision of the Russian command from 20th October 1876 for the chief of the Bulgarian volunteer forces was appointed brigadier Nikolai Stoletov – a leader with a solid overall and military education. In that very important period for the Bulgarian people the initial preparation and dressing of the Bulgarian volunteers was organized by the Russian Empire. Volunteers’ uniforms were comfortable and neat. The uniform consisted of: a lamb-fur cap with a green cloth lining with a cross over it, a dark green broadcloth tunic and turned-down collar, without waistline, with green buttons and red shoulder straps; the trousers were made of the same material, wide at the waist and tight at the feet /gusset/, convenient for wearing with boots or pig-fur sandals; the overcoat was made from woolen cloth with red shoulder straps, without tabs on the collar. The Bulgarian volunteers wore their uniform with pride and honor. Their equipment included two cloth bags – one for their small possessions and rusk, and the other for their munitions, a canteen and a mess-tin. From the examination of the historical documents it is obvious, that in the run of the fighting brigadier Stoletov’s expectations for problems in the material and medical supply of the Bulgarian volunteer forces turned out quite reasonable. That is the result of the absent logistic system. In another confirmation of that was the Brigadier Stoletov’s report, registered with N: 767/July 1877 from Shipka peak to the Commander of VIII Army Corps. With the report 8 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

the Chief of the Bulgarian volunteers asked for the timely sending of overcoats, boots and other materiel to replace the losses in the battle for , in consideration with the low temperatures on Shipka peak. It is impressive, that till the end of the war with the signing of the San Stefano Peace Treaty on 3rd of March, 1878, all military activities, carried out by the Bulgarian volunteers were accompanied with a great lack of materiel. As a consequence there was formed the main aim of logistic supply at the creation of the Bulgarian land force. In evidence of that was Direction 1006 of 8th of August of the Chief of the Military Department to the Head of the Bulgarian volunteers , in which are defined the conditions of supply of the with equipment and materiel. After the end of the liberation war between Russia and Turkey had been established the first military school – The military school of the Bulgarian Land forces. Once again there had been borrowed the experience of the Russian army, but considering the national characteristics of the Bulgarian volunteers. The difference was mainly in the look of shoulder straps and collars, over which edging was put, and over the sleeves – tabs similar to those of the Russian cadets. After the liberation the newly created Bulgarian Land Forces had to deal with many logistical problems. One of the most troubling tasks was to supply heating of the army through the coming winter season, the expenditure rates, and the procedure of supply which had remained unregulated by decree till then. From the historical sources we found out that such a decree king Alexander I issued on 5th of December 1879 – with registration number 61. By that decree were determined the quantity of wood for heating and gas for lighting of the premises of the headquarters and accommodation of the Bulgarian Land forces. With the establishment of an independent Bulgarian army, represented by the units of the Bulgarian Land forces and the law for general compulsory military service of the end of 1879 was the beginning of e new era in the development of logistic support class II. By that law all young men at the age of 20 are obliged to do their military service. The service period for the infantry was 2 years, and 9 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

for the rest military specialties – 3 years. After finishing their military service the soldiers were registered in reserve. Thus organized the Bulgarian army was commanded by Russian officers, which determined also the type of its logistic support. Under the great pressure of the Russian empire during the after- war period till 1884, the fight for unification of the Bulgarian kingdom and East Roumelia faded away. That affected also the logistics of the Bulgarian forces, which had been developing at a fast tempo in that period. To prove that by decree 95 of 25th of august 1882 king Alexander I authorized the Russian subject – an Odessian merchant N.D. Smirnov to open up in a store for officer uniforms, materiel in order to supply the officers’ staff. In that very period the Minister of war declared with Order 69 from 1 March 1883 the rules for documentation of the arms in munitions workshops. Impact over the logistic processes in the young and independent Bulgarian army had the heavy economical results of the division of Bulgaria in the beginning of 1885, when the fight for liberation was started again. On that occasion in the town of arrived King Alexander Battenberg on 10th of September, who declared officially that he admitted the unification and that he accepted to be treated as the king of Northern and Southern Bulgaria in the future. Two days earlier – on 4th September, a rebellion had been declared in Goliamo Konare village, and supported by a coup - the general-governor of East Roumelia had been overthroned. The rebellion was successful. That historical for the Bulgarian people event – the Unification arose discontent with the Great Powers – Turkey, and Serbia. Undoubtedly those led to new military activity of the Bulgarian army to defend the unification. At such a period the preparation of the Bulgarian army, related to the supplies with materiel class II concluded with the inspection of the supplies available and defining the deliveries for each region. The saved from that period historical documents confirm that: Order 9 from 23rd September 1885 of the East group commander – Seimen, which includes information about the quantities of clothing, delivered to Turnovo-Seimen group from the central store in Plovdiv; memorandum 216 from 25th September 1885 of the head of 10 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

guerilla group to the head of Second guerilla group - there is presented the data of the quantity of clothing, delivered to Second Kazanlak guerilla group. From the research of the historical documents our impression is that the preparation for the coming war was intense. Unfortunately the supply of materiel class II was not sufficient. Its necessity was greater among the guerilla forces and the pre-unification gendarmerie in South Bulgaria. That is confirmed by Report 122 from 10 October 1885 of the chief of West army to the minister of war, which expressed the great lack of clothing in one of the units. Then the chief of the west army insisted on to be provided additional clothing for the volunteers unit of lieutenant Shivarov, as a result of the increased numbers of illness because of the bad weather. Together with the inspection of army’s condition and re-supply of the clothing necessary, another important issue was the introduction of organization in transportation logistics. That was arranged by Order 19 from 4th October 1885 of the commander of the east army – Seimen. That order gave instructions on the organization and location of the east army transportation system. In connection with the insufficient materiel class II, especially in the South Army and with the coming of winter season, with order 37 from 24th of October 1885 of the South army, Plovdiv’s commandant was authorized to organize in the town a sewing workshop with 300 reservists. In spite of its establishment, its productivity was highly insufficient to supply the army with gloves. By an official letter 97 from 3rd of November 1885 of the Chief of East corps to the prefects of Pazardjik, Stara Zagora, , Haskovo, Bourgas and Plovdiv it had been demanded of each family to knit or sew gloves for the army. One day earlier by an official letter 71 of the chief of the East army to the prefects were determined the sizes and design of overcoats to be sewn for the needs of the army. In spite of all the efforts of the entire Bulgarian people in the supply of the army with materiel class II, Bulgaria had started a war highly unprepared in logistical aspects, which was in fact the greatest endeavor of the young Bulgarian army. Thus, on 2nd of November 1885 the Serbian government declared war against Bulgaria. According to the constitution the command of the army should be 11 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

carried out by the king. He should be assisted by the army’s general staff. In the eve of the war as a result of the contradictions between King Alexander Batemberg and the Russian government – it took back Russian officers at service in the Bulgarian army. The command was taken from the young Bulgarian officers with insufficient war experience, but with high morale. In that sense the war between Serbia and Bulgaria was named “The war of Bulgarian captains against Serbian generals”. The war was victorious for Bulgaria and finished with the signing of a truce on 16th November 1885. As a consequence of the problems of logistics of the army of that period was the issuing of a number of regulative documents aimed at decreasing the uncertainties in time of war. By order 185 from 21st of November 1885 of the administration of the war ministry were defined the rules for establishment of supply stores and regional depots. The lack of camping equipment in the war was also one of the main problems of logistics. One year and a half later, on 11th of April 1887 with order 140 of the War Minister was denoted the procedure of supplying the units with tents and equipment for use and emergency reserves. A special attention in the after-war years was paid on the supply of the navy with materiel class II. That is because, it proved its importance in the preparations and defense of Vidin’s fortress. In confirmation of that was an order 57 from 26th of February 1896 of the Chief of the navy and sea-port Rousse, which provided for the preparation of a register of the condition of clothing, equipment, instruments and materiel on 1st of January 1896, in order to provide the lacking materiel and equipment for the personnel. Later on in 1910 by a decree 41 from 28th of April of king Ferdinand were classified all parts of the clothing and soldiers’ equipment to: emergency reserve items and items for use, their preservation and maintenance. What impressed us much was, that by that decree for the first time in logistics the materiel were divided for peace and war-period usage. That was not the only novelty of the materiel class II of that period. By decree 43 of 28th of April 1910 King Ferdinand permitted

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his military units to produce their clothing and footwear by using local resources. The historic and economic review of logistics of materiel class II of the Bulgarian army in the period 1877-1910 allowed us the following conclusions: - in that period Bulgaria was liberated from the Ottoman yoke, as it managed to protect its unification, and the young independent Bulgarian army demonstrated its capabilities; - in the field of logistics class II an important factor was the experience of Russia, as most of the regulation documents were under Russian names, borrowed from the direct orders – a normal result of the previous historic events, related to the Russia and Turkey liberation war; - The problems of logistics class II are the result of the hardships and problems of the development of the monarchy in the first after- war years; years of ratification of the independence of the Bulgarian state and Bulgarian army; - the organization of logistics class II in the period 1901-1910 was a product of the social and economic development of the state in that peaceful period, when the initial accumulation of capital was formed. Those were years of economic boom, mostly in the field of industrial and banking capital, which determined the vision of that time logistical system of the Bulgarian army. In a summary of our historical and economical research of logistics class II in the period 1877-1910, we do have the ambition to continue our research in that field. That is an area of the scientific field, which is to be examined, analyzed and developed, in order to be found the appropriate model of logistical supply class II of the modern Bulgarian army, a model that corresponds to the new reality and provision of national security.

* When writing this paper, the authors used the Fund of the Central Military Archive – Veliko Tarnovo.

13 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

THE ROLE OF ADVANCED COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS OF THE BULGARIAN ARMED FORCES

Jivko Hristov Prodanov

“Vassil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This paper presents the architecture of the Stationary Digital Integrated Communication and Information System of the Bulgarian Armed Forces. The building of military Communication and Information System (CIS) requires the definition of three architectures. The system architecture has been described in details. The focus is on the role of the advanced communication and information technologies in the transfer of information. The aim is to build a territorially deployed communication network based on Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The network includes the following digital networks: ISDN, LAN/WAN, Ethernet, Frame Relay and etc. The “backbone” of the system is built by radio relay and fibre optic communication lines.

Keywords: Communication and Information System, architecture

1. Introduction To meet the challenges of the time, the Bulgarian Ministry of Defence has developed a Stationary Digital Integrated Communication and Information System (SDICIS) which is to be in service in the Bulgarian Armed Forces (BAF). The aim is to build a

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territorially deployed communication network based on Asynchronous Transfer Mode (АТМ). The network includes the following digital networks: ISDN, LAN/WAN, Ethernet Frame Relay and etc. The “backbone” of the system is built by radio relay and fibre optic communication lines. The decision for building SDICIS is based on several factors: results of the researches and simulation experiments, BAF immediate needs, the participation of the country in “Partnership for Peace” program, as well as the membership of Bulgaria in NATO.

LEGEND: АТМ - АТМ switches network Video - Videoconference network ADM - Add-Drop Multiplexers network AIS - Automated information system on BAF RR - PDH and SDH radio relay stations network PBX - Military stationary telephone exchanges UPS - Power supply network ASOC - Air Force control system ENCR - Encryption Devices Network System NICS - NATO connection interface Tetra - Tetra mobile communication network FICIS - Field communication and Satellite - Satellite communication system information system NCS - National Communication System Internet - Global network PABN - Public Administration Base Network CP - Command Posts

Figure 1– Summary model of SDICIS and connections with other networks

The purpose of SDICIS of BAF is to provide secured transfer of information (voice, data, video and multimedia) between the governmental bodies, the Bulgarian MoD and the General Staff (GS), the head quarters of the Armed Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, the 15 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Joined Operative Command (JOC), the civil protection authorities, the air bases, the logistic support units, and the military bases. Furthermore, it is to maintain contacts with the Bulgarian contingent abroad either in peacetime or during crisis. The building of military Communication and Information System (CIS) requires the definition of three architectures, which define the characteristics of the Communication and Information System at the planning stage of SDICIS.

2. The operative architecture It defines the main executive bodies and the amount of exchanged information between them, as well as the most important interfaces for system access, which are to be provided. Furthermore, the architecture describes the organizational units, the user services, the communication capacity, the traffic capacity and security of information, the information flows, including time characteristics, amount of generated and exchanged information, and information sensitivity. The SDICIS provides the following telecommunication services: voice information, video communication and video conference, email, Internet services, exchange of messages, exchange of files, database servers in different functional areas, geographic information systems, information management (archives and information transfer), group and individual encryption. ISDN digital central provides telecommunication services, which proved to be essential for the operation of the Communication and Information Nodes (CIN). Telecommunication services allow the exchange of: voice information, transparent data transfer, and analogue information transfer. Transparent data transfer through a network of 2B and H channels with 2 х 64, 1536 and 1920 kbit /s. H0, H11 and H12 channels are used for exchange of the following information: high - speed data, high-speed fax information, videoinformation, high-quality audio transmission.

3. System architecture This architecture describes the physical nodes and the links between them through objects, communications, hardware and 16 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

software. The description identifies all elements of the Communication and Information Technologies. It also provides functional specifications such as interface, hardware, and software. The main purpose is to outline the specific requirements in terms of the content and efficiency of the system, to define the range and structure of the system and sub-systems used. The SDICIS includes: Communication and Information Nodes (CIN), Base Communication and Information Nodes (BCIN), Radio relay retranslation points; Communication resources provided or leased by the authorized governmental bodies, to meet the needs of the BAF; Communication resources allocated for the BAF from the ATMbased network of the Public administration; Two digital radio relay axes (north and south) and three Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) radio relay transverse axes (Synchronous Transport Module STM-1 working at 155 Mbit /s); Two optical fibre axes (north and south) and one fibre optic cable SDH transverse axis provided to the BAF by the Digital Overlay Network (DON) of BCT; Radio relay and cable lines attaching CIN to the head quarters and the Command Posts (CPs). There are three levels within the SDICIS structure, and namely: First level- it is the highest level of management and services. At this level, all types of services that SDICIS provides to the officials from the executive bodies and the command posts, are defined and managed. Second level – it defines the common connection network within SDICIS. The network is built on the basis of АТМ switches in combination with cross connectors, Add-Drop Multiplexers (ADMs), ISDN centrals, АТМ and IP encryption devices etc. Communication devices can be divided in three groups: The first group is comprised of: multi-functional base switches of АТМ + IP type, Add-Drop Multiplexers, digital radio relay lines with capacity of 155 Mbit/s (SDH) which build the two axes and three transverse axes, optical fibres allocated by the Bulgarian Telecommunication Company (BCT), optical fibres or resources 17 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

allocated for the BAF from the ATM- Public Administration Base Network, cryptographic equipment for group encryption of digital tracts with 155 Mbit /s. The second group consists of: multi-functional peripheral switches, Add-Drop Multiplexers used in circle topology of the network, digital radio relay stations for attachment to the base switches with capacity of 155 Mbit/s (SDH) or 34 Mbit/s (РDH), communication resources or optical fibres allocated for the BAF by BCT, using the ATM- based network of the Public administration, equipment for encryption of digital tracts, cryptors working with 2-155 Mbit /s. The third group includes: АТМ switches for access and lines for attachment to the peripheral АТМ switches, digital radio relay line with the capacity of 2-155 Mbit/s (РDH), fibre optic cables provided by BCT and the Optical Network of the Public Administration, or built by the BAF, cryptographic equipment for group encryption of digital tracts working with 2 -34 Mbit /s. Third level - it is the lowest level for access. It includes fixed access networks such as ISDN, LAN and various other types of networks, and mobile access networks such as TETRA, GSM or interactive pagers. SDICIS consists of the following subsystems: АТМ communication network base subsystem - The base АТМ communication network is built as automated territorially deployed network of Base Communication and Information Nodes (BCINs). BCINs are connected with each other, as well as with the CIN of CPs through SDH, PDH hierarchy, АТМ switches, multiplexers and cryptographic equipment. The base АТМ communication network subsystem includes: BCIN from the unified SDBCN of the BAF, where radio relay stations, base and peripheral ATM switches or Add-Drop Multiplexers are mounted; Main radio relay network for transport of digital tracts with 155Мbit/s, which connects the digital radio relay axes to the transverse axes of the synchronous hierarchy; Radio relay digital network for transfer of digital tracts with 2-34 Mbit/s, and 155 Mbit/s for connection between the peripheral and 18 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

access ATM switches, the Add-Drop Multiplexers, and the base ATM switches. Digital radio relay line for attachment; CIN of CPs, where АТМ communication networks are built; Unserviced Radio relay retranslation points; Fibre optic communication lines, provided by BTC to serve the needs of the BAF, as the speed of connection between АТМ switches and Add-Drop Multiplexers is 622 Mbit/s; Fibre optic communication line provided to BAF by BTC, as the speed of connection between the peripheral ATM switches and the АТМ access switches and Add-Drop Multiplexers; Fibre optic communication line provided to the BAF by the Optical Network of the Public Administration, as the speed of connection to the peripheral АТМ switches and АТМ access switches, as well as to the base ATM switches is 34 and 155 Mbit/s. Fibre optic communication line built by the BAF, as the speed of connection to the peripheral АТМ switches and АТМ access switches, as well as to the base ATM switches is 34 and 155 Mbit/s. ISDN network subsystem. The network consists of EURO-ISDN type elements (as per ETSI) for exchange of voice, data, documents, static and dynamic images, video conference and multimedia. Communication security subsystem (COMSEC). This subsystem is in charge of the information protection and the safety of CIS. COMSEC is built at channel and subscriber’s level. The subsystem provides guaranteed cryptographic stability and protection of all group tracts. Automated subsystem for SDICIS management. The architecture and technical base of the automated subsystem for SDICIS management are unified, and they are in compliance with the advanced communication and information technologies. The following CPs are built within the SDICIS and its elements: CP of SDICIS (main and reserve), CP of SDBCN (main and reserve), CP of communication areas on SDBCN, Automated Work Station for command and control of every CIN and all BCINs of the system. CPs prove to be elements of CIN and BCIN, and as such, they are equipped with PSs connected to LAN.

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Power supply subsystem. This system is built in BCIN of SDBCN, in CIN of CPs, and in the retranslation stations, which operate as power supply centres or stations.

Figure 2 – Main subsystems of SDICIS

Others CISs utilized by the BAF. ТЕТRA. Technically speaking, ТЕТRA system consists of two main standards defined by ETSI. The first one is voice + data. The second one is optimized transfer of data packets (TETRA-packet data optimized). TETRA V+D is a group radio network for transfer of data and voice. Tetra-PDO is a special form of packet switch transfer of data through the radio channel, improving the efficiency of radio spectrum use. Military Satellite Communications. Various researches have been conducted over the last few years, which aimed at improving the satellite communication, and especially those closely related tо the defence potential of the country. One technical novelty is the Spatial Correlation Processing (SCP). The SCP technology serves the needs of the defence concerning the speed of information transfer, reliability, mobility, secrecy and protection of jamming.

4. Technical architecture The main purpose of the technical architecture is to define the technical standards, which have to be met by all pieces of equipment building the system. АТМ (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) technology is applied in the fibre optic network of SDICIS. It is also specified by the CCITT and ITU-T standards. Furthermore, АТМ provides for the employment of IР technology for voice transfer, Ethernet technology for data transfer, and the technology for high quality video transfer. The technologies for transfer of information are transformed into АТМ technology applications in the points of access to the АТМ 20 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

environment. Hence, the gateways for transformation of a particular technology to АТМ technology are realized in АТМ access switches. Compatibility with the existing stationary and field communication system of the BAF, which has E1 digital interface exchange, is ensured through a direct connection of ISDN centrals to the same interface. SDICIS compatibility with FICIS is provided by BCIN, and ATM switches. Each switch has from 1 to 4 E1 digital interfaces (for attaching field CINs) and 1 or 2 E3 digital interfaces used for attachment in area of deployment of CIN. Compatibility with the TETRA system is achieved by installing E1 interface for attaching TETRA system base stations to the network, in the ATM switches of every CIN and BCIN of SDICIS. It is also projected that the servers of the TETRA system be attached to ISDN centrals by interface-n x E1. Compatibility with public telecommunication operator is to be ensured by interface with capacity 155 Mbit/s. Compatibility with the Public Administration Base Network is established by mounting Add-Drop Multiplexer in a BTC node. This multiplexer is connected to SDH technology of the BAF. Connections both to the SDH of BTC and to the SDH of the Public administration are made by means of STM-1 interface through a fibre optic cable. Compatibility with NICS of NATO is ensured by satellite channel with 2 Mbit/s.

References [1] Military Publisher, Doctrine for Communication and Information System of the Bulgarian Armed Forces 6.0., 2000 [2] General Staff of the Bulgarian Armed Forces, Technical documentation Part 1, 2001. [3] General Staff of the Bulgarian Armed Forces, Initial assignment for Strandja-2 project, 2000.

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CAMOUFLAGE PATTERNS - OPTICAL ILLUSIONS OF FUSION AND DECOMPOSITON

Momchil Todorov Tachev, PhD

Technical University - Varna, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract In 2004 the Bulgarian army resented and adopted a new camouflage pattern. It has nothing to do with the traditional Bulgarian (Wehrmacht Heer variation) splinter. This change has inspired me to research the principles and optical illusions used by the designers of the military camouflage patterns. In the development of multicolour camouflage cloths for the army, the matters of colour, patterns and colour ranges of hue spots are of crucial importance for the degree of efficiency during the execution of the main task – e. g. the creation of visual illusions, connected with the “dissolution” of the soldier’s body in the environment. In the beginning of the period (1916-1938), the main principles that have been used are those of boundary and simultaneous contrast, targeting at an effect of relief and non-homogeneity and decomposition. Later on under influence of modernistic style in art camouflage patterns, new concept was issued, witch is still used today. The wanted effect is more for fusion of the soldier's body outline neither just for its decomposition. This effect is still up today with the latest “digital” types of camouflage patterns.

Keywords: camouflage patterns, optical illusion, dispersion

1. Introduction When Bulgaria and Romania joined NATO, the two countries were required to meet a list of requirements and a set of high standards [1]. The high interest to the preparation and the material provision of army personnel is one a key differentiator between the traditional totalitarian way of thinking and the contemporary trends in

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the western society. Besides the additional camouflage and technical equipment this includes the uniform and the camouflage pattern together with the pattern intensity. In 2004 the Bulgarian army resented and adopted a new camouflage pattern. It has nothing to do with the traditional Bulgarian (Wehrmacht Luftwaffe variation [2]) splinter pattern which has been used with few modifications from World War II. This change has inspired me to research the principles and optical illusions used by the designers of the military camouflage patterns.

2. Main characteristic, evolution and trends The purpose of this research is to study a subject, which is both interesting and veiled in secrecy and prejudice. In the development of multicolor camouflage cloths for the army, the matters of color, patterns and color ranges of hue spots are of crucial importance for the degree of efficiency during the execution of the main task – e. g. the creation of visual illusions, connected with the “dissolution” of the soldier group in the environment. The developments in this domain are the object of an insufficient publicity, the reasons for this being understandable, which is also supposing an unmerited neglecting of the matter as a whole. It is quite unknown, for example, that over the entire XXth century, a great number of artists, physicists and recently, designers have been conducting investigations. In the scientific practice, only separate studies by historians of military science or by explorers of the uniforms of different nations were done. The present investigation shall be only focused onto the basic type of camouflage pattern - the forest-plain type. Hunting camouflage, which came in usage in the recent 15-20 years, and developed on the basis of photographic and photorealistic principles shall not be discussed, besides for the reason cited above, but because the visual illusions in them are not created by artistic or abstract approaches and methods, but through photographic and nature- imitating ones. In designing of camouflage patterns, some optical principles and visual illusions are used. It is interesting that the evolution of artistic styles had also affected the principles of camouflage designing. In the beginning of the period (1916-1938), the main principles that have 23 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

been used are those of boundary and simultaneous contrast, targeting at an effect of relief and non-homogeneity and decomposition. For the creation of camouflage patterns, several optic principles and visual illusions are being used. The target is to create a visual illusion for complexity and shape scrappiness by breaking down the silhouette unity until visual illusion of merge with the nature. The method for camouflaging is using color patterns in a variety of hues and patterns. The choice of color and pattern type depends on the environment and the background in which the camouflage will be used. Further to these prerequisites, a camouflage pattern should meet certain utilization-representative requirements. Besides efficiency, certain camouflage pattern is considered characteristic of an army’s uniform and thus it should impose respect, to be representative and to be standardized. The need for balance between standard uniform requirements and the specific characteristics of the environment where the uniform will be used define the need for various creative experiments. In the beginning, the first camouflage patterns aim at breaking down the objects by the example of the large items – such as bunkers, ships, . This approach implements the principles of boundary and simultaneous contrast instead of the merging and transfusion with the surrounding environment. The effect is of a scrappiness and decomposition. Due to the trend for entrenchment in at the west front, the first approaches for camouflage are targeted at the visual parts of the soldiers – such as the head which is already equipped by a helmet. Logically, these efforts follow the same principles of visual illusion developed and modified in a style, close to the one which is used for the larger objects. However, in this version of camouflaging the principle of dispersion of color shapes is not targeted. The first camouflage uniforms produced are the ones of the in 1929. The next to follow are the uniforms of the Wehrmacht in 1931. This camouflage design is worn on top of the military uniform and helmet. Later, at the end of the war, the first camouflage mantles are being implemented. As a consequence, in the 1930s in , many analysis are done and for the first time a 24 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

multifunctional camouflage attire is introduced. This is a combination of poncho and tent (zeltbahn). It is derived from the evaluated camouflage with geometric patterns used in the WWI. However, there are few very interesting developments. Further to the use of basic irregular geometric patterns for a visual merge of the body with the surroundings, a stripped pattern of simplified grass and leaves is added. Even though the innovation, this approach remains geometric and aiming at breaking down the soldier’s silhouette outline rather than merging it with the surrounding.

Picture 1 German WWII camouflage splitter pattern (Reichswehr-Splittermuster 31) [3] Later on, the camouflage pattern starts to evolve. Besides the basic camouflage used by the armed forces of the German Wehrmacht and the Italian army, a second camouflage group emerges. This is a more proficient and complex pattern and is targeted for the special troops – the terrifying SS troops. The preliminary designer and most of the later variations are created by the professor Otto Schick. Last of the designs so called Dot 44 is in our opinion is the master piece of the Otto Schick’s designs because of the highest level of affectivity in the north-European landscape. Where is the kea for it’s success? One of the reasons are of course the proper colours, but the other is in the use of many new for that time concepts for ways of creation of certain optical illusions. That is made at one hand in the result of proff. Schick’s experiments in optics of sun light and shadow, but in the other hand there is obviously influence from the modernistic movements in art – impressionism, pointillism and so on.., use of the dispersion of colors, nonsimultaneous contrast. This development is impacted mainly by

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the popularity of the modern styles and in particular – the impressionism and expressionism. As a result, the camouflage pattern starts to include more imbalanced contrast, space illusions by color building and ranging, mono induction, dispersion.

Picture 2 (Left) Common mixed tree forest flour (Source – M. Tachev, personal archive); (Right) SS pattern (44 dot) [4] Using the richness of hues, color spots and suitable visual illusions, an optimal fusion of the figure volume is achieved in the surrounding environment. At picture 2 is shown the example of comparison light- shadow impression between mixed tree forest flour and Dot 44 pattern. Using pixel like raster (dot) is increasing the effect and creates additional net type effect of shadows and highlight. The borders between color shapes are diluted by the raster and this creates effect similar to those made by the lights and shadows of the forest leaves and bushes (Picture 3 (right) dot type contemporary Austrian camouflage) [3].

Picture 3 (left) Example for effect of the “fusion” type of optical illusion used by quail, even when the colors are not fully identical with the environment the effect of contrast raster provides merging and the silhouette’s contour is not so distinctive.

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After World War II main dominant concept in the camouflage pattern became the big color patches and the idea of dot or other type of raster was abandoned for some time. With the increase of demand for camouflage designs with their’s adoption like regulation for every army the raster’s role in the merging effect have been rediscovered. Besides all, the corect use of raster makes the silhouette distinctive in closer range, because of the lowest level of simultaneous and border contrast. That’s way this concept become more and more popular with every day. For instance the German Flaktarn pattern is one good example for well made camouflage pattern which is still topical. By reworking Dot 44 type camouflage German designers used the concept in modern way by applying smaller dot raster than the Dot 44. US Army has adopted few years ago so called “digital” type of camouflage which is made according to same idea but in more geometric manner and smallest raster.

Picture 4 (Left) – US Army “Digital” type pattern (Source – M. Tachev, personal archive); (Right) German Bundesvehr Flactarn pattern [3] In result new trend was created – for “digitalization: or putting it in other words – for geometrysation of dot shape raster concept. Where in all these global military design movements are situated new NATO members which were at the crossroad in there

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reequipment. Bulgarian Army, for instance, in the rush to fulfill regulations missed the chance to make distinctive, traditionally orientated camouflage patterns. By reworking geometric splitter type of camouflage pattern with much smaller raster and in traditional green- brawn – ochre colors could be made interesting, modern and effective camouflage pattern. Blind adoption of foreign camouflage concepts, without take in to account specific of local landscape colors resulting in making the Bulgarian soldiers clearly visible targets in all of the months without green plants.

References [1] http://bgsoldier.eamci.bg/Scripts/isapiVWB.dll/theme?THEMEID=35840 [2] http://www.kamouflage.net/country/00136.php [3] Tachev, M. Personal archive, 2008 [4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waffen-SS

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COMPARISON OF STANDING OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES OF THE ARMY OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC ON LEVEL FORMATION (INDEPENDENT UNIT) DURING COMBAT AND PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS

Dipl.Eng. Vitězslav Jaroš, PhD

University Of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract In this article the author compares selected parts of the Standing Operational Procedures of the Formation of the ACR for the Conduction of Combat Operations with Standing Operational Instructions Forces for deployment in the CRO Operations. He suggests some Precautions for the Rationalization of System Command and Control on the basis of recognized conclusions.

Keywords: Standing Operational Procedures, Standing perational Instructions

1. Introduction All combat arms, combat support, and combat support service units and formations must establish Standing Operational Procedures (SOP) for conducting combat and peacekeeping operations that support their units in all operational contingencies. SOP should be detailed and covered by all aspects of military operations. Common subjects for formation of Standing Operating Procedures are described in Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 2467.

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The STANAG 2467 is implemented when the necessary orders or instructions to create the formation of SOP with the common subjects described in this agreement are issued to the forces concerned. The aim of this agreement is to standardize, for use by NATO forces, the subjects found in formation SOP used by national and multinational forces. Participating nations are recommended to adopt or develop formation SOP to include, as a minimum, the common subjects described in this STANAG.

2. Comparison of Standing Operational Procedures (SOP) and Standing Operational Instructions (SOI)

2.1. Standing Operational Instructions (SOI) The SOP used by NATO forces should include, as a minimum, information concerning the following subjects. Content: a. Commander’s assessment, concept of operations and mission statement. b. Command and Control: (1) HQ Organization and Responsibilities – Operational Establishment (OE). (2) HQ Deployment. (3) Order of Battle. (4) Liaison. (5) Force Deployment. (6) Battle Rhythm. (7) Certification / In Theatre Training. (8) Air Planning Cycle. (9) Operational and Contingency Planning. (10) EIW action. (11) Rules of Employment. (12) Battle Space Management (including real estate management of CC). (13) NBC Management. (14) Orders Dissemination. (15) Regrouping. (16) Notice to Move. 30 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

(17) Combat Effectiveness. (18) Battle Space Management. (19) Air Space Management. (20) Communications and Information Systems. (21) Interoperability. (22) Legal. c. Information Operations. d. Intelligence. e. Manoeuvre. f. Firepower. g. Protection. h. Administration and Logistics. i. Special needs, including peace support operations.

2.2. Standing Operations Instructions (SOI) The purpose of a standing operation instruction (SOI) is to give subordinate commanders the essentials to instructions for crisis response operations (CRO). Content: I. Organization, Layout, Manning and Duties a. Organization and Routine Duties: (1) Organization. (2) Establishment. b. Routines & Procedures: (1) Daily Routine. (2) Meetings and Conferences. (3) Reports and Returns. (4) Duties of Watchkeepers and LOs. (5) Envelope Procedures. (6) Orders Format. c. Operations: (1) Escort Policy. (2) Search Policy. (3) Meetings. (4) Joint Military/Police Operation. (5) Reception of a New Unit (Regrouping). (6) Measures. 31 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

(7) Barricade Policy. (8) Out of Bounds Policy. (9) Static Guard Duties. (10) Tasking of Military Working Dogs. (11) Cross Boundary Operations. (12) Liaison Policy. (13) Provost. (14) Observation Post (OP) Clearance. d. Standby Operations: (1) Incident Reporting Formats. (2) Immediate Response Team. (3) Tasking of Fire Assets. e. Safety of Personnel Travelling. f. Guidance on Law and Order/Role of Engagement. g. Engineer. h. Civil-Military Operations (CIMIC). i. Information Operations. j. Air Operations. k. NBC. l. Continuation Training.

II. Plans a. Intelligence Operations. b. Field Security. c. Communications and Information Systems.

III. Combat service support If we compare a basic content of SOP with a possible content of SOI it is possible to see some differences following especially from those tasks which are fulfilled in the course of crisis situations. It is obvious that the range of tasks fulfilled in the course of crisis situations is significantly broadened by activities realized in relation to political, national, religious and economic situation in the territory of activities. With respect to prevailing character of contemporary operations carried out by NATO military contingents, the possibility of realization a joint themes of Standard Operational Procedures 32 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

revision, indicated in STANAG 2467 is often discussed as well as another possibility to broaden these themes by actual and frequently used themes dealing with contemporary crisis response operations.

3. Conclusion Activities in contemporary military operations within Alliance multinational forces require high level of consonance of all acting units. It is possible to reach it by standardization of all activities, procedures and documents needed within the command and control process at all command levels. Joint themes realization of Standard Operational Procedure is the decisive prerequisite to meet the above mentioned request.

References [1] STANAG 2014 Formats for Orders and Designation of Timings, Location and Boundaries. NATO Standardization Agency, , Brussel 2000. [2] STANAG 2467 Common Subjects for Formation Standing Operating Procedures. NATO Standardization Agency, Belgium, Brussel 2003.

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MANAGEMENT, ORGANIZATION AND RELEVANCE (I)

Ioan Sorin, PhD

Department of Defence General Headquarters, Bucharest

Abstract This article which is the first in a series of two, analyzes two types of models, in parallel: the first model, discussing organization in general, from the economic, financial, production, social, etc. field, and the second, from the military field with features in two sub-systems: on the one hand, a sub-unit, unit, large unit of the hierarchy sub-system, on the other, from the military education sub-system. When someone is interested in a certain organization, the informational request is focused since the beginning on the way this is governed, the hierarchy and the inter-relational system, the manager value, the “officialdom” level in the working system, the development vision. The orientation interest aims at the place, role and relevance of this organization.

Keywords: organization, market, management, economy, relevance.

Before discussing each characteristic mentioned above, we find it useful to clarify certain aspects with general character. The first aspect requires an answer to an eventual question: why do we need organization? or what is its use? Although convinced of the fact that it seems an elementary procedure, with a poor aspect of rhetoric, we’ll develop it from the desire to explain the model from simple to complex, but also from the reality that initiatives might work, at least in the incipient phase, with a sole representative, outside an organization. These are and remain in the “micro-business” area or the “individual enterprise”. 34 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

For instance, without any expectation to cover the whole spectrum, these can refer to the value of an individual talent (singer, voice or instrument) with appreciated achievements that offers his services to an interested organization, or an expertise from a professional domain with great specificity rank (expert bookkeeper, consultant in a limited domain, very specialized, translator for a poor circulation language), that offers him a status of external collaborator, occasional assistant or a “free lance” generic. Any action within this sphere performs through a title of a private firm, which he represents, and through an official agreement, with a contract title. If it is not the case to search for symmetry in the military system at this level, in what concerns education, such an example can be in the situation of some daily assistance services for children, with a specialized program knowledge for the pre-school level, for learning a foreign language or the initiation in an art domain. From the moment when the individual enterprise consolidated its position and the continuity of its type of action or service functions, the necessity of the next step appears, the creation of a small organization, from at least three motifs: the first, achieving a performance level, satisfying a request increase and at the need to hire help that you initiate, at the beginning for taking over certain own tasks; the second, the society’s officialdom system, irrespective of how complicated or simplified it is, imposes the creation of a specialty team in a way or another (collaborators or permanent employees), such as: manager, jurist, lawyer, accountant, secretary, etc.; the third, the rivalry with similar enterprises, force the development of horizontal relationships, for defining the orientation directions or for collaboration that might lead to a merger with a larger and stronger organization. In this context, we could remind the fact that, at the beginning of 1800, economy had a political character that coordinated individual enterprises, and at the end of the same century, a passing over to a national economy with another organizational and functional system took place. It was the period when it was claimed that the organizations represent a threat to the individual freedom and it is a government conflict source, but eventually, the individual enterprises

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merged with larger organizations in order to better protect the interests in the relationship with the authorities. The second aspect is outlined by the answer to the following question: why do we have to study the organizational phenomena? As long as we accept the fact that an organization represents a more or less complex structure, according to the performed activities’ dimension and sphere, a critical examination of its functional system, helps us to permanently know the performance level, irrespective of the fact that we are in a leading or member position, with limited responsibilities. The organization’s interests identify themselves with own interests, and the organization’s progress motivates us equally for an active participation attitude. The simultaneous study of macro and short dimension organization’s functioning help us with a more profound and vast understanding of efficient management principles and of the facile identification of the strong, week and critical points that might appear along its practicing, and to project evolutional tendencies. Another encouraging motif for the organizational study is the real perception fascination of the social-human environment in which we daily live. The physical state diversity of the people surrounding us influences tempers, characters and daily experiences within a macro scale organization, the respective state society, composed from a multitude of different, political, economical, social, protection and defense, cultural, ecological, etc. organizations, governmental or non- governmental, and all together integrated in organizations which are multinational and international, regional or global or inter-relational by collaboration and cooperation agreements. Provocative and interesting are the people’s reactions to a collective activity, study of the grounding process stages of an organization and the obstacle diversity to which the organizations deal with during their functioning. Certainly, the subject can be analyzed from a lot of perspectives or angles, that’s why, we consider it fair for it to be concise, but vastly, named by the syntagm “the organization phenomena”. Different disciplines handle a large diversity of concepts, arisen from the natural condition spectrum, the real for a certain stage and the ideal, the way the desires are being perceived, but all of these are 36 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

in their turn invariably integrated in an organization or system of organizations with own functional characteristics and parameters. The ideal atmosphere, accepted, that an organization aims at, does not require explanations and analysis, but the manager one with influences and implications on the organization, always represents a subject of study, evaluation and comments. The organization’s place. Establishing the organizational place in each’ paradigm, has to start from the general definition which describes it an association or institution that reunites people with preoccupations and sometimes even with common thoughts, created while based on a regulation, status, etc. in order to perform an organized action and to accomplish some common goals. The organizations are to be found in the entire preoccupation gamma, their classification covering in fact the whole social spectrum: from a domain perspective – political, economical, juridical, social, cultural- educational, sports, medical, religious, military, syndicate; from a dimensional perspective – from the familial ones to the transnational; from a responsibility area perspective – national, regional, continental or worldly; from a legitimate point of view – legally recognized or illegal; from a occupational perspective – it occupies all the human skills; from a subordination perspective – governmental, inter- governmental or non-governmental; from a purpose point of view – on profit or non-profit; from a budget-type perspective – state, interstate and private, etc. The organizations are universities, transport companies, manufactories, store chains, military units, governmental institutions and departments. In conclusion, the organization is anywhere to be found in the social lives of each of us at least from a certain age on, or we depend on at least one organization for the rest of our lives. The organizations come into our lives through different ways: we work for them, we consume their products, we see the buildings in which they perform duties or we read about performances and results of their activities. By all they achieve, the organizations influence our perceptions, in a positive way in case of those solid, ordinate, credible, or in a negative way, when the electricity is interrupted, when banks go into financial collapse, when we make a reservation and it is not

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respected, when their products do not fulfill the quality standards on the etiquette, excessive officialdom, etc. The organization’s role. Without referring to the activity’s purpose, but to their constitution purpose, the organizations have the role of representing their interests or defending their human and legal rights in the relationship with the state, the society and other organizations. Also, to implement their position according to ideological beliefs, to represent certain interests, to obtain more power in relation with other competitive enterprises, to train or specialize people in different fields, to impose a certain order in the society, to protect the public rest, to commercialize products, to obtain certain benefits, to inform the community and many others. Being composed of people, and, as shown before, permanently influencing people’s lives, in a pleasant or not way, the role of the organizations can be differently perceived, in their interior (by leaders of the organization and the ones that work as employees, for instance), as well as in their exterior, according to the informational level towards these. The daily experience proves that, in most cases, it is more advantageous to take part in an organization rather than being outside it. There are, of course, cases when certain organizations, by their performance, implicitly defend even some people’s rights that are not a part of their organization, or when they produce advantages even for them. It is the case of the “Greenpeace Organization” or “Save the Children”, in order to give just two examples. If we tackle upon the definition of the organization’s role in today’s society, from a opposite vision than this presented, then we propose to imagine how our society would look like without organizations. Today’s administrative structures, and not only, are so crucial in our day to day live, so that it is hard to imagine human existence in the conditions in which our activities, economy or politics would not be influenced at all by organizations. Without denying the existence in the old mankind history of life periods without organizations, we consider that in the modern times, the role of the organization is an indispensable one. The relevance of the organization. The importance of studying the organization obtains a significant meaning for useful information 38 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

expertise and gathering, when it focuses on results, as a consequence of its control, leadership and management exercise mode, reflected by parameters of productivity, adaptation ability and the staff innovative capacity. If we accept the fact that, almost with no exception, an organization is situated in a competition with other similar organizations or with whom it partially overlaps within the interest domain space, with the society and its expectations in a certain stage, with own objectives and aspirations, then the relevance will be measured by the evolution of the parameters mentioned above. Hence, the relevance represents the quality of an organization to obtain importance, meaning, distinction, credibility, through remarkable results in relation to other organizations. Certainly, the impulse, the establishing of evolution vectors and product quality perfection depend on the quality of the organization’s management. It is though possible, that more organizations benefit a correct leadership act, that fulfills its prerogatives punctually, complies strictly with the legislative norms, etc, but without progress, or even, lacking relevance. A correct leadership needs the backup of an efficient management, which in fact, in most cases, makes the difference and increases or strengthens the relevance of the organization. The main coordinates of an efficient management are described in the following: The transformational vision. Many economical analysts have studied the way, in which the main well-known companies perform management positions [1], drawing the conclusion that the increasing maintenance of the productivity are greatly due to the internal and vision structural changes within the own organization. One of the certain motifs for which the numerous companies with old history, founded in 1700, 1800 or immediately after the Second World War, have survived such a long period of time, and maintain their relevance even today, is that they undertook along numerous substantial reorganizations, in the crises periods, or as a consequence of the market, banking, financial, etc system evolution, on an international level (the creation of the European Union, with own evolution, market economy development, the business markets’ globalization, a.o.). On the opposite, the famous ones that lost their relevance along the way, or were taken over by other companies, were reluctant towards the 39 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

reorganization in favour to the maintenance of tradition and conservator spirit. The along-transformation capacity, as a process, is not enough, or does not derive success alone, if it doesn’t exactly answer to the market and society requests. The human resource management efficiency analysis is developed together with the organization quality and productivity assessment. The organization’s efficient management is based not only on a present intuition and enthusiasm, but on analyses, studies, deep research and probable action scientific assessment and also on choosing the optimum variant out of several possible solutions. The initiative spirit development represents a responsibility placed within the human resource management function and the leadership one, thus overlapping them These two three concepts are highly discussed and analyzed in the second article of this study. Also, the relevance of the military education and system, the Armed Forces role and its management are tackled upon. Nevertheless, the Armed Forces role as an institution derives from its constitutional missions, out of which three of them have a communality character: National Defence, (NATO Alliance, EU), humanitarian actions, in order to support the population and the local authorities. Some states may have auxiliary permanent missions, to counter attack the terrorist or separatist organizations within their territory, in order to face other economic or political interests regions. These rigors are imposed by the information gathering system, and lead to a fundamental hierarchy structure and autonomy in making the decisions.

Reference [1] M., Elliason, How Are Large Companies Governed?, 1984, p.14.

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MANAGEMENT, ORGANIZATION AND RELEVANCE (II)

Sorin Ioan, PhD

Department of Defence General Headquarters, Bucharest

Abstract This article, which is the second, in a series of two, comparatively analyzes two types of models: thus, the first model generally assesses the organization, from the economic, financial, production, and social field, while the second one, from the military field, features two sub-systems: on the one hand, the sub-unit, the unit, the large unit of the hierarchy, the sub-system, while on the other hand, the military education sub-system. In this respect, ever since the beginning, the informational request has been focusing on the means to govern, on the hierarchy and also on the inter- relational system, on the manager value, on the “officialdom” level within the working system, and on the development vision. That is why the guiding interest aims at the place, role and relevance of this organization.

Key words: Human resource management, Organization’s efficient management, Initiative

To quickly review the most important aspects assessed in the first part of the study, we will shortly go over the main topics of this one. Thus, establishing the organizational place in each’ paradigm, has to start from the general definition, which describes an association or institution that reunites people with different concerns and sometimes common thoughts, created by means of a regulation, status, etc. in order to perform an organized action and to accomplish some common goals. Without referring to the activity’s purpose, but to their constitution purpose, the organizations have the role of representing 41 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

their interests or defending their human and legal rights, strictly connected to the state, to the society and to other organizations The importance of studying the organization gets new significant meaning for useful information expertise and gathering, while focusing on results, as a consequence of its control, leadership and management exercise mode, reflected by parameters of productivity, adaptation ability and the staff innovative capacity. Flexibility and Adaptation. The organization’s efficient management is based not only on a present intuition and enthusiasm, but on analyses, studies, deep research and probable action scientific assessment and also on choosing the optimum variant out of several possible solutions. Before any other extended transformation, we must test the efficiency of the new structures in the new conditions. Flexibility and adaptation are tested by the timely proving of the external conditions of the organization functioning, of its costs and added contribution. The efficient management’s flexibility and adaptability have a decreased value, if practiced in an open environment of its own system, isolated, without any permanent contact, but still without affecting the competition principles. The information exchange must act properly, even if the features and the transformation moment are different from other organizations. The minor, limited, less profound transformation processes may have a permanent character, according to the time needs and prove the most relevant for the society needs and requirements. Human resource management. The above mentioned features cannot be managed without people, namely the organization human resource. The efficient management must take into account the personnel selection, the leader positions, the personal skills, the team member ones, the training needs, within different departments, the timely assessment of the personnel motivation. The human resource management efficiency analysis is developed together with the organization quality and productivity assessment. Initiative. This concept is placed beneath the human resource management, strictly connected to the personal system. Any organization must regulate its own system, values and initiatives, within any working field: projecting, production, organization, 42 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

delivery information, training and advertising. The thinking development must be encouraged by means of the official frame, where the staff is required to present its own ideas to improve the organization or his working strategy against a task which is quite valuable to the institution. Even if the proposals or the initiatives are not implemented, they must not be ignored, because this might lead to discouragement. The initiative spirit development represents a responsibility placed within the human resource management function and the leadership one, thus overlapping them.

The Military System Model Implications The Armed Force’s role as an institution derives from its constitutional missions, out of which three of them have a communality character: National Defence, (NATO Alliance, EU), humanitarian actions, in order to support the population and the local authorities. Some states may have auxiliary permanent missions, to counter attack the terrorist or separatist organizations within their territory, in order to face other economic or political interests regions. These rigors are imposed by the information gathering system, and lead to a fundamental hierarchy structure and autonomy in making the decisions. The organization system featuring relies on structuring the system into subunits, units, combat formations, support units and logistic support, subordinate departments and directions clearly previously established for the operation typology, not only in terms of the military dimension, but also for its civilian control. The Armed Forces is assumed by means of leadership, especially due to its capacity to implement the political directives, starting from its real state, and up to clear outcomes. The leadership must interfere by means of an efficient control mechanism, meant to act in time, with specific measurements, without influencing the initial settled direction. The Armed Force’s relevance may be assessed by means of the following: • Credibility with its three dimensions: the first, to one’s own people, which it unconditionally defends, in any circumstances and which is assessed by means of the population respect and trust; the 43 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

second one, to the Alliance’s partners, coalitions or common security arrangements, by means of solidarity and engagement to crises; the third one to its other Armies’ discouraging capacity, potentially rivals at some time. • The organized mobilizing capacity, up to the pre-established complete level, in the most difficult situations of crises; • The rapid reaction capacity and efficient intervention in order to fulfill any type of mission, from the humanitarian ones to the combat ones; • The equipping level, with modern technique and precision, meant to provide not only the staff’s protection, but also the actions’ accuracy, including the collateral loss; • The military training level, the discipline, the morality and dignity. • There is also another dimension of the above mentioned concepts, namely the one within the institution, measured in terms of the staff psycho-moral features: trust, cohesion, respect and regulation. The transformation vision represents an essential condition in order to permanently provide the capable force identified at the national and collective security level. Taking into account the necessary time from planning, budgeting to implementing, any transformation vision leak may lead to a difficult to handle situation. Thus, the most difficult one may come up when force categories are in a bad shape, at the same time, imposed by the resource support potential. Besides the national Defence requirements, the transformation vision must take into account the standard requirements of the performance level within the collective Defence system, which provides the forces’ interoperability in a common action. The Armed Forces’ management flexibility and the adaptability character interfere with the organizations’ one and act by means of the information processing system, which imposes new changes and reactions. In this respect, a good example is the one provided by the conventional war development capacity to go from the conventional war development to the simultaneous covering of the risk global

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spectrum, which also includes the capacity to develop asymmetric type actions, in a complex combat environment, such as: urban traffic, extreme environment conditions with an adversary that does not obey the conflict international legislation, etc. Many economical analysts have studied the way, in which the main well-known companies perform management positions, drawing the conclusion that the increasing maintenance of the productivity are greatly due to the internal and vision structural changes within the own organization. On the opposite, the famous ones that lost their relevance along the way, or were taken over by other companies, were reluctant towards the reorganization in favour to the maintenance of tradition and conservator spirit. The along-transformation capacity, as a process, is not enough, or does not derive success alone, if it doesn’t exactly answer to the market and society requests. The flexible and adapted answer is based on the rapid transformation of the information and results within the military training equipping programmes, while its positive outcome is assessed by means of the capacity t register superior actions in this respect. The human resource management for the military organization must take into account: the military virtues and the physical and psychological skills to sustained effort and danger, but also the leadership ones to hierarchically promote the commanders on a limited period of time, corresponding to the professional promoting limit.

The Model Implications on the Military Education The Military Education system role is to answer to the force categories and specialist’s training requirements, but also to the social ones in order to reiterate the civilian society within different stages of the career, without any economic shocks. What features the civilian education is the fact that, besides competence focused educational system; the training is permanently developed within each military structure. The Military Education system relevance is imposed by the education programmes’ quality on different graduates’ training levels, highly appreciated by the beneficiaries. The strong and lacking 45 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

arguments of an education system must be regarded in terms of its relevance, starting from the elements to make the difference among the outstanding institutions (Harvard, Oxford, Cambridge from the civil environment, namely West Point Saint Cyr, etc, in the military field) and those less known or irrelevant. The most important arguments to support the education process are: the leadership quality, focused on efficiency and a real and accurate system to assess the performances; the capacity to adapt the education programmes to the units’ requirements; the quality of the practical activity to apply the acquired theoretical knowledge, as close to reality as possible; the education logistics’ equipping and providing; the ability to transmit and create the general, fundamental, military qualities (courage, determination, resilience, discipline, team spirit, altruism and positive competition spirit, respect for its people’s virtues and for its national symbols); The transformation vision, at the military education institution level, represents the means to aim at the independent didactic course, restricted or permanently connected to the institution changes, and lessons learned within operation theatres, to the social reality and also to the international education concerns and collective defense multinational level training, according to the graduates hierarchic level. The major transformational decisions, once approved, by the superior echelon, must be implemented gradually, after an experimental pilot cycle. The flexibility and the adaptability must also be practiced by a student information exchange system. Once warned about their career expectations, their opinion on the level and education quality must not be neglected. The human resource management must take into account the experience valorizing , by means of implementing the professionals in the educational process, once they have graduated from the psycho pedagogical training, or by means of the exterior collaboration, while, on the other hand, by means of the teaching staff periodically planning, within units’ training periods or within operation theatres. Not aiming at approaching the organization complex total sense, and the institutional, social, economic, managerial or political ones, we highlight its necessity and role in our lives, as this organization’s approach and study is undisputedly an imperious necessity. 46 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

TRANSYLVANIAN VOLUNTEERS’ CONTRIBUTION TO THE DECISION OF UNIFICATION ADOPTED IN ALBA IULIA ON THE 1ST OF DECEMBER 1918

Prof. Baboş Alexandru, PhD

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The Transylvanian volunteers from the Austro-Hungarian Army brought up an important contribution to the defense of the Great Unification in 1918, in the First World War; these were held hostages during the military operations, by the Russian and Italian Armies. Once the war is over, they return to Transylvania and enthusiastically pay their contribution to the Master Council’s call to create the military Organizations and to accomplish the specific missions during 1919 Romanian Army Campaign. The accurate means to fulfill these tasks represent their devotion to the 1918 Great Union.

During the I World War the volunteer phenomena appears as a wish and desire of the Transylvanian and Bucovina Romanians to participate at Romanian military actions. The Romanian voluntariate represents an important contribution to our people’s fight for achieving the national grievance – The Great Unification – and the historical decisions at Chişinău, Cernăuţi and Alba Iulia in 1918. From the beginning, the action was meant to gather all the Romanians from Entente regions, but it had a more intense performance achieving concrete aspects, especially on Russian grounds. This also because the number of Romanian prisoners in Russia was increasing at approximately 120.000, after general Brusilov’s offensive in the summer of 1916, and in , in 1918, there were about 20.000 Romanian prisoners and in France only a couple of hundreds of military Romanians from the Austrian-

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Hungarian army captured on the Serbian battlefield and evacuated in the West after Serbia’s fall [1]. The large number of Romanian prisoners in Russia is explained by the fact that over a three years time the main enemy of -Hungary was the Tsar’s Empire, so that until the end of the year 1917, the Austrian-Hungarian army took actions, especially on the East battlefield. The Romanian volunteer units’ constitution was favored by the Romanian – Entente alliance and the Russian neighborhood, making the Romanian Government’s implication in organizing the Transylvanian and Bucovina people on Russian territory, their transportation to Romania and the volunteer’s engagement in the Romanian armies possible, in spite of the numerous difficulties caused by the lack of Russian authorities’ understanding towards the national Romanian interests. The organized units in 1916-1917 near Kiev (in Darniţa) were able to get to Moldavia, and a part of the volunteers participated in the Mărăşeşti battles, hence, beyond the theoretical declarations, they brought their uncompared contribution to the unification war of Romania. In the fall of 1917, the 10.000 Romanians arrived from Russia, together with their Transylvanian and Bucovina fellows refuted in the Kingdom of Romania, compound the Volunteer Corps in Moldavia, of which military tasks are temporary delayed by the preliminary peace treaty from the 5th/18th of March 1918. When the second mobility had been enacted (the 28th of December/ 10th of November 1918) the Volunteer Corps was reestablished. At the end of the war, on the 29th of October/ 11th of November, the recommendation is made, within the constituted unities, that the volunteers should return to their homes, in order to be active for the services of the new organs. In a launched call once with the remobilization “the volunteer central service outlined the fact that it was a patriotic duty of each volunteer to return home in an organized way, because here he could serve better the state unit cause” [2]. On the 3rd/16th of December 1918, the Transylvanian volunteers, the ones belonging to the Volunteer Corps and the ones detached at the infantry regiments from the 1st, 2nd,3rd,4th,5th,6th,7th Division, infantry, 1 Mountaineers and Frontier Guard Corps, offer their services to the Governing Council of Sibiu. This will release them at 48 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

their homes for a determined period of time, the volunteers being able to form, if and when needed, new fighting units. The volunteers were transported in Transylvania by train, except the 7th Division infantry and 1 Mountaineers, which are already here, and will be sent on vacation by the commandments of those divisions [3]. On the 11th/24th of December 1918, next to the presidency of the Governing Council, the “Transylvanian Volunteer Corps Service” is established, which takes over the central Service in Bucharest, the archive and inventory of this corps, aiming at coordinating the activity of the volunteers arrived from the Kingdom of Romania [4]. Later, as they arrive, the Italian volunteers will be included within the corps. The volunteers continued their activity according to the new Transylvanian conditions, in the state unit use, entering the national Romanian guards and contributing to the constitution of the first state new device elements. From the volunteers, the following two were included in the new organs: Lt. Osvadă Vasile, within the Governing Council, as general secretary for agriculture at the Ministry for Agriculture and Commerce, and the military confessor Ion Agârbiceanu, director of the ”Patria” newspaper, belonging to the Romanian National Party. Both of them were noticed on the Moldavian battlefield during the fights against the Germans and Austro-Hungarians, being honored by the Romanian state with the “Coroana Romaniei” (Crown of Romania) Order, in knight distinction [5]. In the middle of January, 1919, the Governing Council, wishing to support the effort of the Romanian army in Transylvania, by the Call Order Nr. 167 [6] calls at weapons, besides the youngsters that will eventually form the first two Transylvanian divisions – 16 and 18 infantry – and the Transylvanian volunteers dismissed in December 1918, these composing the Transylvanian Volunteer Corps. Although the presentation period was very short, the volunteers showed up entirely in the two established cities, Cluj and Alba Iulia. Here is how “Patria” puts down this fact: “the extraordinary satisfying way that the Transylvanian Volunteer Corps members answered to the call order, given by the Governing Council, filled the Romanian hearts with pride and faith. The reports coming from Cluj and Alba Iulia show us, that in spite of the short calling term, each volunteer rushed, 49 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

leaving all his properties, so to present himself under the flag and fulfill his national duties” [7]. The Corps’ commandment will place its headquarter in Cluj, taking in subordination the “Avram Iancu” Volunteer Regiment, in Cluj and the “Avram Iancu” Volunteer Regiment in Alba Iulia. The Transylvanian Volunteer Corps commander is named Lt.Col. Silviu Bordan. The Governing Council estimated that each regiment will have fighting manpower of 2.000-3.000 volunteers [8], dislocated at Cluj, Târgu Mureş, Bistriţa and Vidra de Sus (the first regiment) and at Alba Iulia, Petroşani, Miercurea Ciuc and Ditrău (the second regiment). Besides the two volunteer regiments, as a result of the received mission by Ioan Suciu from the Governing Council, another volunteer regiment is grounded, the “Beiuş” Regiment, with temporary garrison in Brad, build out of volunteers from areas such as Abrud-Brad and Crişurilor Valley and refugees from these areas still under Hungarian administration. On the 28th of February 1919 the three regiments had manpower of 6.547 volunteers, from which 226 officers and 6.321 troop (this category included non commissioned officers, privates and cadets) [9]. At the beginning of March volunteers from Italy arrived, which impressed the Romanian authorities in Bucharest through the instruction level, at the organized parade, fact put down in documents. Hence, in a telegram dating from the 2nd March, sent at 7 p.m. by the General Great Quarters to the Transylvanian Troop Commandment, it is shown: “please inform Dr. Iuliu Maniu, the president of the Governing Council, about the following: the 1 Horia Regiment from the legion formed in Italy, marched yesterday in front of His Majesty and the senior officers corps; there are about 2.400 well equipped lads; they made a good impression; we warn you that the news about them disturbing the order are made up and we convinced ourselves about this fact; today at 11 o’clock at night it leaves for Sibiu; we ask you that this formation should not be dissolved; the legionnaires wish to be sent in the danger zone; please enjoin in this perspective” [10]. The Governing Council decides that this regiment should stay organised as it arrived from Italy. With the “Horia” volunteer Regiment the manpower of the four regiments register on the 27th 50 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

March, 8.730 volunteers, from which 330 officers and 8.400 troop [11]. The volunteers’ welcoming enjoys a special attention from the Governing Council and the Transylvanian Troops Commandment. Representatives of this and a numerous public welcomed the volunteers at the train station, events were organised due to their arrival, troop marches, welcoming speeches. Once with the volunteers that composed in Italy the 2nd Regiment “Cloşca”, who came in the country with their own flag, sacred in Rome, at the feet of Traian’s Column in the presence of the Italian war ministry and it was placed in general’s Ioan Boeriu office (at that time, Commander of the Sibiu Territorial General Commandment), the president of the Governing Council, Iuliu Maniu, said: “I’m not only welcoming you, ‘cause you came in a good time. Just returned home the Country needs you again to defend her. The Hungarians haunt our happiness and want to come against us. But, there will be arms to defend our realization to possess here in the European Orient a civilization and a liberating culture” [12]. Until the half of April 1919 the four organised volunteer regiments have in general the manpower achieved at the above mentioned date with a light increase. Hence, on the 3rd of April 1919 the volunteers’ number was 8.784, from which 334 officers and 8.450 troop [13], and on the 13th of April the number of military is 9.196, from which 341 officers and 8.855 troop [14]. After finishing the organizations, in the second half of March 1919, the volunteer regiments will receive missions also. The “Beiuş” regiment, being since the 22nd of March under Transylvanian Troop Commandment subordination, will become an operation unit during the Romanian army offensive starting with April 1919, going on a glorious road between the pass Ciuci, Gurahonţ and the river Tisa [15]. The 1st, 2nd and “Horia” volunteer regiments received the mission to work together with Romanian army troops so to maintain order and disarm the population from the regions in the Transylvanian territory placed under the Governing Council’s administration, to accomplish different services in the residential garrison, the railways and art works security, etc. [16].

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In order to achieve the received missions, each regiment had a responsibility zone: the “Avram Iancu” 1st Regiment had Cluj, Turda, Târgu Mureş, Reghin, Bistriţa; the “Avram Iancu” 2nd Regiment Sibiu, Alba Iulia, Aiud and Zlatna; the “Horia” Regiment - Sighişoara, Odorhei, Sânmartin, Braşov, Sfântu Gheorghe and Târgu Secuiesc [17]. The Transylvanian Troops Commandment was able to divide, in the second half of March 1919, the territory administrated by the Governing Council in two distinct areas: the surveillance zone, composed of the territories of the former shires Bistriţa-Năsăud, Mureş-Turda, Odorhei, Ciuc, Târnava-Mare, Târnava-Mică, Trei Scaune, Braşov, Făgăraş, Sibiu, and the proper operations zone, composed of the territory situated in the West of the surveillance zone till the contract alignment with the Hungarian forces, occupied by the Romanian armies. In the surveillance zone the three Transylvanian volunteer regiments and the 7th Romanian infantry Regiment have continued the achievement of the before received missions. From an operative and disciplinary perspective, these units were put to the Surveillance Zone Commandment, which is grounded on the 25th March 1919, having as chief general Aristide Lecca, the commander of the Mountaineers 1st Division. The commandment point of the surveillance zone was settled in Sighişoara. The three Transylvanian volunteer regiments’ commanders were obliged to file daily reports to the Mountaineers 1st Division, through the 7th infantry Regiment commandment, about events occurred in their action sub-areas [18]. After the beginning of the Romanian army’s offensive in April 1919, due to the officer manpower insufficiency for the 20th and 21st infantry Divisions, the “Organization Section VI, VII” [19] intended to dissolve the volunteer regiments so that their officers should frame the new regiments of the two large units. But, the intension does not materialize due to the Transylvanian Troops Commandment intervention next to the General Great Quarters, requiring that the volunteer regiments should not be abolished “because they compose the only troop that assures the zone behind the army and maintains especially the order in the Szekler region” [20]. But only the abolishing of the Volunteer Corps Commandment is effected, 52 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

beginning with the 7th of May 1919 [21]. The commandment staff, mainly officers, will be detached at the “Organization Section VI, VII” in order to fill in the Infantry Divisions 20 and 21 units, due to be organized. Hence, the volunteer regiments continue the mission achievements in the surveillance zone. Beginning with the 10th of May 1919, the “Horia” volunteer Regiment will become the 97th Infantry Regiment [22]. Its organization as an infantry regiment requires a longer time, due to the fact that besides the manpower that marched in front of the king (see endnote 10) at the beginning of March, the regiment received volunteers from Russia, and recruits as well. The encountered difficulties are reported to the Transylvanian Troops Commandment by the Surveillance Zone, on the 17th of May 1919: “the 97th Infantry Regiment is about to be organized. People come from being prisoners in Russia, or being a part of the Hungarian revolution and being recruits without having any military training. People are wearing the cloths they came with, because the regiment didn’t receive any equipment so far. Almost half of the 2.500 manpower are barefoot and the clothing they are wearing is too thin, and the other cloths – they do not have with them” [23]. Further, the commander of the specific zone, uttered: “the cadets that were prisoners in Russia and the ones that took part in the Hungarian revolution, have the Bolshevik germ in them. There are even bad-meant people between them”. From the volunteers that arrived from Italy, who were part of the “Cloşca” 2nd Regiment, arrived in Sibiu on the 16th/29th of March 1919, ahead with the regiment commander, the Italian count Giusti [24], the “Cloşca” detachment was composed, named afterwards “Cloşca” Battalion [25]. With the volunteers arrived on the 22nd of April in Făgăraş, composing in Italy the 3rd “Crişan” Regiment, lead during the return to the country by their commander, the Italian major Tabelini, the “Crişan” Battalion is composed, appearing in some documents as “Crişan” Regiment [26]. Volunteers continued to arrive from Italy even in the following months. A group of 1.800 military people from the troop and 13 officers will arrive in Făgăraş at the beginning of June 1919 and another one at the end of the same month, counting around 1.200 volunteers [27]. From these groups the immobilized troops will be 53 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

dismissed on that date and the ones left will be detached to the , frontier guards or at the existent volunteer units. Therefore, from the arrived volunteers from Făgăraş, the 13 mentioned officers, as well as the remained troop, will be detached to the 97th Infantry Regiment [28]. In the surveillance zone the Transylvanian volunteers achieve security and order missions, each regiment having troops in the main localities of the specific zone. Hence, the “Avram Iancu” Regiment was dislocated in the main county centers of Bistriţa-Năsăud, Solnoc- Dobâca, Mureş, Turda, Cojocna and Mureş-Arieş, the “Alba Iulia” Regiment had sub-units in the centers of the Alba, Hunedoara, Sibiu and Ciuc counties, and the 97th Infantry Regiment in the centre of the Odorhei, Târnava-Mare, Târnava-Mică, Trei Scaune, Făgăraş and Braşov counties [29]. The other two volunteer regiments were responsabile for the Satu Mare zone (“Cloşca” Battalion) and the Bekescsaba, Salonta region (“Crişan” Battalion) [30]. At the end of June 1919, the problem was raised, of abolishing “the troop people” belonging to the volunteers, older than 30 years, meaning the ones born before 1889 (and in the other military Transylvanian units were mobilized the ones born in 1890 and younger). Therefore, the two regiments transform themselves in stage battalions, number 1 “Avram Iancu” (the “Avram Iancu” volunteer Regiment) and number 2 “Alba Iulia” (“Alba Iulia” volunteer Regiment). Since a battalion’s manpower formed of the Head Quarters and 4 stage companies had 25 officers and 919 troop, the officers remained over the necessary (58 at the 1st stage Battalion and 70 at the 2nd stage Battalion) were detached at the Infantry Divisions 20 and 21, which were then created, and the troop remained, further on, at the two battalions [31]. The general release of about 3.000 volunteers from the “Alba Iulia” and “Avram Iancu” volunteer Regiments took place in a grandiose event. At the organised events on the 6th of July in Sebeş political and first rank military personalities participated: Iuliu Maniu – the president of the Governing Council, Octavian Goga – chief of the Propaganda Ministry of the Governing Council, general Cristescu – the chief of the General Headquarter, general Petala – commander of the 6th Army Corps and others. On this occasion, speeches were held, 54 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

in order to thank the volunteers for the way they answered the Governing Council’s call and fulfilled the received missions [32]. The third volunteer regiment, the “Odorhei” 97th Infantry Regiment, will keep its regiment organization. The “Cloşca” and “Crişan” volunteer Battalions will change into stage battalions, by retiring the immobilized quota in the operative Transylvanian military units, on the 5th of July 1919. After reorganizing, the two battalions will be called “Cloşca” 3rd stage Battalion (“Cloşca” volunteer Battalion) and “Crişan” 4th stage Battalion (“Crişan” volunteer Battalion). Because the manpower left after the general release – 626 at the 3rd stage Battalion and 624 at the 4th stage Battalion – were not enough, they will be completed with Italian legionnaires, that are due to arrive in the country. The new organization and battalion name changing will begin with the 20th of July 1919 [33]. The four stage battalions and the 97th infantry regiment accomplished further on missions as mentioned above until the Romanian army’s retreat from Hungary.

References [1] Sorin I. Şerban, Voluntarii transilvăneni şi bucovineni din Rusia în războiul pentru întregirea neamului (1916 - 1919), Aeternitas Publishing House, Alba Iulia, 2003, p.7. [2] Constantin Todoraşcu, Evoluţia voluntariatului în anii 1916 – 1918, în Oastea cea Mare, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 1972, p.227. [3] Military Romanian Archives (M.R.A.), Transylvanian Troop Commandment fund (T.T.C.), file nr. 50, p.128. [4] D. Tuţu, Voluntarii români din Transilvania în lupta împotriva Puterilor Centrale, pentru eliberarea naţională şi unitate (1916 – 1918), in Studies, History Magazine, 21, 1968, nr. 6, p. 1134. [5] Telegraful român (the Romanian Telegraph), nr.36, 12th April 1919, p.4. [6] Gazeta Oficială (the official gazette), nr.7, 19th January / 1se Februarz 1919, p. 37-38. [7] Patria, nr.2, 2nd /15th Februarz 1919, p.3. [8] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, file nr. 17, p.146. [9] Ibidem, file nr. 94, p. 59. [10] Ibidem, file nr. 50, p. 144. [11] Ibidem, Microfilm fund, PII role, 5.161, c.308.

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[12] Renaşterea Română (the Romanian Renaissance), nr.60, 1st April 1919, p. 1. [13] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, file nr. 94, p.110. [14] Ibidem, M.St.M. fund, Historical Service, file nr.128, p.47. [15] for details, see Alexandru Baboş, Consiliul Dirigent, ardelenii şi apărarea Marii Uniri, Spicon Publishing House, 2000, p.77, 107-109. [16] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, file nr. 55, p.32 (the address nr.1.094 from the 11th of March 1919). [17] Ibidem, file nr. 71, p. 714. [18] Ibidem, Microfilm fund, PII 5.216 roles, c. 108-109 and PII 5.161, c. 67. [19] the section had the mission to develop the Transylvanian army, so that it can participate at the Romanian army campaign from 1919. [20] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, file nr. 94, p.126 (report nr.4.750 – 19th April 1919). [21] Ibidem, p.142. [22] Ibidem, file nr.394, p.268 (address nr.2.211 – 8th May 1919). [23] Ibidem, p.274 (report nr.201 – 17th May 1919). [24] Telegraful român (the Romanian Telegraph), year LXVII, nr.33 – 3rd April 1919, p. 3. [25] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, file nr.94, p.240, 246. [26] Ibidem, p.240, 246. [27] Renaşterea Română (the Romanian Renaissance), nr.108 – 4th June 1919, p.1 and nr.130 – 1st July 1919, p.1. [28] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, file nr.94, p.225. [29] Ibidem, Microfilm fund, PII 5.217 role, c.578, 579. [30] Ibidem, T.T.C. fund, file nr.94, p.249. [31] Ibidem, p.225, 256, 258 and 292. [32] Patria, nr.115 – 9th July 1919, p.1-2. [33] M.R.A., T.T.C. fund, p.276, 278.

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THE NEED FOR AN OPERATIONAL READINESS EVALUATION SYSTEM

Prof.Eng. Bujoreanu N. Iulian, PhD, Eng. Sora Daniel

Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Braşov e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract There is a continuous search at the academic level of the scientific research in all the military environment organizations to develop reliable, easy to use, completely covering instruments in order to assess the current operational readiness for any of these entities. In order to do this, a short introduction brings the needs and problems one can face when assessing the readiness and, under the same general trend, the authors show some initial general steps to be taken in order to employ such a readiness assessment system in an organization.

Keywords: readiness, system, database, information

1. Introduction Determination of the state of readiness of an operational force is a fundamental issue faced by the commanders at any hierarchical level, as they prepare the forces deployed abroad for execution of assigned missions. The desire is that the required readiness evaluation be quantitative in nature and based on a thorough examination of performance, so that it would be an evaluation of appropriate measures of effectiveness (MOEs) and performance (MOPs). The training that forces get in different environment conditions can be one of the main sources of generating quantifying indicators for the above operational readiness. The application generators and training centersshould become more robust in simulating the environment; 57 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

under these conditions it is expected that a quantitative evaluation of the training events will be a primary method of readiness assessment. The different exercises in support of operational development, operational readiness evaluations, and other training exercises can be used to improve the evaluation quality and accuracy, as well as to validate the models used for environmental conditions in the training centers. After the MOPs and MOEs have been determined and quantified, and the performance results gathered from several training events or exercises, it is required that they be aggregated for all events to determine overall force effectiveness. Consequently, in order to maximize the effectiveness of the training sessions, rapid feedback and assessment to the training participants is required.

2. Problems The warfare training centers are being improved with the primary goal of providing increased fidelity and realism for training exercise participants. These improvements include more robust environmental models, as well as weapons models. The models will provide a realistic input to the actual combat control systems resident in the warfare training centers. Furthermore, the models will need to be continually validated with actual in-the-field recorded data. It is expected that these improved warfare training centers will become a major tool, along with field exercises, to quantify Operational readiness. Aggregating performance results across training sessions occurring in different warfare training centers could provide a statistically significant and meaningful readiness evaluation. Today's warfare training centers around the world provide little or no feedback in terms of the overall performance of the session participants. At the conclusion of a training session, platform tracks are replayed on a large screen display as one of the participants - can be one attending officer - reads his notes to the rest of the crew describing why he took specific actions and what he thought the operational situation was at a specific instant. Although the information collected "on location" is known within the scenario generation of the training system, it is not used to quantify performance in terms of specific metrics. 58 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The applications and exercises occur in the open-field or on an instrumented range where information collected "on location" is known. The open-field exercises require that the event participants' deployment, along with other data, be used to determine corresponding operational parameters (such as range and speed). As expected, the uncertainty associated with open-field reconstructed operational parameters is much greater than the operational parameters that can be determined on an instrumented range, although little or no uncertainty in the operational parameters is usually provided with the reconstructed results. In order to adequately assess overall performance based on the large number of warfare training sessions - as well as on-range and open-field exercises and applications and real-time deployment in the operation theatres - the development of a capability to automatically quantify (to the maximum extent possible) pertinent metrics, compare the results across sessions, exercises and applications, and aggregate the results to determine overall readiness of the troops that are to be deployed in different missions abroad is required. This automation of analysis, along with a means of timely dissemination and web-based availability of performance data, will enable a more realistic evaluation of detachment's performance and identification of training and combat system shortfalls.

3. Operational Support Initiative The Operational Support Initiative (OSI) is to develop the methodology required to gather and store operational performance data, quantify performance in terms of NATO-approved measures of performance and effectiveness, and store the quantified metrics in a relational database to be used for overall evaluation of force readiness. The major components include a data collection system (DCS) software and the operational analysis suite (OAS). The Data Collection System (DCS) software allows the exercise participants to easily record and transmit participant position and contact data in situations where the data cannot be recorded electronically. OAS provides an open-field reconstruction and one-sided capability (in the future) and, using the reconstructed data and onboard Operational data, provide automatic metric calculations and displays of 59 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

reconstructed Operational parameters versus onboard Operational parameters. A database network has to be used to provide the capability to gather raw exercise data, store individual training sessions or in-the-field exercise performance data (as well as operational lessons learned) and provide the information needed for an overall readiness assessment through aggregation of individual training sessions or in-the-field exercise results. For in-the-field exercises where the participants are on range, time, space, position information (TSPI) data for all participants is obtained from range operations. The participants transmit operational data to the operational commander, either via DCS or by attaching a file to classified e-mail, where TSP gets data received via encoded message or classified e-mail. Both data sets are imported from the TSP database into OAS, which performs metric calculations. The OAS metric data is then exported to the TSP database and associated with the raw exercise data. For in-the-field exercises where the exercise participants are off range (in the open field), the process is similar, with the exception of the known information that is collected "on location", data that the range is able to provide. In this case, all data sets (and associated points) are imported from the TSP database into OAS, which performs open-field reconstruction and exports results to TSP database as reconstructed datasets. OAS metric calculations can be performed in real time by operational users if the range TSPI data is provided to the command center or if all exercise participants' position and action data is provided to the center designated as the lead for open-field reconstruction of the situation.

4. Operational Analysis Suite The OAS is a collection of tools and displays used to perform open-field reconstruction, merge reconstructed or information that is collected "on location" from all exercise participants, convert the TSPI data to pertinent operational parameters and compare information that is collected "on location" on operational parameters to team gathered operational parameters, evaluate higher echelons-approved measures

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of performance and effectiveness, and export analysis results to the TSP database. In addition, OAS provides a replay capability where the analysis results can be played back in addition to the information that is collected "on location" (TSPI data). This provides not only a perspective of what happened, but also why it happened, of particular importance after each training event. The U.S.A. Navy has a real-time version of OAS, the Operational Readiness Evaluation Debrief System (TREDS). TREDS is used during the in-the-field portion of exercises conducted on instrumented ranges and provides for a near-real-time display of information that is collected "on location" based on TSPI data transmitted to the center from the range. Operational combat system data is obtained electronically and merged with the information that is collected "on location" to provide a near-real-time picture of what the center has estimated the operational situation to be versus the actual operational situation. In addition, selected metrics will be displayed (range, speed, range rate errors of information that is collected "on location" as compared to the estimate).

5. Operational Analysis Suite Management OAS information is automatically produced by importing information that is collected "on location" and raw operational data that was stored in the TSP database. Next, OAS automatically converts the information that is collected "on location" (TSPI data) into pertinent operational parameters and compares these parameters to the collected operational data (what the center-derived parameters were). OAS is then used to plot various displays showing the comparison results. The geographic plot has to show the own-centered, north-oriented display representing information that is collected "on location" with assigned target identifications. Target motion analysis (TMA) solutions in real time with a small-time history are displayed based on operator-assigned Sierra numbers (in the case of U.S. Navy antisubmarine warfare). Range rings and display parameters are user defined. A contact evaluation plot is used to correlate the target identifications to 61 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

operator-assigned Sierra numbers. This relative pairing can then be isolated for a more detailed analysis of sensor performance and TMA solutions. TMA performance evaluation is plotted as a function of TMA range versus information that is collected "on location" (range). A histogram of TMA range errors can then be plotted. The operator can also select percent solution range error versus time instead of the histogram.

6. Conclusions Operational analyses of warfare training sessions and in-the-field exercises are highly desirable to determine baseline operational performance and develop operational shortfalls. It also aids in determining problems to be addressed by improved tactics, training and new modern warfare systems. These shortfalls and problems can be used to focus research and development and system acquisition programs. The operational analysis must be rapid and consistent across the majority of land-based training events and in-the-field operations requiring automation. The ability to aggregate the individual event analyses to produce a broad-based capabilities and readiness assessment is required. The TSP has to develop a systematic knowledge-management process for selecting, collecting, distilling and presenting information in a way that is going to improve the training and testing value of abroad deployed troops exercises. The development of this type of systems will greatly enhance the training value associated with the exercises, exams and certifications by providing rapid feedback and immediate lessons learned to exercise participants. Through file standardization and process automation, this capability will allow for quantitative analysis of exercises not currently being analyzed in depth due to cost, resulting in statistical significance and historical trend data. A generalized structure of database and knowledge system will help focus the abroad mission troops on acquiring, storing and utilizing information from exercises for dynamic learning, problem solving, additional training and decision making. A quantitative evaluation of metrics will enable a more realistic evaluation of a 62 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

detachment's performance and identification of training and system shortfalls. The TSP seeks to improve the performance of individuals, teams, commands and systems development by maintaining and leveraging the value of past and present knowledge gained from these exercises. Reconstruction tools will provide users with a clear picture of what happened during an exercise. The knowledge management process will provide insight into why a particular exercise event occurred.

References [1] Alan G Walker, James W Smither, David A Waldman, Personnel Psychology, Durham: Autumn 2008. Vol. 61, Issue 3. [2] Sanjoy Bose, Keith Thomas, Applying the balanced scorecard for better performance of intellectual capital, Journal of Intellectual Capital. Bradford: 2007. Vol. 8, Issue 4. [3] Christopher D. Ittner, Does measuring intangibles for management purposes improve performance?, Kingston Upon Thames: 2008. Vol.38, Issue 3. [4] Bob Paladino, Nancy Williams, Moving Strategy Forward: Merging the Balanced Scorecard and Business Intelligence, Business Performance Management Magazine. Cleveland: Jun 2008. Vol. 6, Issue 2. [5] Lisa H Nishii, David P Lepak, Benjamin Schneider, Employee Attributions of the "Why" of HR Practices: Their Effects on Employee Attitudes and Behaviours, and Customer Satisfaction, Durham: Autumn 2008. Vol. 61, Issue 3. [6] Assion Lawson-Body, Jared Keengwe, Laurence Mukankusi, Abdou Illia, Glenn Miller, E-Government Service Delivery Performance: An Adaptation of the Balanced Scorecard to the Public Sector, Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations. Hershey: Apr-Jun 2008. Vol.6, Issue 2.

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THE GEOPOLITICS OF UKRAINE AT THE BLACK SEA

Prof. Petrescu Stan, PhD

National Intelligence Academy of Bucharest

Abstract The region of the Black Sea, nowadays, is under some complex challenges (the access to resources, political extremism, nationalism, human traffic and arms) over which overlaps with the danger of potential military conflicts and civil (the religious nature of being is very visible). All these elements show us the importance of the political will which, with the support of on efficient flux of intelligence, can provide solutions more viable.

Key words: geopolitics, unfrozen conflicts, extended region, economical potential

The Extended Region of the Black Sea (ERBS) has became one of the key areas of the new arena of unfrozen conflicts. All the “powerful actors” important for the international scene which includes the United States of America, China, Russia, Turkey and the European Union use different methods to secure their presence in the region, following, in the same time, ensuring their presence and influence in the region in terms of political and economic. The region of the Black Sea, nowadays, is under some complex challenges (the access to resources, political extremism, nationalism, human traffic and arms) over which overlaps with the danger of potential military conflicts and civil (the religious nature of being is very visible). All these elements show us the importance of the political will which, with the support of on efficient flux of intelligence, can provide solutions more viable.

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The feature global security environment at the beginning of the third millennium, looks completely different from that at the end of the twentieth century. There are new security actors, new security models for the common and the collective security and, we are dealing with a world in which great powers and have redesigned national security interests, whether they coincide or are in opposition, who plays interests an increasingly important. There are a lot of problems and contradictions between Russia and the West, and between the EU and the U.S.. To reach the agreements necessary for amortization of these conflicts, both sides must be prepared to engage in real dialogue and make real compromises, instead of focusing on an ideology or a variant of truth. The differences of the two great powers could be seen at the Summit in Bucharest (1-4 April 2008), when Russia opposed the entry of Ukraine into NATO and won. After the conflict between Russia and , Russia suggested Ukraine “should not bite the hand that fed her”, and under those circumstances she should stay still. In the Black Sea area is located a few "key positions"1, which characterizes it, and gyres it some special features, but most of all they contribute decisively to geostrategic value and importance of this area. These “key situations” are: the Crimea half-isle2 – a true aircraft carrier, well anchored“, with multiple resources and facilities, protected and surrounded by enough naval forces, really to act; Mouths Danube3 (maritime Danube) - entry and exit of ships through

1 For details „Black Sea – The space of the confluence of the geostrategian interets” – Staff of Naval Forces, Ed. CTEA, Bucharest 2005. 2 After Ukraine and has announced its intention to increase the rent for the fleet from Sevastopol, Russian embassy counselor in Kiev warned that Moscow could start the procedure for review of the treaty in 1997, which confirms the status of Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula. The press in Moscow said that this could happen if the authorities in Kiev will continue to put pressure on Russia to withdraw from the Black Sea fleet base in Crimea. Russia has no obligations to Ukraine. The agreement between Moscow and Kiev on the Russian Fleet in the Black Sea have expired in 2007. Source: Russia threatens Ukraine with the Crimean Peninsula, News, Kappa.ro of 27 10.2008. 3 “Bystroe" Channel requires the European Union and NATO a new reality politico-military regarding mouths to the Danube. For "strengthening the transit potential of the Danube, authorities in Kiev have intensified preparations for the extension work of deepening and consolidating and Starostambulsk arm in the Danube Delta region controlled by Ukraine, the region annexed by the after the Second World War . Source: Gurile Dunării cucerite de Ucraina, greenmedia.md/gurile-dunarii. 65 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

the complex navigation of Sulina is carried out entirely within the Romanian state, this representing a strength element for Romania. The continental plateau1 in front of the Romanian’s sea-coast, with attractive elements that make, for many years, still succeed in “boiling” the continental plateau’s limitation issue of the exclusive economical area between Romania and Ukraine; The Snake’s Island - in recent years, "rediscovered" with a lot of international scandal and placed, with much subtlety, in the international diplomacy issue. As a regional “player", in geopolitical terms, Ukraine promotes a foreign policy favorable for regaining and development of its sphere of influence over some adjacent states. Possession of a very expansive territory, Ukraine remains influenced by the some clichés with "Imperial reflexes", still willing to accept a role as its geographical position. It varies between the old Slav Messianism and the aspiration to integrate into and to respect the rules of liberal democracy. The Ukraine’s new policy seems generally conciliatory given the West and particularly, given the USA. After the Soviet Union’s dismemberment, Ukraine has set the objective of obtaining the essential political status of regional power, with major interests in the Black Sea area. If we see it from democratization draft, Ukraine reached during the past 2 - 3 years of sustained reforms, a general democratization. There have been profound changes in relations between the civilian

1 International Court in The Hague (IJC) must to offer the most important energy reserves of continental plateau of the Black Sea, given by the intensification of the granting process made by Kiev to obtain exploration rights. Ukrainian’s geopolitical arguments are not taken into account by the international court in the process of delimitation of the continental plateau. The Hague has an obvious stake strategic resources of hydrocarbons in the area in dispute is encrypted, according to experts at about one hundred billion cubic meters of natural gas and about ten million tons of oil. The parties involved, Romania and Ukraine, are obliged not to exploit the marketing resources of the area in dispute, the conduct being prescribed in the connection instead of political letters to the Treaty of 1997, being allowed only to carry out exploration activities. The conflict between Romania and Ukraine, which it must tackle the International Court of Justice in The Hague, refers only to the delimitation of the continental shelf and exclusive economic zones of the two parts of the north-west of the Black Sea. Area in dispute, whose membership should establish an IJC, is over 12,000 sq. km. In the area in dispute is the hydrocarbon resources to local media, whose operation is subject to the two states. Continental plateau and exclusive economic area, with the regime, defined in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which both Romania and Ukraine are parties. Source: Ziua, No. Day. 4273 Wednesday, July 2, 2008. 66 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

and military, and in matters of relations between religion and state. All these reforms have been implemented with the stated purpose of making Ukraine a country with great opportunities for integration into NATO, in other words more "eligible". Ukraine, in terms of geopolitical and geostrategic, is the most important territory between Europe and Russia. Although economic dependence on Russia, the resources it possesses considerable economic and military, which causes a certain particularity of its international relations. It also benefits from a special relationship of cooperation with NATO, has concluded an agreement on partnership and cooperation with the EU is concerned about the development of relations with the IMF, World Bank and the EBRD. At regional, it is expected that Ukraine will continue political and diplomatic actions to create its own system of regional security, although currently has a strategic partnership with the U.S., and this relationship is crucial to regional security and promoting democracy in our immediate neighborhood. Black Sea coastal country and near the mouths of Danube, Ukraine is a bridgehead submitted for the transatlantic community, through increasing access to the Alliance to 4 the number of countries in the Black Sea area, and as a country of contact between the Euro and at euro Asiatic, benefiting from the intersection of six axes of strategic importance [1]. Located on the border of NATO and the EU's eastern flank, Ukraine still has much to offer its neighbors, based on his own experiences. It considers that it should understand, however, that can not protect its security through the destabilization of neighboring countries and sowing the lack of security around its borders. Ukraine's decision to allow NATO forces access to its air space represented a significant contribution to peace and to the current process of reconstruction in Afghanistan. NATO's arrival in the area could help improve the economic climate in the region, as security conditions improve, for usually the stronger economic conditions. Also, NATO can contribute to the preservation and regeneration of the environment by supporting the implementation of scientific and technological programs of local organizations.

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NATO enlargement to the East placed the continent for the first time, the six Black Sea littoral states (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria) in a numerical parity: three NATO member states (Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria) and three state non- member (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine). Meanwhile, EU enlargement introduces a new factor in the strategic region by including three Black Sea littoral states in the prosperity of the single market and future arrangements concerning foreign policy, security and common defense. Approval by the EU conceptual framework of relations with neighboring countries in Eastern Europe, participating in the Organization for Black Sea Cooperation (BSCE), is a clear indication of rising European interest to the Black Sea. The potential economic impact of the expanded area of the Black Sea is outlined as an economic circuit in transit between the EU and Eastern European States and the need to tap sources, in particular energy and emerging markets of Central Asia and the Middle East. Speaking about the regional cooperation in the Black Sea area, we have the Organization of Economic Cooperation in the Black Sea (BSEC), the Security and Trust Reinforcement Measures, the SECI Center and, last but not least, Blackseafor1, an initiative that includes naval cooperation all the six states from the Black Sea. This aims at enhancing measures of trust and security in the Black Sea area, to increase the interoperability of the naval forces belonging to the participating States, able to conduct joint humanitarian, search and rescue, anti-mine and anti-pollution operations.

1 On 2 April 2001, took place in Istanbul, the conclusion ceremony by Foreign Ministers and their representatives approved the Agreement establishing the Group Naval joint activities in the Black Sea (BLACKSEAFOR). Signing the agreement represents a proof of the determination of Black Sea littoral States for the implementation of the BLACKSEAFOR after successful completion of the negotiation process initiated by Turkey in 1998. BLACKSEAFOR is the first system of military naval cooperation in the Black Sea and will be a force "on call" which will be composed of military vessels of Romania, Bulgaria, Georgia, the Russian Federation, Turkey and Ukraine. The group aims to contribute to strengthening peace and stability in the region and to promote regional cooperation between Black Sea littoral States. Its main missions of the operations consist of environmental protection, courtesy visits, or any other operations mandated by the parties (included here peacekeeping operations UN-mandated or OSCE). Source: MAE, press release on 27.03.2001. 68 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Progress towards solving conflicts are clearly correlated with the process of democratization and reforms in the region's sectors of security. These reforms also create the prerequisites for their strengthening on a geographic and institutional plan, which could make them irreversible. The example of Ukraine could play a similar role if Yushchenko's Government will meet its objectives prefigure by the reform and the integration in the European Union and NATO, which represents, in fact, giving up the support for transnistrian separatists, aided by Moscow, in Moldavia. The transformation of the Black Sea basin into a pole of political stability and economic growth, with the aim of extending the climate of peace and security is a priority of future activity, for both the Black Sea littoral states, as for NATO and the European Union. Lately, uncertainty is installing in Ukraine, President Yushchenko asking for a change. The President has set the date for parliamentary elections on December 7 this year, after the parties failed to form a new coalition within in a month. Under the new conditions generated by the global financial crisis, Ukraine is not in a pleasant position, and elections come and complicate further more the instability of this country which is based on misunderstandings between the Prime Minister and the President. And so, we witness a real Ukrainian roulette. Beyond the legal disputes it is sure to find out if the outcome of the elections remains an uncertainty for both sides in the political dispute. This is because the elections come at 14 months after the last dissolution of the Rada and call to vote a sick and tired of political disputes population, risking a low participation in turnout. Opinion polls show a fragile stability in the sense that the differences will be sensitive between party coalitions and lengthy negotiations will be needed to restore a political chain of command. The President no longer wants a cohabitation with Iulia Timoşenko because of his pro Russian attitude. All these battles for power, with the economic difficulties created because of the backdrop of the current account deficit and the volatility of the exchange rate and, having in view the opposition

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towards new elections of the population is a very risky move for the president of Ukraine, a real Ukrainian roulette. [2]

References • Peter Calvocoressi, World politics since 1945, Alpha Publishing. • Staff of the Naval Forces, The Black Sea - Space confluence of interests geostrategic, CTEA Publishing House, Bucharest 2005. • Stan Petrescu, Global security environment and euro-Atlantic, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005. • Stan Petrescu, The primary threats, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 2008. • Stephen Blank, Security Studies, www.nato.int. • Th. Frunzeti, Dr. Vladimir Zodian, World in 2007, Encyclopedia political and military, strategic studies and security, CTEA Publishing House, Bucharest, 2007. • Vladimir Socol, Security Priorities in the Black Sea - Caspian Region, Black Sea University Foundation, 2003. Bibliographic references [1] Apud Stan Petrescu, Global security environment and the euro-Atlantic, Military Publishing House, Bucharest 2005, p. 355. [2] "Politicheskyi Zhurnal" of 11 October 2008.

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THE FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POST CONFLICT PERIOD

Prof. Stăncilă Lucian, PhD, Pîrgulescu Ion

“Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, M.U. 02628, Caracal

Abstract International practice has shown that post-conflict is a complicated dynamic, with traumatising connections, often dramatic, which leave deep traces in becoming human society. Stabilizing the situation and preventing the resumption of the hostilities in the states that have passed through a crisis or conflict are considered as main objectives of the post conflict strategy. International experience shows that, after almost every military confrontation, were reopened outbreaks of conflict as serious.

The evolution of political and military situation in a conflict zone should lead at the final stop of the armed confrontation. Even if military action or any specific actions of the confrontation armed have stopped by both parties, the attitude of forces being in conflict can not be considered in this case as a feature a of peace but only a prerequisite for achieving this desideratum. The inexistence of a peace treaty expressed for maintaining a period of situations in which still has not put an end to state of war. The state attitudinal of the final stop of armed confrontation covers, in terms of time, a long period or a brief time characterized by intense efforts in political and diplomatic plan for conclude a peace treaty, which in its absence the state of war is perpetuating "de jure". In the absence of this document, even if in fact cease the military confrontation, is still maintained in a state of mutual suspicion, which may lead to freezing even for a very long period of time, of the

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reciprocal relationships. Eloquence is in this sense the maintaining at the present of the state of war between U.S. and North Korea, which last almost half a century. It is known that an armed conflict may stop in any of its development periods. It also should be noted that it includes a compulsory and post-conflict period, which is initiated by the parts that are in such relationships by ceasing military hostilities and contains political, diplomatic, legal and otherwise activities that involves the conclusion of peace between the parties and the return to the state of normality. Post-conflict period can be defined as representing the time interval delimited by the time of starting the negotiations concerning the cease of hostilities and the return to the state of normality. Post-conflict phase comprises, in essence, five phases: - phase defusing of the conflict; - phase of rehabilitation of the parties that are in conflict; - phase of recovery facilities and structures strictly necessary to continue the survival and the beginning to make normal the situation; - stabilisation phase; - phase of reconstruction and return to normality1. Each of these have a specific progress in function of the concrete conditions and of the interests of the actors involved and they have as final the establishment of status of normality the or resumption of hostilities, as it is the case in the of the conflicts in Somalia, Congo, Angola, , etc. The way in which were resolved the issues specific of this periods in states that have taken place the last armed conflicts, demonstrates that these phases may overlap, the first being able to exists until the end. In other words, the activities specific to each phase may be effectuated concurrently with those specific to other phase. Desamorcing phase of the conflict is of major importance in order to solve the problems for the return to the state of normality. At this stage is carried out various actions, at the tactical, operational and strategic level, the techniques and the procedures used, being strongly influenced, according to our opinion, by the political decisions but also as a result of the intervention of international agencies or by humanitarian and psychological reasons. 72 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Intervention of some international organizations (ONU, OSCE), in the sense the cessation of military confrontation would lead the parties are in conflict to cease the hostilities and to start negotiations on regulating the conflict. Also, after starting of conflict, it is possible that on both parts to exert pressures and reactions of the economic, financial, technological nature, that support conflict or become impossible to be possible only for a short period of time. Thus, in our view, an economic suffocation of parts that are in conflict can lead to termination, at least for a time, military confrontation. The military confrontation between two parts can stop by psychological reasons, the situation in which international public opinion pressure and internal is particularly strong. In the beginning stage of armed conflict is the reaction of public opinion is firm, this having more arguments regarding the need to stop the hostilities. Thus, as public opinion is manifested in delay, the terror of confrontation may increase which would make it very difficult to call ration. Another point which should be taken into account regarding the cease hostilities is the humanitarian. Thus, the challenge of both victims among combatants as well as among the population uncommitted direct actions in the fight, especially large ones, may lead to start negotiations on the cease hostilities. Accepting the dialogue, planning and development of a process of openness is considered the first step in the process of evolution towards the conclusion of a conflict. The rehabilitation phase of the parties are in conflict is mainly a phase of negotiations and talks. Negotiation is a diplomatic instrument of international law which regulates peaceful about any dispute2 and they execute, usually, the strategic and operational level, in the Committees, which works besides Commandment of Force. These committees are chaired by the commander of Multinational Force and special representative of ONU Secretary-General of the theatre, and during their participation and high-level representatives of the parties are in conflict. Experience conflict unfolded until now has shown that the evolution towards the complete and final end to the armed confrontation is firstly, a process of creating links between people, including: contacts plus willingness to forget, plus tracking contacts 73 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

goals some degree; contacts plus measures of confidence reinforcement; contacts plus education for mutual understanding3. The requirement for ensuring the success of negotiations with an adversary is the availability and the ability of parties to initiate, develop and complete constructively these activities. The phase of recovering facilities and structures strictly necessary to continue survival and the beginning of making normal the situation begins immediately after hostilities cease. This phase is held, usually under the protection of a stabilisation force. In the meantime the effort of political military leadership as well as that of international organizations should concentrate for reinstatement in state operating facilities and to ensure the working of the political, economical, social, cultural, education, system. Phase stabilisation depends on the previous stages and involves cease all hostilities. During this phase, power politics is exerted by local authorities but it is still necessary this stabilisation force and reconstruction. During this phase will be will have to start the process of reconstructing the infrastructure of the territory which took place armed conflict. To ensure the accomplishment of this process will be necessary involvement of major economic powers and corporate economic interest, as well as governmental or non-governmental organizations which operate in the area. Worthy of note is that the stabilisation force will have as its objective and involvement in the reconstruction effort. Ensuring the protection of the stabilization force will continue until when the State will be able to lead and to ensure alone the international security. The reconstruction phase and return to normality is a combination of the previous phases. During this phase of stabilization force and reconstruction will have to be re-dislocated on the national territory because it considers that the question lies in the situation in which it can ensure its own security and international institutions and all state functions normally. The reconstruction effort will continue but with international support but without the involvement of foreign military forces. Starting from the activities during each phase specific post- conflict period, we consider that this phase would be characterized, in general, the following aspects: 74 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- at the beginning of the phase it is required the determination of the parties in conflict to start negotiations to stop hostilities and to conclude a peace treaty; - the need for involvement of military forces in the fight actions imposed by the hostile attitude of some forces that oppose democratic process; - in the first phase the attributions of politico-administrative structures are fulfilled by the military, following that they be transferred to the civilian side as the situation begins to return to normality; - the infrastructure and the economy and the state on the territory of which the military confrontation took place is seriously affected, and for the reconstruction and rehabilitation it is necessary external aid; - standard of living of the local population is low, that situation may generate new conflicts; - internal security and safety might be affected by organized crime and international terrorism; - legislative system corresponding to a democratic society is absent; - for the setting up of the public order it is necessary to catch and prosecute political and military leaders who supported the conflict and the war criminals; - the political-diplomatic relations of the state in cause are affected; - for the resumption of good relations between the parties are in conflict and the issue is necessary repatriation of prisoners of war and dislocation within the national military forces. that oppose democratic process; - in the first phase the attributions politico-administrative structures arefulfilled by the military, following that they be transferred to the civilian side as the situation begins to return to normality; - the infrastructure and the economy of the state on the territory of which the military confrontation took place is seriously affected, and for the reconstruction and rehabilitation it is necessary external aid;

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- standard of living of the local population is low, that situation may generate new conflicts; - internal security and safety might be affected by organized crime and international terrorism; - legislative system corresponding to a democratic society is absent; - for the reinstauration of the public order it is necessary to catch and prosecute political and military leaders who supported the conflict and the war criminals; - political-diplomatic relations of the state in cause are affected; - for the resumption of good relations between the parties are in conflict and the issue is necessary repatriation of prisoners of war and redislocation within the national military forces. Developments in recent conflicts developed world has shown that the consequences are hardly equipped and settled. No mater what scenarios would have in mind, theory and physiognomy conflict remains one of continued challenges beginning of the century. The objectives of the priority period and follows an armed conflict, but remain the same in most cases. The ultimate objective of the post- conflict is the return to the state of normality. To achieve this objective, however, must be set and met the objectives of each specific phase of this period. For the deactivation phase of the conflict, the objective is to be made to cease hostilities. For fulfilling its necessary so that there is interest from the major powers, as well as the Member in the area. Also, evolution unfolded in recent conflicts has shown that the world is necessary and the involvement of the international community in the process of deactivation the conflict both with respect to the negotiation of cessation hostilities, or, if necessary, in case the parties are in conflict are not willing to sit to the negotiating table, the imposition of cessation. Essential for the cessation of hostilities are obtaining the means to allow cease hostilities and the determination of institutions (organisations) specialist to intervene in this process. The objective of the phase of rehabilitation of the parties are in conflict is the stabilisation of the situation and transition to reconstruction. To this must be achieved: disarmament parties are in 76 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

conflict integration of former combatants in life usual, providing the conditions necessary for rehabilitation of infrastructures. The evolution of the events in Somalia and Angola acknowledges that without achieving a consensus of all parties are in conflict, the objective of this phase is not possible. For phase restoration of infrastructure and strictly necessary structures continued survival and the beginning the making normal the situation, the objective consists in ensuring the operation of infrastructure and social structures, political, education and culture. The objective of stabilization phase represents the execution of the transfer of power to local authority and support that State to start reconstruction and unfolding. An important role in achieving the objectives of this phase has the support of carrying out democratic elections, combating international terrorism and of all kinds of traffics. For phase of reconstruction and return to normality, the objective of cost in return to normality both in regard to international life, as well as international relations. Reverting to the state of normality implies of course, full and final termination of all types of armed confrontations, both between the belligerent parties, as well as between the stabilization force and reconstruction and other strengths that might oppose this process.

Bibliography

*** Law no. 42 of 15 March 2004 regarding participation in the armed forces in missions outside the Romanian state *** Romania’s National Security Strategy, Bucharest, 2007. *** Romanian Army Doctrine, Bucharest, 2007. *** The Doctrine of the Multinational Operations, Bucharest, 2001. Ion Pîrgulescu Post-conflict military operations in the system of developed actions for the management of conflict states in the contemporary world, Scientific research thesis Lucian Stăncilă The post-conflict state. Publishing of National Defence University „Carol I”, Bucharest. 2007. Gheorghe Jilavu Temporarily cessation military confrontation during the defence war of the country. Terms of its evolution to final 77 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

cessation of armed conflict, Doctorate thesis, Academy of High Military Studies, Bucharest, 2002. Post Conflict Reconstruction, CSIS and AUSA Boullé R. John Operational Planning and Conflict Termination, Joint Force Quarterly, 2001 – 2002. Rotermund K. The Fog of Peace: Finding the End-State of Hostilities, Manfred Strategic Studies Institute, 1999. www.heritage.or * * * * Colonel (r) university professor / National Defence University “ Carol I”, Bucharest ** Lt.col. drd., Battalion Commander 290 “Romanaţi” Supply / Brigade 1 Logistics "Prahova 1 Cf. Eugen Cican Stability operations, Publishing of Academy of High Military Studies, Bucharest, 2003,p.28 2 The Doctrine Operations Multinationals, Bucharest, 2001, art.155 3 Cf. Eugen Cican Stability operations, Publishing of Academy of High Military Studies, Bucharest, 2003,p.28 4 Lucian Stăncilă The post-conflict state. Publishing of National Defence University „Carol I”, Bucharest. 2006, p. 16

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CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CRISIS AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Assoc.Prof. Năbârjoiu Neculae, PhD

National Registry Office for Classified Information of Bucharest

Abstract To attain such a daring objective like conflict prevention, crises management and resolution, an analysis has to be undertaken on the factors entering into the equation of these processes such as: population, territory, food, energy, wealth versus poverty, dictatorship versus democracy, level to which human rights and liberties are observed, etc. The political, diplomatic, economic or military preventive measures should settle the problem, but this does not always happen. NATO’s example regarding crisis and conflict management is revealing. This paper offers some of the author’s considerations on the ways of approaching and resolving this permanently topical issue.

Keywords: Management, prevention, resolving, conflict, crisis

Factors that may enter into the equation of crises and conflicts It is well-known that, in all human activities, both crises and conflicts are present as strains resulting from the competition and struggle for survival. Closely related, it is worth advancing the idea that the disputes cannot be separated from these activities in the execution of which the language, the organizations and the regulations are, most of the times, lacunal and vague instruments. This notion reappears with each generation and especially after every shattering conflict.

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We will start with the human nature. It is the break point separating the fatalists, who believe war is part of the human species’ characteristics and, therefore, we strive in vain to eradicate it, from those contesting its biological basis. All the commentators and adepts of the Darwinist evolutionism concerned themselves with the place taken by inborn aggression in human behaviour. Darwin seldom and prudently pronounced himself in the case of the human species, but the following analysis is to be considered: “Like any other animal, the human being definitely advanced to his superior condition of today through the struggle for existence that followed his rapid reproduction”. Wilson’s sociology, although accepting that aggression could also be learned, considers sufficient that “the aggressive scheme may be awakened under stress circumstances, especially under those entailed by lack of food or increased population density”. The crises and conflicts require preparations, assessments and organization carried out by minds whose rationality has long been put to test. People confront themselves in battles because of lack of rationality, original sin (i.e. human nature), human fear of death, weak will (psychological factors) and inability to logically think. It is said that even stupidity is a source of crises and conflicts. The struggle for vital resources, food or water is the origin of most crises and conflicts. Actually, the triggering of the demographic factor takes place when the vital resources fail to meet the requirements of an increasing population. The competition for water sources intensifies as the resources are used up, which will lead to tensions in the arid areas of the planet. The need for territory could be considered a human original feature, a fundamental biological necessity to ensure an adequate stability and selection environment. This need is shown in the history of the first empires and in their expansion wars. To have power means to have vast, fertile and much populated territories. However arid and unfriendly the territory might be, it is a component of the human group’s identity, both in the tribal age and at present, leading to a revival of the aspiration to identity. Natural resources, especially the power resources, are the conflict sources of today, the modern industry being a consumer of huge 80 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

energy quantities. The interest in the precious raw materials (gold, silver, and diamonds) and, later on, in the energy resources generated the colonialist domination and the entailed wars. And thus we come to the economic theory which is at the origin of crises, conflicts and wars that reduced even the strategic, political and power factors to economic interests. The disregard of other factors that are constituent parts of identity crises and conflicts (language, statute, belief, values, etc.) is even more striking today with this kind of conflict proliferation. The conflict may start in the cultural area. An altercation at a festivity or at a meeting where one part holds to have been insulted or humiliated by the opponent, may be the spark in the people’s mind. The victims’ death toll can also be the same. Summing up the factors entering into the equation of crises and conflicts we find: population and its standing (excess, decline), territory, food, energy, wealth (and poverty) as an economic factor, followed by the degree to which human rights and liberties are observed, the political structure (power concentration leading to despotism versus democracy), other internal structures (political and military complex), the elites and the leaders, the structure of the international system. Regardless the society’s characteristics or determination, these factors are important forces which, in the last resort, decide on the direction that a conflict spiral may take toward a peaceful resolution or toward a violent denouement.

NATO’s conception on crisis management The terrorist attacks of September 2001 and the subsequent ones have shown, once again, the need to develop an allied consultation system, procedures, military and civil response capabilities and a resource planning mechanism for crises management, including those specific for civil emergencies, as well as the need to adjust it to a large spectrum of unconventional and disproportionate threats. NATO Crisis Response Concept – NCRS – identifies the crises management process as NATO’s fundamental mission. By virtue of this, NATO must efficiently contribute to conflict prevention and engage actively in the crisis management.

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The system was thus conceived as to provide NATO with a set of options and measures for an adequate preparedness level that will ensure a timely and unitary reaction, under a strict political control for any crisis management, including those subsequent to article 5 of the Washington Treaty. It sets the responsibilities of NATO member and partner countries for this task, envisaging, at the same time, the increase of the cooperation level between the civil and military structures with assignments in this field. To make this concept operational and to establish a unitary decisional and procedural framework, the Alliance worked out NATO Crisis Response Handbook. The handbook ensures the consistent coordination of all military and civil structures, both national and allied, so that the reaction must be in accordance with the Alliance’s strategic objectives in the case of an evolving crisis or of collective defence operations. The crisis response measures are predefined actions, thoroughly and timely planned, instantly available in order to be implemented by member countries or by NATO commandments in view of strengthening the Alliance’s position, improving NATO’s preparedness, initiating the activation of forces, increasing their protection level and developing certain response options for the entire crises spectrum, including threat situations, terrorist attacks or management of a major disaster consequences. The Alliance is prepared to accomplish a range of missions according to Article 5 and non-Article 5 in very different situations, most of which difficult to foresee. Under these circumstances, the planning process is developed under five phases: Phase 1. - Intelligence collection and warning about an imminent or actual attack. Phase 2. - Assessment of the consequences entailed by the crisis evolution on the security of the Alliance. Phase 3. - Establishment of the option on the crisis response, required by the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in the decisional process. Phase 4. - Mission planning and accomplishment. Phase 5. - Return to the stability period.

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Taking into account the provisions of the North Atlantic Treaty and of the Alliance Strategic Concept, NATO must stand ready and be permanently engaged in the crisis prevention and management, as an outstanding contribution to the entire international community effort. To this end, for an effective crisis resolution, the Alliance will cooperate and consult with other International Organizations, resorting to their experience and capabilities. NATO may directly conduct or support the stability operations or other operations mandated by UNO Security Council or by OSCE. The main fields where NATO acts in the crisis management are: Deterrent and collective defence operations – based on Article 5 of the Washington Treaty. Crisis response operations based on non-Article 5. This category includes the stability operations such as: terrorism counteracting, armaments control, anti-drugs supporting operations, search and rescue operations, force demonstration, strikes and raids, defence and preservation of the constitutional order and peace-keeping operations.

Crisis and conflict prevention and resolving National or international crises prevention is a very complex and specialized action implying organization, planning and political, diplomatic, economic, military, social, religious, ecologically directed and supported measures, able to contribute to the mitigation of negative effects, evolution shaping, keeping under control of any crisis and meant to lead to its acceptable resolution. Crisis management has become an important constituent part of the strategies of European and worldwide bodies with assignments in the security field – UNO, OSCE, NATO. Resolution of national crises is based on the provisions of the laws in force establishing “measures to be taken on the national territory under exceptional situations which are to be enforced in case serious dangers occur regarding national security and defence or constitutional democracy and for the prevention, restriction or elimination of disaster consequences.”1 The measures consist firstly in

1 Law no.453/2004 of 01/11/2004 published in the Official Journal of Romania, Part 1, no. 1052 of 12/11/2004 for the approval of the Government Emergency Ordinance no. 1/1999 on the siege and emergency condition. 83 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

non-military measures implying politic, diplomatic, legal, economic, briefing and educational, moral and ideological interventions, and, in the last resort, military actions separately or jointly conducted for the prevention and resolution of crises when these are initiated, respectively for the cessation of their reoccurrence and recrudescence. Security and defence cannot be analyzed without considering: the present geopolitical situation and the tendencies of its development, the security risks and threats, the provisions of the international law, treaties and agreements to which the respective state is part of. Should the enforcement of politic, diplomatic, economic or military measures fails to stop the crisis evolution, this becoming more aggravated when passing to another stage, a much dangerous one, the next management possibility is the preparedness and the enforcement of the intervention measures, among which the military ones take a special place. In case the crisis reaches its critical point and the army intervention can no longer be omitted, it becomes not only a necessity but also a strict requirement. The intervention in force, including the army intervention, to defend or restore the constitutional order must be an extreme measure which will be resorted to discriminately, on stages, in particular when the state’s constitutional fundamental values are endangered. Regardless the gravity of the disturbances and tensions the following principles have to be observed: • the task force will be developed with the observance of the legal provisions; • arms and munitions will be used discriminately and prudently, resorting mainly to non-lethal means; • neutralization or capture of the disturbing elements will be envisaged as much as possible. Consistent with its democratic principles, in resolving internal social crisis, Romania will not make use of army forces in limiting the peaceful exercise, within a legal framework, of human and civil rights by individuals or by their representatives and will not intervene in depriving any Romanian citizen of his national, linguistic or ethnic identity. The modified text of the Romanian

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Constitution specifies the scope in which to address national defence and security, while extending the attributions of the Supreme Council for National Defence regarding the organization and unitary coordination of the national defence and security and also those referring to the “participation in preserving the international security and collective defence within the military alliance systems as well as in peacekeeping and restoring activities”.1 The directions in which Romania will act, in accordance with the Constitution are: • participation in actions implying international security preservation; • participation in collective defence, as a manner of action specific for the Alliance that Romania is part of. • participation in peacekeeping and peace restoration actions under the UNO aegis or other security structures. The military and political leadership may stress even more the political and military aspects, dependent on the concrete manifestation of the crisis. The national political or allied (under specific situations) authorities assert the limits of the military commanders’ actions, meaning the army, with reference to: scope of operations, engaged forces, regions (territories) where military actions will take place, air space and/or maritime or fluvial area designed to army actions, category and intervention manner in the hydrographic areas, etc. In concurrence with the foreign policy objectives and the international commitments taken on, Romanian Army must prepare, develop and support the participation of forces in the multinational joint operations, for the resolution of the crises or conflicts affecting the national and international community interests.

Bibliography 1. The Romanian Constitution, Bucharest, 2003. 2. National Security Strategy of Romania, 2006. 3. Doctrine of Joint Multinational Operations, Bucharest, 2001.

1 The Romanian Constitution, Bucharest, 2003, article 118. 85 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

4. Government Emergency Ordinance no.2/2004 published in the Romanian Official Journal, Part I, no. 361 of 26/04/2004 on the National System of Emergency Situations Management. 5. Ion Gheorghe Apostol, “Gestionarea crizelor interne care afectează securitatea naţională” [Management of national crises affecting the national security], 2003. 6. Iulian Chifu, “Analiză de conflict” [Conflict Analysis], Ed. Universitară Politeia – SNSPA, 2004. 7. Dufour Jean – Louis, “Crizele internaţionale [International Crises], Ed. Corint, Bucharest. 2002. 8. Neculae Năbârjoiu, Managementul crizelor şi conflictelor [Crisis and Conflict Management], Ed. University, 2006. 9. Marius Petrescu. Neculae Năbârjoiu, Managementul informaţiilor [Management of Information], Ed. Bibliotheca, vol.I, 2006 and vol. II, 2008.

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WAR CONFIGURATION FROM THE MODERN TECHNOLOGY’S PERSPECTIVE

Assoc.Prof. Neag Mihai Marcel, PhD

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The advanced technologies have imposed different collective and quantitative changes in equipping, structuring and setting the forces and means’ combat usage, within action power and capacity increasing of the troops. All of these, impose another military action configuration and, therefore, of the war’s.

The fourth generation wars correspond to the information epoch, including the military field evolution .These are the extended wars, which refer to all the fields: the political, economic, social, cultural and military one. The advanced technologies have imposed qualitative and quantitative changes in equipping, structuring and setting the principles to use the means and the forces, in training the military actions. The extended space implies new possibilities to fight, such as: mobility, asymmetric actions, maneuverability, flexibility decentralization, led simultaneously on three levels, thus aiming at hitting the adversary’s weight centre. The technological progress allowed the introduction of the new types of conventional ammunition in endowing the modern armies meant to discover, locate and hit the adversary’s troops and territory at great distance. Their action and existence led to new complex elements in combat training and leading, which caused a new vision on the battle space; ... extended combat field; integrated combat field; fluid combat field [1]. We are facing a physical robotics of the battle field, which will soon become reality. The informational operations provide data and 87 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

information on the battlefield to register the space domination in any situation within future operations. An important option in accomplishing the new operational concepts is represented by the carrier’s research system battlefield in order to dispose the proper information about the adversary, field, and broadcast within the areas in question. This option was known as “battle field training based on the secret information.” This is accomplished based on a training programme to perfect the strategic research systems, the tactic and operative ones, the alarm, command and control high a high degree to protect against adversary. The space extending of the battlefield, the huge resources will allow the diversifying of the land forces, air forces, marine forces, cosmic forces’ usage, which actions will be planned, simultaneously or successively, within far away spaces. For USA and CSI [3], the battlefield extends outside land forces, thus getting another dimension where no other state may project or develop military operations. “The Joint Vision 2020” promotes the complete spectrum domination which is based on four new operational concepts: dominant maneuver; high precision military action and fire developing; forces’ complete protection; permanent and opportune logistic support [4]. The military actions physiognomy regarded by means of the modern technology, is based on the new operational concepts: decisive maneuver, precision selective engagement, multidimensional protection of the friendly forces and logistic concentration.

DECISIVE MANEUVRE PRECISSION SELECTIVE ENGAGEMENT INFORMATION SUPERIORITY MULTIDIMENSIONAL PROTECTION

LOGISTIC FOCUSING

TECHNOLOGIES

EFFECTS COMPLET SPECTRUM DOMINATION FOCUSING

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The decisive maneuver selective allows the accomplishing of new major results on the adversary’s force weight centre, conditioned by the trained forces. The decisive maneuver goal is to register a positional advantage in time and space, which places the adversary forces in such a disadvantage that he is forced to surrender. As the maneuver cannot be accomplished by on category of forces, the mission’s success depends on the ability to rapidly project the military power, using the air, land and marine forces to accomplish force structures meant to act in order to defeat the adversary. The selective precision engagement refers to the identification and placing the decisive points, which become targets to be hit or conquered. In order to develop the operations, the forces must be well equipped, trained to explore the new increased lethal systems and ammunition. The precision selective engagement is featured by the ability to identify long distance goals in a short time, by the adversary’s engagement capacity, by the exact assessing capacity, as well as by the capacity to minimize the collateral destructive effects. The modern technologies will definitely impose new options on the force and means using; the classical combat forms will be less and less used due to the new specialized structures which will act decisively, dynamically, based on the surprise element [5]. The military actions have a specific featured architecture, with difficult to predict features. The multidimensional protection of the friendly forces aims at military space controlling, meant to provide the4 friendly forces protection compared to the entire movement, maneuvers and combat engagement. The troops’ protection and action providing is more and more highlighted by the combat actions themselves [6]. Making the necessary measures to protect and provide the actions and forces is the main condition to protect the friendly forces’ weight centre The logistic focusing relies on the force logistic support, on the technique and equipment support, depending on the created situation. The information system modernizing and the logistic ones impose new concepts on modularity, gradualism, and management [7]. The combat tendencies and forces influence the action timing which influences the logistic subunits activities’ dimension.

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The impact between the troops and the battlefield leads to radical changes. Thus the tactical structures role is to be increased and easily to lead on reduced logistics. Taking into account the military technical evolution perspective on equipment and ammunition, we register a new logical tendency to reorganize the forces and therefore the military actions. This will definitely act modularly or joint within a confined space. The critical momentum will therefore be reduced for the initiator and also for the technically equipped. The fluidity large spectrum has a special mobility, efficiency and speed to dominate the battlefield and the adversary. Fluidity refers to simultaneous action in 2-3 environments, to increased rhythm to lead the fight, to real information in due time to rapidly transmitted decisions and maximum efficiency hitting means [8]. The information war is essential, thus allowing the attack of the decisive points and of the weight centers, simultaneously and efficiently for all the three military art levels: tactical, operational and strategic. The future military conflicts will replace quantity with the used combat means. Knowing the adversary’s intensions and possibilities, his real means to hit, his forces and precision engagement amplify the hitting force, and the adversary’s chances to be hit. The technological availability and the informational one allow us to hit the adversary, where and when it is necessary in order to create the adversary important critical momentum. The future military operations and campaigns aim at the quick accomplishing of the strategic goals with the risk of losing people. These actions must be guided from the very beginning towards the adversary’s forces and means. Increasing the destructive and precision effect created new changes as important as combat potential increasing. In the same time, the communication developing and their joining the information systems imposed the shorting of the gathering, identifying, sending, processing and disseminating of the information. The quick identification of the decisive points, according to the obtained information, will mostly increase the military action to the adversary’s critical momentum. In the 21st century, the urbanizing degree will be increased, which leads to new considerations of the combat within localities. Short time 90 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

asymmetric atypical combat actions will not be fought in order to conquer new spaces, but new weight centers, which include strategic importance military political goals. For instance, during Iraq war, the American Forces surrounded Baghdad and have initiated actions to downtown, in order to surrender the administrative building. Still there are new attacks to conquer or get control on the decisive points: Saddam airport, Al-Rashid military airport, important highways. According to these “intelligence estimations” the commanders’ set the targets that needed supervising and then attacking using land offensive, air hitting or a combination [8]. The population from was advised to fight the American forces; otherwise they may be the target of the military intervention. This along with the Republican Guard convinced the Iranian people not to rebel and understand that any fighting against Americans is a failure. This explains the fact that the American tanks and armor merged without any obstacles. The top technology development imposed important changes in the military field, especially regarding the combat leading. Therefore, there was a special focusing on the force weight centre to avoid the adversary regardless of the environment this acts. The tactical level combat successes may provoke important changes of the weight centre for the operational field. The future battle field uses new technical means to perfect the new features on the reaction, mobility, and the protection and resistance capacity. These will impose new guidance in order to set the force weight centre and the reaction mode to owe the decisive points and to create the conditions necessary for the action critical momentum. The new technologies will impose new options on the force means. The applied technological dimension represents the scientific research itself influencing the combat leading, but also the reflections on training and fighting, with a complex structure [9]. The military actions’ main goal is represented by the adversary’s military system disintegrating. The results’ proper assessment will definitely pay its contribution to the critical momentum avoiding, once the partial and deceiving success have been registered. The assumed risk will become an operational one, with a time dynamics and always dependent on the available resources. It is a new spirit reflecting the 91 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

new strategies and military doctrines and which will impose radical changes in terms of homogeneity, endowment and force using. The top technologies and information will provide the new force weight centre and the critical momentum within military actions. The technical scientific success bring along new structural changes in the defence capacity the military technical conceiving and construction and in providing the material armed forces’ training, thus endowing the latest and most efficient accomplishments.

* * * The fourth generation wars are dissymmetric and asymmetric wars. On the one hand, there are the high technology ones, while on the other hand, there are the antinomy ones, which aim at high technology access and to the conservator attitudes. The action procedure efficiency and the using of the non standardized ones lead to the creating of the critical momentum for the adversary. The modern combat field imposes deep changes in planning the developing the military actions. Getting to know the artificial intelligence impact on the ammunition system and on the military actions, makes us draw the conclusion that: the concepts’ register and force spreading with certain implications in establishing the force weight centre and the critical momentum within military actions; the military potential is featured by the massive automating; therefore, there are essential changes within information and data processing, information highly featured by clarity and quality.

References [1] Gheorghe Toma, Tactica blindatelor, Military High Studies Publishing House, Bucharest , 2002, p. 11. [2] Roman Lopez, Controverse asupra doctrinei “Bătălia Aeroterestră”, in Revue Internationale de Defense, nr. 11/1983. [3] See Buletinului de informare şi documentare nr. 3, DoD Technical and Economical Publishing and Press Publishing House, Bucharest, 1993, pp. 19 – 22. [4] Joint Vision 2010 (JV 2010). Joint Vision 2020 (JV 2020).

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[5] Gh. Toma, L. Stăncilă, C. Ţenu, Arta operativă între contrarii – actualitate şi perspectivă, Military High Studies Publishing House, Bucharest , 2001, p. 89. [6] Idem, p. 87. [7] See DoD, General Headquarter, Viziunea Strategică 2010 – Armata României, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 2001, p.20. [8] Vasile Paul, Spaţiul de luptă fluid, in Romanian Military Thinking Review, 1/1996, p.89. [9] See Căderea Bagdadului. Irak: Jurnal de război, Ziua Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003, p. 260.

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THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND THE CLIMATE CHANGE

Assoc.Prof. Nicula Virgil

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Tourism and leisure are based on a range of activities that, in large part, take place outdoors. Weather conditions and their changes in the short term are important for tourism, as they also are for leisure activities practised close to home. The interrelation between tourism, leisure and travel on the one hand, and meteorology in the broad sense, on the other hand, is not limited to the short term. The interactions between tourism development and climate change are of different nature; they constitute a complex web of relationships, consisting as they do, like climate change itself, of phenomena that are part natural, and also partly the result of human behaviours. A diversification of the tourism products offered, based on a broadened range of outdoor and indoor activities, generally constitutes the best possible response in order not to be overly dependent on the vicissitudes of climate. But this is a long term project that must be anticipated and carefully prepared beforehand; it is not easy to see this through successfully, because it entails, all at the same time, modifying economic circuits, introducing new technologies, carrying out an intensive training effort, investing for the creation of new products, lengthening the season, and above all, changing the minds of public authorities, entrepreneurs, host communities and tourists.

Keywords: tourism, climate change, human behaviours, durable development, outdoor and indoor activities.

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1. Introduction There are few activities that are as dependent on meteorology and climatology, that is to say, both the prevailing weather and long-term climate changes, as tourism. Tourism and leisure are based on a range of activities that, in large part, take place outdoors. Generally speaking, tourism loves good weather – and tourists as well! Weather conditions and their changes in the short term are important for tourism, as they also are for leisure activities practised close to home. The quality and reliability of forecasts have improved considerably over the course of the past years, and weather predictions are now also valid for a longer period of time ahead, which allows everybody, whether tourists or leisure industry professionals, to better plan their activities in advance. Meteorology is no longer a game of chance, and the tourism sector is one of the primary beneficiaries of this development. Nevertheless, the interrelation between tourism, leisure and travel on the one hand, and meteorology in the broad sense, on the other hand, is not limited to the short term. Both sectors have another area of concern in common: that of the evolution of climate over the long term. For the very long term, there is a lack of points of reference, and when they do exist, they are sometimes surprising. But the direction of recent change is clear, and the phenomenon of acceleration of the last period is incontestable. It can only become more amplified.

2. Warming, a central challenge for the tourism industry The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has just confirmed, at its meetings held in January-February 2007 in Paris, what awaits us with near certainty: a rise in temperature caused by human activity on the order of 1.8 to 4 degrees between now and the end of the century, taking the respective midpoints of the IPCC’s most optimistic and most pessimistic scenarios. The ranges are still wide, but the change, unfortunately, is inevitable. Even if greenhouse gas emissions were to suddenly cease – something that no one can really expect to happen – the inertia of the

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system is such that warming will continue for several decades, given the volume of 2 what has already been released into the atmosphere. The tourism and leisure industry therefore finds itself absolutely obliged to cope with the prospect of a significant warming of the climate over the long term. This is no minor problem since it concerns a considerable sector of the world’s economy and society: according to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 842 million people travelled to a country other than their own during 2006 (the equivalent of the population of Africa); they spent over 500 billion dollars at their destinations, and that is without counting airline transport receipts or taking into account domestic travel within each country. Tourism has become one of the biggest categories of international trade, generating receipts that represent (including air transport) 40 per cent of trade in services. Thus, even if the warming trend could be brought under control and slowed down, it is very much a major challenge that, under all hypotheses, awaits not just the tourism industry, but also through it, the world economy as a whole.

3. Interactions between tourism development and climate change The interactions between tourism development and climate change are of different nature; they constitute a complex web of relationships, consisting as they do, like climate change itself, of phenomena that are part natural, and also partly the result of human behaviours. It is possible to identify four major types of such interaction. The most visible are the immediate – and sometimes severe – impacts of weather phenomena caused by warming: the destruction wrought by floods, storms, or fires, glacial lake overflows, the disappearance of beaches. Then there are the indirect or longer term impacts resulting from a substantial and lasting alteration of the environment at tourism destinations that reduce their attractiveness (polluted waters, receding forests and decreased biodiversity, retreating glaciers and snow caps...). Some effects of this kind are indirect: for instance, rising

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temperatures in humid regions encourage the proliferation of insects and the spread of contagious diseases that may well affect visitors. A third type of impact has to do with lifestyle changes caused by climate change (reorientation of tourism flows both in winter and summer). Lastly, the efforts of individuals and public policies aimed at attenuating the effects of warming also induce an entire series of consequences for tourism activity (adoption of new, more energy efficient technologies, increased transport costs, product diversification efforts aimed at prolonging the season and reducing vulnerability). These interactions of different nature will appear in the background of the following description, which, for the sake of clarity, is structured around a typology of major problems and types of destinations. Tourism is already – and it will be more so in the future – the victim of the imminent changes; but it is also partly the vector of such changes. Tourism is, first and foremost, an undeniable victim. True, the outlook in this regard is not all negative, and it is plausible, for example, that certain seaside destinations will be able to extend their season, given the fact that higher water and air temperatures will make beach tourism possible during periods when it has hitherto hardly been practised (on the Black sea, since the beginning of May to the end of September). The development of rural, or even seaside tourism could be benefited in the northern regions of Romania. It is therefore vital for tourism destinations, in mountain regions and elsewhere, to anticipate these coming changes and to draw their consequences, starting now. Partial responses exist. Alternatives can be proposed in many cases. A diversification of the tourism products offered, based on a broadened range of outdoor and indoor activities, generally constitutes the best possible response in order not to be overly dependent on the vicissitudes of climate. But this is a long term project that must be anticipated and carefully prepared beforehand; it is not easy to see this through successfully, because it entails, all at the same time, modifying economic circuits, introducing new technologies, carrying out an intensive training effort, investing for the creation of new products, lengthening the season, and above all, 97 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

changing the minds of public authorities, entrepreneurs, host communities and tourists. In the space of two generations, the “leisure civilization” has, in many regions that are now tourism oriented, replaced the old rural order, and, with this upheaval, prosperity has taken the place of precariousness. It is not so easy to make a second economic and cultural revolution happen in such a relatively short span of time when measured on the scale of the history of these communities; it is not a simple matter to get those who have just managed to reach a certain level of affluence to admit that they must be able to question and profoundly alter their way of life. In these conditions, and given that the movement of warming is not linear, each phase of remission revives hope and becomes a pretext for inaction, even if everyone is well aware deep inside that the former can only turn out to be illusory and that the latter is tantamount to burying one’s head in the sand while the problem inevitably grows larger. Tourism appears then, as we have just seen, first and foremost as a victim; but it is also a non negligible vector of the changes that are taking place; it contributes, through its very existence, and – it must be recognized – through its own excesses, to the warming process. The tourism and travel industry therefore has its part to contribute to the international community's effort to stop climate warming. It is regrettable in this regard that, outside of the Djerba Declaration of the UNWTO, the problem has yet to be addressed from an overall perspective on the part of specialists. Indeed, in the Fourth Report of the IPCC, aimed at providing recommendations to governments on the proper measures to mitigate the impact of climate change, tourism as such is not mentioned, whereas transport does appear in it alongside energy, the habitat, industry, agriculture, forests and waste. It is the UNWTO's conviction that the mitigation potential is especially high in the tourism industry, because efforts to lower its energy consumption are still in their infancy and have hitherto been undertaken without a global vision. Furthermore, the expected growth of this sector justifies that it be given particular attention. Within certain limits, alternative solutions can be proposed to reduce the sector's contribution to the greenhouse effect, especially in the area of transport. A certain

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number of interesting solutions are currently on the table to reduce the contribution of tourism and transport to warming.

4. Conclusions Tourism – business and leisure travel is a significant global industry making positive contributions to growth, trade and development. Thus there are climate related risks for tourism: directly through climate variability and changing weather patterns affecting the planning of programmes and daily operations, and even health and safety; and indirectly by altering the natural environment that represents both a key attraction and basic resources for tourism. Such developments require adaptation, with medium and long term planning by the industry to minimize the impacts and to adjust in the best ways possible to the phenomenon. This is most important where tourism is a source of development support and local community wellbeing in poor countries. At the same time, UNWTO recognises that tourism contributes to the causes of climate change and the consequent need for mitigation. While concerns about tourism’s polluting effects cover all aspects of a tourist’s activity, the primary issue regarding climate change factors relates to the Greenhouse Gas emissions in the sector. Current best estimates are that in 2005 tourism (domestic and international) contributed approximately 5 per cent to global emissions of carbon dioxide and a little less than that in terms of radiative forcing. This is primarily generated through consumption by travellers of transport services (accounting for an estimated 75 per cent of the tourism contribution) and energy consumption in tourism establishments (like air conditioning, heating and lighting in hotels). The tourism sector has a responsibility to minimise harmful emissions by encouraging sustainable, carbon neutral transport solutions and low carbon market destination combinations, to improve the use of natural resources (water, energy) and to contribute to the conservation of natural areas. Tourism, like other sectors is capable of substantial reduction in its carbon emissions as a result of applying new technologies; for example, accommodations and restaurants can apply renewable 99 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

energy (solar and wind); land transport can use cleaner energy and hybrid engines; aviation can benefit from technologies that shorten air routes and improve descent procedures and fuel consumption. Whatever the environmental outcome, tourism cannot be seen in isolation. Major changes in the pattern of demand will lead to wider impacts on many areas of economic and social policy such as, for example, in employment and labour demand and in regional policy issues such as housing, transport and social infrastructure. Given tourism’s significant catalytic impacts across the economy as a whole, knock-on effects will impact other sectors, such as agriculture supplying tourism demand, handicraft industries, local small business networks, financial services and so on. There is need to ensure that the poorest countries, for which tourism can be fundamental to development, are capable of playing their part in the process of adaptation and mitigation, as well as benefiting from new technologies. This will require new sources of financing as well as refocusing existing sources to support climate related initiatives. The diverse impact is reflected in the broad network of cooperation by UNWTO on environmental issues with both the public and the private sectors.

References [1] Gössling, S., Global environmental consequences, of tourism, Global Environmental Change 12, 283302, 2002. [2] Peeters, P. et al., Major environmental, impacts of European tourist transport, J. Transp. Geogr., 2007. [3] Gössling, S., et al, Voluntary Carbon Offsetting Schemes for Aviation: Efficiency, Credibility and Sustainable Tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism Vol. 15, No. 3, 2007. [4] www.cdmgoldstandard.org. [5] www.fightglobalwarming.org

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DIRECTIONS FOR THE EFFICIENCY OF ENGINEER SUPPORT

Assoc.Prof. Radu Dumitru, PhD, Prof.Eng. Olaru Gheorghe, PhD

Military Technical Academy of Bucharest e-mail: viodumrad@ yahoo.com; [email protected]

Abstract This paper highlights some of the author’s considerations regarding the action directions necessary for assuring the effectiveness of the engineering action during a combat and also to relieve the elements that are found at the base of the notion and of the process of transformation regarding the engineering troops.

Keywords: objective; transformations; functionality; engineer troops; development

1. Introduction For Romania, the final objective of the transformations of the defense system is formed of the achievements of new abilities, through which our country is able to respond to the current and future challenges of the security environment throughout the accomplishment of modern, complete and professional structures, with an increased degree of mobility, efficiencies, flexibility, transferability, supportability, with the capacity to act as one and to be engaged in a variety of missions. At the engineer level, the operations directions that can be considered as bases for the entire process of structural transformations are formed on the following premises: the Alliance represents the main operational security structure which offers guaranty and establishes levels of performance for its members; the necessity to

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continue common activities, on different theaters of operations; the requirement for all the engineer structures to be compatible and interoperable; the missions of the armed forces in the actual context. The process of transformation and modernization will be supported by the future projects, witch involve the following operation course [1]: the assumption and completion of all obligations regarding NATO; the preparation and participation at the EU missions; the restyling and adaptation of the command and control structure; the realization of C4I2SR systems and the transformation of The Romanian Army regarding informatics; the modernization of the management of human resources; the grow of life quality of the staff; the adaptation of the military system of education etc. The armaments must be able, at the same time to equally assure [2]: - the defense of the national territory through: a military response to a military aggression; support for the civilian authorities in case of emergency, natural disaster, NBC incidents etc; - the accomplishment of all the engagements towards NATO, UE, regional organizations and coalitions, through: the implementation of the Capabilities Stack (Package), according with The Engagements took at Prague; the participation at the NATO Response answer Force the NATO; the participation at the battle tactical group of the European Union; the participation to multinational organizations. The Romanian Army will dispose of a unique pack [3] of services and this will be achieved through the conversion of forces, seeking: - the management through which the following aspects will be assured: an optimal communication between the fighting forces, supporting fighting and logistic forces; modulation, terminal, interchangeable, compatible (with each other), deployable forces ; the turning of forces; the formation of forces for special missions; special abilities to expand the armed forces through mobilization, training, equipment, etc; - the loading and dotation;

1 Strategia de transformare a armatei României, Bucureşti, 2005, p. 7. 2 Idem. 3 Ibidem, p. 10. 102 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- the training through witch the following aspects will be assured: the foundation of a modern instruction system; the development of an evaluation system of the operative state; - the support; All the enumerate aspects earlier will complete the following demands: - organizationally: modular and mixed structure; permanent informational support; mixed logistic support; the integration of the elements for the assurance of the combat (engagement); the inclusion of special combat elements (CIMIC, PSYOPS); locating surface; properly embarkation/debarkation training or special training; transportation and provision for long distances with a special destination; the development of a active force purveyance (reserve); - functionality: leading element with grown attributions; information received directly from the participants nations ; direct reports (relationships) between; mobility and rapid interchangeable capacity of different components tasks; communication transformation of the proper command posts both with the central PC, and with the local authorities; assurance of a grown action potential. In the year 2015, according as the resources allocated, the Romanian army will have effectives of 80.000 people. The distribution of these will aim the realization of a balance between the command and armed forces, in a way that it will be assured the execution of missions in optimum conditions. The Command structure will represent up to 4,5% of the total personal staff of the army, and the armed forces up to 95,5%[1].

2. The operations course at a tactical and operative level The ground of the new organizational structure that supports the national security and defense consists of the following aspects: compatibility and interoperability with the allied forces during common missions; the aspect, topology and the tendency (purpose) of military conflicts; the division of the administration part from the operational one; modular management.

1 Apud, p. 11. 103 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Noticeable is the fact that the modernization of the engineer troupes is based on the concepts of compatibility and interoperability, these being the key for the success of the common actions. The approach for the modernization and for the achievement of interoperability according to the current documents is formed of three separate stages. These are determined by the restructure of forces, the conditions employed towards the Alliance to achieve the demands of the Force Objectives[1], as well as the demands of the integration process in NATO and UE: - finalizing the basic of reorganization (2005-2007); - complete operationally NATO and European Union integration (2008-1015), aims towards: to make operational increasing units for NATO and EU; to carry on the implementation of the Force Objectives; to finalize the reorganization of the logistics system at a strategically and operative level; to carry on the acquisitions of new equipment and major program of dotation (equipment); reorganization of military educational system; extend the implementation of the requirements for the Force Objectives (training, linguistic ability, communication) at the level of dislocate units in order to generate the reserve of these units; the grow (increase) of the value of the participant forces to the NATO Countering Force and of the contribution with armed forces and capabilities to EU; - the complete technical integration in NATO and UE (2016- 2025) through the achievement of long - term period objectives: the concentration of efforts, financiers and human resources in order to achieve all the technical power capabilities stipulated in the Force Objectives and the performance of responsibilities in NATO and UE; the continuation of the modernization of dower equipage with new equipment and the achievement of full compatibility with the armies of the member states of NATO and EU; the creation the conditions to dispose the ample big units and the units in the military base with the complete facilities for national assistance, hosting, military equipment layout and training. Consisting with the facts presented earlier two other important elements are mentioned, which, in our opinion, have a great influence

1 Strategia de transformare a armatei României, Bucureşti, 2005, p. 11-12. 104 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

on the operational course: conceptual dimension and structural dimension during the reformation process. The fulfillment of NATO’s increasement demand of the dislocation capacity and support in the theater of operations, corroborated with the one regarding the increasing of the level of preparation until the completion of the missions of the Alliance, imposes new adjustments to the “logistics strategy” of the engineering troops, to the distribution of different types of resources and to the training programs. Due to the multiple interactions between the reorganization and modernization process elements of the army and the engineer’s structures, it can be affirmed that any modification that is made in an area as a consequence to a reevaluation must be linked with all the other modification in order to not create interference in the implemented model of a program.

3. The operations course for the organization of the en engineer structures The military potential is a sum of “the technologies that are implemented on arms, on the material and human quantity and quality, on plans, on tactics, on the operative art and strategy, all of these concurring to a visible efficiency”[1] So, it is necessary to define the military potential using the following criteria: the fighting possibilities “that can cause the aggressor great prejudice, which has negative consequences, which exceed the advantages of a planed action”[2]; unnecessary consumption (expenses) for the military operation structure; the dimension of the engineer troops must be related with the level of danger. The first courses, which result directly from the necessity of operational structures in the context of budgetary deficit, are: resizing of the engineer troops, so as to be situated in the budget allocated, in operational conditions; maximizing the technical and fighting

1 Millett, A.R. şi Murray, W “Military Effectiveness”, (3 vol.), Allen & Unwin, Boston, Mass, 1998, p. 23. 2 Savţenko, V., K voprosu obespeženija strategižeskoj stabilnosti v mnogopoljusnom mire, Voennaja Mysli, Rusia, no. 1, jan. 1994, p. 7. 105 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

potential allocating financial resources for engineer systems, depending on the contribution of these systems. The cutting of the effectives and warfare technique must be substituted by the grow of quality: the development of the informational components (the information represents an essential aspect for the military actions); the existence of dynamical adaptation processes (the process of “ageing” may cause the grow of the costs of maintenance as a direct result to the multiple remedies); the improvement of the training level both for the forces under NATO, destined for the Alliance, EU or/and ONU, and also for the territorial ones. Singularizing the aspects presents for the engineer troops we present two courses of operations: common language (English language) for the forces that take part in common actions; common procedures and standards; doctrine, handbooks and other specific documents that are in concordance with the ideas and concepts NATO, genius of national specific; tuition and training; the modernization of the dotation; the application of a new conception on the organization of the military structures. Throughout a realistic approach and implementation of some engineer structures that achieve a balance between the belligerent and peace, throughout a operational plan it can be created fighting capability that assures the accomplishment of mission, in a interchangeable environment when the actions are carried out under NATO, or under ONU or/and EU.

References [1] *** - The strategy of Romanian army’s transformation (Strategia de transformare a armatei României), Bucureşti, 2005 [2] Millett, A.R., Murray, W. - Military Effectiveness, (vol. 3), Allen & Unwin, Boston, Mass, 1998. [3] Savţenko, V. - Assuring the strategic stability in the multipolar world; (K voprosu obespeženija strategižeskoj stabilnosti v mnogopoljusnom mire), Voennaja Mysli, Rusia, no. 1, jan. 1994.

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ASPECTS ABOUT ROMANIAN AVIATIC TRANSPORTS IMPOSED BY INTEGRATION

Assoc.Prof. Sima Elena, PhD, Ec. Calciu Iulia Elena

Romanian-German University of Sibiu GENPACT Ltd., Bucharest

Abstract Airlines retort that mostplane journeys cover either long distances or short ones counting natural obstacles, for whichthere are no realistic alternatives. Therefore, any comparison of CO2 performance between transport modes is irrelevant as they accomplish different missions and meet different demands. Encouraging a modal shift "cannot provide a proper solution to the global problem of climate change, nor can it resolve the local issue of airport congestion. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) further notes aviation's "significant progress" towards reducing its environmental and social impacts, and the "substantial positive externalities" the sector generates by paying in full for the building, maintenance and use of its infrastructures – thus "connecting many industries within the national economy and to the wider global economy". Aviation makes the highest net contribution of all modes when expressed in terms of passenger journeys, whereas rail and light rail (urban transit) networks make a negative net contribution, because they are heavily subsidised and fail to cover their infrastructure costs. This paper deals with the new aspects that affect air transports in Romania as a new state member of the European Union as: unique standards in aviation for all Europe, a high security and cheep trips for this kind of transport, air taxi and optimizations for airports.The looming airport capacity crunch is also a matter of concern for airports. Optimising capacity "will be far from sufficient to cope with traffic demand over the next 20 years. Airports must be permitted to plan, finance and build in time the new facilities that are needed to respond to airlines' and passengers’ needs. This is a prerequisite not only for the

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competitiveness of Europe's aviation industry, but also for that of Europe's economy, in line with the Lisbon Strategy.

Keywords: air transports, air taxi, security

Romanian people record one of the highest rates of increase at air transport of passengers. Statistics show that Romania was situated on the first place in the European Union at the increase of the number of passengers – the progress was of 35 %. After Romania comes Slovenia with 34%, Latvia with 33% and Poland with 31%. However, the number of people that travel by plane rests near 50 times lowers than the British people (Great Britain is the European Union’s member state that has the most important air traffic with 211, 2 millions passengers). Cheep flights were a successful model. Low Fares Airlines represents an air company that has cheep flights. For optimising the costs so that one ticket would be 50 euro meant that these transporters cut the expenses by using secondary airports where the taxes are low and these airports are freer and so they reduce the time of staying at ground. Another measure is the standardizations of floats so that they use one model of plane and therefore less money for service and personnel. It is a standardization of the routes too because direct flights without stopping are preferred. 95% of the tickets sales are made on the Internet or through call- canters which means lower costs for distribution the avoidance of the commissions of the ticketing firms. There isn’t business class or other VIP facilities but the plane can be used at its maximum capacity. The great number of passengers offers many opportunities for the airports: car rent companies, shops, banks, post offices, restaurants and bars. Airports get taxes for concession for all these businesses that increase the balance with the number of transited passengers. The LFA concept comes from the USA. In 1985, Europe adopted the American model and the Irish family, Ryan, put the bases of Ryan Air, with 25 employees and one 748 BAe plane, with a capacity of only 46 places. Now in Europe there are 60 companies that practise low tariffs. From these, 11 are members of the European Low Fares Airline Association (ELFAA), an association founded in January 2004 108 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

by the most powerful players on this market segment. (Ryan Air, Easy Jet, Air Berlin, Wizz Air). The models of plane that ELFAA prefers are BOEING 737, AIRBUS A-319 and A-320. In Romania there are 7 companies with low tariffs: Blue Air Transport, My Way Airlines, Wind Jet, Alpi Eagles, Club Air, Sky Europe si Wizz Air, from which the two from the last are ELFAA members. The destinations for theirs passengers are Italy and because many Romanian people work there. Blue Air Transport is the first Romanian air company that works in LFA system and has 100% Romanian capital. Although the evolution of the companies that work in the LFA system was excellent there are many obstacles in the increase of this market segment. In Europe, the companies that work in the LFA system have troubles from the mode of operation because flights are often seen as a source of the pollution increase. Although air transports are responsible only in a small part for the novice emissions in Europe, this fact is seen differently and there is the intention of adding supplementary environmental taxes that shall be applied to the companies or to the price of kerosene. This last thing will be an original one because according to the 1944 Chicago Convention stipulations kerosene is free of taxes. These companies use new planes with less phonic or novice pollution and they don’t have catering services on board, therefore fewer offal because there aren’t food packaging. The euro-parliamentarians want unique safety standards for aviation. Therefore, the European Aviation Safety Agency – EASA was born. EASA can fine or put penalisations to those who don’t respect a unitary set of safety rules. Air transport has the most significant increase of all transports in the last 20 years. This fact generates an over saturation of the airports’ capacities and the air traffic control, a fact that slows the efficiency and realizes many delays. Due to these problems, the European Commission elaborated a work programme based on the Single European Sky concept. The Single European Sky is an ambitious initiative that wants to reform the architecture of the European system of air traffic control so 109 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

that it can be capable to respond of the needs related to capacity and safety (air space is organized as it was in 1960). The events from September, 11th 2001, bring to our attention aspects related to air security (the specialists make a clear distinction between air safety that has as a scope the establishment of the rules concerning the construction and use of the air naves and the air security that must avoid the criminal acts from the air traffic and the need for cooperation). The European Union and the USA have a safety agreement for in the aeronautic field. That will mean several millions of Euro cut in costs each year for the European and American companies and these economies must be reflected in the cost of the tickets for transatlantic flights. This agreement is a historical mark not only because it is the first one but because of the safety of air transports. The European Union and the USA have the best references from the entire world with an average under 0, 6 accidents at 1 million of flights during 1996-2007. This year, the Transportation Security Administration - TSA from SUA announced that 10 airports were endowed with a new type of corporal scanner that can replace the common body search because they can “see” through more efficiently than the X rays devices used for the inspection of the luggage. The Romanian National Postal Office Company announced on the 11th of June 2008 that it intends to buy air transport services in an auction from the Romanian Bourse of Goods. This fact has as a scope the improvement the postal services operability and comes after their raise of price of since August last year. After the announcement for the auction the contract for the supply of air transports will have the duration of 42 months and the value will be around 45 million Euros without VAT (Valued Added Tax). The assignment will be to the lowest price. The efforts to improve the quality of the offered services are motivated by the necessity to resist to the great competition brought with the liberalization of postal services in the European Union’s member states beginning with the first of January 2011(meanwhile Romania can ask for a postponement of no more than 2 years). Air taxi is a priority of the European policy. 110 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The European Commission proposed an integration of the general and business aviation in the European air transport policy in European Union. Air taxi services offer flexible transport possibilities for physical persons, firms, people’s mobility increase, the firms’ productivit. This kind of transport can offer air traffic services, missing persons search or urgent medical transport. The Romanian Association of Private Aviation Operators (AROPA) says that in Romania there are 5 companies that can offer by demand transport for one or many persons, by plane or by helicopter, meaning an unfold air taxi. These companies are Ion Tiriac Air, Regional Air Service Tuzla, EuroJet, Special Air Services and Cobrex and they function by a commercial transport license. Although we are talking about “small aviation”, during the flight, passengers and their luggage is insured because the operators don’t get the licence if they don’t have insurance on an international level. Even if these services aren’t cheep (between 380 Euro/ hour and 2500 Euro/hour) the operators for air taxi have many clients. As International Air Transport Association says that, in 2005- 2009, Romania will have a 8.5% increase of the traffic of passengers, an evolution that will be outrun by Poland (11,2%), China (9,6%), the Czech Republic (9,5%), (9,2%) and Turkey (8,9). There will be millions passengers until 2012. In order to have the best traffic conditions, airports must benefit from great investments, the most important for Bucharest, of over 100 million Euros (80% for Otopeni and the rest for Baneasa). In Romania there are a lot of problems concerning the quality of runways, the security of operations, and the taxes that in many cases are made to cover the costs and not to show the level of the services. There is no correlation between Romanian laws and international ones. Here, ad-hoc flights have a double cost for fuels and international laws tax it differently. Some people say that there are too many airports in Romania and that our country must also focus on the inter-modal transport. Anyway, the air transport has an extraordinary development and in the next period it will be the same. Romania must keep the rhythm in developing this kind of transport.

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Bibliography 1. Bowers, C., - Getting the prices right, T& E, Brussels, Belgium, 1993. 2. Cămăşoiu, C., coord. – Economia şi sfidarea naturii, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 1994. 3. Fistung, D., coord.- Transportul terestru, mediul şi sănătatea, Grupul Român pentru Transport Durabil (D. R. T. D.), Bucureşti, 1997. 4. Fistung, D., - Transporturi. Teorie economică, Ecologie, Legislaţie, Ed. AllBeck, Bucureşti, 1999. 5. Melnic, A., ş.a.- Sisteme de transport, Ed. CD PRESS, Bucureşti, 2007. 6. Sima, E., - Managementul tehnologiilor în transporturi, Ed. Burg, Sibiu, 2004, 7. ***www. transport-business.ro (accesat în august 2008). 8. ***International Road Transport Union (IRU): (July 2008).

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THE EVOLUTION OF THE DEFENCE EXPENSES AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL

Asst.Prof. Clipici Emilia, PhD, Asst.Prof. Popescu Ramona, PhD

University of Piteşti e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The reduction in the defence budgets after 1990 has had significant effects on the defence industry of many countries, including the United States of America and the Western European Countries. In these circumstances, the companies in the defence industry have adjusted to the newly created situation in various ways, while the possibilities of the national governments to support changes varied.

Keywords: military expenditure, defence industries, weapons exports

1. Introduction The changes occurred in the defence industries had repercussions on the national security policies as well, if we take into account that, before the year 1990, national security policies were elaborated in close relation to the capacity of the national defence industry. The adoption by NATO, towards the end of the 1980’s, of the policy of “creating peace with fewer weapons” 105 has led to dramatic changes at the level of the budget allocations for defence, mainly expressed by the necessity of decreasing the armed forces and the weapon production. Although the countries in Western Europe were facing the same problem, they had much more consistent financial means as compared to other countries, where the impact of the reduction of the defence expenses was dramatic.

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For example, until 1994, the European Union had already allocated funds in the amount of 130 million Euros, out of which approximately 38.2 million EUROS for Germany only, for the attenuation of the negative effects of the decrease in the defence expenses and for the initiation of several efficient conversion programmes: the reorientation of the weapon factories towards civil goods production, the personnel’s professional re-qualification and the creation of alternative employment opportunities.

2. The evolution of a defense expenses at the global level Although, at the world level, defence expenses have increased by the remarkable percentage of 11% as a matter of fact in the year 2003 – thus reaching the figure of 956 billion USD –, and following an increase by 6.5% in 2002, we should stress the fact that this increase is due to the developed countries (accounting for approximately 75% of the volume of the world defence expenses), though these countries barely represent 16% of the world population, as in [1]. The increase in the defence expenses at the world level, initiated in 2001, mainly as a result of the defence measures taken to counteract the new security risks – recognized as a result of the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 in the United States of America –, is not at all, however, an even one. The main reason for this global ascendant trend of the defence expenses is its massive increase in the United States of America, cumulating almost 50% of the global total amount as in [1]. After one decade of dramatic decreases, made during the period 1987- 1998 – when the defence expenses reached their lowest level– and after a period of moderate increase between 1998 and 2001, after the attacks of 11 September, 2001 USA experienced a spectacular increase in military expenses, especially in the years 2002 and 2003, the trend remaining the same for 2004 as well, (with a budget of 399.1 billion USD). Most of the supplementary budget allocations for defence are necessary in order to cover the expenses imposed by the military operations performed in Afghanistan and Iraq and to support the measures of combating terrorism, and apart from these expenses, the increase in the defence budget is much smaller, leading to an augmentation of barely 4% in the global defence expenditure for the year 2003. 114 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Some increase appears to have been made at the level of other developed countries as well, without, however, reaching the level of the United States, while the vast majority of the small and medium countries continue to be confronted with lower and lower defence expense, a tendency to reduce the defence expenses at the world level, on long term, being expected. The estimative evolution of the defence budget at the global and regional levels for the period 1988-2007 (in billion USD, at the level of the prices in 2005), is summarized in the picture below:

Figure 1 – World military expenditure, financial years 1988-2007

According to a report of Stockholm International Peace Research Institute1, the world military expenses increased by 6% in 2007, thus reaching the figure of 1,339 billion dollars (approximately 851 billion Euros), i.e. 2.5% of the gross domestic product, or 202 dollars (128.4 Euros) per person. The factors driving increases in world military spending are: - The foreign policy objectives - The real or perceived threats

1 SIPRI Yearbook , SIPRI, Stockholm, 2008. 115 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- Armed conflicts - to contribute to multilateral peacekeeping operations - “ the availability of economic resources“ In the past ten years, the world military expenses have increased by approximately 45%, and in Eastern Europe - by 162%, between 1998 and 2007. North America (65%), Middle East (62%), South Asia (57%), Africa (51%), and East Asia (51%) did not neglect their weapon and military equipment purchases either. However, the United States of America had the highest expenditure, i.e. 45% of the total amount of 1,339 billion dollars, more than in World War II period. Starting with 2001, the American military expenditure has increased by 59%, mainly due to the military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, but also because the Defence Department budget has been supplemented, according to the explanations provided by the SIPRI experts. Americans account for 80% of the increase in the military expenditure registered in 2005. In 2006, the USA spent 528.7 billion dollars (339.17 billion Euros) in this field, this amount representing 3.99% of the gross domestic product and 46% of the total world defence expenditure. It is to be reminded that, for 2009, the budget requested by the Defence Department in the United States has been 518.3 billion dollars. Moreover, Americans are first in all the tops in this field, with the U.S. weapons exports rising to 7.929 billion dollars (5.1 billion Euros) in 2006, while large American corporations such as Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Northrop Grumman, Raytheon, or General Dynamics also occupy the first positions in the classification of specialized companies. In 2007, the largest operator in the defence industry was Lockheed Martin. In 2007, the United States accounted for almost half of the world increase, with expenditure made for the endowment of their military forces equal to those made by all the other states put together. A report of the U.S. Congress announces that, in the period 2008-2013, the Pentagon intends to invest approximately 900 billion de dollars for the design and purchase of new combat technologies. And they also intend to invest a similar amount in the next 20 years for the design and commissioning of highly sophisticated combat airplanes. The U.S. Congress’ report specifies that 335 billion out of the total 900 will be 116 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

dedicated to the most important programmes for the purchase of new combat systems. The text also stresses the fact that it is necessary that current financial procedures, as well as the administrative mechanisms of the weapons purchase and investment in armament projects should be verified, with the purpose of optimizing the whole process and of reducing the supply period. According to this report, the investments in weapons purchase programmes are, currently, at its highest level in the last two decades, the reason for this being that the purchase process initiated by the Ministry of Defence for conventional armament usually lasts between ten and 15 years from the moment of its initiation to the manufacturing stage. Taking into account the current world financial crisis due to the imbalances in the American Economy, the funds allocated for military expenditure in the USA that were specified in this report might be reduced. According to western forecasts, in 2015-2020, China will occupy the second place in the world, and the USA is making efforts to keep its leading position by constantly leaving behind those who follow in its steps. The Chief of the Pentagon, Robert Gates, admitted that the U.S. are carefully watching the progress of China’s strategic forces, being prepared to operate the adequate changes in their own military programmes if it were necessary. However, Russian military experts are of a different opinion: “Nothing new is done in China, and everything is copied with an amazing precision. China is unrivalled in this respect” The annually allocated American defence budget is equal to the expenditure of the whole North Atlantic Alliance for one year and represents more that one third of the world military expenditure, estimated to come up to the figure of approximately 1,500 billion dollars this year. By comparison, Romania’s expenditure for the endowment of its army for its integration in the North Atlantic military structure is estimated to be 23 billion dollars, in the next ten years.

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% military expenditure in global expenditure in 2008

SUA Europa China Asia de Est / Australia Orientul Mijlociu / Africa de Nord Rusia America Latina Asia Centrală şi de Sud Africa subsahariană

Figure 2 – Military expenditure, financial years 2008 as % of global expenditure

The official defence budget for the fiscal year 2008 amounts to 481 billion dollars, plus 142 billion for the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. But the armament expenditure is also concealed in the budgets of other ministries, like, for example, the nuclear weapon research – in the expenditure of the Energy Ministry. There are also other kinds of expenditure that are kept secret for security reasons, such as, for example, the secret service budget. According to assessments made by certain experts, approximately 50 % of the total budget is spent for military purposes. Nevertheless, the advocates of this policy state that the share of the armament expenditure in the total GDP is currently lower than it used to be when Reagan was president, when they would amount to la 2,000 billion dollars. But it was precisely R. Reagan’s summit with M. Gorbachov in Reykjavik, held in 1986 signified the starting point of the reduction of armaments. After the end of the Cold War, the armament expenditure decreased by a quarter, which proves that political influence can be exercised on the military-industrial complex. But after 11 September, 2001 the expenditure has increased again.

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Consequently, from the point of view of expenditure, the defence “shield” provided by NATO to the Member States can almost be mistaken for the military endowment of the American army. However, on the other hand, the pie of the annual American military expenditure is one of the key economic development pillars of the United States, and is strongly supported by the fierce lobby of the great military equipment manufacturing companies. The estimated costs with the Iraq conflict for this year amount to a monthly figure of 12 billion dollars, which is three times the otherwise spectacular expenditure made in 2007. Moreover, working with “best case” and “realistic-moderate scenarios”, Nobel Prize- winning economist Joseph E. Stiglitz and co-author Linda J. estimate that the financial effort the U.S. budget will make until 2017 for the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts will be between 1,700-2,000 billion dollars. The additional interest on money borrowed to pay the various war costs may increase this figure by another 816 billion dollars. In absolute figures, the armament expenditure amounted to 547 billion dollars (45% of the world total), in Great Britain - 59.7 billion, in France – 58.3 billion, in Germany – 36.9 billion. Russia, the preoccupations with its own military forces of which were presented in 2006, at the International Conference on Security Policy by its president at that time, Vladimir Putin, spent, for such purposes, 35.4 billion dollars, in 2007, i.e. 10% less than Italy. While Russia accounts for 86% of the regional expenditure increase, Western Europe registered the lowest increases in this respect. If the report is analysed for the individual regions, is reveals that the armament expenditure leader in the last decade is Eastern Europe, with 162%, much more than the indicators for the constantly agitated areas, like the Middle East (62%), South Asia or Africa and East Asia (with 51% each). The last-but-one place is occupied by Central America (14%) and by Western Europe (4%). Moreover, this is a region where the last armed conflict came to an end quite a few years ago (in the Balkans) and no other military threats have occurred ever since. Eastern Europe has registered the largest armament expenditure increase in the last 10 years (+162%). 119 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The areas where the smallest increases in the military expenditure were registered are Western Europe and Central America (6%, and respectively 14%).

3. Conclusion The defence industry, expenditures, exports and all the other key economic indicators will keep their high levels, reached in the last few years, since the world conflicts continue, especially in the delicate area of the Middle East. War plays the role of consumer, in this mechanism that eventually remains a purely economic one. In conclusion, the data prove that, at the global level, in fact, the armament race has not ended, but on the contrary, it tends to intensify. In the future, this expenditure is estimated to increase significantly, the reason for it being explained by some experts who believe that the financial crisis is responsible for this, the weapons production being used by some governments as the last resort to avoid mass unemployment and economic disaster. For 2008, a significant increase in the global defence expenditure is estimated, i.e. up to 1,473 billion dollars.

References [1] SIPRI Yearbook 2004, SIPRI, Stockholm, 2004, http://www.sipri.org. [2] SIPRI Yearbook 2008, SIPRI, Stockholm, 2004, http://www.sipri.org.

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THE INFLUENCE OF DOCTRINES ON MILITARY CAPABILITIES

Asst.Prof. Ispas Lucian

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Doctrines, in their general capacity for opinions and thesis adopted in the system of applying a conception, politics and strategic concept, highlight the confrontation politics and strategies. The difference between doctrines, tactics and action procedures of different military components, demand new operational requirements for the force structure, requirements that can be found within the joint operations doctrines, elaborated or drafted, in all modern armies.

Military doctrine, by means of its contents, lies at the basis of military strategy establishment and implementation. Actually, military doctrine represents the means for the accomplishment of the set political-military objective (armed defense) in a given situation, consisting of military action, the field of military strategy. This expresses, therefore, the relationship between military politics, doctrines and strategy [1]. As part of the modern armies, the land forces are considered to be the element in charge of ensuring the presence, expansion and the domination of military power on ground. US strategic political- military concepts state that the air force and the navy, with a consistent informational support ensured by satellite systems, is recommended, the land forces having the role of defining a victory almost achieved by the very precise hits from the sky, the sea, over a period of a couple of weeks.

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Multinational joint operations are those actions where two or more countries participate, with military forces that vary in size, belonging to diverse army components, under unified political control and command and with a unique objective [2]. After WW2, the confrontation east-west politics generated matching strategies and doctrines. The Warsaw Treaty Alliance and NATO doctrines have rendered these politics into concepts and methodologies. In order to have the doctrine put into practice, the necessary capabilities insofar as the human factor is concerned, as basis component, vital to the military forces. These have to use their imagination, skills, intuition and talent, as well as the abilities acquired during training. As far as the army components’ degree of involvement in joint actions, the most recent military conflicts have highlighted some very important issues. The main analysis criterion is of course, the doctrines of military powers whose armed forces participated in the respective conflicts. Therefore, the states who chose to promote their political interests in diverse places around the globe, from the proximity of their frontiers, have used land forces’ units. An example could be made of the Cecenia war, where military actions were concentrated for a long period of time in the most important towns or in rough country. The actual conditions in this theatre of operations determined the land forces’ primary role [3]. The complex nature of the global security challenges in this new millennium requires changes in doctrines of all armies which suppose to have the possibility to manage and win the conflicts of the future. Joint Operations represents a significant step forward in our pursuit of an improved joint force. The operational environment for military forces in a continuous changing and it expect to be will be extremely dynamic. Transforming of social, economic, political, military, and information systems will afford opportunity for some regional powers to participate on a broader scale and emerge on the global landscape with considerable influence. Amplified globalization is bringing changes to the international strategic background based on a rise of new powers, population shifts, 122 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

competition for natural resources, impacts on governance, a persistent sense of global insecurity, and evolving coalitions, alliances, partnerships, and new actors (both national and transnational) that will continually appear and disappear from the scene. Fighting in urban environments and other complex terrain will increasingly characterize areas of operation that may include both humanitarian crisis conditions and combat operations. While the nature of war will remain violent, new capabilities, or new methods of employing capabilities, need to be developed to conduct of warfare and crisis resolution. The conduct of future warfare will include combinations of conventional and unconventional, military and nonmilitary actions and operations, all of which add to the rising complexity of the future security environment. USA developed his own Capstone Concept for Joint Operations (CCJO) which heads the family of joint operations concepts (JOpsC) that describe how joint forces are expected to operate across the range of military operations in 2012-2025. The document incorporate the lessons gleaned from the conflicts which are taken place today (Iraq and Afghanistan, for example) while looking to the future to examine the capabilities they will need to fight tomorrow’s wars. The joint doctrine must become more efficient to reflect the changing nature of the environment and how to operate. In accordance with US concept, the changing conduct of war suggests a review of the Principles of War in the context of 21st century warfare and crisis resolution. Operating with the joint doctrine in order to accomplish complex operations requires knowledgeable, innovative, and decisive leaders, capable of leading the networked joint force to success in fluid and perhaps chaotic operating environments. Future joint leaders will require more comprehensive knowledge of interagency and foreign cultures and capabilities. Today our challenges change continuously, the force is most capable of contending with traditional security challenges and other challenges are increasing and we must increase our capabilities for handling them. Developing a campaign for an operational scenario will vary according to the strategic objectives, the adversary, terrain and 123 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

weather, capabilities and support available, time available, and civil considerations. Doctrine for joint operations has implications for future concept and joint force development and employment. These implications apply across capabilities and policy. One of the most significant implications is in the area of unified action. The future joint force must gain and maintain the ability to operate effectively with participants of varying capabilities and differing areas of expertise. Greater integration should be a focal point of policy development to clearly delineate roles and responsibilities [4]. The National Defense Strategy of The United States of America identify an array of traditional, irregular, catastrophic and disruptive capabilities and methods threaten U.S. interest: - Traditional challenges are post by states employing recognized military capabilities and forces in well-understood forms of military competition and conflict; - Irregular challenges come from those employing “unconventional” methods of counter the traditional advantages of stronger opponents; - Catastrophic challenges involve the acquisition, possession, and use of WMD(Weapons of Mass Destruction) or methods to produce WMD-like effects; - Disruptive challenges may come from adversaries who develop and use break-trough technologies to negate current U.S. advantages in key operational domains. These categories overlap. Actors proficient in one can be expected to try to reinforce their position with methods and capabilities drown from the others. Indeed, recent experience indicates that the most dangerous circumstances arise when we face a complex of challenges. For example, our adversaries in Iraq and Afganistan presented both traditional and irregular challenges. Terrorist groups like al Qaeda are irregular threats but also actively seek catastrophic capabilities. North Korea at once poses traditional, irregular and catastrophic challenges. Final. In the future, the most capable opponents may seek to combine truly disruptive capacity with traditional, irregular, or catastrophic forms of warfare [5]. 124 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

These threats which are identified in the strategy before may be faced only in a Joint forces. In the future, doctrine have to identify the way to increasingly face nontraditional threats. Even we have historically addressed “adversaries” as combat forces and developed our capabilities accordingly. Future adversaries may not organize or engage forces as traditional military organizations, but more they attempt to generate the social and political power necessary to achieve their goals. Traditional military forces may focus on battlefield victories, but in the same time, their opponents’ goals may try to sustain ideas and their organizations until they win a level of political or social legitimacy. The capabilities of the forces which suppose to fight with such adversaries will require success beyond the battlefield by all instruments of national power. Nontraditional threats create unique operational challenges and may have no obvious centers of gravity. They will try to erode our influence, and patience by adopting unconventional methods in the face of force conventional capabilities. These adversaries considers time as on their side which allows them to impose excessive costs in lives and other national treasure with the intent of compelling the force to a strategic retreat from a key region. They seek to operate from relatively safe areas and from areas where they can be impossible to differentiate from the civil population. A lot of special situations like extremist ideologies and an absence of effective governance will provide fertile ground for their activities. Protecting against irregular challenges may be complicated by unclear and overlapping responsibilities of another agencies for taking action. While efforts to resolve these issues are constant, opponents may seek to exploit the seams between agencies to achieve their goals, such as exploiting the different responsibilities between law enforcement and the military. Insufficient cultural knowledge, including language capability, intensifies the difficulty in responding to this challenge. These political and cultural divides make our ability to contend effectively with irregular challenges problematic, and highlight the

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need for an integrated response from multiple agencies (of a kind we don’t currently possess) to best address this challenge [4]. The most important characteristics of a join force are interoperability and agile. Interoperability is a necessary to integrated and interdependent joint operations. The joint force have to be able to share and exchange knowledge and services between units and commands at all levels. The interoperable joint force can act in an integrated and ultimately an interdependent way among joint force components and capabilities, facilitating more effective interoperability with interagency and multinational partners. Interoperability implies systems, capabilities and organizations working in harmony across all joint force elements; however, it involves more than systems and equipment. By the other hand an agile joint force has the ability to move quickly to defuse a crisis situation or effectively operate inside the decision process, planning, communicating, and acting in a manner that allows effective and efficient adaptation to any situation. Agility allows the commanders to exploit passing opportunities, protect friendly vulnerabilities, and adapt rapidly to changes in the operational environment. The relationship between doctrines and capabilities is considered also within NATO planning documents drafted for joint multinational operations according with NATO-ATP-35B Doctrine. At operational level, the ground, sea or air activity must be conceived, planned, conducted and supported as if it were one. The operational commandant must command and/or control the land forces, the navy and the air force and this is why he/she must be able to maneuver the resources in order to ensure their concentration in the main effort point. If, in practice, the operational commandant doesn’t have under his/her command the air force, he/she must coordinate operations with the air force commander in order to achieve all operational objectives. A tight connection between the army headquarters and the air force headquarters is of utmost importance for effective synchronization of basic equipments in the battle field. Firm coordination of all the force’s elements is also essential to prevent fratricide. If the navy is engaged in operations, its activities must also be coordinated. 126 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Once implemented, Praga Commitments on capabilities will increase at least four times the number of transport ships in Europe, from 4 to 16, and possibly, more. It will also significantly increase the capacity to refuel in the air between European NATO members by creating, among other initiatives, a 10-15 refueling ships capacity. Moreover, by 2007, the NATO non-US high-precision guided ammo stocks will increase by 40%. Another plan is for the Praga Commitments on capabilities and the EU efforts to develop military capabilities to consolidate each-other [6]. The declaration of NATO Secretary General, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, is relevant for the necessity to adjust capabilities according to NATO’s transformation. As he was reviewing the Riga Summit agenda in 2006, he said: “In the past, the main NATO concern was to ensure its member states’ security against foreign invasion or political pressure. Today, our security can be affected by evolutions occurring inside foreign borders. Regional conflicts, terrorism, problem states and mass-destruction weapons’ proliferation stand for challenges that cannot be solved as traditional preplanned and well-known ones, specific to the Cold War. Defending foreign territories is a basis function, but we can no longer protect our security without responding to the potential risks and threats generated in far away regions. Should we not approach these issues decisively, when and where they appear, we will find ourselves with them knocking on our doors”. In conclusion we can say that the difference between doctrines, tactics and action procedures of different military components, most of them active part of a important military alliance, demand in the new battle environment, new operational requirements for the force structure and capabilities, requirements that can be found within the joint operations doctrines which must integrates the other military doctrine such as army (naval or navy) doctrine or doctrine for different military specialties with a strong impact on military capabilities.

References [1] Onişor, C., Military Strategy Theory, Bucharest, A.Î.S.M. Publishing House, 1999, p.111.

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[2] Multinational Joint Operations Doctrine, Bucharest, 2001, pp.13. [3] Gheorghe Udeanu, Reflections on Military Modern Concepts, A.Î.S.M. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002. [4] Capstone Concept for Joint Operations, USA, 2005, pp.3-18 [5] The National Defense Strategy of The United States of America pp. 3, 2005 [6] http://nids.hq.nato.int/docu/0211prague/after_prague-ro.pdf

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BESSARABIAN QUESTION. SOME FOREIGN OFFICE ANALYSIS DOCUMENTS IN 1967

Asst.Prof. Zidaru Marian, PhD

“Andrei Şaguna” University, Constanţa

Abstract In 1967 Foreign Office noticed that meekly and indirectly Romanians have raised the thorny question of Bessarabia a former Romanian province which was last incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940. The question has not been posed formally by Bucharest, but no sooner did the Rumanians begin to strike out a politically independent line from Moscow after 1964, than they dug up a statement of Karl Marx in which he condemned the Czarist seizure of Bessarabia from Moldova in 1812. The British diplomats also noticed that apparently there was an underground propaganda in Soviet Moldova calling for association with Romania. This movement was recognized by the first secretary of the Moldavian Central Committee of Communist Party, Ivan Bodiul which strongly condemned any suggestion that the former Bessarabia had any links with Romania.

In march and April 1967 Foreign Office analyst focused their attention on the problem of Bessarabia. The risen for they did this was some discourse at a Moldavian Communist Party Plenum in Kishinev on February 13 in which they condemned any suggestion that the former Bessarabia had any links with Romania. A first document of analyse called Soviet denounce Romanian Nationalism in Moldavia was produced probably in the middle of march 1967. According to the document at a Moldavian Communist Party Plenum in Kishinev on February 13 first Secretary I.I. Bodiul bitterly attacked as “bourgeois falsifications” all assertions that the people of Moldavia felt any special kinship with Romania. On the contrary, he asserted, even under Tsarist rule the Moldavians have been aware of their advantage 129 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

over their Western neighbours and “could not conceive of a life outside Russia.” Bodiul termed the union of Bessarabia with Romania from 1918-1940 a foreign occupation carried out by Royalist Romania, supported by imperialist state in the west and aided by the counter-revolutionary organization “Sfatul Tarii”. Correspondingly, Bodiul characterized the establishment of Soviet power over the area in June 1940 as a victory in the 22-year struggle of the Bessarabian workers and peasants against the invaders”, and call all the historical interpretations “slander on the past and present of the Moldavian people“[1]. He demanded a more intensive propaganda within the republic to counteract these “foreign” attempts to undermine the “sacred friendship” of the Moldavian people with the Russian and and other Soviet nationalities. The British analyst believe that the roots of the nationality problem in Moldavia are to be found not in foreign propaganda but in the structure of the population of the Republic, over 65% of whom are of Romanian origin, and feel closer linguistic and historical ties with neighbouring Romania than with the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the polar attraction of Romania for the Moldavians has appeared to increase during recent years as Romania has begun to demonstrate somewhat greater economic and political independence of the Soviet Union. Among those participating in the discussions at the plenum even more outspoken on this issue than Bodiul was S. V. Tsaranov, Chairman of the Party History Department of Kishinev Polytechnic Institute. In his speech he underline: “In recent years the bourgeois falsifications of history, as if by command have begun to demonstrate heightened interest in Soviet Moldavia. Crudely distorting the great historical significance of the liberation of Bessarabia torn violently away from the Soviet Russia in 1918, they vainly attempt to prove that Bessarabia is indigenous Romanian territory. By means of this fabrications they are attempting to revive and inflame the nationalistic sentiments of those who, during the Second World War, dreamed not only of Bessarabia, but of the seizure of other territories of the Soviet Union and of the expansion of the boundaries from Maramures, to the Aegean Sea and from the Tisza River to the gates of Asia. In actual fact Bessarabia never was Romanian territory. It was liberated from the Turkish yoke in 1812 and become an organic part of Russia 47 years before the formation 130 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

of the Romanian State. As is well known, the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party hailed the liberation in 1940 of Bessarabia and its reunification with the great family of Soviet people as an act of restoration of historical justice, violated by the Romanian boyars and the capitalist in 1918, and the realization of the historical aspirations of Moldavian people“[2]. British analyst noticed that these spirited official protests in part also reflected the impact of the discreet Romanian campaign to suggest that Soviet Moldova is really Romanian terra irredenta. This campaign first got under way in 1964 and has waxed and waned in intensity ever since. Romanian televisions stations were established in Galati and Iasi, within a few miles of the Soviet border and presumably reach most of Moldavia. The unusually extensive celebration in 1965 of the 107th anniversary of the Union of Moldavia and Walachia (1859) provided the vehicle for the concealed advancement of the concept of “Great Romania”. The Severity of the problem was revealed in a December 1965 speech by Moldavian CPSU Secretary D. S Cordovan, who charged that “international reaction” was seeking to drive a wedge between Soviet peoples by use of the “bourgeois press and an extensive network of radio stations and televisions…which confused unsophisticated people…[3].”. The television broadcasts obviously could come only from Romania. In addition, at the same time Chairman of the Moldavian Council of Minister A Diorditsa characterized the nationality question as “one of the most acute and complicated question of social development”[4] in the Republic. The conclusion of these documents of analyse was that that the great attention paid to rebutting historical Romanian claims to Bessarabia at the February 13 Moldavian plenum strongly suggested that the nationality problem in Moldavia remains at least equally acute and complicated today. Without doubt Soviet leaders are concerned that Moldavia by rights ought to be Romanian is finding increasing support insight Soviet Moldavia. The issue is likely to continue to prove vexing to the Soviet Union both as an internal nationality problem and as an irritant in “brotherly” relations with Romania.

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At 17th of march US Department of State elaborate a Memorandum with the subject Romanian Nationalism attacked in Soviet Moldavia. In the opinion of the author of this Memorandum, American diplomat, George C. Denney jr. Romanian sentiment nationalist in the Soviet Moldova (Bessarabia) has become a significant problem during recent years. Among the western borders area annexed by the Soviet Union at the time of the Second World War, Moldavia (comprising most of the one-time Romanian province of Bessarabia) has proved to be a center of considerable unrest. The population of the Republic is over 65 % Romanian in origin, and their sense of close linguistic and historical ties with neighbouring Romania has appeared recently as to grow more intense. Romania has demonstrated a tendency somewhat greater economic and political independence of the Soviet Union. Furthermore the Romanians themselves have carried on a discreet campaign since 1964 to suggest that Soviet Moldavia is really a Romanian terra irredenta. That this situation is a source of embarrassment and concern for Soviet leaders in Moldavia has been amply proved by their protests against “bourgeois falsifications” suggesting that Moldavia could be anything but Russia and demands for increased propaganda efforts to counteract such theories. At a Communist Party Plenum in Kishinev al February 13, speakers not only repeated similar protests, but specifically raised the spectre of the Romanian expansionism to the east and south, albeit in the historical context of the Second World War. All indications are that this issue will continue to prove vexing to the Soviet Union both as an internal nationality problem in Moldavia and as an irritant in “brotherly” relations with Romania[5]. At 3rd of April the journal Yorkshire Post published the article Rumanian Eyes are on the Bessarabia by Henry Shapiro in which he wrote: Meekly and indirectly Romanians have raised the thorny question of Bessarabia a former Romanian province which was last incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940.The question has not been posed formally by Bucharest, but no sooner did the Rumanians begin to strike out a politically independent line from Moscow after 1964, than they dug up a statement of Karl Marx in which he condemned the Czarism seizure of Bessarabia from Moldova in 1812[6]. That was

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before the of Romania was established (in 1877) and when the separate Principalities now forming Romania were under Turkish vassalage. The national Communist Rumanians have published an official history textbook which, although not claiming the restoration of Bessarabia, contains the following two paragraphphs: In the beginning of 1918, Bessarabia, which in 1812 was attached to the Czarist Empire, was made part of the bourgeois- Boyar Romanian state[7]. And, “in June 1940, as a result of a Note sent by the Soviet Government, Bessarabia and Northern Bucovina were incorporated into the USSR“[8]. The Russian have been quick to respond that the Rumanians seized Bessarabia in 1918 when Russia was preoccupied with and weakened by the Russian Revolution and civil war. A current soviet history said that “an historic injustice was rectified” when the Soviet Union recovered Bessarabia and incorporated it into Soviet Moldova. The Russians further claim that the Romanian Communists in 1940 strongly endorsed “the Liberation of Bessarabia from the Rumanian Monarcho-Fascist regime“[9]. But those are the Communists of the pre-war underground movement whose patriotism and knowledge of Rumanian affairs the Romanian strong man, the secretary -general, Nicolae Ceausescu, has questioned. Regardless of their official posture the Romanians base their claims to Bessarabia on the ground that the majority of its population is technically and culturally Rumanian. Apparently there is some underground propaganda in Soviet Moldova calling for Associations with Rumania. This movement was recognised at the recent meeting of the Moldavian Central Committee at which the Party Secretary, I. I. Bodiul, strongly condemned any suggestion that the former Bessarabia had any links with Romania. A new propaganda chief was appointed to imbue the people with the idea “that our children and future generations must know that their fathers could not conceive of life outside Russia…with which they have tied since ancient time”[10]. Much more emphatic and blunter was the Moldavian historian, S.V. Tsaranov, who told the Central Comitee that “bourgeois nationalist falsifiers of history are vainly trying to show that Bessarabia, which was forcefully torn away from Soviet Russia in 1918, is ancient Romanian territory“[11]. Tsaranov reminded the Rumanians that they

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fought on the size of the Nazis in the Second World War and some of the nationalist elements “dreamt not only of Bessarabia but of seizing other Soviet territories and expanding their frontiers to the Aegean Sea and the borders of Asia“. Actually, Tsaranov said, Bessarabia was never Romanian territory and was part of Russia 47 years before the formation of the Rumanian state. [12]” There the matter rests, with possession being nine points of the law. The new stridently nationalist Rumanian leadership is taking an increasingly independent, if not antagonist course, from the Kremlin. In the opinion of the British journalist “to raise the Bessarabian question officially would open a Pandora’s box of territorial’s problems for Rumania. Hungary must reassert her claims to Transylvania, and Bulgaria to Dobrogea -regions which Romanian acquired partly with Soviet aid. Accordingly the Rumanians are content with either barely keeping the question alive or letting the Chinese pull Rumanian chestnuts out of the fire. It was Mao tse dung who three years ago, in a talk with Japanese Parliamentarians, said that the Russians unjustly held Bessarabia. Although Mao, who claim about 600,000 square miles of Soviet territory for himself, is not exactly objective on such matters, the Rumanians did not At 12th April 1967 J. disagree with him. The question is there however, and although nothing concrete may be done about it in the foreseeable future it remains one more amount the mounting number of problems plaguing the relations between the two erstwhile comradely countries“ [13]. R. Banks a British diplomats noticed in a Memorandum that in the 14th century Moldova Principalities swallowed up Bessarabia. In the 16th century Moldova entered under the suzerain power of Turkey. In 1812 Turkey ceded Bessarabia (but not the rest of Moldova) to Russia. In 1859 the rump of the old Moldavian principality joined up with Wallachia to form the nucleus of modern Romania. The southern part of Bessarabia was part of Moldavia again from 1856, until the Congress of Berlin in 1878, gave it back to Russia. The Romanians took the whole of it back in 1918 and lost it in 1940. The British diplomat believe that the present problem stems from the fact that the population of Bessarabia is rather like that of 19th century of Bohemia,

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with the Russians largely concentrated in towns and the Moldavians dominating the rural areas. The Moldavians are distinguished by their language which is one of the Romanian dialect. Attempts to “purify” Soviet Moldavian to make it conform with modern standard Romanian and attempts to identify specifically Moldavian culture are discouraged by the Russians. British diplomat didn’t find any evidence that Romania encourage them. They did not know how much support these efforts enjoy in Soviet Moldova, nor do they know whether the Soviet Moldavians wanted to be incorporated in Romania. Only a plebiscite could settle this. But a plebiscite was not possible. The diplomat’s tentative conclusion is that the matter is Academic. The Romanian themselves would, find any agitation of Soviet Moldavians embarrassing, since it might encourage the Romanian Hungarians to revive the question of restitution of Transylvania to Hungary. Banks see the Bessarabian problem as one shared by the Soviet and Romanian Governments rather than one seriously dividing them. At the most the Romanians might feel moved to urge the Soviet Union not to be too beastly to the Moldavians and to allow them some expression of their individuality. Even so, British diplomats would expect them to be circumspect in this [14].

Bibliography 1. PRO, Kew Gardens, FO371/28/233 F.O. Memorandum Soviet Denounce Romanian Nationalism in Moldavia (Bessarabia) 2. Ibidem 3. Ibidem 4. Ibidem 5. Ibidem, U. S. State Department Reserch Memorandum .Romanian Nationalism attacked in Soviet Moldavia, by George C Denney jr. in 17th march 1967. 6. Ibidem, Rumanian Eyes are on Bessarabia, article by Henry Shapiro, in Yorkshire Post 3rd April 1967 7. Ibidem 8. Ibidem 9. Ibidem 10. Ibidem 11. Ibidem 12. Ibidem 13. Ibidem 14. Ibidem 135 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

SOME DOCUMENTS ABOUT IULIU MANIU POSITION REGARDING ROMANIAN TERRITORIAL PROBLEMS DURING THE SECRET ARMISTCE NEGOTIATION IN SPRING 1944

Asst.Prof. Zidaru Marian, PhD

“Andrei Şaguna” University, Constanţa

Abstract In the spring of 1944 SOE produced some evidence that Maniu was stated to be in touch with some of the generals. They suggested that this documents might induce His Majesty Government to negotiate with the USSR for political assurances to Maniu. Foreign Office would not, at that moment consider political action, as SOE suggested, and proposed putting Maniu in direct touch with the soviets. The conclusion of the Foreign Office was the subversive organisation under Maniu become, a secondary, though quite important factor. The primary factor become the Army. In Romania British Aim remain subversive only in the sense of trying to promote a coup d’etat against Marshal Ion Antonescu.

A Foreign Office Memorandum from 13th march 1944 analysed the potentialities of political action towards Romania. Its thesis is that the situation there warrants an attempt at political action (involving the USSR) with the object of bringing about a stand still of the Rumanian Armies in Russia, or even a Rumanian withdrawal from the war. SOE produced some evidence of a Peasant Party organization or chain organizations inside Romania. They also reported that Maniu was stated to be in touch with some of the Generals. They suggested that the evidence of this organisation might induce His Majesty Government to negotiate with the U.S.S.R., for political assurance to Maniu. The latter would than seek to provoke an upheaval in

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Romania. The SOE evidence was not in itself convincing as to the possibility of a popular revolt in Romania, and it is not surprising that on the evidence alone the Foreign Office would not, at that moment, consider the political action as SOE suggested, and proposed only putting Maniu in direct touch with the Russians. For the Foreign Office analyst it was possible to form a clear picture of the situation inside Romania and also of what they should aim to bring about there. Early in February Maniu reported to SOE that the Rumanian Chiefs of Staffs and three of Generals has resigned. A little later, after British had conducted an intensive propaganda towards Romania, on the subjects a score of Rumanian Generals met Mihai Antonescu, and a communiqué which was clearly an exhorted one, was issued, stating among other things, that the merits of the Army would in future be recognised, and that the Government was not really acting contrary to the national interest. At the same time Marshall Antonescu went suddenly to Berlin and returned a few days later; the disappearance of the Chief of Staff appear to have been confirmed in fact, but not announced, though the three other generals concerned have apparently remains. The whole crisis coincided with the German demands for the more troops for Russian war, and may fairly inferred to revolve round, that issue. If the evidence of this crisis is laid together with all the many reports which have emerged from Romania, with that of the memorandum submitted to Marshall Antonescu by Maniu and Bratianu, and with the S.O.E. reports, perhaps a clear picture can be drawn of the form which a decisive crisis in Romania might take, and of how the British might try to bring it about. The first thing is to discard any conception of a popular uprising in Romania as impracticable within the framework of S.O.E. evidence, in the face of German control of the country and without the help of the Army. There must be substituted for it the conception of a coup d’etat carried out by the Army on an impulse from Maniu. This is a prospect which appears more real. The subversive organisation under Maniu then becomes a secondary, though quite important, factor. The primary factor becomes the army and the motive force becomes a political assurance communicated to the Army through Maniu. British aim remains subversive only in the sense of trying to promote a coup

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d’etat against Marshall Antonescu and those actively supporting his policy (who as far as they can judge must be very few indeed). Before considering what political step would be necessary to promote such a coup d’etat it is worth while pointing out what should happen if it succeeded. If the political assurances led to a coup d’etat based on the Army, a stand still or withdrawal of Rumanian troops from the Russian campaign should follow. That is to say according to war office estimates some 12/15 divisions might be made useless to the Germans at the critical moment (if the British choose it well) of their offensive. Further, the natural reaction of Hungary to any such step on the part of the Romania would be to limit or reduce her own contribution to the war in Russia, in order to reinforce her troops in northern Transylvania. If it is true that she too is in a process of sending a dozen divisions the total withdrawal from the battle zone could amount to 20/25 divisions. The effective loss of even half this amount would be a serious setback for Germany. In addition, it would probably be necessary for Germany to divert troops to attempt the oil supply. A final consequences of the whole actions might well be armed conflict between Romania and Hungary and a consequent interruption of oil supply from Romania for the German armies in Russia, they would clearly be of great value, especially if properly timed. The political action necessary to make this attempt is clearly a question of special agreement with the U.S.S.R.-If possible in view of its military value, isolated from other more general questions They only possible stop is clearly a secret and conditional assurance to Maniu, on which he could negotiate with the Army leaders. Hitherto the only assurance for which Maniu appears to have asked British is that Russia not completely overwhelm his country. His message asked for an Anglo-Russian guarantee that Romania should not be invaded. This is clearly a bargaining phrase capable of various interpretation. It may reckoned that Maniu and all other politically consciousness people in Romania are convinced in their own minds that Russia intends to get Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina; the point of doubts in their minds is whether Russia intends to go any further. Clearly, therefore, the first assurance necessary to Maniu is one bearing on this point; whether it need be an “Anglo-Russian” or a Russian assurance 138 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

negotiated with British help as a matter for consideration. (In this connection it is worth noting that Soviet Russia has broadcast statements by Moscow Radio in Rumanian that Russia had no designs on Rumanian independence. The issue round which all Rumanian sentiments revolve, however, is Transylvania. It is also an issue which involves the disposition of the Rumanian armed forces. It is also the trump and only /card in ours hands. If an assurance, however guarded, could be given regarding consideration of Rumanian claims on Northern Transylvania it would undoubtedly have an extremely powerful effect on the decision of Rumanian leaders. It is not to much to say, indeed, that such an assurance could outweigh the prospective loss of Bessarabia. British analyst believed that in contrast with Transylvania, Bessarabia is considered by a majority of Rumanian as a colony not worth putting money into (to which its state testifies), a remote and dirty province full of Jews and Russians wither disgraced prefects and politicians out of favour are sent as administrators. The original enthusiasm for the reconquest of the province may be judge to have faded as the result of the subsequent heavy losses in Russia and of the receding hopes of reconquering Northern Transylvania. It was clear that political action such as is proposed here, would to a large extent alienate, if and when it became known, potential supporters in Hungary. It may be supposed, however, that the average Hungarian assumes that any allied victory would entail certain territorial losses for Hungary, and therefore that such support as we do enjoy in Hungary has other motives than territorial hopes. Moreover, for the purely practical point of view, it does not much matter British forfeit support or not, since if their action is regarded to Romania succeeded and the Rumanian Army withdrew from Russia the Hungarian effort there would be automatically affected, and if it did not succeed British would still be in position bargaining with Hungary. Hitherto British policy has steered a neutral course between Romania and Hungary, which has left their hands free to take just such a decision as this Memorandum advocates. If the agreement of the U.S. can be obtained-if it must be-this attempts seem worth making. If the approach to the U.S.S.R. could not be maked as a part of a wider negotiation the Soviet Government might be induced to consider this question in isolation simply for its 139 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

military value. Even if the attempt fails no serious harm will have been done. If it is to be made, it is clearly a matter of urgency, since its value would lie chiefly in weakening German’s spring offensive; the moment of the spring offensive is moreover the most propitious moment for a coupe d’etat, since Germany’s forces are concentrated elsewhere [1]. Secretary of State discussed with M. Maisky on March 27th the question’s of Miron’s request for a Russian guarantee regarding Bessarabia and handed him an Aide Memoire, a copy of which is attached. The conversation went no further than is suggested by the Aide Memoire. Question of guarantee and territorial adjustments were not mentioned, and Z. P. do not wish them to mentioned at present. A Maisky’s reaction was expected [2]. According to this Aide Memoire there are unmistakable signs of increased political tension in Romania and of opposition to the present regime, discontent at the continuance of the war, and dislike of the Germans and their recent increased demands for Rumanian troops. Could this state of affairs be used in order to encourage Romania to drop out the war? Tension between Romania and Hungary over Transylvania is also increasing and it is most probable that if Romania were to withdraw from the war Hungary could immediately follow suit so as not to leave the coast clear for Romania in Transylvania. Maniu the leader of the National Peasant Party, was considered the obvious personality in Romania with whom any discussions on this subject should take place. He is opposed to the policy of the present Government, has very considerable influence in Romania, and would almost certainly be prepared to discussed ways and means for procuring Romania’s withdrawal from the war. If the Soviet Government think there is anything in this idea, and if they are not themselves in contact with Maniu, His Majesty Government, who have been able to establish communication with, would be glad to make arrangements to enable the Soviet representative at Istanbul to take the necessary soundings in order to find out whether there is any possibility of using the discontented elements represented by Maniu [3]. Lord Moyne’s telegrams no. 882 and 883 of April 8th contained Soviet Government’s conditions for an armistice with Romania. Under paragraph 4 Soviet

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Government promised the return to Romania of the whole or the greater part of Transylvania. Great Britain Government never agreed the Hitler Vienna’s Award by which a considerable part of Transylvania was arbitrarily given to Hungary. London considered that by agreeing to the return of the whole of Transylvania to Romania they should go back to the 1918 frontiers. This would have the advantages that neither of the enemy states, Hungary and Romania, would emerge from the war with gains in territory. Sir Orme Sargent agreeing the Soviet Government proposal but considering the future status of Transylvania as a tricky and difficult one he like to add the words: “As may be decided upon at the peace settlement” at the end of Para 4. He also draw attention to Para 5 which show that Russians mean to establish in advance their right to have political contact with post-armistice Romanian administration just as they already have in Italy. He did not seen any objection but he thought the British should make it clear that they also want to have such political contact, as well as a military representative on any control commission which may be set up in Romania. Sir Orme Sargent also draw attention the fact that Soviet Government’s offer establishes the relations of the Romanians as co-belligerents [4].

Bibliography 1. PRO, Kew Gardens, PREM3./374./3 Foreign Office Memorandum in 13th March 1942. 2. Ibidem SOE Memorandum from 9th April 1942. 3. Ibidem, Aide Memoire signed ZP. 4. Ibidem, Memorandum no. P.M. 44/225 by Sir Orme Sargent addressed to the Prime Minister in 9th April 1944.

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ARMED COMBAT ASPECTS WITHIN PRESENT CONFLICTS

TA Mihai Sorin, Pahonţu Alin

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu Sibiu County Police Inspectorate

Abstract Modern combat gets more and more integrated. The structure and the military entities’ action means are now difficult to separate. Therefore, there is a tendency to increase the assembly’s importance, along with highlighting the parts involved.

Armed combat continues to be the climax of confrontation between human entities in conflict. Before it, there are many steps that escalated, lead to an evolution of the situation to armed conflict. Up to a point, these steps can be controlled and even shaped by those strategies which, as is known, represents both, ways of implementing the work of political decisions and a number of expressions of a complex dialectic of wills facing. After it there remains destructions involving a huge effort for the rehabilitation and reconstruction of parts of what was destroyed. Where a lot of other post-conflict strategies, which are not only repairing, recovering, but, to some extent, and generating new tensions and new means needed by the armed combat. Armed combat means violent employing of forces, using weapons and military technique, for imposing its will on the enemy through the production of human and material losses, or capturing or smashing the enemy. Although the armed combat is the human action with the most devastating effect, human entities have never given up on it, but, 142 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

instead, continued to equip itself with the most sophisticated means of destruction it has ever known this planet. It seems that there has been reached a critical threshold, which have changed substantially in both coordinates armed violent action and the vectors of conducting it, and the means to be used and will be used in such confrontation. Come again on the role a dialectics of wills who will face more and more in an area of influence through information and fait accompli. Therefore, in this era of media strategies and dissuasive, to armed combat is disseminating and individualises increasingly, taking all possible and all the imaginable procedures from the unexpected teams small, specialized, to kamikaze procedures of fanaticism religious, from "surgical strikes" of high technological forces that make up the elite military our time, energy of the waves and to the meeting in cyberspace with the weapons of information. May we say that armed struggle is the climax when, or even decisive, of the war, the tip of the spear, or a succession of violent action, a battle. However, the fight represents the army as part of the war, the most serious stage, the most expensive being the most high- consuming human resources and materials. From a level of engagement (strategic), fighting the army becomes suicidal, and therefore seems unlikely improbable, but we should not be rigid and impossible to believe. But the armed combat we find it out the war, being considered in this situation, a way of making quick goals through violent armed actions by lower or higher scale. This fall the revolutionary, upheaval (to be used in weapons), acts of piracy, armed struggles between clans, between the mafia organizations and networks. The attacks of 11 September 2001 on the United States has taken out of this the terrorist action. From that date - which is undoubtedly a significant moment of escalation of terrorism has occurred and a different interpretation of the terrorist phenomenon. He became, in the opinion of the United States and the countries of the anti-coalition, war, so a continued through violent means, of the terrorist politic. [1]

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The place of the armed combat in the war In the past, because determining the role of armed confrontation between belligerence in conducting wars, their essence was defined almost exclusively by their violent component (the fight), the war is won or lost on the battle field, while other areas of confrontation played a secondary role. Therefore, those who have studied the phenomenon of war while they have relatively simplistic defined it, only in terms of violent confrontation of the armed forces of belligerents. Current development of military theory and art, consisting of an intense process of development and diversification, reflecting the content, look and features contemporary phenomenon military, and also, trends and prospects for its development. In this context, it becomes increasingly clear that the launch, deployment and the denouement of the armed confrontations in the current era have more than ever, a complex determination, in which the military no longer has inevitably decisive role. Involving so many areas allows more than "currently providing state security to be a result of the convergence of nonviolent strategies or application of constraints of political, economic, etc." [2] Following the redefining of the armed confrontation role in triggering the conduct and denoument of the war (conflict-absorbing), it is placed on other details, being characterized by the fact that "peace will coexist with war, share resources and nonviolent actions will increase considerably; forces and means will be more peaceful and environmentally friendly, and major confrontation will engage more in the sphere of information and decrypting the opponent’ intentions, will not take place in the great powers but in the areas of interest controlled by them; design and the decision will be within the purpose of human thought and action, with a strong information, and implementation will belong to the ultra improved means, viable, intelligent, selective and high-yield " [3] Armed combat should not be understood outside the war. It is just a way of conducting war. The actions of armed entities of all kinds, Battle of firearms among geese in the neighborhood, adjusting the accounts of the underworld, etc. are not armed fight. To say that we are in the presence of armed struggle we need a cause, motivating 144 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

social, economic, ethnic, religious, etc. It is triggered as a result of a decision which is in its essence, a political decision. More specifically, the military struggle is triggered after a military decision which is in turn, an extension of a political act, a way of implementing a political decision. Armed combat means the nucleus of the war, even war and the battle is how to deploy the armed struggle. From here, to simplify things, it was easy to identify fighting the armed combat. Modern armed combat, has an obviously increased integrated character. The structure of the army is differrent still less, meanwhile the fulminant development in communications and weapons systems requires actions in virtual network, thus causing an increase in the speed of action and the reaction. By making available to the fighter new systems of prevention and action forms into the armed struggle, the differences become less significant. Participants directly to the armed struggle are no longer heroes of the past, they did place for the professionals. Closing up very much to the strategic level, and being sometimes directly conditionated by the political decision, armed struggle is impregnated with more specific elements strategy particularly indirect strategies. Among them are information dominance, the media action, psychological and informational, misleading, mislead and handling. Combat space is more complex, the fighters preparation, of the, units and large units is not only under the requirements of defense, offensive, fighting the meeting, tracking and withdrawal, but in terms of the essential requirements of the mission, which are different from an action to another, from one theater of operations to another. War is not going today only with armies upfronted, on defensive positions or on the basis of departure to the offensive, in the face, but also in many other conditions, some of them quite different from those of previous ages, for that require action and appropriate procedures to be found. Armed combat trend it’s given by its pass from a violent confrontation, from a space for it in a way of forcing compliance with international decisions, to stop the fratricidal conflicts, to find and hit terrorist networks, to support the states that have been passed through wars to establish order and stability in the country, to protect human beings and the human society in which there are no more fronts. 145 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Armed combat characteristics Armed struggle, has some features which are generally valid in the history of common military art, but also some features specific to contemporary warfare. Among the main common characteristics are the following: - it represents an escalating of the tensions in the area of confrontation leading to a block where you can not go out except through violent actions; - it uses lethal weapons or non-lethal, depending on the circumstances; - has an extremely violent character; - has a sequential in nature, pulse and desultory character; - it assume a disproportionate commitment, which often determines the escalation of violence; - has, most times, unpredictable effects; - has destructive effects which are difficult to control; - has long term psychological effects ; Armed combat appears as way to put the opera, through tactical means, a strategy to unblock a conflictual situations. Violence proves to be only a mean and not a purpose but its intensity depends on the characteristics of the blockade and the will that requires recoursing to military action. Using lethal weapons or non-lethal represents one of the basic features of the armed struggle, basically, the essence of it. Generally, it is considered that armed struggle is the last solution, that is the last tactical way to get out of a jam reached through failure of political action and rapid escalation of the previous stages. Using weapons is not done anyway, but according to some principles. The armed combat principles are the subject to another chapter of the present study. The extremely violent character is another important feature of all time, of the armed struggle. No other human activity is not more violent. Only that as the means to refine combat, violence moves from physical space directly in the influence of the threat and deterrence. The violences on the battlefield are making place instead for those in cities, which are terrorist actions. 146 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Commitment is always the most delicate problem of armed struggle. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, armies remained, sometimes for days on end, face to face, without any of them to decide to begin the attack. Today, the engage is usually disproportionate. That's right, during the fight, especially in border conflicts between countries with similar potentials the parts are in balance. In order to create an advantage or a favorable situation, to determine the winning cause, the warring parties from the armed conflict will seek renewed, will engage new forces, which will lead either to end the conflict (for the benefit of one party) or at the escalating of it (Angola, Somalia, the Yugoslav, Rwanda, Congo, etc..) or to extend it throughout the region (the former Yugoslavia). Armed struggle has always hardly controled destructive effects. Even in disproportionated war (such as the one held in March 2003 in Iraq), there may appear unforeseen effects or who haven’t been found or anticipated appropriate solutions. Shares of Iraqi guerrillas have created at the stage of post-conflict problems to coalition forces. These actions, although they were, in general, anticipated they haven’t supported suitable counteractions, but only disproportionated reactions. Psychological effects. Psychological effects of the Second World War are felt even nowadays. They remain deeply printed in the emotional memory of history, being reasons of the the recrudescence of the spirit of revenge or removal of what is considered to be unfair. Every form and every procedure of the armed struggle, also, have their specific data type, given by the form of conflict, conditions of the situation, the forces engaged, the set goals and objectives, the action of external and internal factors, etc. Shares of struggling specific contemporary warfare are characterized by: - Decrease in scale and increase in intensity; - Disproporţionality; - Increasing the precision of strikes and reducing the collateral effects - Transparency; - The international convicting (by alliance or coalition); - Reducing the duration; 147 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- high professionalism; Fighting actions which are not strictly related to the phenomenon of war continue to be customized by: - Violence; - A surprising character; - Issue and progress in mosaic; - Diversity. Actions within the terrorism are characterized by: - Ferocity; - A surprising character; - Conspiracy; - Diversity; - Omnipresence; - Ongoing in network and mosaic; - Kamikadze spirit. Battle actions specific to the war against terrorism are characterised by: - Community and international character(by alliance, by coalition); - Complexity; - Preventive character; - A post-factum character; - Omnipresence; - Diversity; - Complementarity; - The punitive-dissuasive; - Dynamism. [4]

Factors of success in the fight army The general requirements for success in the armed combat are: initiative, agility, depth, synchronization; multilaterality. Although it can not guarantee the success, their absence are making it harder and it may be more expensive. The initiative is a reflection of the necessity law of the offensive to achieve the final victory in the war and has the attitude and constant aggressive actions by hitting the enemy with any mean at its disposal. It must be combined judiciously with actions of maintaining the effort 148 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

ability through restoration (regeneration) of strength and preventing the attitude of "non-combat" in unfavorable situations. The initiative creates the capacity to establish, impose and transmit the necessary conditions for prosecution of operations and involves offensive spirit in their execution. Manifesting the initiative serves limiting to cancel the options of the enemy, while maintaining a sufficient number of options for its own forces. Maintain the initiative in time, require the provision and planning of future operations and anticipating the decisive events in the area of responsibility within hours, days and weeks in advance. Agility is expressed in the ability of own forces to act more quickly than the enemy, being a quality both physical and mental, but also a precondition of taking over and maintaining the initiative. Acting with agility, own forces concentrate their tough elements against the weak points of the enemy, can prevent or counteract its actions, with measures and preventive action that outrun the enemy and bring him to the fact accompli. For increasing the agility of the forces in subordination, the commander must take measures in time for their knowledge of the situation of the own forces and those of the enemy, anticipating changes in the environment of action and the collection and surprising the smallest changes occurring. He combines all these measures with the flexibility and capability of the entire staff of subordination to react quickly, within the concept of the superior echelon, in any change of situation. Depth implies expanding operations in time and space throughout the area of responsibility, including in terms of resources used and the goal. Expanding the operations vary by echelon and by limitations (restrictions) imposed to the commanders. Depth allows the commanders to maintain the pace of operations and to exploit efficiently all available resources. To achieve the depth of the operation, the commander must see for and anticipate its course so that the enemy can be successfully employed simultaneously throughout the depth of the area of battle. The success of expanding the operations throughout the entire area of responsibility determines maintaining a high level of the offensive and 149 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

ensure the mobility of the defense, forcing the enemy to fight in the terms set by our own force commander. Synchronization represents recognizing the operations in time and space, to concentrate the efforts in the important points and has as a result concentrating the combined effects of the fight power in the decisive moments and places. The commander ensures, by synchronizing his actions, to secure a superior fighting power in the top point and when he wants to gain a decisive advantage over the enemy. Synchronization requires a precise coordination of forces, means and activities within the framework of an operation, while viewing the consequences of actions and the necessary sequence of them to increase to maximum pursued favorable effects. Synchronization implies a clear expression of the intentions of the commander within all echelons, first taking place at the mental level of the commander and then in itself planning and coordination of the movements, fire and other operations support. To this end, the command headquarter must understand precisely the intention of the commander to be able to put into practice, in terms of synchronizing all of the alleged actions. Multilaterality reflects the ability of units to solve the variety requirements of the mission. Multilaterality presume the ability to operate in the full range of operations at strategic, operational and tactical level; to run a variety of operations, simultaneously or successively; to change, if necessary, the direction of the main effort; to adapt the structure of forces and move with speed and efficiency from a mission to another, from the armed struggle specific missions to stability and support operations and vice versa. [5]

References [1] Constantin Mostoflei, dr. Gh. Văduva, Tendinţe în lupta armată, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare, Bucureşti, 2004, p. 5. [2] Liviu Habian, Mircea Chelaru, Corelaţia politică-strategie (Eseu), Editura Academiei de Înalte Studii Militare, Bucureşti, 1997, p. 27.

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[3] Constantin Onişor, Teoria Strategiei Militare, Editura Academiei de Înalte Studii Militare, Bucureşti, 1999, p. 166-167. [4] Grigore Alexandrescu, Perspective în lupta armată, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare, Bucureşti, 2006, pp. 5-7. [5] *** F.T.-3 Manualul de tactică generală a Forţelor Terestre, Bucureşti, 2007, pp. 24-29.

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ASPECTS ON THE SECURITY NON - MILITARY DIMENSION

Pahonţu Alin, TA Mihai Sorin

Sibiu County Police Inspectorate “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Security accomplishing highly depends on the simultaneous approach of its six dimensions: the military one, the political one, the economic one, the social one, the cultural one, and the ecologic one. Moreover, at a global level, the interdependency proved more and more economic and military, thus involving political, social, cultural and even environmental aspects.

In a world dominated by great social tensions, economic imbalances, military conflicts, the risks of a nuclear conflagration, but also globalization, it stands out by importance and topicality the issue of security. It is not something new for humanity, it has permanently faced it, new is only the importance and relevance that it receives. Of how the problem of security is understood and solved depends the destiny of humanity. Genesis of the term “security” comes from the Latin securitas / atis and means "peace, calm, lack of distress". In The Romanian Language Explanatory Dictionary, the notion of security is defined as "out to be secure from any danger, sense of trust and peace that you give someone the absence of any danger". With historical and political connotations, the term security has been used for the first time Gheorghe Şincai in his “Hronicul românilor şi a mai multor neamuri”, with the meaning of "to be secure from any danger", "to be safe because of the absence of any danger “.

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Debates on security, peace and war were correlated with discussions about the state monopoly on violence, about the perception of the use of armed force to levels of society and globally. During the Cold War, the main threat to security was considered to be a potential total disaster, military, humanitarian caused by a broad nuclear confrontation. Subsequently, it was considered that issues of security have lost their importance. Currently, the military security has been restored to the attention of analysts, by initiating and intensifying the fight against terrorism and has been recognized feature of multidimensionality of the risks, dangers and threats. There have been included in the agendas of state and non-state actors concepts such as "economic security, energy security, energy security, environmental security, individual security, individual security and community", etc. In front of major changes made in the world, there was paid a specific attention to security in it is triple meaning: individual, national and international. In conditions in which citizens of many developed countries believe that specialized institutions of the state can not provide security as their need, democratic States have decided it is necessary to break the traditional way of ensuring security in the form of increasing national military power and militarizing policy, economy and society life. The importance is becoming more balanced between quality of life and military capabilities of the state and between civil society and politics on the one hand and the armed forces, on the other. The strategies of national security, however, continue to provide a wider space to military dimension of security compared with the reserved nonmilitary dimensions. Both neorealistic and postmodernistic approaches are particularly addressing to the non-military dimensions of security, and the main difference between them lies in the nature of the object reference identified in the analysis of security. The neorealist point of view places human security alongside the state, the object of reference is identical in theory and practice of security: security analysis is concerned about the "fate" human collectivities, they are the citizens of the state, so that the state 153 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

becomes the subject reference security. at the same time, postmodernists say that the idea of security was used by the state government to conceal reality and hide the real security issues, which, in fact, were the problems of the regime and it is supporters, therefore, this approach promotes the concept of human security. All six dimensions are equally important for the state security and, moreover, they interrelate. Thus, the political dimension concerns the relationship between the state and it is citizens, and international relations of State. The economic dimension is considering to substantiate the economic security at all it is levels, with emphasis on the individual. This latter level is also the question of social security: security is extremely important, but can not be achieved without having the basic security of individuals. The cultural dimension concerns the delicate issues of ethnicity and religion, the sources of some of the most important conflicts of recent decades. Finally, environmental dimension, a new problem in the study, includes three aspects that can not be ignored: environmental problems caused by war, natural resources whose possession or control can breed international disputes and natural disasters.

Political dimension In the many changes that have marked the end of the twentieth and early twenty first century, there is a constant that crosses this time: the need for democratization and development not only of the former communist countries, but also other underdeveloped countries around the world. The intensity of this need varied depending on the existing paradigms in a moment or another of recent history, reaching the climax, not with the launch interethnic conflicts in the Balkans, but when U.S. and NATO have launched extensive military operations in the Middle and Near East, after September 11 2001. All these are benchmarks for the political dimension of security, which can be analyzed on two levels: the internal, in which the concepts of good and bad governance have a central role, and external, related to international security or international law. The political dimension of security is reflected in the security strategies of the 90’s. In addition to the fight against terrorism and the European and Euroatlantic integration, European countries and not only (eg USA, as the unique 154 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Superpower of the world) have introduced new concepts: poor governance, as a potential risk, or good governance, as grievance and way of achieving state security. Moreover, international organizations such as UN, the European Commission and World Bank, increasingly began to be concerned about identifying and solving the problems of governance. Good governance has become an essential condition for development assistance provided by international donor agencies. Also, good governance is one of the main targets of the Millennium Development Goals, the ONU agenda for reducing poverty and improve living conditions.[1]

The economic dimension of security The economic component of security, whether we refer to individual security, national and international, are of particular relevance in the current international context, as any disruptive or stabilizing element in the global economy has a direct impact on national economies, with obvious consequences on the life of each citizen of the planet, wherever he is. Essential in addressing the idea of economic security is the conceptual approach, which offers the possibility of identifying the main assumption defining the concept and its meanings to different levels of analysis. From the beginning must be specified that the international economic system is characterized by powerful integrator forces, compared with the international political system, which is defined by anarchy. The phenomenon of globalization are also exercising a real and absolute pressure on national economies, although there are scientists that affirm that it is been created a myth of globalization, as the world economy is actually an international economy.[2] It is hard to imagine today that the economy can achieve a state technical performance, if not interconnected to the international economic circuit. Some researchers consider that the international economy has taken such a magnitude that international capital has tended to become more independent of the state interests.[3] But there are views according to which the international economy is still dependent on the international political system, in this case, the role of governments is very important in determining national economic priorities, the state becoming, from this perspective, a key entity in 155 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

promoting the economical interests. [4] Although the political system, as the economic system , has its own dynamics, which ensures a certain independence, however, the link between the two systems is strong enough to influence each other. Each state is a part of the global economy, which individualizes itself in the international economic system, just because it represents a particular structure. Supporters of the maintain role of government in the economy say that in conditions of globalization, states are far from being powerless in confronting global market forces. In their vision, States will continue an important role in creating national wealth and social welfare, because the national management is constantly changing, just as a result of the economic challenges.

Social Dimension Like other dimensions of security, nor about the social dimension can not speak without referring to the political, economic, cultural, ecological, and although it is not subject to study, the military dimension. Social dimension can be analyzed in terms of population and population movement (number, the pace of growth, development components natural increase and immigration external demographic structure, the average duration of life, level of training given the demographic profile of the population), standards and rules, Status and roles, interactions between the social actors, etc. Among these issues particularly important is the population, whereas the number and quality of it largely determines the strength of both state and policies that are promoted nationally and internationally. The most important trends that is evident worldwide, have essential implications on security, at any level. Thus, fertility trends manifested in recent years indicates the movement of the center of gravity of global population from the developed world to the world of developing countries. This is even worse as, as shown in the chapter dedicated to the economic dimension of security, the same area is characterized by acute exacerbation of poverty. Meanwhile, the top countries with the largest number of inhabitants, the first four nations (China, India, and the U.S.) will remain on the same place over the next 20 years, and the following six will change significantly: Russia and will leave the top ten, while Nigeria, Pakistan, Bangladesh and 156 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Ethiopia will climb. In addition to natural population growth, it is recorded a increasing number of refugees who come from developing countries or in the ground for violence. In 1995, their number amounted to over 14.4 million, with the upward trend. Also, another major trend in the world today is massive urbanization. More than half of the world's population lives in urban areas, which in some nations, become disproportionately large in relation to the surface of the country. Forecasts suggest that by 2015 in the world will be over 20 mega cities (with over 10 million inhabitants). What implications have these trends on security. First, major changes in the nature of the conflict: it is possible to increase the prevalence of urban conflict. This is attractive for the insurgents and guerrilla forces, because it can equalize the conflict between the sophisticated armed forces technologically and less sophisticated (see the case of Iraq). On the other hand, the influence of ethnic diaspora is growing, which, because of globalization, can easily change the course of the conflict in the parent country. Secondly, there is and will continue to manifest itself, changes of national power sources: different fertility rates influences the sources of military power by decreasing or, conversely, increasing the population fit for military service. States with low fertility will be determined to replace the human power with technology, while in contrast, in states with high fertility, the army will be formed as a single power elite, and from a greater force of reservists less trained or equipped.[5]

The cultural security Most of the literature from field tests of security, in last half of the twentieth century does not seem to give an attention to the cultural dimension of national security, mostly cultural aspects (ethnicity, religion, language, etc.). Being treated in the social dimension. But the changes on the international scene at the turn of the millennia has forced both the scientific community and policy makers and military to pay greater attention to this area, to which, in our analysis, we will consider separate the cultural side of the social But we will not neglect the influences that each of them has over the other, which is normal, in fact, since the national security is considered one interdependent (political, military, economic, social, cultural and environmental non- 157 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

entity itself standing, the processes occurring at each level producing, as appropriate, mutations in the whole system). Since states are dominant units, National security is a central issue both to its referral to the state, and applying them more directly to its ethno-cultural and religious elements. The permeability of the states, both in ideas and people associated with other states, erases boundaries between internal security and the national one. In this way distinctions between citizens and foreign, domestic and international politics disappear, making even the simple exchange of ideas and communication lead to politically significant cultural threats (such as Islamic fundamentalists reaction to penetrate Western ideas in the Arab world). The problems of language, religion and cultural tradition have an important place in the state idea and may need to be defended and protected in case of cultural "imports" so seductive many times. Many current conflicts are based on beliefs, most resulting from the collision of religio-political aspects of the communities in conflict and their association with government policies. The education of the adherents in the spirit of hatred or adversity over what constitutes "outside world", in case of "militant" religions, as a practical and "aggressive proselytism", is a real undeniable fact. Followers of these religions can use relatively simple armed violence to achieve political objectives, cultural and economic, but internal and international order must relate to law and institutions, arrangements, negotiations, compromises, in rational ways.

The surrounding environmental component The attempts of securing the values of the surrounding environment have a more recent history in report with the other components. The debate on environment security has evolved during this last years from the antinuclear hobby to the concern of losing the civilization. The national security strategies of the present are concerned on two important points: the surrounding environment and the civilization-environment network. These problems will be looked upon with even an increased concern in the future because of the continual growth of the population.

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When talking about globalization, the preponderance of resolving the problems directly by the state will reduce. The states won’t be capable of taking care by themselves of their surrounding environment. The principle actors which will introduce and apply the rules will be the international structures. The influence will come hitherto from the part of the community which investigates the necessity of an urgent intervention in different areas of the globe, constructs an agenda of intervention and communicates this agenda to the political elites and using the press, to the public opinion. The national policy in this domain has to increase the level of knowledge of this problems by the population, to offer founds for research in the domain and to inform continually the public opinion from the states which are in the main areas. The national security politic of NATO and UE members already gives a high importance to this problem. Also, the countries have to give an increased attention to the international and transnational agencies which take care of this problem and even more, they have to cooperate with these agencies to reduce the dangers that threaten the regional and worldly eco-system. The security policies will have in the future common points of interest: the democracy, human rights, market economy and the regional and planetary ecosystem. Many of the economical and social sources of insecurity from our world are in a tight bond with the problems of surrounding environment. Some authors have underlined that the growing lack agricultural terrains, water reserves, forests and fish combined with the clime changes have an important impact on the international security. The petrol control was one of the principal problems which caused the Golf War, and the tensions created by the dispute between the arabs and jues for the control of the water resources that are on the west shore of the Jordan have complicated the efforts for obtaining a durable peace in the region. During the last years it becomes more evident that the human kind is in profound ecological crises. There are debates upon the problems that can be politically discussed and upon the problems that have to be attended to immediately. As we can plainly see, disasters as Cernobal or massive floods dictate immediate actions that are to 159 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

prevent their happening again. In these cases, generally speaking, the geographical location and the level of the population welfare play a decisive role in the interest given to the combat of the disaster’s effects. For example, the governs of a poor countries tend to perceive the industrial environment problem as something that they cannot afford. Studies show that there are three categories of threats which define the component of surrounding environment: 1. The threats that come from the environment at the address of human civilization , which are not the result of human actions :earthquakes and volcanic eruptions , meteor crashes and the natural cycle of returning to a glacier era; 2. Threats caused by the human actions on natural systems or on planet’s structures, when the changes that have been made seem to constitute threats at the address of a part or to the hall civilization; 3. The threats caused by the human actions on the systems or planet structures, when the changes that have been done seem not to be regarded as threats on short term, but on the long run they constitute into problems (mineral exploitation). [6] These three points contain a variety of problems: - The destruction of the ecosystems: clime changes, the loss of biodiversity, forest cutting and other forms of pollution. - Energy problems: reduction, rarity and the unequal distribution of these resources. - Demographical problems: the increase of the population and the increase of the consumption of the resources in report with the planet possibilities. - Food connected problems: the poverty, the hunger, the degradation of the land and the disappearance of the water resources. - Social conflicts: the wars that produce ecological losses.

Conclusions Reviewing security issues, it notes that the definition has changed drastically. Framework that led,in large extent, the transformation is globalization. ¾ Because of the processing characteristics of the international security environment, the relationship between different 160 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

dimensions of security has changed, meaning the change in priorities. Centering attention on the military security is not enough to win the war against terrorism or other types of asymmetric threats. ¾ Achieving security depends on landing simultaneous all six of its dimensions: military, political, economic, social, cultural and environmental. Moreover, global interdependencies have been shown to be more than economic and military aspects, having also political, social, cultural and even environmental aspects. In the future, to meet the security demands brought up by groups of states, is expected targeting security policies in particular to local, regional and global levels, with an increase of attention given to nonmilitary dimensions, but without reducing the importance given to the military. Accordingly, the military security can not be passed on second place in the international agenda, even if redefining security underlines the nonmilitary issues of it.

References [1] Alexandra SARCINSCHI, Dimensiunile nonmilitare ale securităţii, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „CAROL I”, Bucureşti, 2005, pp. 14-15. [2] Paul HIRST, Grahame THOMPSON, Globalizarea sub semnul întrebării, Editura Trei, Bucureşti, 2002. [3] Robert MURRAY, Internaţionalizarea capitalului şi naţiunea-stat, New Left Review, nr. 67, 1971, p. 104. [4] Barry BUZAN, Popoarele, statele şi teama, Editura Cartier, Chişinău, 2000, p. 238. [5] Brian NICHIPORUK, The Security Dynamics of Demographic Factors, RAND Corporation, 2000, p. 126 [6] Buzan, Barry, Waever, Ole, de Wilde, Jaap, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, London, Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc, 1998, pp.14-17

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CYBERTERRORISM – A REAL THREAT AGAINST EUROPEAN SECURITY ENVIRONMENT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 21th CENTURY

TA Neagoie Horaţiu Adrian, Giurcă Florin Daniel

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract It is every nation’s duty to take steps forward in order to protect its own infrastructure, besides participating and sharing information within European Union, as part of collective defense that should involve not only communication and information’ defense and safeguard, but also each national physical infrastructure. There are various terms used to be called regarding these cyber threats aspects – “cyber espionage”, “cyber weaponry”, “cyber warfare”, “cyber crime” or “cyber terrorism”, but European Union should treat seriously this matter. Therefore, the best programs regarding cyber threats will be a cooperative activity of all governmental institutions and organizations, state and private companies, and international institutions that are interested in sharing secure information on less vulnerable software.

Keywords: cyber weaponry, cyber warfare, cyber crime, cyber terrorism, security.

1. Introduction In the post war period, scholars started to intellectually talk more and more about the struggle for power between nation-states in order to understand the forces that had resulted in the transformational conflicts that had changed the world as they had known it. As far as they were disillusioned with idealistic interpretations of the world order, they emphasized the realistic approaches on the place where

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conflict and power plays are a dominant feature for the world politics. Therefore, some of the scholars started to think more realistic in terms of politics, and reflected a clear general disenchantment with the prevalent tradition of the idea that rational human beings could construct effective institutions to promote order in the international system. The importance of military strength as an index of state power is very well emphasized in the realist theory. The main actors in this tough competitive international system were those states that were deeply engaged in ensuring their own security, wealth, and power. In the same time, however, some historians focused on the wars and the interwar periods as proof that the nation-state was increasingly finding itself challenged for supremacy and control over events that originated beyond its borders and whose impact transcended national boundaries. The concept of having an international society gained momentum from all the experiences of this period. The communication between nations, the trends in ideas and cultural contacts, as well as in specific trade and commerce, had become easier and more rapid. The local medieval system type was rapidly changed to the national order, thus the politics studies moved ahead to the concept of international cooperation and interdependence. Based on this idea, the worldwide governments, international institutions and the most of the non- governmental organizations stated that there is a clear evolution in recognition that all of them should work together in order to face all the global problems. Thinking this way, we all could see an optimistic attitude concerning the ability of the states to be able to engage in cooperative efforts and therefore, presented a viable alternative to a clearer political realism.

2. Global interdependencies and risks International interdependency is probably on of the most accepted terms in the contemporary international order and is subject to serious vulnerabilities from global events over which no single nation has control, based on each specific weakness. Even the forces of integration within the international system continue to multiply, providing protection and prosperity within its borders remain critical challenges to each nation-state, and this is an evolving analytic 163 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

approach. It is very important to understand that the issues stay around identifying global problems, strategies, and structures for addressing trans-national challenges. Some scholars, such as David Mitrany, have adopted a functionalist perspective and argued that over time, a ‘web of international activities and agencies’ would emerge with jurisdiction transcending that of states in specific instances. This perspective presupposes that integrated institutions and policies would replace the existing policy divisions of nation states in situations where cooperative responses were in order. Some scholars situate risk at the centre of contemporary social change to reinforce the basic concerns that lie at the centre of integrative theory. They suggest that the challenges are not essentially new but that it is how we typify them that determine the risk that they pose, they propose that Risk may be defined as a systematic way of dealing with hazards and insecurities induced and introduced by modernization itself. We become increasingly conscious of risks which both technologically and politically include threats emanating from individuals, groups, and rogue states that cause long term irreversible and invisible damage to communication networks and interrupt transmissions. These vulnerabilities are qualitatively different from the hazards and dangers experienced in previous periods of history. The current threats to the security environment are the direct consequence of technological progress and are a seemingly implicit and unavoidable corollary. More than that, many of these risks inhabit cyber space and are not perceptible to the senses. As technology continues to enable the transfer of a wide range of activities to the cyber forum and on a global scale, the risks continue to multiply. Nowadays threat environment is not bound by local origins but expands to include the global networks, and thus is technologically and politically reflexive. This risk environment transcends the limits of time and space boundaries, and presents a continuous and general challenge. Therefore, cyber threats tend to globalize because they universalize and equalize. Regardless of location or political persuasion, they affect all users, transactions, and data flows. We need supra national solutions for securing all networks, since these networks are cross border organisms. 164 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

3. Global internet challenges and European agencies policies We can “feel” all this internet world globalization. It is an ironic situation of the expanding reach of information that it has become necessary to secure the information to ensure that it cannot be misused or modified by unauthorized users. So, it is essential to protect not only the information itself, but it has also become important to protect the networks over which information travels. This represents a big challenge, difficult in itself, and becomes even more complex as the rapidly changing technological environment moves at a high rate that often exceeds that of the ability to respond. As the global communications network continues to develop at a rapid pace driven by innovative developments in technology, the ability of the European Union and each nation state to secure the networks is increasingly based on interdependence between European agencies and cooperating nations’ governments. The growing reliance on the internet has raised serious policy concerns of regulation, privacy, copyright, and access. The policy process has been placed in a position of responding to challenges and has yet to have a framework that can anticipate problems and have a built-in response mechanism. This is partially explained by the reality that technology moves ahead unfettered, while policy is dependent on deliberation, debate, and agreement before any guiding principles can be put in place. There are two primary challenges facing the policy maker in the cyber world. One is that the internet is being used in creative and unexpected ways to propagate criminal activity and the other is that a response to control or regulate would impact the very freedom that underlies the cyber revolution. Consequently, policy is confronted by new threats that are often difficult to identify, while simultaneously, traditional criminality is moving on-line. Thus the globally interconnected information network demonstrates the limitations of cyber security efforts that are solely reliant on individual nations, groups of industrialized countries, or private enterprise. It underlines the importance of a combined effort by government, industry, law enforcement, and the global population with access to the networks. Systemic vulnerabilities are encountered on a frequent basis as the networks continue to replace traditional forms of interaction. The global cyber security effort involves both 165 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

regulatory policy as well as technical standardization. Policy initiatives often entail a slower decision making process while the response time for technical solutions tends to be much faster. The reality of this environment is that the infrastructure is designed to incorporate basic security considerations that can operate independently of the policy development process. Standardization of security initiatives has been central to the communications revolution since its inception. The rapid spread of the communications network has focused attention on the need for integration of national, regional, and international security standards. The threat environment is perceived as a global phenomenon so that attacks on a segment of the network can have wider implications. International cooperation is seen as the solution to developing and implementing network standards. The location and sophistication of various elements of technology complicates the task of the policy maker, although it affects the technician/standard setter somewhat differently. The positioning of satellites such as the DBS (Direct Broadcasting Satellite) in realms that are not constrained by territorial boundaries, impacts on the ability to block or regulate incoming information. The same holds true for information outflows. Not only is there a fear that unregulated information flows can compromise political goals, but there is also a concern that information as propaganda, or cultural imperialism, cannot be restrained. Many governments share the fear that their ability to influence and govern their populations is undermined by a free flow of information. Iran has exhorted ISP’s to block thousands of sites that have been identified by the government as problematic. China has a similar policy in effect and at its most extreme, it was reflected in the government’s crack down on sites reputed to be spreading false information on the SARS outbreak E-Mail screening, and chat room censorship is routine. The government is also working on ways to control SMS (short messaging service) that can be received via mobile phone units. The issues surrounding TDF’s (Trans Border Data Flows) represent a category in themselves. Corporate datasets involving a variety of operations, medical records, financial/credit information etc are often transmitted to other countries which provide outsource services, but which often lack the same 166 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

stringent privacy laws and protective regulations that prevail in the originating country. On an entirely different level, there is the genuine concern in an age of terrorism that free channels support the objectives of terrorists and provide a convenient means of communication.

4. European Union Responses to the internet threats The post 9/11 threat environment has led to a series of worldwide government responses towards net and information controls, such that net content was blocked and removed. Some of the actions were justified, such as the scrubbing of the NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission) website that contained sensitive material which could be used by terrorists. If this were characteristic of all net scrubbing it would be quite understandable, however, the panic mode that ensued resulted in the censorship of harmless matter. Part of the justification was that any information, however innocuous could be put to nefarious use. As we shall see, this cuts into the fundamental issue of net freedom. The leading legislation was the U.S. Patriot Act, followed by U.N. Security Council Resolution 1373 designed to protect against terrorism. The provisions of the Patriot Act alarmed internet professionals who objected to the expansive classification of “protected computers” to include machines located outside territorial borders. The legality of this expanded jurisdiction raised troubling implications for issues. European governments and others worldwide appeared to have had similar responses toward information control. France, for example, gave judges the power to order the retrieval of e-mail databases and gave freer access for messages to be decoded. Encryption firms were required to hand over their data to authorities. Police were given the authority to make remote online searches of ISP records. Similarly, Germany authorized its intelligence services to enable unlimited police access to internet records of suspicious individuals. Great Britain eased barriers for the police to monitor financial transactions and private e-mail online by dispensing with the prior approval of judges. Italy, India, and , similarly relaxed the rules for internet surveillance and greatly increased the powers of

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the police and security officials, with specific legislation such as India’s Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance. The range and degree of state controls and censorship has varied based on the openness of the societies, as well as the specific threat environment in which the controls were imposed. China, for example, has routinely interfered with public access to western news sites, such as the New York Times and the BBC. Since almost all of internet access is through one conduit ChinaNet operated by the state Telecomm agency, it is easier to block traffic. In its pursuit of its conflicting aims to economic integration with the freer West from a closed and centrally planned economy, China has tried to balance access with control. The introduction of Google and other search engines has, however, posed problems for an administration concerned about public access to subversive information as well as a public whose information sources cannot be controlled. The government decided that this posed a new kind of threat prompting blockage of the search engines.

5. European agencies and institutions policies Since it was established in 1988, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) leader has been a principal in setting security standards. As nations acknowledged their increasing dependence on technology infrastructures, Critical Information Infrastructure Protection (CIIP) became an important component of national security policy in many countries. The measures developed to combat cyber-crime and protect information infrastructures included procedures for evaluating threats and vulnerabilities and anticipating, responding to, and recovering from cyber attacks. Cooperation between states and the private sector revolved around sharing of information. An interesting development is the acknowledgement by private industry that government intervention is necessary to encourage the technology companies to focus on security solutions. This change in attitude reflects awareness that market forces cannot be the sole driver of industry improvements. Government incentives and policies were especially important for securing infrastructure networks that ensured the operation of essential services like water and electricity. 168 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Greater emphasis is being placed on the need for developing a global culture of cyber security in response to the recognition that network security undertaken in advanced societies to ensure economic survival has to be counterbalanced by an even more fundamental need to ensure that the global information society will continue to operate for the benefit of developing economies as well.

Bibliography 1. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge, 1981). 2. David Mitrany, A Working Peace System (Chicago, 1966), pp. 10–11. 3. Karl Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, 1957); Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social, and Economic Forces, 1950–1957 (Stanford, 1958). 4. Ulrich Beck, Risk Society (London, 1992), p. 21. 5. Mike M. Ahlers, “Nuke Agency Takes Website Offline”, CNN.com, 25 October, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/10/25/terror.nrc/index.html 6. Minwalla, Shabnam, ‘Net Policing Comes to India’, Times News Network, 7. Peter S. Goodman and Mike Musgrove, ‘China Blocks Web Search Engines’, Washington Post, 12 September 2002, p. E01. 8. Ahlers, Mike M., “Nuke Agency Takes Website Offline”, CNN.com, 25 October, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/10/25/terror.nrc/index.html 9. Beck, Ulrich, Risk Society (London: Sage Publications, 1992). 10. Carr, Edward Hallett, The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1919–1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1939, 1964). 11. Deutsch, Karl et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957). 12. Gilpin, Robert, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 13. Goodman, Peter S. and Mike Musgrove, ‘China Blocks Web Search Engines’, Washington Post, 12 September 2002, p. E01. 14. Haas, Ernst B., The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social, and Economic Forces, 1950–1957 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958). 15. Hines, John, ‘Jurisdiction: Should Nations Extend Their Legal Reach Beyond Their Borders? http://www.isoc.org/pubpolpillar/juris.shtml> ; 16. Minwalla, Shabnam, ‘Net Policing Comes to India’, Times News Network; 17. Morgenthau, Hans J., Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948, 1985).

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GENERAL APPROACH TO MILITARY SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT

Minculete Gheorghe, PhD, Minculete Anca, Udrescu Iulian

“Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest

Abstract Supply chain management is a cross-functional approach to managing the movement of raw materials into an organization, certain aspects of the internal processing of materials into finished goods, and then the movement of finished goods out of the organization toward the end-consumer. As organizations strive to focus on core competencies and becoming more flexible, they have reduced their ownership of raw materials sources and distribution channels. These functions are increasingly being outsourced to other entities that can perform the activities better or more cost effectively.

Keywords: supply chain management; commercial businesses; customer wait time; logistics management; military supply chain management.

1. Areas of Supply Chain Management Were we to define supply chain management (SCM) we should say that it is the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the operations of the supply chain with the purpose of satisfyingcustomer requirements as efficiently as possible. Supply chain management spans all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods from point-of-origin to point-of-consumption. The term supply chain management was coined by strategy consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton in 1982. According to the (CSCMP), a professional association that developed a definition

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in 2004, Supply Chain Management "encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion, and all logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third-party service providers, and customers [1], [4]. In essence, Supply Chain Management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies." Supply chain event management (abbreviated as SCEM) is a consideration of all possible occurring events and factors that can cause a disruption in a supply chain. With SCEM possible scenarios can be created and solutions can be planned. Some experts distinguish supply chain management and logistics management, while others consider the terms to be interchangeable. From of an enterprise point of view, the scope of supply chain management is usually bounded on the supply side by your supplier's suppliers and on the customer side by your customer's customers. Moreover, supply chain management is also a category of software products. Logistics. Keeping the cost of transporting materials as low as possible consistent with safe and reliable delivery.. Here the supply chain management system enables a company to have constant contact with its distribution team, which could consist of trucks, trains, or any other mode of transportation. The system can allow the company to track where the required materials are at all times. As well, it may be cost effective to share transportation costs with a partner company if shipments are not large enough to fill a whole truck and this again, allows the company to make this decision. Ensuring production lines function smoothly because high-quality parts are available when needed. The process of production can run smoothly as a result of fulfillment and logistics being implemented correctly. If the correct quantity is not ordered and delivered at the requested time, production will be halted, but having an effective supply chain management system in place will ensure that production can always run smoothly without delays due to ordering and transportation. Ensuring no sales are lost because shelves are empty. Managing the supply chain improves a company’s flexibility to respond to unforeseen changes in demand and supply. Because of this, 171 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

a company has the ability to produce goods at lower prices and distribute them to consumers quicker than companies without supply chain management, thus increasing the overall profit. Keeping the cost of purchased parts and products at acceptable levels. Supply chain management reduces costs by increasing inventory turnover on the shop floor and in the warehouse, controlling the quality of goods thus reducing internal and external failure costs and working with suppliers to produce the most cost efficient means of manufacturing a product. Among supply chain partners, this ensures 'mutual success.' On the other hand, collaborative planning, forecasting and replenishment (CPFR) is a longer-term commitment, joint work on quality, and support by the buyer of the suppliers managerial, technological, and capacity development. This relationship allows a company to have access to current, reliable information, obtain lower inventory levels, cut lead times, enhance product quality, improve forecasting accuracy and ultimately improve customer service and overall profits. The suppliers also benefit from the cooperative relationship through increased buyer input from suggestions on improving the quality and costs and though shared savings. Consumers can benefit as well through the higher quality goods provided at a lower cost [3], [8]. Supply Chain Management is a proven business strategy that has gained wide acceptance in recent years due to increasing customer demands for quality, delivery, and speed. Increased speeds of communicating coupled with cost reduction and more interdependent supplier, provider, and customer relationships have accelerated the integration of supply chains on a wide-spread basis. Supply chains can exist in both manufacturing and service organizations, and they are principally concerned with the flow of products and information between supply chain member organizations (procurement of materials, transformation of materials into finished product, and distribution of that product to end customers). Today’s information-driven, integrated supply chains are enabling organizations to reduce inventory and costs, add product value, extend resources, accelerate time to market, and retain customers [4], [9].

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When applied in the private sector, supply chains have demonstrated superior customer responsiveness at about half the cost. Industry experts estimate that supply chain costs approach 75% of an organization’s total operating budget. Effective management of the supply chain not only improves the flow of materials from the perspective of the end user, but it also reduces logistics costs. The term "supply chain" first appeared in literature as an inventory management approach. Commercial businesses had been encountering a demand for greater levels of responsiveness and shorter cycle times for delivery and inventory of goods and services (placing, preparing, storing, and fulfilling orders). The notion of "the perfect order" required that the supply chain provide non- standardized, quality products quickly and efficiently every time. Since holding of inventories can cost as much as 40% of their value, their efficient management is crucial. As with any business process, supply chain management can benefit from the principles of reengineering. Organizations must thoroughly understand how their existing supply chain works, the processes of their suppliers, and the needs of their customers, and establish a performance measurement system after reengineering has occurred. A key aspect of supply chain management is the cycle time. Cycle time refers to the total time required to complete a process. A number of factors can impede cycle time: redundant steps; activities that may have been in place for a long time but no longer add value; activities that are done consecutively rather than in tandem; ineffective or poorly used technology; excessive bureaucracy (procedures, controls, and forms that stagnate the process); and poor communication, coordination, and cooperation. Another concept, the Customer Wait Time (CWT), also called Logistics Response Time, is a specific cycle related to the time since a customer orders an item until it is delivered (filling a requisition). A high-level metric that can drive improvements through the supply chain, CWT is an effective performance measure for various logistics processes. It looks at what it is stocked locally, what is stocked elsewhere, how long it takes to repair or procure items not in stock at

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the time, how long it takes to ship material, how long it takes to receive shipments, and other factors. Information and communications technologies are revolutionizing the scope and scale of e-supply chain infrastructures. Online data exchange is transforming business practices, allowing managers to capture and track complex data more effectively. Orders and various products related to that order can easily be traced. It also is possible to exchange information among entities within the value chain, thus greatly improving customer-provider relationships [5], [10]. It is important that systems be designed to enhance open and rapid communication and share information across the supply chain and within the organization. Intelligent application of information technology can also eliminate duplicative data entry, provide real-time status information, and help organizations move past a myopic view of their processes to view themselves within the context of larger missions and goals. Supply chain management is an integrating function with primary responsibility for linking major business functions and business processes within and across companies into a cohesive and high- performing business model. It includes all of the logistics management activities noted above, as well as manufacturing operations, and it drives coordination of processes and activities with and across marketing, sales, product design, finance, and information technology. Logistics management is that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements.

2. Supply Chain Management Within the Military Military logistics and commercial logistics are parts of the same industry. Both are concerned with focused logistics, precision and velocity, coordinated delivery schedules, fast and flexible distribution, and good infrastructure and equipment at distribution centers. In realizing the Department of Defense's (DOD's) Joint Vision 2010, key distribution measures may be needed that extend beyond the military services’, or the entire public sector’, ability to achieve. The military 174 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

supply chain management system should look at the experience and expertise of the private sector [5]. Interviewed by the journal Transportation and Distribution in 1999, the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Logistics, Roger Kallock, stated that his vision was to deliver any cargo, anytime and anywhere, in 5 days or less. He stressed three key requirements for achieving this goal: information-driven logistics, a fully integrated system, and customer-focused logistics. These also are of utmost importance to logisticians in industry. By 2005, the Department of Defense has a goal of 100 percent asset visibility, which means the military will need fully integrated cargo tracking and information systems. Integrating the military's logistics experience with private-sector logistics expertise can help meet the challenges set forth for 2005. The Joint Vision for military logistics calls for a military supply chain management model, in which readiness means realizing optimal procurement, supply, maintenance, and distribution times. Military supply chain management integrates the business practices used in the commercial sector with the strengths of military readiness and global visibility [5],[6].

Military and Commercial Similarities Military and commercial readiness can be defined as the optimization of available resources to operate in a possible unforeseen event. In this sense, readiness can be viewed as situational management of an event. Time, cost, and quality are still crucial to measuring situational logistics management. A thorough assessment of supplies, resources, and manpower would need to be matched with the needs of the unforeseen event under surge circumstances. Customer wait time measures the time needed to deliver an item to the customer's door, including the time a component may spend in maintenance. Door-to-door delivery times can be measured for other situational logistics scenarios. Take, for instance, the hypothetical release of a biological weapon such as Anthrax in the subways of New York City, or the crash of a busload of tourists on a congested Los Angeles freeway that results in critical injuries [5].

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These scenarios are not very different from a wartime surge scenario requiring logistics management. Whether it is for a military or commercial surge scenario, carefully planned situational logistics and effective supply chain management can get the supplies to the people in need in an emergency. Both of these hypothetical scenarios involve fundamental logistics processes, such as quickly exchanging information, identifying available supply resources, and delivering supplies. Such scenarios call for an integrated plan involving military, governmental, and commercial services [1].

Military Supply Chain Management Pattern Operations Desert Shield and Joint Endeavor allowed the military to show the nation a new logistics challenge for conducting surge operations. Whether for deployment or other emergency situations such as natural disasters, the nation has to be equipped with the best readiness resources. To do so, it requires the achievement of the following common national goals:

Standardizing the commercial and military logistics metrics and equipment. Establishing standardized procedures and data that are either adaptable or resistant to further technological change is a necessary step for military supply chain management. When military cargo is to be handled by commercial and military logistics providers, common data and equipment for tracking intransit cargo visibility become necessary for packing, identifying, shipping, and tracking shipments to the customer's door [6], [11].

Real-time stockage information. It is paramount to have the most current supply status. Status information is needed to improve the military's maintenance readiness and to integrate information about procurement actions and required repair parts, so there is no need to rely on equipment carcasses for spare parts.

Minimal customer wait time. It is fundamental to achieve optimal procurement, supply, maintenance, and distribution times in order to create an efficient supply chain management system. Just-in-time deliveries and lean manufacturing strategies have become popular 176 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

with private industry because components can be costly and the value of finished products can drop overnight. High-tech manufacturers have made it possible for companies to operate with little or no inventory. Internet auction portal sites have offered help in tracking down required parts. However, the long-term success of these portals is uncertain because they cater mainly to larger companies. In industry, the safety stock level commonly is set at twice the standard deviation of the demand, given a certain lead time. With million-dollar component parts and lack of carcasses to replenish the inventory, stocking the inventory at twice the standard deviation may not be a realistic goal for the military. In transportation and distribution, private industry operates on scheduled deliveries, because having shipments arriving according to a schedule permits maintenance of lower inventories. For surface deliveries, giving trucking companies more lead time by forwarding the shipping schedules from the suppliers eases their work load. For air cargo deliveries, the military may consider forward stocking heavy, voluminous cargo during the months of January and February and pre-positioning them in warehouses to cut annual transportation costs for sustainable operations; this is because January and February are months of low air cargo volume, and small package carriers frequently can offer lower rates during those 2 months. The Automated Manifest System can help speed the last leg of delivery to the customer's door. That final leg of the supply chain system has been the most difficult bottleneck to resolve because customers do not operate on a definite time system for receiving cargo. Reliability-a guaranteed level of service-is still key for customers in the logistics industry [2], [11].

Combining Military and Commercial Brawn With the national infrastructure networks and ports becoming stressed by capacity constraints, logistics companies are relying more on intelligent distribution methods such as the Internet. Virtual service providers allow large corporations to exchange supply information among globally situated retail locations. Since the economy of scale is the driving force in commercial industries, the larger the conglomerate, the better the business. 177 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

When businesses are located all over the globe and information acts as another mode of transportation in logistics, technology becomes increasingly important for daily operations. Some logistics providers have become information management firms. With the adoption of the Internet for electronic commerce, customers have come to expect ready access to real-time inventory procurement, ordering, and tracking. The Information Revolution is leading the changes in supply chain distribution and fulfillment patterns. Thus, E-commerce, e-procurement, e-retailing, and virtual warehousing concepts are changing the relationships between suppliers and distributors, altering the implications for freight movement patterns, and-since the Internet offers accessibility from any location-redefining the relative location of the workplace. Real-time access to business data on potential customers and suppliers provides managers with dynamic inventory control and immediate vehicle dispatching capabilities for freight delivery systems. Moreover, each military installation can be conceived of as a decentralized retail center that can be connected to a centralized hub or a major distribution center that can distribute supplies. If end items are in need of repair parts, the technology is available to signal low stockage at a CONUS or OCONUS location for that particular repair part so it can be reordered instead of waiting for carcasses. Transportation delivery systems are fairly reliable and are not the major bottlenecks to getting the necessary parts to the soldier in the field. Finding the manufacturer who can make component parts to order and connecting that manufacturer with the direct support operations may be the next logical step in military logistics [9], [11]. In private sector logistics, direct coordination of retailers, suppliers, and transporters using technology such as the Internet has enabled retailers to fill empty shelves more quickly because such a system helps the respective parties predict each other's needs. For the military yet, an Internet-based system connecting installations would require that all of the installations share information with military procurement, supply, and transportation offices. The usefulness of technology such as the Internet during wartime is debated among military logisticians. However, technology such as the Internet was created with wartime scenarios in mind, and, according to Bill Lucas 178 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

of the Military Traffic Management Command, the Internet-based Global Transportation Network had 3,000 hits per day during the air war. We should also mention that the lack of spare parts is not necessarily the major hindrance to efficient military logistics. Having the spare part where it is needed is the key area for logistics improvement. During Operation Desert Storm, $2.7 billion worth of spare parts went unused, according to a 1992 General Accounting Office report. It is estimated that, if the Army had had an effective cargo-tracking method during the Gulf War, DOD could have saved about $2 billion. As a result of the Gulf War experience, automatic identification technology and intransit visibility systems have been established by DOD as mechanisms that will save the military money in the long term. For military surface distribution, the idea of having coordinated, scheduled truck deliveries at installations is not very different from the type of coordination that occurs between the retailers and the supply chain management system. During the Gulf War, there also was a lack of equipment needed for deployment, and the ports of embarkation and debarkation were overcrowded with supplies that had to be processed and moved to direct support locations. Although military manpower has been reduced since then, capital investments in technology have helped expedite deployment operations (as seen in increases in the speed of loading cargo onto vessels at CONUS ports). The payback for the investments made may be realized when a faster and more accurate defense transportation system is in operation [11], [12]. Currently, the Army is experimenting with the concept of anticipatory logistics for class III (petroleum, oils, and lubricants), class V (ammunition), and maintenance. Anticipatory logistics uses technologies, information systems, and procedures to predict and prioritize customer requirements and provide appropriate sustainability. Although this sounds simple enough, future logisticians will use current and future technologies as tools to monitor supply levels and equipment conditions for combat units. They also will use decision support software to determine the best use of combat service

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support assets. How is this concept related to the supply chain management (SCM) technique that corporations use?

Supply Chain Management tailored for the Military As far as military logistics operations are concerned, SCM has seven components and seven essential success factors. SCM for the Army is slightly different from SCM for corporate organizations because the Army's focus is on mission requirements rather than on quarterly earnings. The eperts state that the seven components of SCM for the Army are the same as for business: Suppliers; Procurement; Manufacturing; Order management; Transportation; Warehousing; Customers (soldiers). The Army's seven essential success factors are: Customer needs; Information and communication technologies; Deployment within and outside the continental United States; Joint interoperability; Department of Defense regulations; Environmental concerns (to include enemy forces); Mission requirements [11]. The SCM conceptual models for both business and the Army are remarkably similar; however, there are some significant differences. Most notable are the dual directional arrows on the chart for transportation and for distribution and warehousing in the Army SCM model. These illustrate that the Army may retrograde equipment and components for maintenance or retrograde personnel for medical care. Other differences are in the external factors that affect the supply chain. These factors include: • Joint interoperability among the services' command, control, communications, computer, and intelligence (C4I) systems; • Deployment of forces. Soldier and mission requirements. The supply chain reflects the Army's focus on mission accomplishment as opposed to business' focus on profitability [6]. Supply chain management is similar for both corporate (shown left) and military (shown right) organizations. However, some significant differences are obvious in these models. The first is the absence of maintenance on the corporate model. Another is that transportation, distribution, and warehousing are unidirectional in the

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corporate model but dual directional in the military model. Note, also, that the external factors differ between the two types of organizations Pre-emptive Logistics Similar to the corporate world, the Army faces two diametrically opposing forces: the need to support combat maneuver forces better, more responsively, and at a lower cost and the need to reduce the logistics footprint of the Army's future forces. The Army is exploring how to better support brigade combat teams (BCTs) by using some underlying SCM concepts, such as information and communication technologies, order management, and transportation using current and new technologies. By using the "tactical Internet" to achieve situational awareness, future logisticians will be able to track the status of supplies for individual units and better predict the needs of combat units. Systems that provide logistics leaders enhanced situational awareness will provide instantaneous supply status, predict component failures, and even provide two-way messaging. Sensors in both combat and combat service support vehicles will monitor supply levels, unit locations, and equipment status and be able to transmit this information to logistics leaders. Knowing on-hand supply levels will help logistics leaders to better configure "pulsed" logistics resupplies, typically consisting of 3 to 7 days' worth of supplies. Leaders will use this new, enhanced level of situational awareness, provided by decision support tools such as embedded diagnostics, automated testing, and data analysis, to better support combat forces with fewer logistics assets. In an endeavor to revolutionize anticipatory logistics at the wholesale level, the Army is forming a strategic alliance with SAP to integrate and streamline the wholesale logistics process. This alliance will manage demand, supply availability, distribution, financial control, and data management better and provide more flexible and dynamic logistics at the wholesale level to meet specific customer requirements. The benefits will include a synchronized global supply, distribution, and financial network that will increase weapon system readiness and manage mission-based requirements more responsively [12], [ 13]. The Department of Defense also is researching advanced technologies that will bring quantum improvements in joint military logistics, including force deployment, to enhance the readiness of all military forces. 181 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Industry's SCM and the Army's anticipatory logistics for supporting future combat forces are similar. Whereas anticipatory logistics concentrates on the wholesale and tactical (brigade and below levels), which is a small part of the supply chain that culminates with the customer, SCM takes a holistic approach to the entire supply chain. Both anticipatory logistics and SCM share various fundamental concepts in order to meet their respective goals and objectives. The future of logistics in the Army is evolving toward a holistic approach, much like business' SCM efforts, to improve its logistics capability while reducing its logistics footprint. Further Directions Four areas of growth have been traced in commercial logistics, which may also be relevant for the military logistics in the future. Inventory reduction. Stocks in warehouses will be kept at a minimum through continuous resource reduction, supplies kept "on wheels," inventories managed directly by vendors, component parts made to order, and distribution based on one-touch, Internet-type information exchange. Increased reliance on technology. The paperless cargo manifest is a good example of how technology can speed cargo delivery for an interrelated supply chain. Cargo can be transported only as quickly as the accompanying bill of lading and other necessary paperwork. In that sense, electronic data interchange (EDI) offers electronic customs clearance, real-time information exchange, and more lead time for scheduled pickups of cargo. An automated system linking retailers to manufacturers can flag replenishment needs so reorders can be shipped directly from the manufacturers' distribution centers. Strategic outsourcing. Outsourcing some services to specialized service providers may work well when there is a change in manpower, when logistics providers merge, when operations are consolidated, or when it is desirable to tailor services to the individual needs of customers. If the military is to outsource some of its supply chain management operations, total visibility from order placement to distribution destinations will be essential. The first step in determining what part of military logistics operations to outsource may be determined by customer demands. Customer needs should be the number one variable for creating the 182 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

military supply chain management system and making asset investment decisions. After all, without the customers who create demands, there is no need for a supply chain management system. Over time, accounting for the changing needs of customers and devising a mechanism for the Federal agencies that also are logistics users to share that information will lead to the best expenditure of appropriated funds [11], [12]. Joint use of public assets. As trade and transportation become more global and seamless, joint use of infrastructure and equipment- whether they belong to the military or other branches of the Government-may serve as cost-cutting measures. Some of the Nation's highways already are designated as corridors of national significance by Congress to serve national security purposes as well as everyday mobility needs. More conversions of military airbases to all-cargo airports and of naval bases to commercial use may be warranted since there is commercial demand for using the airbases and seaports. Use of commercial rates for frequently traveled routes. Cargo deliveries using frequently traveled routes cost less and can have shorter delivery times. An example of frequently traveled routes for the military are the routes between CONUS and Europe or Asia. States that consume the most imported products serve as trade natural gateways. As long as a particular state is a major consumer of imported cargo, that state will always retain business at the port of entry. The logistics industry is investing in southeastern states such as Florida, Alabama, and Georgia to prepare for a forecasted increase in manufactured items imported from Latin America [12]. These are but a few of the views on commercial sector logistics, relevant to the needs of the military supply chain management system. To achieve the goals of Joint Vision 2010, the military must look beyond the conventional practices, in order to manage innovation and change.

References [1] Shoshanah Cohen, Josep Roussel, Strategic supply chain management, Amazon com., 2004. [2] Peter Bolstorff, Robert Rosenbaum, Supply Chain Excellence, USA, 2003.

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[3] Robert B. Handfiel, Ernest L.Nichols Jr., Supply chain redesign. Transforming supply chains into integrated value systems, USA, 2002. [4] http://www.answers.com/topic/supply-chain-management [5] Defence supply chain manual. JSP 336 (3rd edition). [6] DOD Dictionary of Military an Associated Terms- Logistics. [7] http://www.getindirectory.com/getin.aspx?pr=Reference/Dictionaries/Acronyms [8] http://www.dod.mil/comptroller/icenter/learn/iscm.htm, Integrated Supply Chain Management [9] Global Logistics and Supply Chain Strategies, http://www.supplychainbrain.com/ [10] Supply Chain Management and Logistics Management Definitions, http://www.cscmp.org/Website/AboutCSCMP/Definitions/Definitions.asp [11] Dr. Kristine Lee Leiphart, Creating a Military Supply Chain Management Model, USA, 2001. [12] Major Joshua M. Lenzini, Anticipatory Logistics: The Army's Answer to Supply Chain Management, USA, 2002. [13] John L. Gattorna, The Gowe Handbook of Logistiks and Distribution Management- 4th edition.

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GENERAL APPROACH TO TRANSFORMATION OF MILITARY LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT

Minculete Gheorghe, PhD, Minculete Anca, Udrescu Iulian

“Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest

Abstract Logistics management is a science of planning, organizing, and executing activities for delivering the required goods or services in the right location at the right time. Modern technologies, communication links, and control systems are essential to manage materials, services, and financial goals. In today's complex commercialized world and for military operations, logistics management is used for effective and reliable performance.

Keywords: military logistics; logistics management; revolution in military logistics; distribution-based logistics.

1. Key Points of Logistic Logistics can be considered as a tool for getting the products and services where they are needed and when they are desired. It is difficult to accomplish any marketing or manufacturing without logistical support. It involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging. The operating responsibility of logistics is the geographical repositioning of raw materials, work in process, and finished inventories where required at the lowest cost possible. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the military's need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title ‘Logistikas’ who were responsible for

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financial and supply distribution matters. The Oxford English dictionary defines logistics as: “The branch of military science having to do with procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities [1]”. Logistics as its own concept in business evolved only in the 1950s. This was mainly due to the increasing complexity supply one's business with materials and shipping out products in an increasingly globalized supply supply chain called for experts in the field. In business, logistics may have either internal focus, or external focus covering the flow from originating supplier to end-user, see supply chain management. The main funtion of a logistics manager include purchasing, transport, warehousing, and the organizing and planning of these activities. Logistics managers combine a general knowledge of each of these functions so that their is a coordination of resources in an organization. There are two fundamentally different forms of logistics. One optimizes a steady flow of material through a network of transport links and storage nodes. The other coordinates a sequence of resources to carry out some project. In military logistics, experts manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. In military science, maintaining one's supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy is a crucial, and some would say the most crucial element, of military strategy (since an armed force without food, fuel and ammunition is defenseless). The Iraq war was a dramatic example of the importance of logistics. It had become very necessary for the US and its allies to move huge amounts of men, materials and equipment over great distances. Logistics was successfully used for this effective movement. The defeat of the British in the American War of Independence, and the defeat of Rommel in World War II, have been largely attributed to logistics failure.

2. Logistics Management Logistic management is the management process which integrates the flow of supplies into, through and out of organisation to achieve a level of service which ensures that the right Military logistics management helps to plan, innovate, distribute, and maintain materials for a military operation. This also coordinates the activities of 186 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

personnel movement and support, maintenance and disposition of facilities, and service delivery according to the requirements. Positioning of military units and weapon arrangements for carrying out operations are determined with the aid of logistics management [1]. Logistics management in business utilizes technology for maintenance, assessment, case analysis, planning, implementation, and asset tracking. The art of logistics plays a vital role in linking many industries with others for attaining precise business targets. Budgeting, requirement analysis, performance appraisal, transportation of goods, and distribution are included in logistics management. It also offers an insight to develop measures for improving a company's operations [2]. Logistics management is necessary for a successful operational process of manufacturing, order processing, accounting, incentive management, and goods forwarding. It also supports business in the field of sales, human resource management, and financial services. Battelle logistics management solutions enable clients to increase readiness, reduce total life-cycle costs, modernize legacy systems, and ensure end-to-end inventory visibility. Bringing 21st century solutions to logistics challenges, proprietary Battelle services include: • BSAM, Battelle Strategic Asset Management - the latest innovation in Battelle’s logistics management capability brings together an integrated portfolio of information technologies, sensors, software and business processes that cannot be duplicated anywhere. BSAM provides integrated logistics support, combined with weapons systems sustainment, asset visibility, and continuous technology refreshment for the military service branches and the Department of Defense Logistics Integration Agency [3]. • LOGJAMSS, Logistics Joint Administrative Management Support Services - provides the U.S. Army with a complete range of nationwide and global logistics support and management services through a dedicated Battelle team of multidisciplinary experts. • Core competencies in logistics management generally include: Order management; Inventory management; Warehouse management; Transportation management; Equipment assessment; Inventory 187 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

surveillance; Maintenance and repair; Shelf life extension; Technical assistance; Business process reengineering and functional process improvement; Contract field team support; Contract, task order management; Enterprise IT architecture design; Integrated logistics support; Management, program support; Office automation, help desk support services; Quality assurance (QA), verification and validation; Strategic planning, assessment; Systems network support; Training services support [4].

3. Revolution of Military Logistics Management The transformation challenges the Army to balance near-term readiness and force modernization in an environment of increased missions and fewer resources. The logistics pipeline must be shrunk, the load lightened, and the closing time cut. At the joint level, change started with Joint Vision 2010 and Focused Logistics; at the Army level, change started with the Revolution in Military Logistics (RML). The RML is not only central to preparing for future military operations; it is the fulcrum of the Army’s effort to balance readiness and modernization [5] [6].

Communications Revolution in Military Logistics will also require a dynamic new approach to logistics support. A seamless logistics system that ties all parts of the logistics community into one network of shared situational awareness and unified action can be achieved only in an environment dominated by global, wireless, assured communications. Many world- class commercial companies have reduced inventories significantly and now rely on real-time information, coupled with rapid transportation, to meet customers' demands. Substantial cost savings in acquisition, warehousing, packaging, and transportation have been achieved by reducing inventories. Much of their inventory is in motion in the logistics "pipeline." To manage their reduced inventories, these companies employ global, wireless communications systems that give them up-to-the-minute status on shipments and deliveries [7]. In the future, by leveraging information technologies, logisticians will be empowered to provide the right support at the right time at the right place. They no longer will rely on "historical" data. 188 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Rather, they will have real-time, predictive information to make intelligent decisions and optimize force readiness. Global wireless communications will provide soldiers the capability to reach and "see" virtually anywhere on the battlefield or in the world. Today some 200 communications satellites orbit the Earth. It is predicted that there will be over 2,000 by the year 2010. The market for commercial use of global wireless communications, both voice and data is growing exponentially. Therefore, providers are scrambling to increase total capacity by putting up more satellites and to increase the speed of information flow by improving technology. Competition for market share is driving down the size and cost of mobile equipment, while battery life is increasing steadily [7].

Best business practices Methodologies and applications used in private industry that elevate a commercial enterprise above the competition are referred to as "commercial best practices." Best practices enable leading-edge organizations to deliver world-class standards of performance to their customers. These best practices and standards of performance have generated much interest within the Army logistics community, which is constantly being asked to do more with less. The emergence of commercial best practices took place because of downsizing and a hunger for profitability, or doing more with less, so it stands to reason that there could be a great deal of benefit to Army implementation of these best practices. Leveraging of commercial best business practices is a popular topic in the literature and presentations concerning the Army of the future, the RML, and the Objective Force. RML, as a precursor and roadmap to the Objective Force, could be accelerated greatly by investigating and embracing many commercial logistics best practices. Integrated supply chain management, industry's changing view of logistics, electronic commerce, automated identification technology, direct vendor delivery, load optimization, outsourcing, and smart simple design are all examples of commercial best practices that could be very useful in helping the Army achieve the RML [8].

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The Army Materiel Command (AMC) will transform into a more responsive Army Support Provider (ASP). This ASP will ensure: sustainability is designed into future systems with enormous improvements in reliability, availability, and maintainability; a single command, control, communication, computers/information and technology (C4/IT) architecture provides logistics information at all levels; centralized contracting information is always available; and, embedded diagnostics / prognostics and Automatic Identification Technology (AIT) [9].

Integrated supply chain management The Massachusetts Institute of Technology defines integrated supply chain management (ISCM) as a process-oriented, integrated approach to procuring, producing, and delivering products and services to customers. In this context, ISCM has a broad scope that includes suppliers, customers, and internal information funds flows. Thus, the scope of supply chain management includes the supplier's supplier and the customer's customer. In recent years, supply chain management software providers and consultants have emerged as multibillion-dollar businesses [10]. The information technology and software solutions offered by global vendors, many of whom have Fortune 500 client lists, offer the tools, visibility, and connectivity to facilitate supply chain management, integration, and optimization. Supply chain management solutions have been most successful when a holistic, end-to-end approach is employed and when processes and information are integrated throughout the enterprise. Implementation of software to manage the supply chain must integrate many different processes, including supply and demand planning, transportation and distribution management, and advanced planning and scheduling (for asset management or manufacturing operations). This approach can result in inventory reductions, increased on- time deliveries, reduced total product cycle (make-to-sell) time, increased revenues, and better customer service [9].All of this adds up to significant savings and an important gain in competitive advantage.

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Applying tailored, integrated, enterprise-wide business process management software suites when implementing supply chain management techniques is creating a growing revolution in corporate- wide logistics management. This holistic approach is revolutionizing corporate-wide logistics management. Many companies are promoting their logistics chiefs to executive vice presidents and senior vice presidents for logistics. Senior logisticians are being included as members of executive committees. This trend illustrates the institutionalization of the value of logistics to the bottom line. Likewise, using logistics metrics in the corporate suite for planning and policy decision-making also is increasing [9]. Electronic technologies and applications have expanded to affect many aspects of logistics. U.S. companies have used electronic commerce to increase productivity as they enhance business transactions, data and information exchanges, business process reengineering, organizational changes, and process automation. Electronic catalogs post product information on the Internet. Many sites offer interactive capabilities such as on-line ordering. Internet purchasing and electronic catalogs are being used to streamline order cycle times, cut administrative costs, and speed product delivery to the customer. The ability to order supplies over the Internet can reduce cycle times drastically throughout the supply chain. This means that a low-cost, web-based, distributed procurement and resupply system can be delivered by standard web browsers [11]. Automatic identification technology (AIT) includes bar codes, radio frequency (RF) tags, satellite tracking, "smart" cards, and laser cards. Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) satellite tracking provides real-time monitoring of transportation assets and customer products. Bar codes, the most widely used form of AIT, and the visibility they provide have enabled a great deal of the agility found in today's world- class manufacturers and retailers. The visibility of goods and assets in storage, in transit, and in process has resulted in reduced inventory levels and order and ship times and improved overall responsiveness to customers. Outsourcing non-core competencies is a recognized best practice. The reasons for outsourcing logistics functions include lower costs, a streamlined labor force, access to top personnel, and cutting-edge technologies. 191 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Industry has found that, to have successful implementation of these best practices, which would have system-wide impact and/or result in extensive change, it must also have top leadership's commitment, support, and involvement [11]. The Army Objective Force cannot be successfully supported with the resources and infrastructure that are currently projected. We need best-in-class logistics practices. The Army must partner with world- class logistics providers when appropriate and become a world-class provider itself by leveraging the best industry has to offer. The challenge is to determine where and when to pursue each of these industry-proven strategies [4].

Distribution-based logistics The operational concept Distribution-based logistics (DBL) relies on distribution velocity and precision, rather than redundant supply mass, to provide responsive support to warfighters. It reduces the mass required to compensate for the lethal uncertainties of war by reducing uncertainty across the Joint Theater. DBL rests on three pillars: visibility, capacity, and control. Visibility: The acquisition of near real-time situational understanding, or visibility, has been a major objective of Force XXI. The US Army is continuing this effort, fielding the first digitized division in December 2000, to be followed by the digitized corps in 2004. The advent of the new Army Vision has only emphasized the need for improved visibility [12]. Visibility can be grouped into three major categories. First, there is visibility of the supported warfighting units, which includes the unit's prioritized requirements, the commander's priorities among units, and the current and projected commander's intent. Situational understanding of the supported unit is the most essential element of the visibility tenet, since the status of the warfighting unit defines the logistic mission and establishes priorities. The second category of visibility is logistic capabilities and constraints. The logistician must have real-time situational understanding of his own capabilities and constraints. These include visibility of elements of capacity such as infrastructure, materiel systems, inventories, transportation resources, personnel skills and 192 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

training, and the logistic implications of the situation [4], [12]. Capacity: The logistics force must have the physical capacity to act on the knowledge provided by realtime visibility. This includes the array of materiel systems: the lean but adequate inventories; road, rail and facilities infrastructure; and skilled personnel. These capabilities include the materiel for physical distribution within theater and from the Continental United States by military or private vendors. Enhancements to new and improved materiel systems, such as embedded sensors and prognostics, are essential to anticipating logistic requirements [13]. Control: Some of the most important logistics modernization efforts fall under the tenet of control. These include the tactical force structure of the brigade combat teams; the theater support command; and the single seamless Army logistics organization, the Army Readiness Command. Control also includes the necessary doctrine (at the operational and tactical levels) and law, policy and regulation (at the strategic level). Control encompasses the expert leaders and artisans who apply logistic capabilities to satisfy prioritized operational requirements [13]. The Army’s need to transform is like that of many other organizations undergoing dramatic change. The Army is facing many of the same challenges. World-class companies must transform their support structures if they expect to continue to dominate their business sectors.

References [1] URL: thefreedictionary.com; Army Logistics Management [2] By Ken Marlborough, Logistics Management; http://ezinearticles.com/?Logistics-Management&id=407721 [3] Logistics Management nationalsecurity.battelle.org/capabilities/logistics.aspx - 10k [4] TRANSFORMATION – REVOLUTION IN MILITARY LOGISTICS, by Aundre F. Piggee Lieutenant Colonel, , U.S.A.,09 April 2002 [5] LTG Charles S. Mahan Jr., “The Challenges of Fielding The Army’s Objective Force,” Army Magazine, October 2001. [6] William Grisoli, “Army Transformation,” briefing slides. Department of the Army Transformation Office, Carlisle: U.S. Army War College, 1 February 2002. 193 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

[7] Roger Houck and William Cousins, “Communications Technologies for the Revolution in Military Logistics,” Army Logistician, January-February 2000 [8] Robert D. Paulus, “Industry and Logistics Transformation,” Army Logistician, July-August 2001. [9] Department of the Army, Objective Force Maneuver Sustainment Concept of Operations, Training and Doctrine Command Pamphlet 525-4-0 (Draft) Fort Monroe, Virginia: U.S. Department of the Army, 18 December 2001. [10] Helen Keeter, “Transformation Office Calls For Cultural Change, Possible Acquisition Shifts,” Defense Daily International, 30 November 2001. [11] Larry Smith, “Commercial Logistics Best Practices for the Revolution in Military Logistics,” Army Logistician, January-February, 1999. [12] Robert McKay and Kathy Flowers, ‘Transformation in Army Logistics,” Military Review, September/October 2000. [13] Department of the Army, Objective Force Maneuver Sustainment Concept of Operations, Training and Doctrine Command Pamphlet 525-4-0 (Draft) Fort Monroe, Virginia: U.S. Department of the Army, 18 December 2001.

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ROMANIAN ARMED FORCES’ TRANSFORMATION STRATEGY

Ioniţă Crăişor Constantin

Romanian General Staff, Bucharest e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Modern conflicts, being more intra-state, have aims and objectives very complex. At the same time, the borders between military actions and participative actors become porous and ambiguous This is why, in order to respond to those imperatives, states need new military structures, being capable of conducting the full spectrum of operations, sometimes independently, but more commonly, as part of an Alliance or coalition-led operation. Generally speaking, the transformation of Armed Forces has two distinct domains: conceptual and structural. If the second one is largely described in many strategies and visions, the first domain is less analyzed and let at the thinkers and researchers’ attitude of mind to be developed and applied.

Keywords: transformation, conceptual, structural, SOP, jointness

1. Introduction Transforming military structures, both conceptually and structurally is the political and military decision-makers’ top highest priority. The conceptual transformation is as important as having totally new military units and capabilities to fulfill the political commitements taken at our inclusion into NATO and the EU. Without a modern joint doctrine, visionary operational concepts, and adequate Standing Operational Procedures (SOP), there will be no real transformation of national capabilities nor interoperability with NATO and EU forces in the next decades. 195 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

A modern joint doctrine architecture means a new military thinking process. According to the Romanian Armed Forces’ Transformation Strategy, the doctrinal domain will establish a general, more flexible and efficient framework for changing old mentalities and introducing the unity of thinking and action in terms of jointness, multinationality, and interagency. The “Romanian Armed Forces Doctrine” and the “Doctrine for Operational Planning” (being under development) will introduce visionary operational concepts as new philosophies to conduct future operations. The projected concepts of “Effect Based Approach to Operations”, “Manoeuvrist Approach”, and “Mission Command” will define the new approach to Joint Operations led by NATO and EU. The Conceptual Transformation should be finalised through the establishment of additional SOPs or by implementing the existing Allied STANAGs that put in practice each operational concept. These SOPs could be very vast and strict for each concept, national or multinational, giving them real transparency and synergetic effects. The new doctrinal concepts and SOPs will create, in the end, the ability to reach decision-making superiority, which, in turn, will offer credible modalities of thinking, planning and acting. The superiority in decision-making is, in fact, the essence of the conceptual transformation of the Romanian Armed Forces.

2. NATO’s Transformation 2.1. What means transformation Analysing NATO’s role and missions for the future, lord Robertson, the former NATO’s Secretary General, has focused the North Atlantic Council’s attention on the necessity to change the Alliance before being to late. [1] In his vision, to change something means to transform it into a new one. You can physically change the shape or the colour of something, or you would like to only change it mentally, by rethinking its internal structure or relationship with other surrounding things. Doesn’t matter, at the end you’ll have a totally or partially new thing. This means you have transformed it into a better or more useful tool. In military terms, transformation means to create new capabilities to meet tomorrow’s challenges, threats or demands. 196 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

2.2. Necessity of transformation Why is so necessary to transform NATO? We think there is no doubt today’s security threats are different from those of Cold War period and come mainly from failed states, terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, crime syndicates and competition for natural resources. These new threats are global in nature and could arise anywhere -but their implications affect us all. Because the threats are different, the response must be different. Sitting back, with huge numbers of forces dedicated to territorial defence, and working in isolation, has definitely lost relevance in this new threat environment. That’s why NATO, and Romania too, is committed to adopt a future force structure and doctrines to meet the new challenges of the security environment and the requirements as member of NATO. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 represented more than mere symbolism, it was the testament to freedom and democracy, which NATO was founded upon. The years following the end of communism in Central-Europe saw instability in the Balkans and while NATO conducted significant military and humanitarian operations in Kosovo and Bosnia, the alliance had largely gone unchanged from its cold war structure. The events of September 11, 2001 changed all that. The world was thrust into a new kind of war, one without borders or traditional enemies with armies, navies or air forces, but which presented no less threat to the peace and security NATO had achieved up until that point. It was the events of 9-11 that drove change and the need to transform NATO. The alliance reacted quickly to that tragic event and for the first time in its history, NATO invoked Article 5 – which states that an attack against a member of the alliance was an attack on us all – and dispatched aircraft from NATO’s Airborne Warning and Control System, or AWACS, to assist the United States in patrolling American airspace. This was a dramatic and bold step for the alliance and served as a catalyst to the even more dramatic changes that later came about.

2.3. How NATO is changing Just a little more than a year after the terror attacks of 9-11, 197 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Alliance members met at a NATO Summit held in Prague in November 2002. The outcome of this historic summit resulted in an agreement providing for a truly remarkable set of changes for the alliance, transforming the fifty year old, cold war structure of NATO into an organisation designed to meet the uncertain world we find ourselves in today. In order to be successful in this 21st century environment, NATO needs to transform itself structurally, conceptually and actionably. To change the whole organisation, NATO needs to transform its defence capabilities as shown in fig.1.

Figure 1– Future forces’ characteristics [2]

The Alliance command and force structure must be expeditionary in character and be capable of conducting a number of small, concurrent operations over long periods of time. A greater proportion of Alliance forces will need to be deployable and have the flexibility to transition rapidly between warfighting and peacekeeping. Future forces must be capable of operating within a networked environment. There will be greater call on specialist skills in areas such as engineering, communications, Nuclear, Biological and Chemical defence, special operations, Civil/Military cooperation, logistics and medical services. Next is to adapt its concepts to a new command and force

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structures. Therefore, NATO’s military specialists have released the “Bi-Strategic Vision: The Military Challenge.” The aim of this paper is to provide a vision of the way in which future Alliance operations will be conducted and thereby guide the transformation of forces, concepts and capabilities in the coming decades. Actually, the Vision is the Alliance’s Transformation Strategy, having its own transformation objective areas, which were envisaged by specialists, main goals and a final aim. See fig.2

Transformation Transformation Transformation Goals Goals Goals

Figure 2 – Alliance Transformation’s Areas, Goals & Aim

The aim of the transformation is a totally new concept -an effects- based approach to operations, which, in fact, is the actionable part of the entire Alliance transformation to meet the military challenge. A central tenet of Strategic Vision is that all future operations will be effects-based in that they will involve all instruments of Alliance power exercised in an integrated fashion to create a desired effect in

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order to achieve a strategic objective. Though many of the initiatives that come from this coordination process will be led by national’s capitals or other organisations, the consultation process and existing structures within the Alliance will be paramount to success. Though the elements that make-up this effects-based approach are not new to warfare, it is the intended use of modern technology to enable the coherent planning and execution of actions that bring new possibilities to the way conflicts will be handled. It does not displace traditional attrition and manoeuvre warfare, rather it is a philosophical change in the way that operations are planned and conducted. Effects-based operations consider the strategic ends to be achieved and how to integrate all Alliance capabilities to generate effects that reduce an adversary’s operational coherence, neutralise his capabilities, shape his perceptions and break his will to fight.

3. Transforming the Romanian Armed Forces 3.1. Why Romania needs to transform her military forces Romania plays a significant role in security and stability at the crossroad of four European geostrategic areas: Central-Europe, Southern Europe, the Black Sea Area and Caspian energetic corridor, which connect us further to Caucasus and Central Asia. Our national security efforts are focused on the contribution to both regional and global security, based on democratic principles and values, meaning that we are currently involved in the development of cooperative security networks, which are based on interlocking initiatives in SE Europe, as well as multilateral cooperation initiatives, in order to participate in building confidence, security and counter-measures against the risks and challenges in the region. As a NATO member and, hopefully, starting with January 2007, an EU member, Romania has gained and plays its role in the regional peace and stability. It’s worth noting that Romania has already become involved in EU initiatives undertaken in the realm of defence and security. Membership of UN and OSCE adds to Romania more relevance into the actual geostrategic context. Taking into consideration the major changes in the strategic 200 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

environment since 1990, Romania has understood, and adopted as well, a new vision, a new meaning of social reform and modernization strategy. In this regard, the Romanian Armed Forces have taken into account the geo-political and geo-strategic changes in international security environment, and as a result, the Armed Forces’ reorganization and modernization process has been consistently developed with political and diplomatic actions that have aimed at supporting Romania’s accession to NATO. At that moment, the reform represented both a requirement to accomplish interoperability with NATO and an internal need, too.

3.2. History of ROU AF adaptation to changes The Romanian Armed Forces re-shaping process started at the end of 90’s, at the same time with the major political changes in the Romanian society, and have passed through an ample process of conceptual and procedural clarifications. The three stages of the reform, as you can see on the screen, had as objectives the achievement of several specific criteria. At the beginning of 2000, the restructuring process continued based on the “Reorganization and Modernization Program”, which was to be accomplished in two phases: the first one (up to 2003) initiated at the same time with the beginning of 3rd PARP cycle, and the second one (till 2007), whose objectives were those showed on the slide. During this process we have realised that reorganization doesn’t mean only structural changes, adjustment of doctrines, new rules, new documents, but especially a deep change of mentality. Indeed, Romania had already been going through an intense reviewing and adapting process of the Armed Forces at the time it was receiving the invitation to join NATO. Based on NATO Ministerial Directive and Prague Capabilities Commitments, Romanian General Staff decided to start a fundamental review of the Objective Force – 2007. The fundamental review of the Objective Force 2007 was approved by the Homeland Supreme Defence Council in 2004, when the first phase of force restructuring started. The new force structure was planed to be completely implemented by 2007, when we expect to 201 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

have 90.000 strength of our Armed Forces. Two brigades will have been ready to operate for NATO collective defence by that time, if needed. The second phase of the restructuring process will continue until 2015, when the operational integration into NATO and EU is considered to be finalised. According to the MOD plans, the 2015 Armed Forces Structure will be able to provide: national defence within NATO collective defence framework, compatible forces in accordance with NATO and EU requirements, greater availability for intervention and support to public administration in emergencies, integration of the planned combat assets for commissioning by 2015, and Host Nation Support for NATO military structure. Last phase is called “Full integration into NATO and EU” and it represents, in fact, the technical integration, by modernising at NATO standards, all our equipment. This phase will end the transformation process in 2025.

3.3. ROU Armed Forces Transformation Strategy Coming to our daily awareness and concerns in the transformation area, the Romanian Ministry of Defence (MOD) initiated at the beginning of 2005 a package of projects for future dedicated to the transformation of the Armed Forces. The first project referred to the “Romanian Armed Forces (ROU AF) Transformation Strategy”, a document meant to coordinate the internal transformation with NATO’s transformation process. The strategy has been completed, approved, than revised and we are now in the phase of putting in practice the consequent implementation plan. In this Transformation Strategy is stated that the fundamental goal of transformation is to get appropriate capabilities to respond to current and future challenges in the security environment. The main outcome of the process will be a modern, fully professional, mobile, effective, flexible, deployable, sustainable force structure able to act jointly and participate in a broad scope of missions. [3] The references for the Implementation Plan have been the ROU AF’s Transformation Strategy, Strategic Planning Guidance 2007, ROU AF’s Endowment Concept, MC Guidance -MC 400/2, NATO 202 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Planning Documents (Force Goals, DPQ, Country Chapter), and SACT Report on 2005. The main participants in this implementation process at General Staff level are the General Staff’s structures, Military Representations to NATO HQ’s, Services’ (Land, Air and Naval) Staffs, Joint Logistic, Joint Operational and CIS HQs. Between 2005-2025, the ROAF transformation process will be developed into three distinct stages, each of them having specific goals, in accordance with the priorities imposed by our commitments and the integration process. The gradual approach by subsequent stages provides a better level of predictability relating to resource allocation. Let’s go on and see what the other projects are for future. We have considered being of great priority the two projects that aim at providing compliance with the commitments assumed to NATO and EU, as well as a firm revision of the Command and Control System. Logistics represents another important domain of transformation. A new “Strategy of the Romanian Armed Forces logistics support development until 2015” is currently being elaborated. Additionally, MOD projects include a strategy for the C4I2SR implementation into our Armed Forces that aims at getting a fully compatible system with the requirements of the modern operational theatres. The human resources management modernization aims at increasing effectiveness by reducing duplication, providing transparency, implementing a competence-based selection system and a pyramidal system of military hierarchy. Increasing our personnel life standard is one of the cornerstones in our transformation strategy. ROU AF is striving to adapt their standards, so that they converge to NATO’s ones. Additionally, the MOD is determined to reshape the education and training system, to integrate the military education into the national system and to adapt it to the Alliance’s doctrines and standards. Improvement of the Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Evaluating System is another direction of the transformation strategy in the Romanian Armed Forces. It aims at optimizing the national legal framework and also increasing the role of the defence planner in 203 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

the system. A new vision relating to the coordinated modernization of the military equipments is under construction. It will attempt to harmonize the acquisition process with the general process of transformation. Reshaping the Intelligence and Military Medical Systems are other two projects on the MOD list with priorities for future.

4. Summary Transformation is a complex and continuous process. So far, the MOD and, GS in particular, has accomplished many objectives relating transformation, but we know very well that much is still to be accomplished. Planners must be aware of their obligations and decided to do their best to be successful. Additionally, the Command Group knows very well that they must attune our transformation process with the Alliance transformation and are striving to do so. Due to its character, the Transformation Strategy and the Implementation plan play a central role and is the base of all our forthcoming sectarian strategies and implementation or action plans. If successful in their demarche, the MOD will get the new needed capabilities, which will provide more flexibility, high reaction ability, interoperability and better conditions to fulfil ROU AF’s missions. Not worth to mention is that, without a full and continuous political support, the Transformation Strategy of our Armed Forces is a redundant document and will become, in time, more and more obsolete.

References [1] http://www.nato.int [2] Bi-Strategic Vision: The Military Challenge, NATO HQs, Brussels, 2004, pp.23. [3] ROU AF Transformation Strategy, Technical-Editorial Army Centre, Bucharest, 2007, pp.45.

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NATURE OF WAR AND STRATEGY

Ioniţă Crăişor Constantin

Romanian General Staff, Bucharest e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract War is the essence of the Military Domain. It represents the main purpose of our job and why Military Forces are developed and used. Because it was considered to be a social phenomenon, it is a continuation of policy with other means. With means of violence. War is a violent action and comprises the use of force or threatens with the use of force to achieve victory. Strategy, especially the Military Strategy, deals with the Military Art. How to use Military Forces to accomplish political goals given by National Authorities. It is a correlation of ends, means and ways to help political bodies to achieve their interests.

Keywords: war, conflict, crisis, strategy

1. Introduction In the modern world there are no clear-cut boundaries between conflict and war and there is no agreed definition of what crisis is about. Many theorists consider actual period as being a Forth World War, after two well known World Wars and a Cold War. Others describe the beginning of new millennium as a ‘Hot Peace’ period. This means that we never end the state of war/conflict. In fact, what Henry KISSINGER said: “…peace is the period between wars.”[1] Therefore, this article will underline the main debates and perspectives in our days regarding war and conflict, highlighting what the modern theorists envisage in the 21st Century. Furthermore, I think it would be better to understand the role and place of strategy.

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2. War vs. Conflict 2.1. Definition of Terms Armed conflict is a situation in which violence or military force is threatened or used. War is the most extreme manifestation of armed conflict and is characterised by intense extensive and sustained combat. On the other hand, according to the Oxford Dictionary, war represents “... (state of) fighting between nations or groups of nations

(interstates) or within a nation (intrastate), using or threatening with the use of military force.” [2] Conflict may occur between states or within the borders of a country (civil war, insurrection). It is generally a contest between opposing groups, each seeking to impose its will on the other. However, intra-state conflict may involve several factions. In addition, third parties not involve in the dispute may engage in military activity to resolve or terminate a conflict. The causes of conflict are as old as human history. They are often based on territories competition for resources, exacerbated by human behaviour and emotions, such as fear, greed hatred, and ambition, coupled with political, economic, religious, ethnic, nationalistic, linguistic and environmental interests. Similarly the fundamental character of conflict seems likely to remain unchanged: a dynamic contest of wills, involving death, destruction, terror and human suffering. For the participant, warfare will continue to represent a physical and moral challenge however, as circumstances change, conflict can manifest itself in new ways: for example the emerging possibility of an attack on a state's essential information systems to sabotage its economic processes.

2.2. Characteristics of Conflicts The conflict is a political act, distinguished from other political instruments by the violence involved. In Clausewitz's words "war is not merely an act of policy, but a true political instrument the political object is the goal, war is the means of reaching it, and means can ever be considered in isolation from their purpose..." [3] Success in conflict is measured by the achievement of political aims; their nature will shape military objectives and the scope an intensity of military 206 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

operations. Despite its violence, chaos and brutality, conflict is rarely unlimited. Diplomacy often continues in the midst of conflict, for example through discussions in the or third party negotiations. Other non-violent intercourse may also continue. Moreover, during any conflict, except perhaps when national survival is at stake, national policy will continue to pursue objectives which are completely separate from the conflict, but which may influence the way in which the nation approaches the conflict. Conflict is a human struggle, manifest as the clash of wills between two opposing leaders or leadership groups. It may also become a contest of wills between opposing populations, who are suffering as a result of hostilities. Therefore the morale and motivation of both the armed forces and the population are crucial to success. Because it is dynamic contest, conflict tends to be chaotic and unpredictable. Factors such as human inefficiency, equipment and logistic limitations, and unexpected weather mean that, in reality, conflict is often much more difficult than it appeared when it was being planned. Above all, the actions of the enemy can complicate and frustrate the simplest task. Clausewitz described this as the "friction" of war: "action in war is like movement in a resistant element. Just as the simplest and most natural of movements, walking, cannot easily be performed in water, so in war it is difficult for normal efforts to achieve even moderate results. .... friction, as we choose to call it, is the force that makes the apparently easy so difficult." [4]

2.3. Types of Conflicts Conflict in the Modern World is a common place and there is frequently no clear distinction between war and peace. Even relatively minor, localised conflicts may have implications for at least local peace, stability and trade. Therefore many nations not directly engaged in conflict are involved in efforts to monitor, manage and resolve actual or potential conflicts. Against this background, technological, political and cultural developments shape the nature of modem conflict. Modern theorists of war have described six types of conflicts that are taking place today: general war, limited conflict, regional conflict, 207 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

civil war, insurgency (and counter-insurgency), terrorism (and counter-terrorism). General War is the conflict between major powers in which their large and vital interests, perhaps even survival, are at stake. All the national resources of the belligerents are likely to be harnessed to the war effort and the conflict is likely to have few restrictions; indeed it may become less restricted as it continues. Limited Conflict is the international conflict short of general war, in which there would be no recourse to the use of nuclear weapons. In practice, as discussed above, virtually all conflicts are limited in some ways, and armed forces will almost invariably be subject to constraints involving the objectives to be achieved and the means by which they may be pursued. Regional Conflict describes a limited conflict arising out of the regional issues. The conflict may be contained within the region, but the political and economic effects are likely to reverberate further afield. There may also be involvement from beyond the region, such as non-belligerents supplying military equipment, advisers or volunteers. There might be military intervention under the authority of a United Nations' mandate to resolve or terminate the conflict. Civil war is conducted largely within the boundaries of a state in which a significant part of the population is associated with opposing sides. The contest is for the government of the state or regional autonomy or secession. One or both sides may have external help. Insurgency describes the actions of a minority group within a state (or in some instances a majority group which lacks power)) intent on forcing political change by means of a mixture of subversion, propaganda and military pressure. The intent is to persuade or intimidate the broad mass of the people to accept such change. Again, each side may have help from outside. Terrorism may be defined as premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated by groups or individuals and usually intended to influence an audience wider than that of its immediate victims. In one form, terrorism may be an element of insurgency. In another, it may be employed for objectives short of the overthrow of the state. It may also be used by one state against another. The War against Terrorism is a quite new concept developed in the last years, mainly after the 208 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

9/11 2001 events. It faces the asymmetric threat of terrorism, or so called state terrorism not only with its weapons, but also with other “weapons” namely democracy, freedom, law. Even it could apparently be a solution, terrorist tactics will not work in the fight against terrorism. The best response to the terrorist threat is by using strengths as democracy, that is, by relying on the rule of law in the actions and approaches which are taken to combat terrorism.

3. Strategy 3.1. Definition of Strategy In its general sense, the Strategy is “the art and science of developing and employing the political, economic, psychological, and military forces of a nation, during peace and during war, to afford the maximum support to national policies.”[5] It is sometimes called grand or national strategy. In its military sense, strategy is “the art and science of employing the armed forces of a nation to secure the objects of national policy by the application of force or the threat of force.” [6] Strategy is the correlation of ends, ways, and means to accomplish interests. See fig.1

Figure 1 – The relationship between Strategy and Military Styrategy

Ends are the final objectives, goals or WHAT TO DO. Means represents the resources made available for accomplishing the ends. Ways are the answer to the question HOW TO DO, or courses of action to accomplish the ends.

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3.2. History of Strategy The word strategy is of Greek origin. It originally meant the art of military leadership. The first theorist who describes Strategy was Karl von Clausewitz. He distinguished between two military levels of war: strategic and tactical. “Tactics teaches the use of armed forces in the engagement; strategy the use of engagements for the objective of the war.” [7] Next, the British military writer, Sir Basil Liddell Hart, sought to get away from the traditional, narrowed focus of strategy on warfare, and in the 1950’s with the term grand strategy [8] he provided a broader, more comprehensive definition. In his view, it is the task of grand strategy to guide and coordinate all the resources of a nation or an alliance, to achieve the war objective established by policy. He thus assigns the term "grand strategy" to the political aim and the terms "pure strategy" or "military strategy", to the military aim. The modern military thinker, André Beaufre, believed that the essence of strategy is each opponent’s struggle for its freedom of action. [9] He envisaged strategy as more than traditional generalship. To him, it is a method of thinking that has a shaping function, one that realises the application of thought resulting from philosophy. But strategy is equally a functional area that comprises all the efforts of warfare, or of applying the physical means of power, to attain, political objectives. Strategy thus becomes a planning procedure, the outcome of which is a concept, or, a practical guideline. But Strategy is not a military term only. Henry Kissinger, former U.S. secretary of state, defined Strategy as being based on the idea that policy is the art of a statesman in looking after the interests of a nation in its external relations. And that policy pursues the aim of ensuring the security of that nation, in a system of balanced forces. To Kissinger, strategy is a long-term concept that becomes the maxim for action in foreign policy. Strategy has a nationally oriented trait and encompasses policy to which it is subordinate. The entire spectrum of political, economic and military aspects is "grand strategy“. Another politician, Helmut Schmidt, former chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, stated that Strategy is something on a 210 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

higher level, something more than the employment of armed forces and is therefore "not a matter for generals but for governments, though it can assign tasks to generals. Political, economic, social and other factors contribute to the range and objectives of a country's strategy". V.D.Sokolovski, marshal of the Soviet Union, in his work "Soviet Military Strategy", stresses that the Marxist-Leninist view of strategy just like policy and tactics - must orient itself toward the ultimate goal of socialist ideology: the attainment of world communism through revolution. Only in this goal - in which policy, strategy, and tactics are combined - does strategy receive its reason and its task.

3.3. Factors that influence Strategy Military strategy has evolved after consideration of many varied factors. First it must be closely linked with national strategy. Another basic requirement is that it must provide for the integrity of the homeland, not only in the interests of self-preservation, but also to provide the tools of war needed for the execution of strategy. Nations dependent on friendly foreign sources for supply of vital raw materials must include in strategy provision for the protection of lines of communication, or must accumulate and maintain stockpiles of such materials to meet the needs of war and to provide for essential civilian needs. Since wars can only be won by taking the offensive, strategy must provide for the development and maintenance of armed forces, in sufficient numbers, and of suitable types, to conduct offensive operations on the scale needed to meet likely objectives. The economic burden of remaining continually on a full war footing will be prohibitive for nations if they are to provide their people with a satisfactory standard of living. The strategist therefore is confronted with the difficult task of deciding which forces must be maintained actively and which can be deferred, yet mobilised and equipped in time to meet the needs of strategy. Other factors that influence the formulation of strategy are for example: alliances; physical factors such as the extent and shape of frontiers, geography; the population; economics; the enemy’s combat capabilities, and his possible lines of action; the possible reactions of neutrals and their effects on the strategy selected. 211 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Lastly, and of crucial importance, consideration must be given to the principles of war, as they are likely to apply and influence the formulation of strategy. Military strategy should include a number of principal features which include the need to preserve the integrity of the homeland and the industrial base; plans of campaign which utilise the full capabilities of the nation’s armed forces that are designed to defeat the enemy and destroy his will to fight. The requirement for active forces needed at the outbreak of war; and a program for the mobilisation of additional forces, essential to the prosecution of the war. If these requirements exceed the manpower, or economic means, that can be allotted for military purposes, the strategy is not feasible and must be revised. If war to be waged along with major allies, strategy should be formulated jointly with regard for individual interests and the overall resources available to the alliance.

4. Summary Instead of concluding, this article will finish by letting you with these wise words. Indeed, they are very true, if you think on the most recent conflicts: Korean and Vietnam Wars, I and II Gulf Wars, some Military Operations other than Wars. “There is an old saying, ‘Generals fight the most recent war.’ This is not correct. Generals fight the most recent war that they have won. When they win a war, they get promotes. Those who imitate them also get promoted. So, the next war is a reply of the most recent victorious war.” [10]

References [1] Kissinger, Henry, Are nevoie America de o politică externă?, Editura Incitatus, Bucureşti, 2002, pp. 23. [2] Oxford Dictionary, London, 1992, pp.331. [3] Karl von Clausewitz, Despre război, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 1982, pp.122. [4] Ibid, pp.234. [5] Oxford Dictionary, pp.204. [6] Ibid, pp.206. [7] Karl von Clausewitz, Op.cit, pp. 112.

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[8] Danchev, Alex, Liddell Hart and the Indirect Approach -The Journal of Military History, Vol. 63, No. 2. (1999), pp. 313. [9] Beaufre, Andre, Introduction to Strategy, New York: Praeger, 1965, pp.67. [10] North, Gary, New War, Old Strategy, article written in the Strategy Essay Competition 2004, Joint Chiefs of Staff, pp.23.

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THE MODERN ARMOURED CAR

Brat Viorel, Bucătariu Bogdan

M.U. 01261, Piteşti, M.U. 02605, Bucharest e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Two approaches have been adopted to meet the new demand: armouring existing vehicles and developing purpose-built armoured vehicles. The first solution - armouring existing vehicles - is often a temporary expedient as the installation of an armour package significantly reduces payload. Mobility and service life. Although neither approach will provide the same level of protection as the more expensive and larger Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (Mrap) vehicle against the improvised explosive devices which are the greatest threat to coalition forces in Afghanistan and Iraq, they offer the advantages of greater strategic and tactical mobility, especially in urban environments.

Keywords: armoured car, armoured vehicle

American In only a few years the AM General Humvee has made the metamorphose from an unarmoured tactical wheeled vehicle to the most numerous factory-built armoured vehicle in service. AM General officials stress that prior to Operation Iraqi Freedom most HMMWV models were not required to have any armour protection. Armament carriers and the hard-shelled ambulance models were designed to provide some degree of protection. The initial M998 production series was fielded from 1985 in 14 variants, including two- and four-door cargo/troop, shelter and weapon carriers to replace the Jeep and five other unarmoured tactical vehicles in army service. It was 20 years before the army funded an armoured Humvee in the aftermath of the 1993 battle of Mogadishu against insurgents in Somalia. [1] The 214 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

M1114 Uparmoured Humvee, based on the Expanded Capacity Vehicle chassis, was developed in the mid-1990s to equip scout platoons and military police units; fewer than 1000 M1114s were built by early 2004. Since 2004, faced by escalating casualties in Iraq, American defence leaders directed that only armoured would be used for operational missions in Iraq and Afghanistan and launched a crash effort to fit add-on armour to Hummers in theatre. The basic vehicle was delivered to the Fairfield, Ohio factory of BAE Systems (previously known as O'Gara-Hess & Eisenhardt) where the armour package was installed; the factory also produces the Hard-kit that can be installed on unarmoured M998A2s to provide perimeter, roof and underbody protection. The US Department of Defense's long-term armour strategy requires that during the manufacture process every new tactical wheeled vehicle be fitted with integrated armour protection, known as the A-kit, in areas that would be difficult to reach in the field and with fitting for B-kit armour which can be installed in the field to complete the protection package. The A/B armour concept was pioneered with the latest variants of the Humvee, the four-seat M1151 Armament Carrier, the two-seat M1152 Troop/Cargo/Shelter Carrier and the M1165 four-seat Command and Control Vehicle, which the army began fielding in mid-2005. These vehicles are powered by the re-designed Optimizer 6500 turbocharged diesel engine which, according to AM General, provides a 36% increase in power, 69% increase in torque and 16% increase in range over the original. The American Humvee will remain the primary light tactical vehicle in US military service well beyond 2020. The US Army's Tacom awarded AM General four contracts in April and May totalling almost $1.57 billion to deliver 10,790 vehicles by the end of 2009. The army's fiscal year 2009 (FY09) budget request states that all variants are to be built on an Expanded Capacity Vehicle chassis with greater payload and produced with an integrated armour package with the capability to accept add-on armour. [2] In the 1990s used the Humvee chassis to develop the Eagle armoured for the Swiss Army. The Mowag-designed and built superstructure protects against small arms 215 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

fire and splinters. operates 154 Eagles (retroactively called the Eagle I) equipped with a Mowag MBK 2 cupola armed with a 7.62-mm , 175 Eagle Ils based on the AM General ECV chassis and 175 artillery observation vehicles fitted with a retractable observation mast and designated the Eagle III. The Danish Army operates 36 Eagle Is in the reconnaissance role. In December 2005 the Danish Army Materiel Command became the launch customer for Mowag's 4 x 4 Eagle IV armoured patrol vehicle with an order for 85. The Eagle IV, unveiled in late 2003, offers greater potential than the earlier Eagle series vehicles as it is based on the larger Duro II 4 x 4 chassis that enables the payload to be raised to 2400 kg. The Eagle IV weighs 7600 kg compared to 5800 kg for the Eagle III. It is protected against 7.62 mm AP ammunition and a six-kilo trinitrotoluene- equivalent mine blast. In Turkey Otokar used the suspension, engine and other automotive components of the Humvee ECV [3] to develop the 4 x 4 Cobra in the 1990s as a private venture to meet an anticipated Command requirement for a light armoured vehicle in the six-tonne class. A one-piece all-welded monocoque steel hull is designed to withstand the blast of a seven-kg anti- mine under each wheel and a 2.5-kg mine under the belly. A General Motors water-cooled turbocharged diesel engine develops 140 kw giving a top speed of 115 km/h. The Cobra's 120-litre fuel tank provides a range of 500 km. The Cobra can be configured for various missions including personnel carrier with a capacity for up to 13 personnel, reconnaissance, nuclear, biological and chemical reconnaissance, command and control, explosive ordnance disposal, communications, ambulance and platform for weapons such as 50-calibre heavy machine guns, 40-mm automatic launchers or anti-tank guided weapons. The Maldives became the first export customer for the Cobra in 1997 with an order for three amphibious variants which are equipped with two propellers to give a maximum swim speed of eight km/h. Otokar collaborated with Aselsan to develop the Cobra Modular Armoured Reconnaissance/Surveillance Vehicle (Mars-V) equipped with an Aselsan mast-mounted sensor package. Some 50 are in Turkish

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service and the Mars-V has been evaluated by potential Middle Eastern customers. Otokar received its first military contract from the in 1987 for license-built Land Rover Defenders and four years later unveiled its own 4 x 4 Armoured Patrol Vehicle based on the Defender 90/110 chassis. The APV has been sold to the Turkish security forces and two undisclosed export customers. A monocoque all-welded steel armour hull protects the driver and commander in the front compartment and six passengers in the rear compartment from 7.62-mm ball ammunition and shell splinters. Using the same mechanical components Otokar has built more than 250 4 x 4 Akrep (Scorpion) light reconnaissance vehicles for the Turkish Army and security forces. The vehicle carries a crew of three and is normally fitted with a Rafael weapon station armed with a 7.62-mm machine gun.

Israel’s M-Pav Several nations have bought the M-Pav Armoured Protection Kit (APK) developed by Israeli armour systems specialist Plasan Sasa to protect Israel Defense Force Humvees. In service with the Israeli forces the APK, which adds 5.2 tonnes to the vehicle's weight, has been shown to protect against various calibre small arms, certain explosive devices and other threats. Kits were supplied to Elbo, which installed them on the Greek armed forces M1114GR and M1118GR, and in 2006 Plasan Sasa delivered APKs to Portugal. The company has since supplied its M-Pav 2 new generation APK to an undisclosed Nato customer. The M-Pav 2 kit provides an additional 2.2 square metres of cargo space yet retains the original Nato Stanag Level II protection and can be configured with a third row of seats to seat six and rear windows. Israel's Automotive Industries, which built the Storm I, began supplying its M242 Storm II multi-mission vehicles to the Israeli forces in 2006. Based on a Chrysler Jeep Wrangler TJL chassis the Storm II is produced in a soft-skinned 'commander's variant' and a three-door armoured variant with a 3.5-tonne gross weight. The company is using the new Jeep Wrangler JK design to develop the Storm III, which will feature a higher maximum load and heavier 217 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

shock absorbers better suited for the armoured version. The IDF uses the Storm and David in urban environments where the manoeuvrability of the Humvee is restricted because of its greater width. Plasan Sasa has used its extensive experience providing armour solutions for the US Army and Marine Corps, the IDF and other customers to develop the 4 x 4 Sandcat Advanced Survivability Systems Demonstrator based on a shortened heavy-duty Ford F350 commercial chassis. The design incorporates Plasan's Smart armour, a belly deflector, spall liners and 'blast management' technology. The demonstrator features five doors and a roof hatch for a pintle-mounted weapon. The Sandcat is being marketed by Oshkosh Defense.

Iveco Defence Vehicle Defence Vehicle Division has gained impressive orders over the past few years for its 4 x 4 Light Multirole Vehicle (LMV) which is available as either a fully-armoured or soft-skinned vehicle. Two LMV versions are being offered: the standard 3.2-metre wheelbase variant that carries a 2.3-tonne payload and a new 3.5- metre/2.5-tonne version which can be fitted with the standard four- door cab with an extended rear stowage pod or a short two-door cab which allows various modules to be fitted on the rear. The modular armour system uses an innovative suite of applique armour panels, supplied by Germany's IBD Deisenroth, that are placed between the vehicle's inner and outer skins when required; protection from Stanag 4569 Level 1 (5.56 mm and 7.62 mm ball ammunition) to level 4 (14.5 mm AP ammunition) is available. Every vehicle features a mine- protected floor for the crew 'citadel'. Iveco expects to receive certification for Level 2 ballistic and Level 3a mine blast certification this year and work is ongoing to enhance protection against improvised explosives. Trials have been conducted with IBD's Active Defence System to defeat attacks from rocket-propelled and similar threats. The Italian Army ordered 1200 vehicles, designated the Lince, in December 2004 and has stated the need for up to 2500 vehicles including utility, reconnaissance, weapon carrier and special forces variants. All Italian vehicles are fitted with armour except for the 23 218 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

that formed part of the initial order for 66 vehicles. The service has ordered 16 ambulances based on the long wheelbase variant with short cab for delivery by December 2008 and Italy's has placed an initial order for four. Following the selection of the LMV in 2003 to meet the 's requirement for a Future Command and Liaison Vehicle, BAE Systems Land Systems is building 401 vehicles, named the Panther, with an option for another 400. All of the vehicles will be fitted with armour and 326 will be armed with the Rafael Enforcer overhead weapon station, mounting a 7.62-mm machine gun. More than 100 have been delivered to date. The Panther will be deployed in 15 role- specific variants for use as a command vehicles for anti-tank and platoons and engineer troops, a liaison officer's vehicle for armoured reconnaissance and armoured infantry units and for radio rebroadcast by the Royal Signals. [4] Iveco is delivering 440 LMVs and 120 armour kits to Belgium with options for two further batches each of 90 vehicles and 30 armour kits. placed a contract in December 2007 for an additional 35 to join 25 already in service. New vehicles are equipped with Kongsberg's Protector remote controlled weapon station. In December 2007 Spain ordered an initial batch of 40 LMVs to meet an urgent operational requirement and took delivery of the first ten units that month. The Spanish cars are fitted with permanent ballistic protection instead of the removable modular system and also feature mine-resistance seating for a five-man crew. Spain is expected to order about 400 vehicles. bought four for deployment to Afghanistan as has the Czech Republic, which equipped two of its vehicles with the Protector. Both countries are expected to buy additional vehicles.

Russian New Style The new Arzamas Tigr 2330 truly finds its place among the armoured vehicles. [5] The three-door cabin is made of welded armour steel plate and rests on a Gaz chassis which features all- independent wheel suspension sprung by torsion bars. Depending on the application the vehicle has a crew of two plus up to seven seats in the rear cabin. The roof can accommodate a 12.7-mm machine gun or 219 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

a grenade launcher and firing ports incorporated into the bulletproof rear side-windows allow occupants to fire their small arms from within. The vehicle has a gross weigh of 7600 kg, a payload capacity of 1200 kg, a length of 5.7 metres for a width and height of 2.3. It is powered by a Euro-2 153-kW Cummins B-205 six-in-line diesel and can be had with either manual or auto transmissions, respectively Gaz 5-speed or Allison 1000 series cog works. Its two 68-litres fuel tanks afford it a range of 900 km.

Lightweights from France Panhard produces a number of 4 x 4 armoured vehicles to meet the needs of the and export customers. The popular Vehicule Blinde Leger (VBL) [6] was developed in the early 1980s to meet a French Army requirement for a vehicle weighing less than 3.5 tonnes that could be used in the reconnaissance role and as a carrier for the MBDA Milan medium-range anti-tank guided missile. More than 1600 VBLs have been built for the army and some 700 have been exported to 15 countries. Carrying a crew of two or three the VBL can achieve a maximum speed of 95 km/h and a range of 800 km. In the reconnaissance role VBLs are usually armed with pintle-mounted machine guns. Panhard has improved the VBL's versatility by developing the long wheelbase Vdhicule Blinde Ldger Long (VB2L) version which can carry four men and additional cargo. Since November 2006 Panhard has delivered 91 VB2Ls in the reconnaissance configuration to equip the French Army's 2e Regiment de Hussards. The regiment operates four VB2L variants: 61 vehicles fitted with Thales Optronics Sophie man-portable thermal imagers and other equipment for surveillance missions, 16 equipped with a laser target designator, eight configured for maintenance and four vehicles which carry a canoe and other specialist equipment for waterborne reconnaissance missions. The army was expected to order additional VB2Ls fitted with a mast- mounted surveillance package as this issue went to press.

German Requirements Rheinmetall was marketing a PVP derivative, known as the Gavial, to meet the 's Geschutzte Fuhrungsund 220 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Funktionsfahrzeuge (protected command and role-specific vehicle) [7] Group 1 requirement for a 5.3-tonne class armoured vehicle which can be carried internally by its CH-53 heavy lift helicopters. The requirement could total 2169 vehicles. For the GFF project the plans to field vehicles in four categories: the lightweight 5.3-tonne GFF 1, the 7.5-tonne GFF 2, the 12.5-tonne GFF 3 and a 25- tonne GFF 4 all-terrain utility vehicle. Both wheeled and tracked vehicles will be fielded in some categories. The Gavial features five doors instead of the PVP's three, seats for four crewmembers and a new suspension system that allows the vehicle's height to be reduced to fit inside a CH-53. Other modifications include additional passive armour and a nuclear, biological and chemical warfare protective system. The German Army plans to fit its GFF Group 1 vehicles with an overhead weapon station armed with a 5.56-mm or 7.62-mm machine gun. For the Group 2 requirement (a vehicle with a gross weight of 5.3 to 7.5 tonnes capable of a carrying a payload of between 1000 and 2000 kg) the army is evaluating the IV and the Rheinmetall Caracal, which is based on the Iveco LMV. The German Army plans to buy a further 137 reconnaissance, ten combat engineer and 32 Joint Fire Support team vehicles. KMW is discussing with both armies the development of additional variants. The Fennek's GVW is 10.2 tonnes and it is fitted with a modular armour system that provides protection against 7.62-mm armour piercing ammunition, while the three-person crew compartment is also protected against antitank mines. Fennek reconnaissance variants are fitted with a retractable Rheinmetall Defence Electronics BAA mast-mounted sensor pod, containing thermal optics and a laser rangefinder that can be raised 1.5 metres above the vehicle's roof. Dutch Fenneks are armed with a manually operated 12.7-mm heavy machine gun while German vehicles mount the Heckler & Koch 40-mm Grenade Machine Gun. Four vehicles have been bought by the Czech Republic and Austria has announced plans to field the Fennek. Two basic models of the modular GP-FZT are optimised for three to six crewmembers

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References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modern_armoured_fighting_vehicles [2] Ian Kemp, The modern Armoured car, Armada Magazine, Issue 4/2008. [3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modern_armoured_fighting_vehicles [4] Captain Erik Esselaar and Joe Armstrong, Soldier-Centered Interface Design for Armoured Vehicles: Lessons and Guidelines for Acquisition Project Staff, for The Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation & Education Conference (I/ITSEC). [5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modern_armoured_fighting_vehicles [6] Ian Kemp, The modern Armoured car, Armada Magazine, Issue 4/2008. [7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modern_armoured_fighting_vehicles

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DIGITAL WARRIORS

Brat Viorel, Bucătariu Bogdan

M.U. 01261, Piteşti, M.U. 02605, Bucharest e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Through the several “modern soldier” programmes initiated in a number of nations, the main objectives is to promote the soldier from a status a mere pawn on the chessboard to that of a knight able to make smarter moves – this by implementing technologies that not only enable him to be constantly aware of the situation developing around him but also to constantly update superiors and comrades on this situation.

Keywords: digital, war, warriors

France The French Army is set to become the first in Europe to field an operational soldier system. In 2007 the service began the operational evaluation of the Fe1in (Fantassin Equipement et Liaisons Integres) system developed by prime contractor Sagem. This phase began in October when about 30 prototype systems were used during the “Phoenix 2007” digitisation test-bed exercise at the army's Mourmelon urban operations training centre and continued with technical trials undertaken by the 27e Bataillon de Chasseurs Alpins mountain infantry unit. By the time these lines are printed delivery of 358 prototypes will have long started to equip two companies and a platoon in three regiments for a six-month operational evaluation phase which will include exercises across a range of climatic conditions including tropical and cold weather environments. In March 2004 France's DGA procurement agency awarded Sagem a

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contract worth a potential 796 million euro to deliver 31,455 individual Felin systems with 22,588 for the infantry, 2801 for the armoured corps, 3576 for the engineers and 2480 systems for the artillery. The project calls for 27 regiments to be equipped with Felin by 2012.[1] The DGA awarded a 'tranche conditionnelle' delivery order for 1089 systems in March 2006 and initiated volume production in April 2008 with a 143 million [euro] order for 5045 Fe1in systems to be supplied between mid-2009 and the end of 2010. The two orders will equip six infantry regiments. Sagem stresses the importance of differentiating between the Fe1in Version 1 (V1) which will be delivered in the “short term” (2007 to 2010) and focuses mainly on optronics and communications/navigation elements, and the “considerably more far- reaching” Fe1in V2, which will be fielded in the “medium term” from about 2015. Studies are underway to define what capabilities Felin V2 should provide. The DGA has relaxed the original maximum load requirement objective for Fe1in V1 from 26 kg fully equipped for a 24-hour mission, although Sagem told Armada at the Eurosatory exhibition in June 2008 that the current system weight was 25 kg including rations for three days. Fe1in subcontractor Nexter is upgrading the army's Famas F1 5.56-mm bullpup assault rifles; some 19,000 rifles are initially being converted to a low-profile configuration to enable the weapons to accept a variety of optical devices. The full Felin configuration incorporates a man-machine interface which will enable the user to operate all elements of the Felin system without releasing his grip on the weapon, a new day and night sight and a forward grip. The modular optronic sights will also be used with the 5.56-mm Minimi light machine gun and the FR F2 7.62-mm sniper rifle. Lessons drawn from recent tests are already being implemented, as instanced by the current choice of two helmet- mounted displays, the simpler new OVD monocular helmet mounted display and the binocular twin-mode Jif (Jumelle Intensifiction Fantassin) display, both receiving images from the gun's sight via a transmitter (hence no cable between the gun and the jacket).[2] Each Fe1in soldier is connected via Sagem's Reseau d'Information du Fantassin (Rift infantryman information network), a digital system that enables voice / data / still images / video 224 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

communication. Sagem has replaced the traditional microphone and earphone with an osteo-phone, which consists of a headband with sensors and piezoelectric actuators that receive and transmit vibrations through the skull bones. This enables the soldier to whisper when required and allows for the elimination of the microphone de facto suppresses background noise. The commanders of infantry platoons, infantry support weapon sections and some engineer platoons will be equipped with Sagem's Systemes d'Information Terminaux (Sit) Comde (combat debarque) battle management system. The army describes the Sit Comde as the first link in its digital command chain. The project calls for 1200 terminals with 944 distributed to the infantry and 256 to engineer units. The hand-held Sit Comde terminal weighs 900 grams and measures 186 mm x 144 mm x 45 mm with a 150 mm display. The Sit Comde functions in two modes, either linked to vehicle-mounted Nexter Sit V1 or Sagem Sitel (Systemes d'Information Terminaux Elementaires) terminals or in an autonomous mode via the PR4G radio. Following on the 'Phoenix 2007' exercise, the more ambitious “Phoenix 2008” will be conducted at Mourmelon in October. This will include two Fe1in squads, their Vab armoured per sonnel carriers including a fully digitised prototype, AMX-10RC armoured cars, 120- mm mortars, MBDA Milan ADT-ER anti-tank (which has provisions for remote control) guided weapons and unmanned ground and air vehicles[3]. Germany The German Army has recently begun testing the Infanterist der Zukunft-Erweitertes System (IdZ-ES, Infantryman of the Future- Enhanced System) following the delivery of two demonstrator systems each sufficient to equip two ten-man squads. Eads Defence Electronics provided the prototype IdZ-Basis System (Basic) to equip two squads serving with the Nato-led Kosovo Force for a five-month field trial during 2002 and later provided a further 150 individual sets to equip German troops deployed in Afghanistan. From these trials the army finalised the requirement for the IdZ-ES and in 2006 the BWB procurement agency awarded Rheinmetall Defence Electronics a contract to develop the IdZ-ES. Rheinmetall's team includes Thales (communications systems), Schubert Engineering (helmet) and 225 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Texplorer (protective clothing). The contract also covers the integration of the IdZ-ES with the Puma and Boxer family of vehicles that will soon be entering service with the infantry. The main components of the system are: the core system comprising the core computer, battery pack, GPS and inertial navigation system, UHF radio, headset, control unit/auxiliary display; the helmet system including a new ballistic helmet, digital magnetic compass, digital helmet-mounted display and night vision goggles, the clothing, protection and carrying system, additional commander equipment consisting of a VHF Radio and handheld computer, thermal and video sights for the weapon; reconnaissance equipment consisting of a 40-mm reconnaissance projectile and hand-held thermal imager and a base station/vehicle connection. Developed by Rheinmetall Canada, the core computer at the heart of the IdZ-ES is based on expertise gained through the company's participation in the Fe1in, Canada's Integrated Soldier System Project and the IdZ-BS. It enables the real-time exchange of data between individual infantrymen, their section vehicle and higher-level command and control systems such as the German Army's Funfosys. The IdZ-ES headset is based on the Quietpro tactical digital headset produced by Nacre of Norway. According to Nacre the Quietpro system provides 'clear communication in noisy environments together with adaptive high-level hearing protection and full situational and spatial awareness, and will protect the German soldiers from harmful impulse and continuous noise hazards. Heckler & Koch is the lead for developing the weapon systems and related optronics in partnership with Aim Infrared Modules, Carl Zeiss Optronics, Jena Optronics and Rheinmetall. The basic weapon of the IdZ-ES soldier is H&K's G36A2 5.56-mm , and two soldiers in each squad will carry H&K's AG36 40-mm under-barrel grenade launcher[4]. The trials now underway should lead to the acceptance of a 'qualified prototype' in 2010. This will be followed by the award of a production contract for about 9000 individual systems to be delivered through 2014. Italy

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The Italian Army is scheduled to conclude a twelve-month evaluation of the prototype Soldato Futuro system in September. Selex Communications (overall systems integration, command and control software, Individual Pocket Radio, Universal Support Module) is the prime contractor for the team that also includes Aerosekur (CBRN protection), Beretta (weapon system), Galileo Avionica (hand-held and weapon-mounted target acquisition systems), Larimart (command and control hardware) and Sistemi Compositi (helmet, clothing, protection system and Universal Support Module). If the army is satisfied with the trial results it is expected to order a batch of 92 pre- series production systems configured for eight-man squads within a 40-strong dismounted infantry platoon and six-man squads within a 32-strong mechanised infantry platoon. To replace the Italian Army's Beretta AR 70/90 5.56-mm assault rifles Beretta has developed the ARX 160 5.56 mm assault rifle and GRX 160 40-mm underbarrel grenade launcher. The weapon features an adjustable (four positions), folding telescopic butt stock and the choice of three barrel lengths, 254 mm, 304.8 mm and 406.4 mm, for different mission profiles. Galileo Avionica's Individual Combat Weapon Sight features a x3 optical sight, a daylight black and white TV/night infrared channel, a visible and an infrared laser emitter and a red-dot battle sight. Two men in each squad will be equipped with the GRX 160 and Galileo Avionica's grenade launcher fire control system with integral laser rangefinder[5]. Two men in each section will have a 40-mm under-barrel grenade launcher and Galileo Avionica's computerised grenade launcher fire control system with integral laser rangefinder. Spain The is evaluating prototypes of the Comfut (for COMbatiente FUTuro) future combatant developed by prime contractor Eads in conjunction with local subcontractors Indra, Fedur, GMV, and Amopack. On 20 December 2007 Eads delivered twelve individual sets to equip one squad at the Academia de in Toledo for evaluation purposes. The 24.5 euro million evaluation phase will see a further two sets of squad equipment delivered before the end of 2008. The army has stated a requirement for 7000 units. To reduce costs and avoid delays the army has stipulated that maximum use be made of 227 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

cots elements and that only those solutions already mature will be fielded in the first increment. Indra will be responsible for the lethality sub-system, which is based on the G36E rifle; H&K and General Dynamics Santa Barbara Sistemas produced 75,219 weapons for the armed forces between 1999 and 2005. To bolster firepower, two men in each squad will be equipped with H&K's 40-mm AG36 under-barrel grenade launcher. A new handle/sight unit will be fitted to the G36E which will incorporate a “basic module” consisting of a high-resolution sight, video camera, laser rangefinder, digital compass, laser pointer, infrared illuminator/aimer and power supply. For close combat a holographic sight and white light projector will be fitted. An 'extended module' will also be fielded, which will consist of either an image intensifier or uncooled thermal sight. Switzerland In November 2007 prime contractor Eads and partner Sagem were chosen for the Swiss Imess (Integriertes Modulares Einsatzsystem Schweizer Soldat) infantry modernisation project by arma-suisse, the procurement branch of the Swiss Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport. Other funding priorities have pushed the original Imess in-service date from 2010 to 2014. About 30 individual Imess sets will be delivered for evaluation [6]. United Kingdom This is expected to be a significant year for the British Future Integrated Soldier Technology (Fist) project with the first elements expected to receive main gate approval to proceed to the acquisition phase. Approximately 29,000 individual Fist sets are expected to be procured to equip infantry units within the army, Royal Marines and the Royal Air Force Regiment and also selected armoured corps, artillery and engineer soldiers. The demonstration, manufacturing and support phases are potentially worth up to three billion pounds sterling. The Fist originated in the tri-service Future Fighting Soldier System technology demonstration project of the 1990s, which determined that the selective use of advanced technology could improve the effectiveness of the dismounted solider by up to 80%. A consortium led by Thales Defence was selected by the Defence 228 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Procurement Agency in March 2003 to undertake the 32-month assessment phase in conjunction with the agency's Dismounted Close Combat Integrated Project Team. Operational commitments and problems with Fist elements which were 'insufficiently robust to allow adequate data to be collected' during trials have led to the assessment phase being extended to 31 July 2007 and the total cost being increased to 36 million pounds sterling[7]. The past few years have seen numerous improvements to infantry capabilities, primarily through urgent operational requirements to equip units deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq. These include a lightweight day sight, a thermal day sight, a close quarter battle sight, an under-barrel grenade launcher sight and laser rangefinder and a commander's target location system. Main gate approval for Fist Increment la is expected in the last quarter of 2008 and should lead to an initial operational capability in the last half of 2010. This should include a target location system, enhancements to the H&K 40-mm UGL, 'fleeting target engagement', long-range sighting and image capture capabilities. Main gate approval for Increment lb, comprising the C4I system, information management system and platform connectivity, is scheduled for the first quarter of 2009 and should lead to an initial operational capability before the end of 2011. Subject to main gate approval Thales is expected to continue as the prime contractor for Fist Increment 1. Increment 2 is scheduled to receive main gate approval in 2011 leading to an initial operational capability in 2015. This should include full Bowman connectivity, giving wider situational awareness, fused sighting systems and remote sensors. The Fist project, like other soldier systems being developed by nations engaged in the global war on terrorism, is running a hard race with urgent operational requirements and technology development. United States The 4th Battalion, 9th US Infantry Regiment (4/9Inf) returned to its home station at Fort Lewis, Washington in June after completing a 15-month deployment to Iraq equipped with the prototype Land Warrior soldier system. The system is designed to integrate the individual soldier into the networked battlespace by improving individual situational awareness and small unit battle command. 229 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Reports from the field have been so favourable that the army is seeking $102 million to field 1000 sets to equip the 5th Brigade Combat Team (SBCT), 2nd Infantry Division, it is anticipated that the brigade will deploy to Iraq in 2009. The 4/9Inf, a battalion of the 4th SBCT, 2nd Infantry Division, conducted an extensive operational assessment of the Land Warrior (440 systems) and the associated Mounted Warrior (147 systems) at Fort Lewis from May to September 2006. A major concern of many soldiers was the addition of 6.8 kilos to the 27-kg load they were already carrying. The army cancelled further funding for its Land Warrior programme in February 2007 in favour of expediting the fielding of mature technologies into the hands of troops fighting the war on terror and rolling less mature technologies into the Future Force Warrior Advanced Technology Demonstration (FFW ATD) programme; General Dynamics C4 Systems is the prime contractor for both projects. The FFW ATD forms the baseline for the Ground Soldier Systems (GSS) project that is intended to be interoperable with the Future Combat Systems family of vehicles scheduled to enter service from 2014. The army is seeking to deploy a 'threshold' GSS from FY10 and an 'objective' GSS from FY12. In December 2006 General Dynamics C4 Systems opened the Edge Warrior Innovation Center at it Scottsdale, Arizona facility and formed the Edge Innovation Network to develop and test new and emerging technologies. According to General Dynamics five of the 20 innovation projects underway in 2007 have transitioned to soldiers in the field and another four are scheduled to be incorporated in the Land Warrior NextGen[8]. The Next Generation Land Warrior systems that will be fielded to the 5/2 Stryker Brigade Combat Team at Fort Lewis, Washington, and the Army Evaluation Task Force at Fort Bliss, Texas, will reduce the system weight even more. This, in conjunction with the weight reductions in sensors, body armour and weapons, makes the lighter- weight, more capable soldier-as-a-system a reality.

References [1] Richard Holmes, Dusty Warriors: Modern Soldiers at War, London, 2007.

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[2] Ian Kemp, Digital warriors, Armada Magazine, Issue 4/2008. [3] Eric H. Biass, New soldier, Armada Magazine, Issue 2/2007. [4] www.elbitsystems.com [5] Ian Kemp, Digital warriors, Armada Magazine, Issue 4/2008. [6] www.elbitsystems.com [7] Ian Kemp, Digital warriors, Armada Magazine, Issue 4/2008. [8] www.elbitsystems.com

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DETERMINATIONS, CONDITIONINGS AND ALTERNATIVES REGARDING ROMANIAN ARMY INVOLVEMENT IN SUPPORT AND STABILITY MILITARY OPERATIONS

Grigoraş Constantin

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Political actions’ primacy over the military ones is revealed by interrelation between the military and political factor within a certain state whose main feature consists in the military forces placement under the democratic civil authorities. Unlike war, whose political goals strategically lead military actions within pacifistic operations, political objectives gain supremacy over military ones, that they determine at all levels, from the tactical to strategical one.

1. Judiciary, humanitarian and doctrinary aspects regarding Romanian army involvment in multinational operations According to the external political issues and to the assumed international engagements, Romanian army has to be able to prepare, develop, and participate to multinational military operations, in order to give solution to crisis situations that affect national and international comunity. The modified text of The Romanian Constitution, alignment 118, complete the meaning of national defence and security,, participating to international security maintenance and collective defence within the systems of the military alliance and to pacifistic actions" [1] . The imperatives also stipulated in the Romanian main law, in which our country will get involved, are: • participating to actions that imply international security 232 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

maintenence; • participating to collective defence operations, as operation means of The Alliance that Romania is embodied in ; • participating to pacifistic actions under United Nations Organization aegis. The main judiciary frame regarding Romanian military participation to multinational operations is revealed by the National Defence Law no. 45/1995, which stipulates that: ,,On the behalf of collective security and according to the ogligation assumed by Romania through international treaties, at the demand of the Romanian president the Parliament has to agree with the military participation to the building-up of international forces whose meaning is to mainatain peace and has humanitarian goals. According to this judiciary fundament, one stipulates in Romania’s Military Strategy that, as an operational goal and concept, our army’s participation by military means to pacifistic and humanitarian multinational operations, to prevent conflicts and to find solution for crisis situations, under the Alliance control, or within ad hoc multinational forces under UN/ECSO ” [2]. According to "The doctrine regarding multinationally gathered operations ", of the political alternatives "Romania’s participation to multinational operations refers to: • international community supporting maintaining peace and security throughout the world; • Romania’s role as security and stability generator; • development and diversification of all states cooperation; • instruction and preparation of participant unities corresponding to the international environment and to the means of action in real state of conflict and war; • providing criteria of standardizing and interoperability with NATO’s forces” [3]. Consequently, Romania will take part "...in the following types of operations: • multinationally gathered operations for collective defence, according to the 5th allignement of North Atlantic Treaty; • peace operation under UNO/OSCE control;

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• non operations - 5th allignement , regarding solutions for crisis moments, led by NATO, under UNO / OSCE warrant. According to Multinationally gathered operations,it was elaborated the Strategy regarding the improvement of Romania army’s forces and means of peace maintenance, which establishes the level and dynamics of intenational struggle for peace re-establishment in conflict areas and its maintenance in postconflict stage of wars and crisis developed within different regions around the globe. Regarding Romania’s participation to stability operations for peace support under UNO/OSCE aegis and entierly led by them, it is underlined that they have international judiciary regulation reflected in United Nation Charter and are developed under the conditions revealed by both parts involved in the conflict, and military forces are used only for self defence and last-minute meas. Romanian military forces will be involved in these types of operations with the parliament approval according to certain official UNO/OSCE demand in relation to Romanian financial resource. In preparing stability operation, one has in view that, at a certain moment, two or more types of operations may interfere or succede in time, according to crisis evolution. The operations’ political and military leading provided by The United Nations Organization through the special representative of UNO general secretary and multinational forces commander, presupposes, on the participant states’ behalf, a special attention, especially regarding the political aspects of the operations.. Stability and support operations have well-determined political goals, within which the military tool is used as a moderating factor that helps saving time for political regulations. By specifically referring to judiciary and humanitarian aspects in multinational operations, it is considered that, by adhering to the treaties, international conventions and agreements, which regulates war stages, Romania has assumed, on one hand, to respect them, and on the other hand, to be responsible in front of its the allied. By following this behaviour branch, it is excluded the chance to enter a conflict or military partenership beside the states that do not understand that the appliance of the humanitarian international right

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during wartime is compulsory, esential, and is the meaning of any civilised nation. The humanitarian international right and of military conflicts is the main war environment and respecting or not respecting it depends on the country international statute. International right appliance refers to: • general aspects of the conflict; • war general principles; • war international right essential rules. The military obey both international and national laws. During a conflict, the military involved have to be aware that intervention cannot be proceeded unless: • it is comissioned by UNO Security Council; • it is built up for collective and individual defence, according to 51th allignment of United Nation Charter. Military forces statute (SOFA) implicated in multinational operations corresponds to the demands of Law no.23/1996 regarding Agreement ratification between North Atlantic Treaty parties and the other states participant to Peace Partenership, regarding their forces statute and of the additional protocole, concluded at Bruxelles in June the 19th, 1995 and law no.61/2001 regarding the Agreement aplliance. As for the doctrinary aspects regarding participation to multinational operations, it is considered that these are summed-up in the war general principles according to which: • the parts engaged in a military conflict, have not unlimited right in chosing military actions behaviour; • in order to use these means and methods, one always has to make the difference between the military goals, on one hand, and population, civilians and civil forums, on the other hand, so that the atacks be made only over the firts ones; • one avoids distruction and harm of the combatants . Being aware of stability and support multinational operations in the new security context, as well as of international community struggle for the conflict supression, Romania has established, as one of the essential priorities of the external military external policy the participation to multinational forces operations, according to United

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Nation Orgatization Charter, and to rezolution of other recognized international organization of this type.The Romanian military staff abilities and aptitudes, enherited due to the experience achieved in such missions, constitute an upper level of profesionalism necessary for planning and operating military actions within a multinational environment, in different geopolitical, relief and weather conditions, tradition and civilisation, a significant issue regarding the definitive integration in NATO. It is considered that Romanian army participation to stability operations is and will be, an effectivemeans of managing regional and even global crisis situations. From now on, stability and support operations will be a type of political, diplomatic, humanitarian, and militaryactivity, an extremly important mission of international organizations, all states’ governments and armed forces.

2. Specific instruction principles and concepts Multinational stability and support operations consist of an amount of particularities regarding forms, procedures, and action techniques used, different from the classical ones. Even though laws and principles of the armed battle generally remain the same, there still are a series of conceptual and proceeding mutations that imply other means of action. Usually, multinational stability and support are being developed in order to find solutions for certain conflictual and crisis situations, and the used techniques and procedures are strongly influenced by political decision. Whereas Romanian army takes part to stability operations, it needs to be aware of the main operating techniques used in all types of operations. Standardized operating procedures (SOP), at tactical level are: observancy, patrolling, check-up, investigation, intermediation, escort and guarding. Standardized operating procedures at operational and strategic level are: force demonstration, diplomatic negotiation, force preventive development, forces interposing and separation, demobilising, desarming, and weapons controlling.

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It is stated that these proceedures used in stability operation are the most important, as they are being used in different combinations and with different psrticularities. Efficacy of Romania’s participation to stability operation and also to multinational training activities is revealed by: • increase of general level of the military training regarding the use of general staff proceedures and of NATO operational level; • familiarization to the new operational and logistic aspects in the condition in which CJTF concept is implemented by NATO within international operations; • training the military by participating to peace maintenance, also searching for and finding humanitarian support; • improvment of professionalism and operational interoperability with NATO of certain commandaments, unities, small unities that are involved in the effective training and development of multinational operations; • taking over terminology, commanding, supervising, communication, and logistic support, as well as the increase of staff ability to speak English. Unities and small unities training, which are meant to take part to stability multinational operations is accomplished in conformity to, Strategy of Romanian Army forces and means of acting during peace maintenance, is meant to: - select participants; - enssure with adequate technique, materials, and equipment; - specific training for the mission; - prepear orders for the unities so as to become aware of NATO’s proceedures. Selecting the military is provided after having examined intellectual capacity, physical and psychical skills, health condition, and after having performed some practical assessment, regarding professional level specific for the mission. Officers, military foremen and noncomissioned meant to take part to multinational operations are being trained within their own unities, following a special schedule, and together with the small unities that they lead or make part of.

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The staff selected to independently take part to peace keeping missions (observer, state-majorists) are training also through short- term meetings at the upper eschelon. After having made the decision to be part of the mission, the unity pass forward to a specific training intensive program. Training small unities consists of technical and tactical exercises on field or simulated, within Simulation Training Center, on real conflict environment, processing information operatively received from operation theatre, trough „learnt lessons” system. Also, regarding the participation stability and support missions, some of the staff take part to profiled courses, orgnized throughout the country or abroad. Training used principle is "shifting forces", principle, which has really proved viability of multinational operations accomplished and to which Romanian military took part. This principle consists in shifting forces in three-four stages - "preparing for mission", "ready for action", "mission accomplishement", "recovering from the mission". The great advantage of such primciples consists in the better trained forces for mission accomplishment, and, as a consequence, there is little loss. If one is trying to see graphical construction of the forces generating and utility cycle, he/she may observe that forces are continuously training, actually going through several cycles of this acivity. It is obvious that each of the cycles consists of the four components of the instruction: military education, instruction, exercises and training. The development of such a process assures, including during peacetime, both the capacity of the military organization to pass immediatly to mission accomplishment- by taking into consideration the operative forces-, and also the necessary frame for the effectives to go through all the compulsory activities for a complete training and, at the same time, realistic. As an initial projection, training cycle usually have 12-18 month-term and they do not start on the same day for every military structure, but according to the position the military structures have. Training forces has to coherently and rigurously planned, competently and realistically and assessed in relation to the 238 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

established performance standards. Planning and executing training forces are being managed through their plans. It is considered that the main characteristics of training planning process, from three organizational values perspectives, are: unity, freedom to act and responsibility. Unity of the planning process of training is assured by the upper eschelon’s establishment of positions’ attributions, implicitly forces’ missions, and approval of the training plans, deciding, by these means, which may by the goals of training. Freedom to act reveals each leader’s right to establish training means of the unity he commands. Responsibility consists totally in commander’s obligations regarding training level necessary for the accomplishement of the atributions of the position or the established missions. Training accomplishement consists in putting into practice what has been planned. This starts with the lowest eschelon and refers to a decentralised activity, within which each individual and military structure learns how to tactically act in field creating and developing himself the necessary skills of these actions, relied on the operating procedures (SOP) and engagement rules (ROE), specific to the mission in cause. Within training accomplishement, the real reson for efficiency increase may be performed through prior engagement of the following demands: • respecting operation orders; • training in conditions tipical for the received mission; • taking into consideration the established performances; • ensuring and making use of resources according to plan; • providing maximal assurence for staff and equipments; • actively protecting the environment . Training assessment constitutes the final stage of the mission training process, but planning or execution also play an important role. Commanders have to admit that, in any moment, as the training process is being developed, and especially, as the subordined staff stands on the final point of the training, prepared for the mission that he is engaged in. One has to keep in mind that training assessment has a permanent and organised character, and is being performed by

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following a certain functional specificity scale, both during the activity, and, obviously, at the end of the training process. Also, it is important, that, through assessment, one is able to identify the existent issues in training for the mission and to quantify the touched level of performance. The existence of standards for each training activity and the level to which these reflect the operational demands, constitute the referential element of referring element of each evaluation act, meant to provide answers for the real awareness of training touched performances. Although all stability and support operations developing principles are complementary to armed fight principles, the suddenly changing situations impose sudden decisions, mostly made without a complete analysis of the decisional cycle. Consequently, it is considered that specific training for the mission of participant forces, has to allow them to suddenly find answers for difficultly anticipated situation.

Refrences [1] Constituţia României, Bucharest, 2003, alig.l18 [2] Legea apărării naţionale nr.45 /1995, (Monitorul Oficial no.172 from07.07.1994), p.l, alig.5 [3] Doctrina pentru Operaţii întrunite multinaţionale, Bucharest, 2001, p.23.

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CONCEPTUAL AND ACTION ELEMENTS REGARDING THE PREPARATION AND EXECUTION OF STABILITY OPERATIONS

Grigoraş Constantin

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The challenges of the areal, regional and global security environment strongly influence the character, the nature and the content of the missions of the Romanian Army. The preparation for participating in stability operations entails a very good understanding of the environment in which they will take place. The success can be ensured by conducting a realistic training program, very well adjusted to meet the requirements of the mission.

The difficulties and the complexity of stability operations are generated by the fact that they are organized and conducted in an international environment subject to political interferences and unpredictable changes, which are generated at the level of decision- makers from the international organizations that have initiated the operation. This thing determines the planners to adopt a planning method of maximum flexibility and adaptability, permanently subjected to review and to the additions of new elements to the measures and missions initially stipulated for the fulfillment of the operational or strategic objectives. As a state in a geopolitical area of strategic importance, Romania aims to play a substantial role in the process of defining and implementing the stabilizing policies, of security assistance and cooperation of NATO and of the European Union in Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe [1].

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The increasing involvement of the North Atlantic Alliance in crisis response operations other than war resulted in the adoption of planning procedures specific to the Alliance, procedures that must be known and implemented by the states that declare their availability to participate in this kind of operations. Sending Romanian military structures outside the national territory on stability missions “is approved, following the proposal of the Prime Minister, by the president of Romania, after consulting the Supreme Council of National Defense [2]. The establishment of multinational command and control arrangements, for the preparation and execution of operations, determines the efficient use and the support of the forces deployed in the area of operations. In the management and execution of stability operations the following principles are applied: unity of command, continuity of command, clear and well-defined command structure, the integration of command, the decentralization, the cooperation and the mutual understanding. Unity of command. The management of stability operations is the result of collective decisions taken by the sovereign governments in the Coalition or Alliance. The base of decisions is represented by the common interests and goals. The unity of command ensures the cohesion necessary to the planning, organization and execution of operations. The unity of command is achieved by investing a single commander with the necessary authority to lead and coordinate the actions of forces and means. The command relations by means of which this authority is achieved are generally determined by the composition of the Joint Force. The Commander of the Joint Force will have the operational control over all the forces in the area of operations. The continuity of command. The unity of command will be strengthened by ensuring the continuity of command during the multinational operations. The hierarchically superior command authority, after the consultation with the commander of the Multinational Joint Force, must establish a sequence of transmission of the order.

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Clear and well-defined command structure. The structure of the command and control system is and must be hierarchical. According to the concrete situation and whenever necessary, the leadership and the orders for the subordinate commanders will also include missions for certain elements of the forces, which are subject to limitations imposed by additional orders. The integration of command. The command structure must ensure the concerted action of the military capabilities of the categories of forces of one or more nations, so as to achieve the operational objectives targeted by the Force Commander in a decisive and efficient way. Decentralization. The responsibility of a commander of the Multinational Joint Force to fulfill the mission is indivisible. Decentralization means the possibility of delegation of authority to subordinates. The subordinate commanders and the ones delegated with authority must report their intentions, their objectives and they must ensure conditions required for the carrying out of the missions for the subordinated forces. The cooperation and mutual understanding provide the foundation of trust, based on the common application of joint doctrine. Familiarization with the standard operating procedures is achieved through multinational exercises. Given the special difficulties of achieving unity of effort in stability operations, during their preparation and execution, the following specific factors must be taken into consideration: the goals and objectives of the alliance (coalition), the military doctrines and the preparation of the force, the ordnance, and the cultural differences. The degree of standardization and interoperability ensure the efficiency of cooperation and of the mutual understanding of the joint multinational action. The multinational operations, which are conducted under the NATO command, are coordinated by the Commander of the NATO headquarters, designated to generate the CJTF (Combined Joint Task Force) Headquarters. It has the responsibility to appoint the commander of the Multinational Joint Force, to elaborate the mission

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Directive to coordinate the execution of the operation initiated by UN / OSCE mandate. The multinational operations, led directly by UN / OSCE, are coordinated by the head of the mission, who is the special representative of the security organization's leader who authorizes the mission. The commander of the national contingent is designated by the legal national authorities and his role is to coordinate the national forces that are meant to participate in the multinational operation. He presents the recommendations of the national management to the Multinational Joint Force commander, informs the national authorities on how the missions are carried out by the national contingent, and about the requirements entailed by the development of operations. The transfer of authority is the modality which ensures the efficiency of operations carried out by a multinational force, respecting the state sovereignty of the nations that participate in it, and of the principles and rules of international law. The transfer of authority is based on official documents, which precede the participation of the national forces in a Multinational Joint Force. The transfer of authority materializes as the forces arrive in the theater of operations at the time set by the Force commander. The commander of the contingent who provides the forces transfers their operational control to the Multinational Joint Force commander. The transfer of authority materializes in a document that regulates the command relations between the Multinational Joint Force and the national contingents. Following the transfer of authority, the units fall under the command of the NATO or Coalition forces commander, and the commander of the national forces maintains the non- transferable prerogatives of the full command of his forces, leaving only the operational command to the military leaders of the Alliance (Coalition). The process of initiating and executing a multinational operation for resolving a crisis has the UN Charter as legal foundation. In accordance with the provisions of chapter. VIII of the UN Charter, the world organization can empower regional organizations

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to monitor and lead the Multinational Forces, under its mandate, in areas where it exercises its authority. OSCE, a European regional security organization, which includes the European countries, the U.S. and Canada, may assume responsibility for the initiation and management of a multinational operation under UN mandate. The Strategic Concept of the Alliance establishes the decision to participate with forces in the management of crises, “outside the zone of responsibility” of NATO, at the request of UN or OSCE. Planning and decision making in joint multinational operations represent a complex process that is conducted on the basis of an intitiation document, called Orientarea de planificare a comandantului (Guideline for the Commander’s Planning), the central element being the clear definition of the mission. UN or the body, to which the Multinational Joint Force is subordinated, in order to conduct the operations in accordance with the provisions set out in the mandate and with the concrete situation, establishes the terms of reference used during the participation in multinational operations. The basic documents in multinational operations ensure the legal authority and define the parameters of operations. These are: the mandate, the status of forces agreement (SOFA), the rules of engagement (ROE). As pointed out above, the multinational operations are military actions involving two or more states, with the military forces of different sizes, belonging to several categories of military forces, under unique political control and command. There is but one doctrine for the multinational action and each alliance or coalition develops its own protocols, memoranda and plans for operations. NATO may designate, exceptionally, a leading nation, when all the members of the Alliance place their forces under the control of a single country, through the transfer of authority, or it may establish a headquarters with a joint staff, to which both multinational and national units are subordinated. In a coalition, the multinational action takes place outside the ties established by the alliance, usually for unique situations, in a specific field, strictly determined, of common interest. A leading nation can be 245 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

established, usually the nation that provides most of the forces and means and the basis for logistical and informational support. Due to the fact that collective security is a strategic goal of NATO, the planning for multinational operations will be achieved within the Alliance planning. The objectives, strategies of collective security and the plans procedures multinational operations are prepared in accordance with the Treaty or Alliance individual procedures. In general, much of the information and orientation provided for the Alliance multinational operations are conceptually applicable for the Coalition multinational actions. Within each theater of military actions, in the case of alliances or coalitions, as a rule, a commander and a leading nation must be established; it is the one that provides the majority of forces and means. Its representatives, in the chain of command, are responsible for elaborating operation plans and coordinate the alliance or coalition planning with the multinational Operation planning. As far as the preparation and conduct of multinational stability and support operations are concerned, we consider that the main problem is to synchronize the component elements of the action capacity and to achieve the unity of command and effort, in order to make full use of the possibilities of the multinational grouping. Stability operations are carried out according to specific principles, observing, depending on the circumstances, the principles characteristic to the armed struggle. The specific principles of stability operations are the following: • clearly defining the objective, which involves the integration of all operations to achieve the strategic goal; • unity of effort in stability operations requires, as in the case of armed struggle to achieve the targeting of the actions of all forces and means to achieve the common goals; • safety of operations - is carried out under the right of self defense against hostile actions; • restriction – represents the army response applied with caution, and it is aimed at achieving a balance between the safe conduct of stability operations and the proposed political objective;

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• legitimacy - derived from the perception that the presence of the force and of the operations carried out by it are justified. It has the authority to use the appropriate means to achieve the goals established by recognized agreements between the contracting parties; • perseverance - involves the preparation for the implementation and the constant use, for a long time, of the forces, depending on the assigned mission and on the politico-military changes in the area; • selective use of force – refers to the use of force in accordance with the targeted objective and with the practical situation, taking into account the nature of the mission and the required political and legal limitations; • decisive action to prevent escalation – refers to the forceful pursuit of the proposed objectives and, if necessary, to the resolute application of force; • understanding the potential for undesirable consequences of the individual actions of small units - is a principle determined by the volatile nature and by the political nature of most stability and support operations; • display the ability to use force, in a non-threatening manner – refers to the demonstration of the fighting capacity and to the decision to use it if necessary, so as not to provoke an unwanted reaction. In addition, in support operations the following goals are pursued: • providing fundamental support to as many people as possible; • the periodical establishment of the effectiveness of the operation; • transferring the execution to the civilian institutions, as soon as possible. The logistical system in stability and support operations is based on the principle that the member states, participating in a UN- mandated operation and directly led by it, ensure with their own means the necessary logistic support for a pre-established period of 60 to 120 days. This period should ensure the possibility of display in the field and of the operationalization of the logistic organs specific to UN. After the period of logistic self-support, UN ensures the continuity of logistic support.

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A result of the “lessons learned” in Afghanistan was the fact that the problem of coordinating the logistic system is so important and, at the same time, so difficult to achieve in a multinational environment. Many times the solution was to transfer the logistic responsibility to a single nation, solution adopted by NATO too, with some exceptions. As far as the logistic Doctrine, the degree of mobility of the logistic system, the level of logistic operability, the national levels that can be operationalized are concerned, there are big differences. Powerful nations, with real resources, support the other states in terms of logistics to maintain the cohesion of the multinational forces, in the best interest of all the states involved. The Romanian Army participates in multinational stability and support operations, in accordance with the international legislation that refers to the use of armed forces. Its obligations are those assumed by Romania for peace and international security. It also respects the domestic legislation on the use of armed forces in operations of protection and preservation of the constitutional order, of intervention in civil emergencies and of support of public authorities. Stability and support operations are usually nonlinear and isolated, and may be conducted in accordance with specific principles, respecting the procedures specific to combat operations [3]. In this respect, the stages of preparation and of participation of the Romanian Army, with forces and means in stability / peacekeeping operations in multinational structures, consist in: • receiving requests from international bodies (UN, OSCE, NATO); • analysis of the opportunity to participate in the mission; • identification of the forces and means that meet the operational requirements of the mission; • initiating demarches to obtain the approvals of the Romanian Parliament to participate in the mission and of the Government for its financing; • notification by the international bodies of the agreement of participation and of the forces and means to be employed; • negotiating the participation of the contingents of other states, concluding technical agreements and agreement memoranda; 248 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

• bringing the forces and means approved to participate in the mission, to the level of efficiency required by international bodies; • the organization and the carrying out of reconnaissance in the future theater of operations; • achieving the transfer of authority; • fulfilling the missions, in accordance with the mandate and specific rules of engagement; • providing human material and financial resources to support the participation in the mission, throughout the whole period of the mandate; • repatriation of the forces and means; • synthesizing the conclusions in the form of “lessons learned”. As far as the command and control of the national forces during the participation in stability and support operations under the aegis of UN and OSCE are concerned, Romania retains national authority over its forces and means. It may decide, depending on the development of the situation in the theaters of operations, to maintain, increase or retreat them. For fulfilling its commitments specified by the concluded agreements and memoranda, the transfer of authority to the governing structures of the international bodies, mandated to lead operations in a given area is carried out. The transfer of authority lies in the temporary transfer of operational control of national contingents to the Commander of the peacekeeping headquarters and is carried out on entering the theater of operations. However, we consider that the execution of missions outside the area of responsibility and the modification of the rules of engagement, as defined initially, must be approved by the national authority. The Romanian military can be engaged in stability and support operations on the national territory or abroad, in times of peace, during crises, war or post-conflict. We think that stability and support operations should be integrated in a gradual way in the strategic and political plans and operations of the Romanian state or of the state on whose territory they are carried out.

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The participation of several established units and detachments of the Romanian army in multinational operations outside the national territory showed that the stability operations are, generally, lengthy and involve a number of changes to the plan of operation during their execution. The frequently changing situations require quick decisions, often taken without covering all the stages of preparation of the operation. Moreover, because of the heterogeneity of the participating forces, military and civilian, and because of the importance of their actions, the leadership presents a unique complexity and the actions of relatively small units may have a strategic impact. However, the heterogeneous character of the structure of the participating forces (military units belonging to several nations, police units, firefighters units, national and international civilian organizations, governmental agencies, etc.) should not affect in any way the concentration of the efforts for the achievement of the established objectives. In the process of preparing operations, objectives clearly defined in time and space are established. Some of these are specific, while others may be open ended. The commander permanently adapts the objectives of the ongoing operation to the changes of the political objectives [4]. The entire effort to achieve the final established objective is coordinated according to the plan of operation, taking into account the synchronization of the effects in time and space. The possible misunderstandings related to the establishment and understanding of the political objectives must be eliminated by requiring written orders from the higher echelon. The thorough knowledge and the rigorous application of the rules of international law and of the laws of the country is a key factor which determines the success of any operation. When the stability operations that exclude the use of force (for which the political mandate does not stipulate the imposition, by force, of the pursued objective) degenerate into armed struggle, military units start the fight (when ordered) and focus on the ordered deployment area.

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During the war, some forces may conduct stability and support operations and during the post-conflict period, certain forces and means participating in armed struggle, can be moved, when ordered, to stability or support operations. Stability operations are characterized, in particular, by: • demassification of the military forces; • stronger concentration of forces in decisive points; • rapid and discouraging reaction; • increased capacity of maneuver at all echelons; • operations will be joint and especially multinational ones. In conclusion, we believe that the conceptual and actional elements regarding the preparation and execution of multinational stability and support operations are specific and have an obvious level of particularity, the result of the geopolitical and geostrategic context they generate. The main issue of the preparation and conduct of multinational operations must be the synchronization of the component elements of the capacity for action and the achievement of the unity of command and effort.

References [1]. Strategia de securitate naţională a României, Bucharest, 2007, p. 29. [2]. Law no. 42/15.03.2004, Art. 5 (1), Monitorul oficial, no. 242 of 18.03.2004. [3]. Visarion NEAGOE, Experienţă acumulată. Operaţii altele decât războiul, Bucharest, 2006, p. 18. [4]. F.T.-1, Doctrina operaţiilor Forţelor Terestre, Bucharest, 2006, p. 87.

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NEW SECURITY RISKS AND THREATS

Oprean Georgel Laurean

Land Artillery Training Centre of Sibiu

Abstract On the background of fundamental changes determined by knowledge, the war changes its physiognomy – the concept, the typology, the strategic paradigm, the action doctrine (training the troops, weapons and devices, conducting the combat actions, the combat forms and procedures). The military type violence becomes more dependent on the intensive knowledge technologies. “The Knowledge War” from the 21st century will reflect the progression of military thinking beyond its first conceptions on electronic warfare, beyond the present definitions of the “command and control warfare” and even beyond the more general notion of “information warfare”. Due to the remarkable transformation in the future and nature of war itself, to the transitions from the gross force economies to those based on the brain force, the war, which used to be so devastating in the past, by applying the gross force and then the mechanic force, will soon become the “brain force warfare”1 in which technology determines strategy, increases the role of high precision weapon, the armies will change their priority orientation towards time-oriented spaces, the political decision, which used to belong to the political class, will have to take into consideration the necessity of the public opinion consent, as an essential pre-condition that the armies of the democratic states to be able to engage the warfare.

In the evolution of the process of achieving security it is noticed in the last years an increase of the efforts for edifying the regional stability, as an intermediary stage of this process. The

1 Alvin and Heidi Toffler, War and Antiwar. Survival at the dawn of the 21st century, Antet Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995, p. 22. 252 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

efforts made by the international community for restoring the peace in the Balkans, the Middle East and Africa are relevant. The effects of globalization started to show. The world economy became better an appreciable period of reflux. On the other hand, the transnational threats (terrorism, migration and drug and strategic materials traffic, organized crime), taking advantage of the permeability of the borders have more chances to propagate to a global scale. The specialty literature from different corners of the world highlights the threat, and the psychology studies present it in a quasi- unanimous way, as a negative attitude, which addresses, first to the individual or group affectivity and not to the reason of those aimed at. It disposes of a large range of techniques and procedures, from persuasion to manipulation. Thus, in an Anglophone view, the threat represents an “expression of the intent to impose disadvantages or shortcomings to a person by means of coercion or constraint”1. Both the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language” and the “Small Academic Dictionary”, elaborated under the aegis of the Romanian Academy define the term threat as being “the intention to cause harm to a person (in order to intimidate or to obtain something from this person)"2. The definition given in prestigious encyclopedias and dictionaries manages to delimitate the notion content or field (threat) under analysis and specify its genera meaning. The risk is defined as the possibility to have to face a danger.3 Presently, the probability of a military aggression addressed to several states of the world has decreased significantly, but the number of threats of terrorist, economical, ecological, cultural, social,

1 Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, vol. III, Merriam-Webster Publishing House, 1993, p. 2382. 2 The Romanian Academy, Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language, 2nd Edition, Univers Enciclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998, p. 33. 3 The specialty literature offers the following definitions of the term: Dictionaire de la Langue Francaise, p. 1111: „Danger that can be more or less predictable"; Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, vol. III, Merriam- Webster Publishing House, 1993 p. 1961: “ The possibility to be in danger or to have to face a trouble or to suffer a damage". 253 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

demographical threats has increased seriously. Therefore, the preoccupations of the state and non-state actors in the field of security are seemingly more concentrated and more coherent on the one hand, and aim more at the human security (individual security and that of the human community whose internal component the individual is), rather than the security of a of a geographically delimitated space, on the other hand. The international terrorism. Although it is difficult to accept by the civilized world, terrorism has become a reality with global implications, which are hard to prevent and administrate. It does not present itself only as an insignificant criminal gesture produced under forcing circumstances at a certain evolution of the social system. Now, it is consecrated as an action focused on the rightful order, very violent, conducted outside and against the international norms. It has as objective any state or union of states, regardless of size (surface and number of citizens), economical and military power, and affiliation or not to a powerful political and military alliance that is considered an enemy of the culture and civilization defended by terrorists. The confrontations between terrorists and the order forces are sporadic, sometimes spectacular, sometimes occurring in the presence and with the sacrifice of the peaceful population. The weapons used are a mixture of cybernetics, high-tech and handicraft. The technical progress has put at the disposal of antisocial individuals destructive capabilities, which once were designed only for governments and armies. Thus, the terrorist scourge constitutes a serious threat to security. The danger of this threat consists in the following aspects: the strategy and tactics of the individual terrorists and terrorist organizations are not thoroughly known; there are no certain indicators concerning the occurrence of a terrorist act in a certain place and time. It takes place and after that it is claimed by the organizers and its objectives are highlighted; the negative effects of a psychological and psychosocial nature (fear, terror, panic, disorder, the drastic decrease of trust in the state institutions, etc.) generated by the terrorist act itself after it occurred and the probability of its occurrence as a result of a “report” provided by the initiators of the criminal attempt; the 254 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

insecurity climate established in the targeted state (states) that the fear of a terrorist attack generates; restraining the citizen rights of the respective state, due to the supplementary security measures adopted to prevent a possible terrorist attack; the impossibility of meeting the terrorists’ demands addressed to the authorities from the possible target states. As a rule, there is the principle acknowledged and accepted by the governments that there should be no negotiation with terrorists, in the sense that the governments should not give in to any terrorist threats. Against these threats, the world governments, the international and regional organizations act lately in a joint manner. Thus, there can be mentioned the foundation of the international antiterrorist coalition, which effectively acts in Afghanistan and Iraq. However, this measure is not enough to protect the world from the terrorist threat. There must probably be adopted other measures also, of a different nature than those put into practice until now. Political threats. The mass media and the specialty papers present in detail and sometimes even analyze the political instability sources present in the world. Not all the case debates or comments represent real threats. The difference between the minor challenges that reside in competitive international environment and the threats addressed to national security are manifested in a spectrum, which ranges from routine and habitual to drastic and unprecedented. The time and place from this spectrum to which belongs a type of threat, the area of elements, which harms the national security depends, in most cases, on the political decision and less on the objectivity of the threat’s constitutive elements. Most of the political threats are aimed against the state order of a state or against the status of an international organization. This can be done by: pressures on the decision factors in favor of a certain policy: the overthrow of a government or of the collective management factors from an international organization; favoring and imposing the segregation; destroying the political structure; political isolation; suspending or excluding from the security structures, dissolving the security structure, etc.

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The political threats can have an ideological or national character and can be intentional and structural. From the category of intentional threats there can be distinguished1: threats generated by the nature of the political regime (dictatorial, fundamentalist); diplomatic repudiation of the respective state; specific political interventions on behalf of a state in the internal affairs of another state; hostile propaganda; the multilateral support to some anti-state political groups; formation of internal groups that are hostile to the national state; suspending or excluding from different security structures; influencing the elaboration of recommendations and resolutions of international organization that are not in favor of the aimed state. The structural threats derive from the global social system evolution in which certain entities can become anachronic in the framework of bilateral relations. They occur when the organization principles of two states are antagonistic, in a context in which they cannot ignore each other. Presently, the structural threats can be based on certain incompatibilities between different supranational structures and the states they are comprised of. The integration in certain security structures involves risks such as: the transfer of national prerogatives to the integrating structure, situation which can be perceived as a loss of sovereignty; imposing a system of common norms that is not always compatible with that specific national; creating institutions designated to be the link with international structures, which function according to norms that have not been harmonized with the legislation of the states on whose territory they function. At the level of the relations between states, the structural threats can aim at: the co-sovereignty over certain territories; the subordination of parties organized on ethnical criteria on the territory of other states; the legislative extraterritoriality. The range of political threats is permanently completed with new forms and techniques. Counteracting these is a continuous activity, which involves adequate methods and joint actions. However, above

1 Colonel, university professor, PhD Ion IRIMIA, Aspects of the national insecurity, In the AISM bulletin, no. 3/2002, p. 105. 256 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

all, the political stability characterized by a competitive and legal political participation, transparent recruiting systems of the executive structure and independence of the powers in the state substantially reduces the vulnerable points on which the threats can be directed. In this way, the state becomes credible, which attracts the foreign interest and investments, as a source of economy development. The demographic threat. There is not enough said about the demographic factors (the increase or diminishing of population of a state and/or of a continent; the aging of the population of a country or group of countries; the decrease or the increase of the birthrate of a country) as a potential security threat. The demographic factor has a sure action, but not as visible as other types of threats. Its effects can be seen only after big intervals and are more difficult to counteract. For example, the “demographic growth” indicator of the North is decreasing continuously (it ranges from 33% to 17% of the planet), whereas the countries from Asia, Africa and Latin America reach at 83% from the world population1. In the North, the real problem is not the increase of the number of old people (they can live longer in good health and social protection conditions) but the catastrophic decrease of the proportion of young people. In close connection with the phenomenon of population aging, there is the migration of persons. In this regard, it is interesting to mention that, after 2005, the USA population – taking into account their immigration policy – began to be much younger than the European population. Another demographic phenomenon is represented by the generalized development, at global level, of the mega polis and considerable size urban centers, as well in the south as in the north. Thus, most of the southern cities are places where the economical, social and political problems are coagulated. In north, these tensions, far from being solved, arguably have the tendency to develop since two decades and even to increase, as long as unemployment and social exclusion will not have a solution. The demographical stagnation, encountered especially in the states that are economically developed, except the USA (which has a

1 Gerard Chaliand, Les risques de fond, p. 1. 257 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

special birthrate policy, as well as of accepting immigrants) constitutes one of the major threats to the human security in general. In time, the number of population from the age range of 64 and older to clearly overcome the number of population from the active range (over 24 years old). Hence, a series of problems concerning the ensuring of survival for the entire population and of the social protection of the disadvantaged people derives from here. In 1950, the ratio of people older than 65 was of 1 to 4 in favor of the young people. In 2025, the percentage of people older than 65 will equal that of people younger than 15. Hence, there will derive the appearance and manifestation of a long series of delicate issues of political and social nature. Economical threats. In spite of its imperfections, the market is for now the most efficient mechanism of obtaining with certainty the increase of productivity, production, distribution and consumption. In order to do that, the market eliminates the inefficient actors. In this manner, the uncertainty generated by the market game is the fertile ground of a substantial package of economical threats. They can take different forms, most of which cannot be considered threats to national security. The gravity of the contents of economical threats and the time when these become disturbing factors of the national security cannot be established but by the political decision factors. The dependence relation of the military capability to the economical one results from the laws and principles of armed conflict. From this perspective, in the situation in which the strategic raw materials depend on import, the threat on the supply security can be classified as a matter of national security of the state involved. By the political and military implications, the relative economy expansion of a rival power can be perceived as a threat to national security - Paul Kennedy believed: the increase of military expenses to counteract the emerging power of a rival would only increase the speed of its own economy decline. Another dimension of the recent preoccupations is given by the economical threats on the internal stability under the circumstances in which the states pursue economical strategies based on maximizing the wealth by an extended commerce. These policies, 258 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

lead, in time, to high levels of dependence on commerce in order to sustain the social structures especially created based on general prosperity. Some countries are becoming specialized on selling raw materials and are dependent on this activity; others become industrial centers and depend on the supply with raw materials and on the commodity markets. The threats can appear due to the monopole on resources, situation in which the national security could be affected. The economical threat can be considered as an attack to security under the circumstance in which the external action, consciously directed leads to material loss, pressures on different institutions and even substantial prejudice on the health and longevity of the target state population. The military threats. Not long ago the military threats were perceived as the main type of security threat. The situation is easily understandable because the force action was the only one capable to determine permanent loss for the organizational base of the target states and for the existence of their population. The existing disproportion of military potential can worry certain important states or groups of states. The channeling of military accumulations with the purpose of solving open historical issues between the states explains the disproportioned stress on the military component of security, even in the present period in which the threats from other sectors represent greater and closer dangers. The military sector has an independent development dynamics, even in the states in which the civil control over the army is effective. Since the military capability is another reality, whose existence is determined both by the support and promoting of state interests in the international environment and by the involvement of national security, and in the case of alliances there can easily be a confusion of signals that the state constantly generate. The fear of defeat determines the states to bring their armed forces to the parameters necessary for rejecting the effects of the perceived threats. The modernization of armed forces can generate distress for the alarmists. The new weapons generations have, invariably, higher performance than the old ones. The external observers, using the measurement instruments generated by own responsibilities, find it 259 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

often hard to make the distinction between the developments meant to update the military force and the ones meant to upgrade it. The races for weapons are sources of threat generated by the open or dissimulated military competition between the states. These can cover a spectrum from subtle to dangerous (as it was characterized during the cold war). A low intensity race for weapons can be hardly taken out of the context of the desire to maintain the military status-quo of each international actor. The direct threats have different ways of manifestation: from harassing persons and goods belonging to states outside the national borders to raids and incursions into their territories; from blockade and air or naval interdiction areas to force demonstrations, mobilizing troops at the border, Special Forces actions and actions of the reconnaissance-deceive forces on the territory of the target state. The proliferation of nuclear weapons. Nowadays, the nuclear danger becomes present. India and Pakistan’s successful attempts from May 1998 in the field of nuclear weapon have changed profoundly the global framework of the nonproliferation and disarming. There are also a number of countries that can produce the nuclear bomb. Among them North Korea, some countries form the Persian Gulf. The danger of terrorist organizations use of the nuclear devices is excluded neither completely nor permanently. Even if some analysts estimate this danger as being minimal, it exists as long as some international terrorist organizations possess the technology and have the economical and financial power to support the production of nuclear weapons. Cross border threats. The present security threat sources are fundamentally different from those of the end of the last millennium. The discourse and action of the international community is constantly adapting to new realities. The challenges are not limited to only conflicts between states, but are of a much more complex nature. There appeared new state, non-state or para-state actors. Thus, the threats cannot be analyzed only from the geographical perspective, but first from the functional perspective. Being mostly of transnational nature, they cannot be administrated by only one country or a group of countries.

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The range of cross border threats is surprisingly big, and the importance order cannot be established but for a short period, due to the high speed of change and innovation and due to the disparate and indistinct existence of the predictability parameters. There must be done, though, a short presentation of some concrete cases: Corruption and underground economy. The new relations of the world generated by the race for attaining increased political and economical facilities and a fast enrichment, manifested especially in the case of young democracies, have the tendency to generalize to a global scale. The negative side effects of the globalization in the economical and political field offer enough opportunities for the manifestation of the corruption and “black” market development phenomena. The situation generates a source of political threat, because it affects the economical security of the citizen, annuls the right to participate with equal chances to the solving of “community problems”. All these determine the citizen to lose the trust in the politics. The frustrations will transform into actions against the rightful order, which can take many different forms. Organized crime, the traffic of persons, drugs and strategic materials. From some evaluations presented at the recent specialty conferences with global participation, it resulted that the underground economy is the second business at a global level1. The events are clear in presenting places on the earth where the cross border criminality ensures the control at political level, by means of financing the election campaigns and by corruption. The specialists highlight as a main threat to security the unification of three pillars at global level: a) the illicit traffic of any type (human beings, weapons, strategic materials, drugs, cigarettes, etc.), with b) criminality and money wash in the underground economy, and c) terrorism. The focused presence and action of the three elements threats to take the control in many places in the world.

1 Iulian Cifu, The Long Way from Dialogue to Cooperation. Occasional Papers, nr. 2/2003, p. 34. 261 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Looked at from a global scale, the cross border criminality could become a political instrument and a domination and control vector in important areas. Fighting this kind of threat can begin with determining the vexed minds to give up their actions, using the entire arsenal of methods at the disposal of international community, bringing back the respect for the world order. Environment threats. The global security is a concept generated by the relation between the environment conditions and the security interests. Thus, when the degradation of the environment coincides with the presence of an insecurity condition of a region or of a country, the environment threat makes its presence felt. There emerge animosities, which did not exist before, among the inhabitants of different areas or between groups (ethnical, religious), generated by pollution, the insufficiency of natural resources, etc. The environment changes affect the security system, especially when they are not wanted or when they create unilateral advantages. Under certain circumstances, the threats of this type can become causes of military confrontations (the distribution of water, excessive pollution, destruction of flora and fauna, and others). The UNO Resolution 2200/XXI/16.12.1966 stipulates that the governments have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources from the national territory according to the national policy in the field of environment and have the duty to make sure that the activities conducted within the limits of their jurisdiction should not cause damages to the environment from other countries. In an opposite case, the cross border character of this type of threats can be the cause and the ferment of conflict conditions, which are difficult to administrate. In conclusion, the environment threats, although they presently have a secondary role in the panoply of god Mars, will be perceived at their true value only in the next years, when large areas of Terra will become uninhabitable. Information threats. The cyberspace in which the information circulates does not belong to countries anymore; it has become a universal good. Any prejudice caused to this area, which is invisible

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on the other hand, but in the lack of which progress can no longer be conceived, is a threat with global capacities. Unlike the traditional threats, those addressed to the information security impose less resources and counteracting techniques that are easier to conceal and dissimulate. These allow a high improvement and diversification rate, difficult to follow and to assess. In fact, this is the reason for which the estimations concerning the information threats are depending on the human factor, with all the subjectivity and uncertainty it involves.1 In the coming years, the importance of cyberspace will determine the awareness concerning its protection not only by the governments, but also by private companies or individuals. This will lead to the association of users with the purpose of reducing the vulnerabilities of counteracting and eradication the threats addressed to cyberspace. Another risk factor that must be taken into consideration is the restriction of access to the energy resources and their unequal division between the world states. Each state aims at ensuring a certain energetic independence or, if there is no such possibility, they are trying to create reserves in different manners. These tendencies in ensuring the energy resource can lead to certain tensions and even conflicts between the states possessing resources and those needing the resources. The tension condition between the states possessing natural resources and those who want to access them becomes more obvious while these resources become less and less and those possible to be exploited require immense costs in order to do that. The solution to the planet’s energy problems will require firm and sustained global efforts during a few decades. The international community will have to search and find, in an optimal period, adequate strategies as well for emergencies and for the normal relation between demand and offer of energy products.

1 Maj., associate professor, PhD Ion ROCEANU, Lt Col. Iulian BUGA, Risks and Vulnerabilities Addressed to Information from the Communication and IT Systems, in the Land Forces Journal no. 5-6/2003, p.42. 263 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE NEW INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS

Oprean Georgel Laurean

Land Artillery Training Centre of Sibiu

Abstract For a long time the solving of conflicts is characterized by the desire to conquer, by the great power interests and the use of armed force in wars and conflicts has progressively entered in an international legal framework which does not necessarily recognize its use as a sure way of regulating the differences between the states. Within this new framework, the Western armies intervene with predilection against some countries or regions marked by the violation of rightful order, of the international conventions or in countries or regions where peace is under threat, in order to allow the restoring of rightful order and the development of stable social and political systems. In addition, the strategic objectives of an armed conflict depend often on the use of certain multinational forces and the recently attained military results from the theatres of operations have only led to the establishing of minimum conditions necessary for attaining the strategic success. Nevertheless, the present world and society perceive war of a manner almost always different, according to the place the nations are occupying, to their representation at international level, to their affiliation and adhesion towards certain events that can generate external conflict situations and, last but not least, according to geopolitical scenarios of the great actors of the global stage.

1. Characteristics of the new conflicts The exegetes often perceive war in a completely different manner, being conceptualized as a social and political activity, especially subjected to laws of the western countries. This can have fundamental consequences in defining the political objectives of a conflict because, 264 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

if we will perceive the war differently, we will also perceive the victory in a different manner. The recent conflicts have been characterized by the presence of three successive action phases, which comprise a continuous engagement of the multinational forces, namely the intervention, stabilization and normalization of a conflict situation. These involve, in different and variable proportions, moments of coercion and military control by violent actions of high and low intensity. The intervention represents an indispensable phase in attaining victory and consists in employing a force in a well-defined geographical area. This phase aims, in principle, at the temporary imposing of order by deploying a military force in order to defeat the destabilizing force, the violence and the chaos. This phase indicates the preponderance of the military phenomenon to the diplomatic actions and the military operations are, generally, of high intensity and often directed against an identified enemy. Usually, the objectives of the intervention are clearly defined: military victory, the stopping of hostilities between the belligerents, the successful deployment of forces in the theatre of operations, etc. If the success of this phase can lead to attaining strategic success, a failure can drive a political defeat with quantifiable effects upon the following phases. By the appropriate use of military force and means, as well as of the efficient manners of action, there will be a possibility to meet military objectives, which are defined according to the strategic purposes of the operation, creating thus the premises of a peaceful settlement by the combined use of politics and force. The second phase – stabilization – comprises consolidation actions of the transition order that had been imposed, diminishing thereafter violence in order to allow the engagement of a long-term peace. This represents, for the majority of the actors, a complex period in which there will be managed the situations and limitations, the emergencies and necessities of the country, which had been unsettled by the conflict. The presence of armed forces is important for achieving a long lasting peace. However, the objectives of this phase are defined 265 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

without high precision and in a general manner, aiming at restoring normal conditions in the areas of conflict and restoring the trust between belligerents. In this phase, there must be laid the bases of reconstruction of the affected state and the military force will cooperate with other non-military factors, whose importance has increased substantially lately. The military forces can play different roles: the main role in the military operations, in ensuring the general security; the role of supporting the public order, restoring the rightful state, humanitarian actions and environment protection actions or acting indirectly – diplomacy, justice, and economy support. The stabilization phase is the decisive phase of a military operation and the actions take place preponderantly at ground and are conducted in the middle of build-up areas, too. This phase depends to a certain extent of its preparation, of the capabilities of the “actors” involved in this process and the success or failure is often decided from the very beginning of actions. The third phase aims at restoring peace by strengthening the political, juridical and social system and accepting this condition by the actors of the conflict. Success resides in understanding the fact that the state returned to its normal condition due to the multinational forces intervention and their withdrawal will be conducted for the benefit of the legitimate authorities, of the local security forces and of the non-military actors. Thus, there can be noticed the fact that achieving the strategic objectives in a conflict depends on the attained military results and on the withdrawal of the armies from the theatre of operations, unarguably leading to the establishing of circumstances, which would allow the strategic success. During the intervention phase, the tactical success is indispensable and can lead to achievement of the strategic objectives. The stabilization phase is decisive, the cooperation of military forces with other non-military actors is essential for achieving domination in the areas of conflict, allowing, in this manner, the full meeting of the strategic objectives and establishment of peace.

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2. Types of conflicts The immemorial forms of warfare, characterized by the fight of the weak against the powerful, have gained an increased importance along the history and presently the western armies settled in a posture of operational superiority as compared to the other armies. Nevertheless, these armies equipped with super-technologies are often confronted with new forms of conflict, characterized by Clausewitz as “small wars”, where the weaker adversary is trying to compensate for his deficiencies by engaging different manners of conducting military actions. The essential difference between the symmetric, dissymmetric and asymmetric conflicts resides in the difference of power between the belligerents and the consequences these can draw. The symmetric conflicts have opposed adversaries who were equal from the point of view of potential, developing a strategy of discouragement, which interdicted the armed confrontation, but promoted the interest of each protagonist in transforming the superiority in a subsequent profit. The dissymmetric conflicts oppose adversaries of the same nature, but with having different capabilities from the military point of view, offering great chances of success to the more powerful belligerents. The majority of these conflicts do not end by capitulation or truce, but often will lead the weaker adversary to choose an asymmetric conflict, which can constitute the only chance to fight against the powerful adversary. During the asymmetric conflicts, as a rule, one of the belligerents will deliberately place himself in a different field than the other and the material or technological supremacy of a protagonist will be speculated and transformed in vulnerability for the latter. Thus, the military superiority of the western armies has aroused strong asymmetric responses of the potential adversaries, materialized in the following two manners: subversive actions against the state or alliance interests, where the armed forces are only a part of the response instruments for this threat; military actions and violent responses of the adversaries, where the main target is represented by the national or international military forces.

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The most conclusive expression of the asymmetric wars is to be found in insurrections, guerrillas, terrorism, manipulation of the population, subversive actions, etc.

2. The joint actions Most of the present engagements place the ground operations in a joint and multinational framework. The necessity of acting with predilection in the urban environment, the contribution of new technologies, the operation manner of the enemy and the constraints exercised by rules of engagement determine the alliances or coalitions’ land forces to possess a rapid capability of action against the insurgents, a diversified protection of the own forces and an extended range of means adapted for a possible use in contact with the hostile population. To understand the asymmetry and to dominate the enemy, the military intelligence represents an essential function. The complementarity between the troop reconnaissance and the reconnaissance conducted by specialized technical means determines an efficient management of the intelligence necessary for the support of ground operations. The joint operations, combined at a tactical and operational level, can determine the coherence of the manner of action of the land forces and the coordination of effects. In this ground environment, in relatively narrow spaces, the success cannot be conceived without a combination and a temporary integration of different military capabilities. In fact, the diversity of situations and the evolution of the conditions in which the use of force is implied strengthen the necessity of the joint action. The joint concept was limited, for a long time, only to the level of brigades, regiments or tactical groups. Nowadays, the necessity of joint actions is necessary at the level of companies or tactical subgroups, reaching sometimes to the reduced value detachments – platoon, squad.

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In the intervention phase, the main role is attributed, as a rule, to the air forces or air-naval forces, which can considerably reduce the enemy’s capabilities by fire, amphibious or airborne assault.

4. The multinational operations – legitimacy and constraints The engagement of the forces within the multinational framework has become a norm of the international community and the conflict management takes place in a multilateral framework, being led by the international organizations with vocation in this field: UNO, NATO, EU, OSCE, etc. These engagements must be consolidated by legitimacy, especially in the situations in which there are doubts on the political intentions and objectives of the action. Presently, the multinational forces can engage in certain coalitions of nations with military systems and advanced technologies and, on the other hand, within certain heterogeneous coalitions, with unequal standards oriented towards stability operations and with trained and interoperable structures, which are found in different stages. In fact, the exigencies of different partners who want to ensure their influence under the aegis of the coalition can determine unbalance in the composition of the multinational force. The technical and operational inequalities, deploying a number of equipment on the battlefield can become a problem, which can create interoperability and incoherence issues of the capabilities necessary to be exploited in the operations. The multi-nationality can sometimes weaken the military efficiency of the force; can determine the necessity to seek a costly interoperability from the point of view of the equipments and procedures, as well as of the complex management of the engagement rules. In conclusion, a more and more powerful will increase the common engagements within EU and NATO. The circumstance coalitions will be able to become the privileged framework of numerous operations. The legitimacy of the actions does not also represent a factor of military efficiency and the multinational engagements have numerous constraints.

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TERRORISM -THE CLASSIFICATION AND METHODS OF MODERN TERRORISM

Popa Teodor

Gendarmery Inspectorate of Alba Iulia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The simplest definition of terrorism could be phrased as it follows: „terrorism constitutes the perpetration of several crimes or of a delict through a specific method, materialised through violence and intimidation with the purpose of attracting the attention of the public opinion”. (Andreescu A., 2007). When talking about terrorism, its victims are chosen at random, they could be a „symbol” but often, in the given context, they have nothing in common with the action itself. The purpose of the violent act is to cause panic, to spread terror on a scale as wide as possible. The intimidation is a key-purpose that derives and distinguishes itself from any other form of violence. The moment of September 11, 2001, the most atrocious and most powerful blow ever struck on civilisation by terrorists, marked the beginning of contemporary terrorism which embraces unprecedented forms and methods, leading to the launch of a antiterrorist riposte from all points of view on a global scale, and which has lead most importantly to the public opprobrium towards parts of the Arabian world that adheres to the extremist Islamism. But until when will the terror continue? It is difficult to say since anybody, anytime and anywhere can “strike” ruthlessly, cruelly, lacking any regard for humanitarian concerns. In conclusion, terrorists act with an exacerbated violence which commands a comparable preparation and riposte, an approach and an extremely serious analysis in a climate of conjugated efforts.

Terrorism as a phenomenon and the terrorist groups formed at the network level or acting as independent entities represents one of the

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most severe threats at the beginning of this century aimed at many of this planet’s nations in relation with the frail security on the international level. The analysts foresee an increasingly ampler development of terrorist groups which function as national liberation movements or are grafted on its actions (Chechnya, Kosovo, or Somalia). However, any combat strategy against terrorism must reflect not only the understanding of the motives and objectives of terrorism but also an understanding of the advantages offered by some features of our modern world to those involved in terrorist actions. Firstly, the increasingly marked globalization of the economic and political life trigger the irritation of some groups of population, whose values and lifestyles are affected by it, providing them with more opportunities to act against certain institutions. On the other hand, the increasing capacity of the terrorist groups to procure weapons with an extraordinary destructive power as a consequence of “black commerce”, as well as the weakness present in the institutions of certain countries allows the terrorists to commit ever more atrocious acts. Last but not least, the existence of a mass-media network with global extension which allows the instantaneous coverage of an event anywhere on the globe confers the terrorists the certainty that their acts will not have only a limited impact but will also have a global audience. It is becoming more evident that terrorism is a solution which open societies can exploit. They can adopt measures for the marginalization of terrorism and measures aimed at changing the attitude of the population towards it so that the perpetration of terrorist acts should rate on a downward scale. As the major threat against human society and the states of the world, against the very democracy of the beginning of the 21st century, the international terrorism continues to represent an extremely serious danger for both the present social structure and for the security of the states. The year 2001 represented the unprecedented escalation of this scourge taken to the extreme. Therefore, on September 11, the tragic events that occurred in the United States of America evinced the reorientation of terrorism 271 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

towards a new dimension of super-terrorism or mega-terrorism. Terrorism has no longer a political aim but it becomes a primary vector of violence directed against an adversary with the final goal of complete annihilation. The September 11, 2001 mark opened a new and bloody stage in the evolution and the manifestation of the international terrorism phenomenon. The United States of America initiated a series of measures concerning the combat of terrorism, creating thus the coalition intended to insure the firm riposte against the actions of the Al-Quaida organization led by Osama Bin Laden along with the countries and structures that support in any way terrorism. From the point of view of politico-military analysts from the countries that are more amply engaged in this fight it has been concluded that September 11, 2001 represents also the debut of the first strategic cycle1 which characterizes the 21st century, namely the asymmetric confrontation between “the industrialized world” and the terrorism deployed against it.

1. The classifications and methods of terrorism 1.1.The classification of terrorism The end of the past century showed a proliferation of international terrorism considering the boundless media coverage of some punctual success obtained by certain terrorist organizations and groups as well as an acceptance of terrorism as a way of leading unconventional warfare by some states that have supported these movements. The international terrorism will continue to manifest as a phenomenon in its actual form representing not only a severe threat to the states’ national security but also a major challenge on all levels with negative effects on the entire world system. An American specialist on problems of terrorism Chalmers Johnson appreciates that there are 4 main types of terrorism: - ethnical-including the actions with a religious, linguistic or regional separatism motivation and similar ones; - nationalist-comprising irredentist and anti-colonial movements;

1 Jean-Francois Poncet – 6, La guerre de futur, Arme’es d’aujourd’hui, Numero 287, Fevrier, 2004, pag. 30-31. 272 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- ideological-including anarchical movements, radical groups of extreme-left or extreme-right orientation; - pathological-comprising groups that attack public targets (nonmilitary an nongovernmental) apparently for personal reasons1. Terrorism can be catalogued as special state of mind, a message. Whoever kills a political adversary in order to intimidate the others commits homicide. It is only the specific aim, which is the spreading of fear within a human community that makes the respective act to be classified as a terrorist act. Terrorism is based on a violent action intended to draw the attention of general public to the purposes behind these acts, meant to generate a strong reaction from the public. To this view, Ulrike Meinhoff, the founder of the former German terrorist organization “Baader-Meinhoff” wrote that “the terrorist attacks are not only meant to cause terror. They aim as well to engender a strong reaction to them.” 2 Terrorism consists of a quasi-variety of illegal acts and actions and what characterizes it more predominantly is the constant use of violence in order to achieve its aims as well as the manifested desire to make them known to the public opinion. To this end almost all actions of the terrorist organizations have as a final method making their purposes evident through the mass-media. The terrorist act is directed against persons, groups, and categories of social classes or even against the state as well as against the representatives of their interests. Usually, the victims are chosen according to a criterion of symbolic representation. The acts of terrorism have been aimed both at individuals-high-ranking personalities, diplomats, military personnel, businessmen, etc. and at various state institutions, public and diplomatic objectives, land or aerial means of transport. Europe continues to be the most troubled zone from the point of view of terrorist actions directed against high-ranking personalities and against state and public institutions, except of course the consecrated archenemy , the U.S.

1 Chalmers Johnson – Interpretations of Terrorism, în Terrorism Reader, Meridian, New York, 1978, pag. 274. 2 Les dossiers de l’histoire – Le Terrorisme, pag. 67. 273 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The extension known by it, its ramifications, its proposed and achieved aims have made terrorism at present an international phenomenon. In Europe, there is presently increasing talk about “euro-terrorism”. The attacks committed in 1991 in Italy, many others directed against Spanish objectives (Madrid, March 11, 2004) have evinced the existing collaboration between terrorist groups from several countries. The Italian authorities have expressed their concern towards the possible recrudescence of “euro-terrorism” confirming the existence of the already mentioned collaborations. Moreover, it has been stated that there is evidence of a reunion that had taken place in Paris which included the participation of members from the Spanish Basque separatist group “ETA”, from the German “ Faction” (RAF), from the Italian “Red Brigades” as well as members of extremist groups from the Middle East, a meeting where the main orientations of “euro-terrorism” had been convened upon. The Middle East terrorists had pledged their West-European counterparts their support and weapons in exchange for their commitment to their combat strategy. At the same time, the Italian Intelligence Services identified in April 2001 a new terrorist network called “The Red Line” which comprises the following terrorist groups: ‘GRAPO” (First of October Antifascist Resistance Group) from Spain, Action Directe from France, “RIRA” (Real Irish Republican Army) from Ireland, “BR-PCC” (New Red Brigades/Communist Combatant Party) and “Federazione” (Federation) from Italy. The latter organization reunites in fact three new Italian terrorist movements, namely “NRP” (Revolutionary Proletarian Nuclei), “NIPR” (Revolutionary Proletarian Initiative Nuclei) and “NTA” (Anti-Imperialist Territorial Nuclei). According to official data, the “NTA” would pose a real danger due to the structure and organization of its groups, the network covering almost completely the territory of the peninsula, as opposed to the other two groups within the “Federation”, “NRP” and “NIPR” present in the area of two main cities, Milan and Rome. The “BR-PCC” coordinates the actions of various groups within the “Red Line” particularly in France, where almost 30 militants have taken refuge.

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The terrorist actions planned and accomplished by isolated individuals or certain groups whose objectives often remain unknown are joined by the acts of state terrorism which have as a purpose the elimination of certain political or foreign state officials. In the last years, the increasingly frequent resort to those extremely dangerous forms of terrorism generically called “state sponsored terrorism” has led in some cases to particular consequences affecting the political relations between the states, often threatening world peace, security and stability. In conclusion, it can be said that in order to adequately classify the acts generically called “terrorist acts” an extremely complex analysis is needed, starting in particular from the motive for the action, the intended purpose, the social danger it represents, the quality of its authors, their frame of mind, the means employed, the location of the act, the identity of its victims and identity of those whose interests are to be vexed by the act, its consequences and significance. Only thus can a clear distinction be made between a common civil law criminal offence and a terrorist act. Terrorism is classified in relation to its motivation source according to TE-SAT 2007-The E.U report concerning terrorism and its tendencies (the 5th edition) as it follows: 1

1.1.1. The Islamic terrorism The religious rivalry blended with xenophobia, the passionate hatred openly manifested in the name of some absolute precepts represents a centuries-old reality. The neo-terrorism of religious- fundamentalist nature differentiates itself from the classical one through the media impact it is capable to engender, through the intimidation and terror-inducing potential it can employ. The religious fundamentalism can direct its potential for hatred and violence to include people of the same religion who deviate from the direction imposed by the absolute teachings. The source of the Islamic Fundamentalism as well as that of extremist Islamic terrorism has never been the Koran, the Sharia or any other Muslim religious teachings but the anachronism between the

1 The E.U report concerning terrorism and its tendencies, 2007. 275 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

development of the Muslim countries in the context of the political and economic affirmation of the Christian West. The transformation of the religious fundamentalism in mass politics made its debut in 1928 when an Egyptian activist El-Banna formed the Muslim Brotherhood. This political organization turned to terrorism due to the ideologist Said Qutb. He outlined the classical political direction of the Islamic Fundamentalist terrorism which vowed to eliminate all Muslim governments “corrupted by Western ideas” and to replace them with administrations devoted to the strict enforcing of the “Sharia”. The most prominent victim of the classical Islamic Fundamentalists was the Egyptian president Anwar El Sadat assassinated in 1981, yet the fundamentalists gained major political and military success as the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979 which led to the instating of Ayatolah Khomeiny’s rule and the occupation of Kabul in 1996 by the Afghan Taliban regime. The first ideological centre of Fundamentalist neo-terrorism appeared in Azhar in Egypt where Omar Abder Rahman –the blind theologian (or Egypt’s Ayatolah Khomeiny) wrote a 2000 pages dissertation on the theme of Jihad, which he considered a call to arms for the destructions of the infidels. The motivation of this perverted use of the Koran can be traced historically to the fact that Islam had been imposed through warfare and in the future this would be the only alternative for the Muslims.

1.1.2. Ethno-nationalist and Separatist Terrorism This type of terrorism restricts the actions to the level of a certain country and consequently it is based on nationalist beliefs. For this purpose Irish, Basque, Kurd, Palestinian and etc. must be mentioned here. It must be said that the virulence of the phenomenon has been exacerbated lately in Spain due to the actions of the ETA organization while in Ireland the same occurred due to the actions of the IRA organization, including the dissident New IRA.

1.1.3. Anarchical and left-wing terrorism Anarchism represents first mistrust towards any type of power, a philosophy of disobedience. Mihail Bakunin, a Russian anarchist 276 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

involved in the 1848 Revolution in Paris and in the 1870 insurrectional commune of Lyon stated that: “all power, however revolutionary it might be, will end up by betraying the people and will wish to reign eternally”. Anarchy aims at the free development of the individual by establishing a society with no masters. The principles of anarchism are difficult to synthesize since its theoreticians are strongly marked by individualism and too little coherence. In short, it can be stated that the basic elements of anarchism are: - the criticism of authority: this violates both the principle of equality and freedom and hence must be rejected; - the anarchical order: anarchism does not signify destruction but the opposite, the creation of order based on small communities, on federalism, mutuality and cooperation; - the moral base of the anarchical community: beyond the administrative principles that will endure the success of the anarchical society lie the moral values, the application of the natural law; - freedom within society: the anarchists support freedom, but without subscribing to the religious or philosophical concept of free will, it is freedom from coercion and oppression and freedom from lack of equality and poverty; - order without dependence; - individualism is a common feature of all anarchists. An entire popular mythology has been created surrounding the anarchist, having at its center violence, destruction, chaos. All these negatively charged symbolic attributes, very present at the level of common knowledge are meant to make the study of anarchical ideas more difficult as well as the adoption of anarchical beliefs. Those temped to approach this doctrine perceived as a doctrine of violence and radicalism are often isolated individuals, with psychiatric and behavioral dysfunctions, who will do nothing more than close through their acts a real vicious circle of perceptions, confirming social prejudices against anarchy and anarchists. The image of the anarchist has in time become synonymous with the image of anarchy. The individual violence has become the main feature of a theory that most often is an exaltation of rationality and morality present 277 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

within the human being. It is not very difficult to consider the way in which the anarchist has been associated to violence in the period of the ”propaganda through action”, a period of great political and social unrest. The negative representations extant at the level of the public opinion are permanently fed and recreated by the mass-media: “the anarchists bear black flags, their faces are covered by black masks and are armed with iron crowbars”. Characteristics Among the general characteristics of the anarchism doctrine the following could be mentioned: - the subjective individualism and voluntarism, expressed in the exaltation of the autonomy of the individual will, in the opposition of a “freely-consented contract” to the social contract, the association of society, the federalism of state organization; - the negation or dismissal of the objective social laws; - the hostile-negative attitude towards any kind of authority, power, state as well as any political organization; - the lack of understanding for the role of mass production and the defense of private property; - the defense of revolutionary spontaneity, the claim for immediate revolution and immediate annihilation of the state and the preference for the “direct action” tactic. The anarchical and left-wing terrorist groups usually act against targets on the governmental or business echelon. The groups regularly use relatively simple methods, namely bomb letters, or devices that cause material damage, rarely have the attacks aimed at the assassination or serious injury of any individuals.

1.1.4. Right-wing terrorism Based on contradictory situations extant on world level, the ideology of the extreme right attempts to bring up to date the cult of violence, urging to disrespect the legitimism of the individual and implicitly of the peoples. Although right-wing extremism has become a serious problem, no incidents have been reported to pertain to the right-wing terrorism, since actions of this type and other politically motivated crimes are not investigated as terrorist infractions. On European level, there is a right-wing extremist Neo-Nazi group, Blood 278 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

an Honor which is active in many countries, though a single assassination was claimed by this group in 2006. The same year multiple arrests occurred of individuals suspected of right-wing terrorism, more precisely for preparation of an attack. An important feature of right wing extremism is the fact that it directs its attention on political opponents in various ways. With violence employed by right-wing extremists rising to alarming levels, they have come to represent a serious threat which must be recognized and approached with utmost severity.

Bibliography 1. General quaestor, university teacher dr. Andreescu Anghel-The Military Sciences Magazine, Bucharest, nr. 2/2002. 2. Andreescu Anghel, Dan Nita- The terrosrism- a psycho-sociological analysis, Ed. Timpolis, Timisoara, 1999. 3. Andreescu Anghel- The contemporan terrorist phenomenon, theme presented at The Academy of the Romanian scientists, section Military Sciences, Bucharest, 2007. 4. Andreescu Anghel; Nicolae Radu- The Terrorist Organizations, ed. Artprint, Bucharest, 2008. 5. Olimpiodor Antonescu ; Stan Petrescu- The Organized Crime Between a Risk Factor and a Threat, ed. The army technical territorial centre, Bucharest, 2008. 6. Cristian Delcea, The psychology of terrorism: psychological study on terrorists, ed. Diversitas, the 2nd revised edition, Brasov, 2006. 7. Neculai Stoina-The Megaterrorism- a challenge of the IIIrd millennium, 2004. 8. Popescu Ilie& co- The International Terrorism-Scourge of the contemporary World, ed. M.A.I, Bucharest, 2003. 9. Candea Vasile- The Military Sciences Magazine, Bucharest, nr. 2/2002. 10. Opre A. –The psychology of the personality, a course support, UBB, The Faculty of Psychology, 2005. 11. The E.U report concerning the terrorism and its tides, 2007.

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FROM PARTNER TO ALLY – ROMANIAN REGIONAL INTEREST PROTECTION AND GLOBAL WAR ON TERRORISM

Roman Vasile

Infantry and Mountain Troops Training Centre of Braşov

Abstract Romania as a country placed at the junction of four areas: Central Europe, Southeast Europe, Eastern Europe and the Black Sea - Caucasus – Central Asia, has its strategic national security directly influenced by its geographical location. As a NATO and European Union member its national defense and security is based on its national interests, on its own policy, and on the alliance system. This important transformation in Romania’s status that occurred with its NATO and European Union membership suggests a reevaluation of Romania’s national interest and its security strategy. Romania’s regional policy is based upon its strategic capability offered by access to the Danube River and Black Sea, but the protection of its regional interests has to be based on strong relations with two big players in the Black Sea – Caucasus area: the European Union or the United States. Romanian interest in the region will be protected if the Strategic Partnership with the United States is developed. To realize this goal, Romania’s option is to continue to be an active participant in the global war on terrorism, because this war is one of the most important elements of partnership.

Keywords: Regional interest, Partnership

From partner to ally - Romanian regional interests’ protection and global war on terrorism Romania as a country placed at the junction of four areas: Central Europe, Southeast Europe, Eastern Europe and the Black Sea –

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Caucasus– Central Asia region, has its strategic national security directly influenced by its geographical location. As a NATO and European Union member its national defense and security is based on its national interests, on its own policy, and on the alliance system. Romania’s regional policy is based upon its strategic capability offered by access to the Danube River and Black Sea, but the protection of its regional interests has to be based on strong relations with two big players in the Black Sea – Caucasus area: the European Union, as member of this union, and with its special partner and ally the United States. Based upon its economic and military status Romania developed since 1998 a Strategic Partnership with the United States in order to be supported in its NATO accession. Now this new status of NATO and European Union membership suggests a need for reevaluation of Romania’s national interest and its security strategy.

Romania’s regional interests and its relations with regional actors Romania’s interests are stipulated in Romania’s National Security Strategy, signed by President Traian Basescu in 2007, and include: real integration into the European Union; assuming responsibility as a NATO member; maintaining the state’s unity, integrity, sovereignty, and independence; developing a dynamic, competitive market economy; the education system’s modernization; development of human, scientific and technological capabilities; health and welfare development and, protection of national culture, identity and spiritual life in European framework1. Romania’s national security is directly influenced by its geographical location at the junction of four areas: Central Europe, Southeast Europe, Eastern Europe and the Black Sea- Caucasus-Central Asia region, extending into the Mediterranean and Middle East. This geo-strategic positioning represents an advantage for Romania in promoting a stabilization and engagement policy for these areas, by developing intra and inter-regional cooperation in direct connection with international organizations (NATO, European Union, UN, OSCE), and in order to counteract threats to continental

1 http://www.presidency.ro/static/ordine/SSNR/SSNR.pdf (accessed, November, 2007) 281 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

and global security.1To promote its interest, Romania does not consider the Black Sea area simply as a “cordon sanitaire” or just a junction area for different sub-regional challenges. In this respect, Romania’s security policy aims to bring Southeastern Europe, the Black Sea, the Caucasus and the Mediterranean into a common vision taking into account the existing common risks and opportunities2. This intention was confirmed by President Basescu, who declared: “The next challenge is the formulation of a common Euro- Atlantic strategy for the Black Sea region. Geographically and historically, the region between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, including the South Caucasus, is inseparable from Europe…Its geo- strategic location makes the Black Sea an indispensable part of Euro- Atlantic security and prosperity. That is why it is so important that we develop the right common strategy”3. Since September 9 and its accession into NATO and the European Union, Romania has clearly stated its interests but it has not evaluated whether these interests are vital, important or peripheral. In my opinion it is mandatory to have clearly defined interest, ways, means, and ends. Without this our political and military engagements are valueless. Romania’s vital interest has to be: maintaining the unity of the state, territorial integrity, and its sovereignty and independence. In an unstable region and in a very close geographical proximity with Russia, this interest can be protected through collective defense within NATO and the European Union. Russia has no apparent intention to attack Romania’s borders, but the permanent conflicts in Moldova, Georgia, and Azerbaijan prove that Russia has an interest to maintain its area of influence in the Black Sea region. The fact that NATO’s enlargement is viewed by many Romanian analysts4, as a political act rather than a military one, and the European Union does not have a common defense policy, there is a real reason for Romania to seek another important actor which has

1http://www.nato.int.romania/regstatus.htm (accessed, august, 2007). 2 http://www.nato.int.romania/regstatus.htm (accessed, august, 2007). 3 http://www.roembus.org/ (accessed October, 2007). 4 http://cssas.unap.ro/ro/pdf_carti/stratXXI_2007_vol1.pdf, 10 (, translated, accessed January, 2008). 282 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

interests in the Black Sea area, and which can be a strategic partner. This actor can only be the United States. It has to be involved in the whole area and it has to have a strong economic, diplomatic and military presence in the Black Sea area. Regarding its defense interests, Romania remains concerned primarily about unconventional threats, like terrorism and ethnic conflict, rather than a classical military aggression. In this respect Romania, through its Armed Forces, can thus become a provider of regional stability and a contributor to peace and security in Europe1. Romania’s important interest has to be: developing a dynamic, competitive and high performance market economy. The interests’ importance is determined by access to resources, foreign capital investments and military capabilities’ development. Romania cannot be an economically powerful player either in its region or in the European Union without a solid and viable economic foundation. Part of this economic viability has to be assured by uninterrupted access to oil and gas resources. Following the adage that energy security is based mainly in diversity, a new quest for alternative energy resources that could alleviate some of Europe’s dependence on Russia’s energy is being undertaken. The wider Black Sea region plays a crucial role in this context because this is the only area in Europe’s vicinity that has the potential to serve as a key producer and transit area for new sources of European gas supplies [1]. In this regard Romania has to be involved in developing a global resources policy in which the Interstate Oil and Gas Transport to Europe (INOGATE) project will be developed. In the Black Sea and Caucasus area the owner of key global natural resources are: Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Uzbekistan as countries with oil reserves, and Georgia, Chechnya, Turkey, Romania, and Bulgaria as transit areas for pipe lines. The consumers are mainly, though not exclusively, European countries. The providers of these natural resources are security consumers in the same way that the consumers are security providers. Regional security in the Caucasus area is challenged by four frozen conflicts: Azerbaijan and Armenia’s dispute over the status of Nagorno-Karabakh, South

1 http://english.mapn.ro/ (accessed November, 2007). 283 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Ossetia and ’s separatists’ attempts to gain independence from Georgia, and Transnistria’s movement to separate from Moldova. Left unresolved, these conflicts remain the most significant obstacle to long term stability in the Caucasus and Black Sea region, and have the potential to ignite into a high-intensity conflict in Europe’s neighborhood [2]. In this case it is important for a consumer or transit country to have the ability and capability to provide a permanent diplomatic and military contribution for the area’s stability and security. Russia is a special case and requires separate discussion due to its development of a special relationship with the European Union. Russia’s strong political and economic relations with France and Germany and its activities in the Middle East prove that it is an important player. The big issue in this area is the access to pipelines. The oil can be sent to Europe in four ways: through China, which is expensive and long, through Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is now dangerous, through Georgia, which is safe but with problems concerning capacities and through Turkey, which raises issues concerning the Bosporus, and the last through Russia, one of the most monopolistic routes [3]. The most important of these corridors is through the Caspian Sea, and here there are five countries which have access: Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Iran. Russia understands that its influence in this region depends upon control of this route. Related to these corridors, it raises three solutions which include three blocks of interests: the first is for the Baku – Ceyhan corridor. This block is supported by the United States and Turkey, and includes Azerbaijan and Georgia. The second block is supported by Russia, with Iran and Armenia. The objective is to maintain the regional “status quo” and to prevent the United States’ access in this area. The third block is supported by the European Union and sustained by the European oil companies, and tries to protect their interests [3]. As a European Union member, Romania would join the first or third pipeline alternatives, but its interest is not fulfilling by these option. A possible solution for Romania is a pipeline Constanta – Trieste corridor which avoids the Turkish straits. This project was 284 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

included in INOGATE because 65 percent of the pipe line corridor is functional, and can be tied with Trieste through alpine pipeline through Italia, Austria, and Germany. In this project, cooperation has already been established with the United States which has decided to finance, through its Agency for Trade and Development (USAID), a feasibility study for the pipeline project, amounting to US $ 300,0001. In this case Romania has to develop its own policy which includes: a strong diplomatic effort in order to receive the United States and European Union’s political support, strong development of political and economic relations with Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, and the graduated development of a pipeline with Serbia. Here Romania has to develop diplomatic, economic and military relationships with Serbia and to help it become a democracy. Romania’s plan concerning access to key resources was confirmed by the United States ambassador to Romania, Nicholas F. Taubman, who said: “These Southern Corridor projects could tap into underexploited resources in the Caspian Basin in countries like Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan and carry the product to Romanian and European consumers. Such alternate options make economic sense… The United States has a strong interest in helping to develop new energy sources in the region, right here. We stand ready to help”2. But this project means not only oil and gas. Romania’s interests are larger. Included in this corridor, Romania will be a stable and secure country and a new place for a market economy. The investment in industry, in infrastructure and in agriculture is vital for Romania’s future. All of these issues require a common policy and a real cooperation between Euro-Atlantic communities for a new Euro- Atlantic strategy for the Black Sea region. President Basescu emphasized, in his first visit in Washington that: “Romania is committed to become a springboard for promoting the values of freedom and democracy in the Black Sea region. In this respect, we are prepared to participate in a Black Sea Trust Fund* set

1 http://www.mfa.gov.yu/ForeignInvest/Inogate_e.htm (accessed November 2007) 2 http://bucharest.usembassy.gov./US_policy/press_Releases/ (accessed November, 2007) 285 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

up with the financial support of our American partners, USAID and the German Marshall Fund, and with EU participation, which aims to support democratic developments in our neighborhood through public-private partnerships.1.

The United States’ interests in the Black Bea – Caucasus area and the War on Terrorism Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States’ interests in the Black Sea area span energy, military security, terrorist challenges, and the traffic in drugs, weapons, and people. Oil and gas from Central Asia and the Middle East move along Black Sea shipping lanes and pipelines to Europe and other points west. These same shipping lanes are used for the traffic in narcotics, persons (including terrorists), conventional weapons, and components for weapons of mass destruction. Thus, both the European Union and the United States have strong interests in safeguarding the movement of some goods, preventing the movement of others, and maintaining a presence in the Black Sea region2. The United States’ economic presence has to be based upon expanding bilateral trade agreements with the Black Sea states, such as the current agreements with Georgia, Moldova, Romania, Turkey, and Ukraine, with special emphasis on energy security and infrastructure investment in the transport of oil and gas from the Caspian region to Europe. But the United States has to use not only economic resort because its interests are rather political and military than economic. Its interest is to protect economical investments, and at the same time to protect the corridors of trade, to assure that goods flow freely from the United States to others and vice versa, and to create forward military base to control this area.

1 http://www.roembus.org/ (accessed November, 2007) 2 http://www.heritage.org/Research/RussiaandEurasia/bg1990.cfm (accessed November, 2007) *The BST is a project of the German Marshall Fund with partners United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, and the Romanian government. BST, which is based in Bucharest, provides grants to local and national NGOs in the Wider Black Sea Region, to governmental entities, community groups, policy institutes, and other associations to implement projects in three programmatic areas: civic participation, cross-border initiatives, and East-East cooperation. Grants are awarded in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Moldova, Romania, Turkey, Ukraine, and Russia. 286 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

In his book The Worldwide Network of US Military Bases-The Global Deployment of US Military Personnel, Professor Jules Dufour tried to make a connection between economic interests and the establishment of the United States military bases because it should not be seen simply in terms of direct military ends. They are always used to promote the economic and political objectives of United States capitalism.1. Establishing a military presence can be one option used to prevent new conflicts, to limit old conflicts or to keep at a distance any future threats. In Europe, moving combat units based in Germany to Eastern Europe could enable the United States Armed Forces to respond to conflicts in the area more quickly. By comparison, basing the United States Army combat brigades in Poland, Bulgaria, or Romania, (locations that press articles indicate the Bush Administration is considering) would give the United States Army quicker access wider geographic contingencies2. On ether of United States’ interest in the Black Sea - Caucasus region is included in what Friedrich Ratzel wrote, in 1897, in his book Political Geography, and Carl Schmitt, also wrote, in his book Land and Meer. Both authors emphasized that world history is the fight between maritime and land powers. They wrote that in different periods of world history thalassocratia (maritime power) was incarnated by the United Kingdom and the United States, and tellurocratia (land power) was embodied by Russia, France and Germany3. Now the world is changing, but the present fight is similar with the historical one. The United States has to keep Russia in its area of interest - Asia (the land) and to develop a strong control of world waters (seas). All these United States interests in the Black Sea - Caucasus area can be realized and protected through a strong cooperation with NATO’s members, the NATO aspirant countries, and through a permanent economic and military presence in the region. It is well

1 http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=5564 (accessed November, 2007) 2 http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdoc.cfm?index=5415&type=0&sequence=4 (accessed, November, 2007) 3 http://www.romfest.org/rost/apr2003/razboiul.shtml (translate, accessed November, 2007) 287 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

known that NATO is now involved in Afghanistan, but NATO members are not prepared to spend resources for many development or military projects. As a result NATO’s mission in this country seems to be more political than military. In fact now, in Black Sea – Caucasus area, NATO and the European Union have to join their effort to support the newest democracies in Georgia and Ukraine, to support the changes in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan and to include former Yugoslavia in a special program of development along a western democratic orientation. It is the only way to prevent possible future conflicts in area. This prevention is lower costly than a military intervention as Afghanistan or Balkans. Specifically, the United States has to conduct military exchanges, and encourage consultations with Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria, and Russia to assuage Turkey's and Russia’s concerns about losing its dominant position in the Black Sea basin to the growing influence of the United Sates via its construction of military bases.1.

Conclusions The United States and its NATO allies face a new strategic environment, particularly along Europe’s eastern periphery. The enemies are flexible, nimble and innovative, but governments are, in contrast laboriously slow, wedded to established methods, and restricted by standard operational procedures. Unless the NATO member states are able to transcend these limitations to respond to disorder in systematic and innovative ways, the forces of disorder will emerge triumphant and the Westphalia system will suffer [4]. Romania has to use its post - 1989 experience as a transitional democracy to be the best of America’s advisors in Iraq and Afghanistan’s reconstruction. Romania has to develop a set of strategic, operational and tactical initiatives to meet its expectation in relation with the United States. At the military operational level, Romania has to plan its new engagement in the war against terrorism through developing military’s capabilities. The first element has to be

1 http://www.heritage.org/Research/RussiaandEurasia/bg1990.cfm (accessed November, 2007). 288 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

acquisition of the systems for a fully operational division to fulfill future mission.

References [1] Svante E. Cornell, Anna Jonsson, Niklas Nilsson, Per Haggstrom, The Wider Black Sea Region: An emerging Hub in European security, (Central Asia- Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program, Uppsala University, Sweden, 2007), 75. [2] “Statement of General Bantz J. Craddock, USA Commander, United States European Command before the House Armed Services Committee”, on 15 March, 2007, available from http://www.eucom.mil/english/command/posture/HASC %20- Craddock_Testimony031507.pdf(accessed December 2007), 3. [3] “Jurnalul de petrol şi gaze”, available from http://www.oilromania.ro/eveniment.htm (accessed September 2007) [4] James Speling, Sean Kay, Victor Papacosma, Limiting institution? The challenge of Eurasia security governance, (Manchester University Press, 2003), 34.

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TERRORISM AND MODERN SOCIETY

Stoian Gabriela Maria, Ene Vasile

M.U. 02231, Bucharest, M.U. 02450, Bucharest

Abstract The main feature of global terrorist activity in the past two years has been its unprecedented growth. The total number of terrorist incidents in 2005 almost reached the 5,000 mark (to be more precise, there were 4,924 incidents), nearly 85 percent more than the number in the previous “peak” years of 2004 (2,646) and 2002 (2,649), and was an absolute record in the history of terrorism. The pope referred to terrorism as ''a perverse and cruel decision which shows contempt for the sacred right to life and undermines the very foundations of all civil society. If together we can succeed in eliminating from hearts any trace of rancor, in resisting every form of intolerance and in opposing every manifestation of violence, we will turn back the wave of cruel fanaticism that endangers the lives of so many people and hinders progress toward world peace."1

1. Terrorist organizations The international terrorism phenomenon is one of the main threats to human society and national security, continuing to represent a social danger particularly for both the structure and social cohesion and security for individuals. Worldwide analysis over the phenomenon’s development reveals that it has increased towards to the end of year 2001 when the tragic events of September 11 in the U.S. occurred. "Scourge of terrorism continued to affect the world throughout 2002, from Bali to Grozny and Mombasa. Meanwhile, the war against global terrorist threat was carried out with intensity in all regions, with encouraging results "2.

1 Pope Benedict XVI, COLOGNE, August 21st , 2005. 2 Ambasador Cofer Black Coordinator for Counterterrorism at the U. S. State Department. 290 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

We assist today to a variety of targets belonging to different areas of activity and this demonstrates that the objectives and purposes of terrorist organizations are very different. In terms of the types of undertaken terrorist actions, these are diversified; the share is held by those who have used explosives and weapons, the novelty consists on using civilian airplanes, as vectors to destroy targets with devastating effects. This "disease of the third millennium" (Vladimir Putin) has many faces, obscure or difficult to interpret. However one can clearly say that terrorism is now in visible offensive, with a geographic area considerably expanded, diversified as motivation and means of action, many groups having "underground" help1. Romanian National Security Strategy includes terrorism among the main threats to national security, combating risk factors represents a major concern for our Executive. Romanian Government adopted the Emergency Ordinance nr.153/2001 against international terrorist phenomenon developments, in order to implement 1373/2001 UN Security Council Resolution on combating international terrorism. Romania aims to combat all forms of terrorism regardless of the motivations underlying it (especially the fundamentalist Islamic terrorism, religious and separatist). It also aims to protect the national territory from terrorist acts and prevent extremist terrorist from establishing logistics bases and branches of organizations with international representation. A special attraction to terrorism has been noticed in the countries of the third world; the motivation for terrorist activity is the idea of drawing attention to the need for help these people, victims of contemporary imperialism. One must emphasize that contemporary terrorism is a challenging, social unadapted movement. In terms of ideas, is a mixture of concepts taken from Marx, Lenin, Mao and the anarchists, and the statements of various organizations and retell resulting confusion, the common denominator being proclaimed violence as the single solution.

1 ” Pentru patrie” Magazine, No.5, May 2003, page. 6 291 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

His Sanctity, Pope Jon Paul II, considered terrorism to be “intrinsic faithlessly, never justifiable” calling for a concordant riposte from pro-democratic forces around the world. Anathematizing terrorist criminal violence, the Pope stated numerous times this generates an effect much more powerful than the evil directly provoked by an attack or another, since is felt as a threat directed against all society “and hate and fear are programmatically disseminated”. Far from proposing themselves to commit isolated actions, terrorist groups have consolidated a complex strategy, essentially destructive, meant to favour achieving some clearly determined political goals. The fusion between terrorism and extremist ideologies, goes beyond concrete criminal actions, aiming at the knowledge’s moral pervert. In the Christian’s moral light, the terrorist organizations are qualified as “structure of sin”, since they are inducing to the victims the will to respond to violence with violence. It’s striking the growth and continuity of the propagandist motivated criminal actions. Very virulent, the “structure of sin” are aiming not only to commit intrinsic blamable actions but, at the same time, to a general knowledge distortion. Although terrorist organizations’ emissaries are showing a lot of zeal in making and maintaining contact with other delinquent organizations, there is a clearly distinction between terrorist acts and organized crime. While organized crime’s structure only goal is to obtain profit, terrorism has a political purpose. Terrorist actions are meant to install a climate of insecurity and terror among the civilian population. Some well organized terrorist groups have proven the opportunity and capacity of using sophisticated technologies, especially remote detonated explosives; they introduced new techniques, X-rays radar, pressure and time aircraft efficient sensors. In the last two decades, many groups have been trained and armed from ex Soviet Union and other states, member of the , North Korea, , Libya, Iraq, Iran, Cuba (Iran is helping the Lebanese Hezbollah shipping weapons and equipment in their training facilities from Sudan).

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2. Terrorist organizations – actions and classification Majority of the most active terrorist organizations are divided in to main groups: • anarchist and righted terrorist organization, which want to promote the political regime’s social changing in a revolutionary manner, such as: The Italian Red Brigade, Japanese Red Army Fraction, Tupamaros and Montoneros groups from Latin America. • notional separatist and minorities movements as: ETA, IRA, some Palestinian organizations (Black September and Black June) and minorities’ organizations as The Tamil from Sri Lanka, Sinc from India, Islamic groups from Arabic countries.

2.1. Actions The actions of these groups are carried out to have some consequences as follows: • To demonstrate the incapacity of the governments to protect theirs own citizens, clerks and foreign diplomats accredited in one country; • To determine the citizens to put pressure over the government in order to stop the terrorist actions. For example the Islamic Jihad determined the American government to withdraw the troops from , following the suicidal action organized by this terrorist organization against the marines’ compound from Beirut. The Islamic Jihad carried out similar actions in countries from Persian Gulf area to determine them to stop supporting Iraq during the war against Iran; • To force the governments to implement additional security measures, including public human rights’ limitations. Therefore the citizens could react in negative way to the authorities; Taking into consideration the tactics used, there are two categories of operations as follows:

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- Operations in which the terrorists take the measures to survive after carrying out the attacks. Taking hostages or high-jacking is accompanied by living the country. For this reason, the present terrorists use modern equipments, such as postponed explosion bombs, explosive packages sent by Postal Service, others disposals which do not show their identity or jeopardize their lives. - Suicidal missions or kamikaze; Although some people consider them almost new, the tactics are very old, being used by Japan samurai in Middle Age and Arab Hashashin in 20th century. The kamikaze tactic is very dangerous because: • The defense on it is extremely difficult because it is very difficult to be fully protect against the people who want to die; • They can cause a lot of damages and kill many people and, therefore they produce a emotional shock for the citizens and authorities;

2.2. Classification Terrorist groups categories: 1. Ethnics, religious or nationalist groups; 2. Self-proclaimed revolutionary groups; 3. Anarchist groups; they do not have precise goals; their ideology is confuse and eclectically; 4. Pathological or individual groups: they do not have a political or ideological goal; they did not succeed in adapting in society or social organization; 5. Rightist or Neo-fascist groups (such as “Nero Order” from Italy); sometime they are supported or only accepted by local authorities; 6. Ideological mercenaries; usually, they belong to trans-national groups; Review of strategy and action tactics terrorist groups takes place concurrently with their implementation in order to counteract measures of combat adopted by the government, is acting primarily in

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the direction of a unit of action between terrorist groups and organizations from different countries. Increased compartmentalization - some terrorist groups have done so in the "horizontal" plan, in case "revolutionary cells" in Germany acting in independent cells, not maintaining links between them and do not use documents, each cell acting independently, with the purpose to destabilize the capitalist society Other groups have made the compartmentalization on a "vertical" in the top of the pyramid with a central structure (8 members - Communist cells combat, and 20 members in case "Fracţiunii the Red Army”). Around this kernel gravitate active supporters": 70-Arab organization "May 15" headed by Mohamed El-Amurii; 100-Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, especially Command led by Salim Abu Salem or Abu-Mehmed, 200-Red Army. III level is made up of sympathizers whose number varies from several hundred to several thousand. What characterizes the terrorist organizations around the world today is their inability to propose a coherent political program, a prospect for the future. It can be said that terrorists have intent, but not principles - neither moral nor political. Terrorists are considered to be revolutionaries, but in reality are not. A revolution is to change, in general, the political regime. But who lead terrorists? No they do not know. And if you succeed through their actions, it is only contraction authorities, who may resort to antidemocratic measures or to attract the public to associate with the power to combat terrorism. Terrorists choose their victims carefully, moments when to strike and the conditions when to operate, to give sens to there political activiti. Thus, they hit a doctor, when at the forefront concerns of the public health problem. The terrorists’ war against government has a total character, all members of society are involved. In that war there is no distinction between combat and non-combatant. Terrorists aim is also to get free advertising in media. Advertising provide a psychological advantage, particularly when aiming to obtain the release of a fellow terrorist, creating concern over hostages’ fate, supporting antigovernment Press campaigns.

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Terrorist organizations see that all their members know to manufacture a bomb, an incendiary mixture, or destroy a car. The newly recruited are put to rob, to break banks to get money, to carry out terrorist actions. Terrorists have everywhere a supporter who’s justifying and glorifying the actions of these "contemporary martyrs." For intellectuals, terrorism has a special attraction. An indirect form of collaboration between terrorist organizations from different countries is manifested in the ideological area, more specific, agreeing over the concepts behind their work. Terrorist organizations widely collaborate in situations where terrorist transiting is needed to or from the place of action through hostile or favorable countries. Terrorism does not occur and is not manifested in countries with a peaceful history, sparsely populated, but usually in Catholic and Muslim countries where mysticisms is more prominent than in the Protestant ones. Terrorism had, however, worked in some cases, where there was a wider strategy, rational, accepted goals. In this respect, it is recalled the Viet Kong movement, which, in the 60’s, killed 10,000 citizens of different countries, preparing the Vietnamese communists arrival. In reality, the terrorist actions’ results are as follows: strengthening the dominant class, that terrorism seeks to destabilize and overturn because in reacting to terrorism, society is grouped around those who defend the order of law. Thus, Christian democracy in Italy has acquired a new support in the murder of Aldo Moro.

References [1] Romanian Constitution [2] Romanian Criminal Code [3] Romanian Criminal Procedure Code [4] „Patriot” Law adopted by the US Congress at 25th October 2001 [5] Analiză a terorismului în lume 2002, Ministerul de externe al SUA, aprilie 2003 [6] Florin Dumitrescu, Ioan Gaborean, Maria Voinea, Mihaela Prună, Terorismul înainte şi după Bin Laden, Editura Mediauno, Bucureşti, 2001 [7] Ion Bodunescu, Terorismul – fenomen global, Casa editorială Odeon, Bucureşti, 1997 [8] Victor Duculescu, Diplomaţia secretă, Editura Europeană, Bucureşti, 1992

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[9] International Military Tribunal Statute [10] Pro Patria Magazine [11] Yohu Alecsander, Terorismul internaţional – perspective regionale şi globale, Editura Nemira, 2000 [12] Arădăvoaicei Gh., Iliescu D., Niţă D., Terorism, antiterorism, contraterorism, Editura Antet, Bucureşti, 1997 [13] Ioan V.Maxim, Terorismul: cauze, efecte şi măsuri de combatere, Editura Politică, Bucureşti, 1989

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THE CORRELATION BETWEEN SPACE-TIME AND COMBAT WITHIN CONTEMPORARY CONFLICTS

Guţu Neculai, Sârbu Andra

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Analyzing the relationship between space-time and we highlight the fact that, even if the environment and the time exert many and important determination on the military actions, their influence doesn’t appear detached and in the contrary it appears to be in a tight interdependence. One of the direction in which it develops the modern operation and battle is the establishment of a new correlation in the space-time and combat triad. In this way, if in the first war period has been adopted the war on large fronts, on both belligerent sides, the soldiers standing face to face, in well made entrenchment sometimes for a couple of months, nowadays the confrontation of belligerent sides happens simultaneously in front, back, on the flanks, in the airy, naval and cosmic space.

The security and stabilization processes have kept their accelerated rhythm. The initiatives, programs and the policies adopted for the security domain entrenchment in the world have proved their utility, even if, sometimes the results were not the expected ones. The war against terrorism has kept going, the Iraq and Afghanistan being the main confrontation theatre. It hasn’t been obtained great successes in the zone stability, even if the tribute of life and money paid by the Coalition has been consciousness known since the beginning of the axles. Irak is occupied handling a civil war. The internal combats don’t give any possibility of realization of the reconstruction plan of the zone.

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„The ensemble of threats upon the world security and stability has increased immensely. Discreetly, the nuclear arms race was resumed.”[1] Iran, in spite of the strong opposition of the International Community is getting ready to make nuclear ogives. SUA has invested large sums of money in the achivement of the anti- guided missile shield. In change, Russia affirms that it has made guided missile capable of perforating any missile defensive system. This situation carry us to the specific confrontation of the `80s. Moreover, concurrent with this, is in process, a competition of manufacturing arms and clasic means of destruction, but at a high technological level. The actual situation leads to the conclusion that we are in the knot of the military confrontation theory and practice development. From here, the road can lead us to a new arms race, or to the apparition of new military techinques associated with the reprojection of some battle means specific to the oposition forces confrontation which, through atypical battle action is looking to recoup the impossibility of participation at the manufacturing and purchasing of new and powerful arms. The globalization effects started to be seen. Every local confrontation (even if some tensions and conflicts are considered to be irrelevant) started to have a sounding world echo. The local combats between shiite and sunnites from Irak preoccupy the entire international community. The starting of a civil war here, can run riot of avenger fights in the entire region, with very intuitive consequences for the planet peace. The „iced” conflicts around the Black Sea leaves marks not only, on the security and stability of the region, but on the entire european space, north-asian and Middle East region. In this context, the transformation threats (terrorism, migration and l.s.d and strategic materials traffic and organized crime) taking advantage of the frontiers permeability, had more chances to spread to a planetary scale. „The fight against it, has become a new and original part of the globalization.”[2] In what I have presented, I tried to mark out the transformation of the clasic conflict (regional or the ones due to some expansive policies) in asymetric conflicts, with invisible enemies or conflict with 299 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

a powerful inter-ethnic aspect, intended to withstand to the globalization politics, which imposed a new vision of the space component in the space-time and combat triad. Therewith, profound changes in the space and time rapports dialectis, the space expands a lot, in correlation with the time for performing military operation. One of the contemporary combat characteristic is the reduction of the operation time having as a result the reduction of the material and human costs, too, accepted by both belligerent sides. In order to frame in the equation of the military action’s development and to respond to the necessity of developing military actions on a large space in a relatively short time, the theoretic and practical approach of the fight needed a new orientation and development, giving birth to concepts and actions like the deep stroke, the stroke on convergential directions, the forces center or critical moments of the operation. This concepts couldn’t have been put in practice if the instrument of the military action’s leading (techniques and fight machines) hadn’t known an appropriate development. ”The correlation between the military actions forms and procedures and the armament and fight technology level of performance expresses the mutual dependence between the military actions content and the material and technological base of the fight, especially as a result of the technical and scentifical revolution impact on the military domain.” [3] The stroking of the enemy in the same time on more fronts, in the front,in the back, on the flanks, in depth, on his strategic reserves, as well as on the logistic supply systems, wouldn’t be possible if there weren’t the techinque and armament capable to do all these actions in a large space and in a short time, making it by surprising the enemy and determine him to „desert the fight, the way it happened in Golf’s War”. [4] The synchronization and integration of actions generally, implies the resolution by the quarters and troups of some problems like: neutralizing the enemy airy means and the interdiction of their actions on battle fields at the strategic, operative and tactical level, in other words preserving the air supremacy; destruction the research, leading and informing systems, assuring their own systems operation, bringing 300 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

the enemy main forces in the impossibility to riposte; accomplishing in this way the established purposes; making continuous and viable logistic activity, with the participation of that structure which are necesary and sufficient, indifferent of which forces category belong to. It appears the question: In the situation of some asymetric conflicts, are still valid these principles which form the triad space- time-combat? The answer is not only affirmative, but it also fills these principles with solutions to carry on the fight against terrorism, which form the aspect of the modern world. In this case, the operations against terrorism, don’t confine themselves only at the battle actions against the insurgents, but also having an ample informational support, which transforms those „invisible enemies” [5] in an easy catch for the fighting forces. This situation expands more and more the space of the military forces actions and for this, it is necessary a better coordination of the operations, according to the time given for the accomplishment of the mission received. In tight correlation with the analysed tendencies, in the modern military actions we can notice an emphasis of the confrontation or operation decisive character, for a short time mission accomplishment. The increase of the decisive character of the confrontation regards the direct engagement extension avoidance, which would have as consequence the decreasing of the surprize effects realized against the enemy and many material and human losses, too. We cannot neglect a very important aspect of the modern combat: The combat in the urban zones, which characterizes the last conflicts from Afganistan and Irak which managed to introduce a new variable in the space’s equation of the development of the battle, the civilians and „the impossibility of the combat delimitation from the real enemy”. [6] „The change of nature of the security and threats environment leads to strategic, tactic, training and doctrines changes. The residential zones security implies the apparition of a new approach, simultaneously with the development of the actual theory in the security domain. 301 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The unknown and the uncertainty imposed the search for new ways of approach for the defense against new types of threats, and from this side of view for Intelligence are many implications.The civilian and military multinational missions for maintaining the peace and for reconstruction, will make harder the governmental Intelligence tasks regarding the necessary support for this types of operation. The elicitation, the checking, the processing and the informational use can predict crisis, can support postconflicts and can monitor the peace agreements.”[7] The military confrontations are the expression of the politic, economic and social violent conflicts. The other day, it was believed that the major role in the establishment of the end of the war reinstates to the direct military combat between belligerents. The victory against an opponent, named invariably enemy, was obtained only on the battle field. The actions carried on in other confrontation domains were considered to play a secundary role. „It becomes more obvious the fact that, in the actual stage, the starting, the progress and the end of the war, generally, and especially of the military confrontation, have complex determinations in which the military component doesn’t always have the decisive role.The beginning of the millenium wars are the proof of the politic, economic, cultural and any other kind of components transition, in more advanced viewpoints than the ones allocated to the military domain.It is predictable that, in the future too,to assist at a more evident displacement of the military combat to the periphery importance, assign to the war constituents.The analists wearing an uniform, not only appreciate that in the last decades, from the lenght of a military confrontation, the direct engagement occupy only 15- 20%, the majority of the time goes to the combat organization and preparation activities”.[8] The reduction of actions time for the military forces, doesn’t exclude the importance of the military forces to solve conflicts, but it highlights the preparation of this actions importance, for interfering there, where the enemy is more week and for neutralizing its economic possibilities, shortened the time until victory, forcing the enemy to surrender. 302 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

In conclusion, we can affirm that, the existence of the space-time- combat correlation has developed a lot in the last decades, being a constancy of the three factors sum:the increasing of the the battle space; the reduction of the operation time; the development of the actions tactics and procedures, depending on the development of the military techinique and armament.

References [1]Dr. Nicolae Dolghin, Anul 2005- intre rutina si debuturi, in anul 2005: Evenimente, Procese, Semnificatii, UNAp Publishing House, Bucharest, 2006 [2]Javier Solana, Une Europe sure dans un monde meilleur, http://ue.eu.int/pressdata/fr/reports/76256.pdf [3]I.Barbulescu, L.Habian, „Lege, principiu, norma a luptei armate- corelatii”, Ager Publishing House,Tg. Jiu, 2003, page 108 [4]http://www.e-referate.ro/referate/Razboiul_din_Irak2005-03-18.html [5]http://top-secret.ablog.ro/2008-04-22/inamicul-invizibil-9-11- deconspirat.html [6]http://www.9am.ro/stiri-revista-presei/2006-08-21/luptand-cu -vorbele-si-cu- falsele-promisiuni.html [7]Mihai Neag,”Securitatea zonelor locuite” ,Land Forces Academy Publishing House, Sibiu, 2007, p.153 [8]Lucian Stancila, Ioan Grecu, Lupta armata moderna, AISM Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002,p.9

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THE ETHNOCENTRICITY (ETHNOCENTRISM) - FACTOR OF INTERNATIONAL THREAT

Solescu Daniel

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract An important number of countries, appreciated, in general, as stable are confronting in present situations of instability generated by internal conflicts, religious, ethnical or of precarious social-economical nature and with an increasing number of separatism movements wich are trying to crumble them in ethnical or religious enclaves. Ethnical divergences reprezent, in our days, the threat number one to the peace and security. The threats wich generate ethnical conflicts have a complex and divers character, are impredictibles and multidirectionals, fact that leads to an increased difficulty in the adoption and application of conflict preventing measures.

The transformations that occured in the interantioanl environement of security in the first decade of XXI century made all the attention of international community to focus towards the clarification of a vision wich must contribute to the consolidation of international peace and security. This fact will make possible the decreasing of conflictual states of any nature, including, the reduction,up to elimination, where it is possible, of causes wich generates them. This vision pressupose, in essence, the identification at global scale of vulnerabilities, possible riscs and threats wich could lead to the apparition of new sources for instability or the agravation of the one’s wich already exist. Un important element is the addition to the identifying process of this sources, of analises wich could allow the creation of necessary instruments for putting in practice of this vision,

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in a way so a solid stability state, at different levels (global, regional or national), to be obtained and to prevent the apparition of new sources. It’s assumed that this process will grow, as well as in it’s spatial dimension, as in it’s temporal dimension, involving resources, multiple strategies and diversified actions, in concordance with the nature of major sources of instability. Due to an economical environement unfavourable and the proliferation of international and transfrontieres criminality, most common, among the essential factors of conlicts are: the existence of mutual teritorial demands, as well as from the states/nation, as from some non-statal actors; specific local balances of forces and the possibility to put pressure from the exterior on the parts; the leader’s purposes and the ambitions; the acces of statal and non-statal actors at military equipment. [1] Ethnical divergences reprezent, in our days, the threat number one to the peace and security. The objective of one of them is the separation of respective states and the foundation of selfgovermented territories or even the foundation of new states. So, the ethnies are confrountig, first, with the national states and, from this point of , this types of conflicts are lop-sided. It seems though that the advantages aren’t on the national states side, but on the ethnie’s side. And this is due to the fact that this kind of tendency favourises, in a way, the process of gloabalization, and because the problem of separatism is not acut in the area of world’s powers and in the supertechnologised states, with a high level of life, but in the poor countries, wich’s governments are considered to be refrectory to the new international order. The consolidation of the state’s power becomes more and more difficult in areas with strong ethnical convulsions, because the erosion of the sovereignty concept and challenges comming from the nationalist forces, and because of the capacity of diferent nationalist forces to acquire armaments. The threats wich generate ethnical conflicts have a complex and divers character, are impredictibles and multidirectionals, fact that leads to an increased difficulty in the adoption and application of conflict preventing measures.

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The conflict occures when a ethnie „ demands the right to a collective status, to personal(private) territory, to a selfgovernment system”, prblems considered by the state in wich the respectiv group exists as beeing a threat to it’s sovereignty and integrity. The values wich support the existence of ethnical groups are reffering to culture, traditions and language, way of life and a certain common psychology. All this constitute the foundation for defining the identity of any ethnical group. This kind of values can not be eliminated or distroied. Those values represent an objectiv reality, defining each ethnical group abd it’s characterictic elements. It is very important to analyze the systems of values on wich the ethnical groups are based because in this way the rouths and the evolution of a group can be known. Taking in consideration the multitude of ethnical conflicts from all over the world, especially in areas where different cultures and civilzations interfer, the ethno-cultural analysis becomes compulsory. Stipulates in ONU Charte and invoked by compact, solid ethnical groups, the right to self-determination has as precedent the „nationalist” period of european continent. Europe is put in the situation to admit for a relative large comunity, wich occupies for a long time (at least a century) a clearly delimited territory and wich homogeneous from the perspective of main identifying atributes (ethnie, language, religion, etc.), it’s right to self-determination. Right wich coul lead up to the proclamation of state independece. Kosovo has fulfiled all this criterias. But this criterias are also fulfiled by other communities in Europe among wich: scottish, corsicans, gales wich are only the most known exemples of communities wich are affirming-more or less loud- their will for self- determination. Beyond UE borders the situation is even more complicated. The Kurds, palesteniens, people from Kashmir, from Sri Lank and many other people are engaged in conflicts wich have as purpose the foundation of national states. The territory of ex Soviet Union is also, from the affirmation of self-determination point of view, a real land mine. The ethnical phenomenons are exclusivly a result of globalization: they have multiple hystorical, cultural and especially economical connotations. It can be easily observed that where social 306 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

and economical problems don’t exist, ethnical conflict don’t exist either, without saying that without those there are no other means and way to fuel ethnical conflicts. Some time ago, ethnical threats where usually beeing treated in their cuultural dimension, along with those of identity and religious nature. Along with the changes that occured on the global stage at the begining of the millenium, the factors of political decision and the scientific community where determined to focus with more attentions over this elements, separatly and toghether. [2] Interests of ethnical nature are based on the system of values, but are not a direct result al those.those interests are a product of necesity to live in geographic area where the ethnical groups accept, or in other cases denie or defy the states in wich they have to live. The area of manifestation of ethnical confrontations comprises the whole world. From the geographical point of view, the ethnies can be found in four situations: 1) the area understood as space of origin does not correspond totaly with the actual space of spreading; 2) the space of origin does not correspond to the space of spreading, but the ethnie know it’s ethnogenesis space; 3) the ethnie does not have a certain territory to disperse; 4) the ethnie is nomadic; To an ethnical conflict participate at least two differnet ethnies, wich dispute between themselves means or purposes, wich can be attained only by one ethnie. Ethnical crisis occure when the integrity, base values, the internal or external envirnement are threaten. Ethnical crisis can be internal or international (regional, global). [3] The mian forms of manifestation of ethnical divergences are:Nonviolent extremism, intolerance, self-isolation, refuse of dialogue with the others ethnies or the majoritie ethnie, hostility, ethnical terrorism, direct violence, diversion. Although the militant extremist movements are not the only non- statal actor wich’s activities contribuite to the propagation and exaggeration of violence, experts in international security think that they have the tendency to stimulate certain kinds of destabilizing international activities, [4] among wich the iredentism and secessionism. 307 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The iredentism represents the tendency of some ethnical or religious groups to claim territories in a close area, wich in some case has been lost in favour of another state who own’s it in present. To achieve such objectives many times military force is beeing used. The secessionism represents the tendecy of an ethnical or religious minority to separate from an international admitted state. This is also accomplish through violence, by military fights. The ethnie’s problems must be solved in the spirit of international law and of right to identity. Most part of the 191 world’s states are homeogeneous from the ethnical point of view. The paradox is that this „almost perfect” homogenity generates lap-sided conflicts wich may degenerate in violent military actions. The phenomenen of heterogenity is in a continuous growing due to migrations and increased birth rate among the immigrants in the adoptive countries. In all this situations, will exists conflicts, of a lower or higher intensity, between ethnies because of different reasons. Potential sources of ethnical conflict can be found especially in area of confluence between cultures and large civilazational unities. 1. Europe: - in Poland, the bielorussian minority from Bialystok’s surroundings and the germans from Silezia could claim those areas; - the poles from Ucraine and ucranians from Poland could start altercation at the border; the poles from Moravia and the ucranians from the eastern are evaluated as potential sources of conflict; - the corsicans, and the northen irish; - the kurd people from the european space who supports the PKK movement in Turkie, Iraq an Iran; - FRI of ; - Moldavia, but also more developed countries: France, Italie, Spain; 2. In Balcans – the ex-yugoslavian space; Bosnia and Herţegovina, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, , Ciprus, Greece, Bulgaria; The economical interest is one of the main factors wich stand at the base of ethnical divergences. The ethnical crisis passes rapidly 308 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

from the field of ethnic in the field of politics. Actually, an ethnical conflict is a political conflict with ethnical actors. Conflicts between communities are aften called „ethnical wars”- wars in wich the belligerentes are definening themselves, partially through cultural differences as language or religion. [5] An ethnical group implies a group name wich shares historical memories and common symbols. The growth of transnatioanl and interstatal character of relationships between states has the same effect on the ethnies from the respective states to, wich are feeling threaten and competed in fundamental values, resources, social status or even identity. The great majority of ethnical wars take place there where the well-known mechanism for mediating conflicts have failled. The incapacity of governments to mediate conflicts intervenes frequently following the breakdown of empires, like european colonial empires from Africa or the soviet empire from Caucaz and Central Asia. This kind of „failed states”, in wich the governmental authority is like non- existent either because they never had a strong government or because the governments have been undermined due to certain economical conditions, lack og legitimicy or outside intervention. In the new international order, established after ending the Cold War, specialist [6] suggested that fulfilling of six objectives is necessary: - to guarantee to all states protection against an external aggression; - supplying all states with means to protect the rights of their minorities and ethnical groups; - to create a mechanism for solving regional conflicts without the unilateral action of world’s greater powers; - the pledge of world’s greater powers to not sustain military conflicts between other nations or between political movements from the same nation; - increasing the flow of technical and financial assistance towards the countries wich are in progress, with the purpose of accelerating the process of economical and social transition.

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- Preserving the global environement as a base for sustained development of all countries. Accomplishing this purposes depends on the activity of international organizations for security. At the base of all actions is ONU Charte, wich has as fundamental purpose maintaining the international peace and security.ONU Charte considers as main way to solve any kind of divergences the dialogue, to be more specific, the political dialogue. In his essence, the political dialogue is an intrument of politics, namely a way through wich the interests, differences, opinions, areas of confluence are revealed and, on this base, the best solutions are searched and found. In relationships between states and within them, within their structures, the dialogue is considered to be the most useful, easy, at hand and efficient for solving any kind of problems. During their evolution, human communities had as priorities keeping their identity, soverignty, independency and territorial integrity. States, as main frame of political organization, had the task to build national security politics with the purpose of defending and promoting their interests. A growing concern is the fact that an important number of countries, appreciated, overall, as stable are confrounting inpresent with states and situations of instability generated by internal conflicts, religious, ethnical, or of a precarious social-economical nature and with an increasing number of separatist movements wich are trying to crumble them in ethnical or religious enclaves. Some of this conflicts are old, having as ruths centuries long disputes, but others are new, as consequnce of demographic-ethnical or religious changes and, why not, of integration/disintegration or galbalization politics. Societies include, necessarly, a multitude of culturea or subcultures, fundamented on different ethnical, religious, cultural and ideological components, from where the probability for new disantions to appear. Romania is situated at the eastern border of European Union and NATO, with neighbours where the present frustrations and the wounds of the past can generate conflicts and where the ethnical,

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religious, culturale and ideological differences are increased by the accute need for acces to resources. In Romania, the ethnical groups are: germans, hungarians, gipsy, ucranians, russians, bulgarians, jews, serbians, croatians, polish, turkish, tartars, but the main ethnical riscs are comming from the gipsies and hungarians. The secession of the hungarian minority could endanger the existence of Romania as a sovereign and indivisible state and could lead to a breakdown from the ideea of a nations common house to the devastating concept of tribalization. The states from West, unlike Romania, do not have this kind of problems and that is why they could support without holdings the principle of self-determination of peoples from Eastern Europe.

Bibliography 1. Dr. Teodor FRUNZETI, Dinamici globale şi actori non-statali, în Lumea 2007: enciclopedie politică şi militară; studii strategice şi de securitate, Editura Centrului Tehnic-Editorial al Armatei, Bucureşti, 2007, p.33. 2. General dr. Mircea MURESAN, General de brigadă (r.) dr. Gheorghe VĂDUVA (coordonator), Criza, Conflictul, Războiul, vol. I, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare “Carol I”, Bucureşti, 2007, p. 288. 3. Dr. Teodor FRUNZETI, dr. Alexandra SARCINSCHI, Vulnerabilităţi, ameninţări şi riscuri în sistemul global, în Lumea 2007: enciclopedie politică şi militară; studii strategice şi de securitate, Editura Centrului Tehnic-Editorial al Armatei, Bucureşti, 2007 p. 60. 4. Ibidem p. 61. 5. Joseph S. NYE, Jr., Descrierea Conflictelor Internaţionale, Editura ANTET XX PRESS, Filipeştii de Târg, Prahova, p. 143. 6. Alexandra Sarcinschi, Mihai Dinu, Crize şi instabilităţi în Europa, Universitatea Naţională de Apărare, Centrul de Studii Strategice de Apărare şi Securitate, Bucureşti, 2006, p. 10.

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TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCE OF ARMOURED VEHICLES FROM MODERN ARMIES

Coman Marian

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The most heavily armored fighting vehicles (AFV) nowadays are the main battle tanks (MBT), which are the spearhead of the ground forces, and are designed to withstand anti-tank missiles and NBC threats. The latest battle tanks show a growing trend for computerization and automation of components. Being able to resist the most severe stresses of combat of high intensity and to attack the most hardened targets, the tank is a powerful tool able to assume all the missions reserved for the units of the armored forces whatever the environment, the type and the form of engagement (traditional, chemical or nuclear, high average or low intensity).

Beside infantry, the armor and mechanized forces are still the largest component of the ground forces which can conduct strategic operations involving the combined forces in a theater. Armor and mechanized forces are the norm throughout the industrialized world and they have sophisticated weaponry such as smooth bore guns which can deliver artillery high-precision munitions, multiple rocket launchers, and night vision sights. Joint operations are very common in the more developed states with modern armies. These states have the logistics and command structures necessary to conduct military operations. The military forces can choose quality over quantity, and they normally have a complex structure, with more specialized units operating highly sophisticated equipment. However, such a military force is exceedingly expensive to equip, train, and maintain.

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This is all the more important in view of the number and variety of armored vehicles being developed and produced, including new battle tanks, which are being developed in the Far East by at least three different countries. South Korea has already produced about 1,000 K-l tanks, designed by Chrysler Defense (now General Dynamics Land Systems), soon after General Dynamics Land Systems designed the Ml Abrams. The K1A1 was accepted into Korean service on October 13, 2001 after the first one was produced on April 3, 1996. The K1 is similar to its predecessor, with the exception of a larger 120 mm main gun with vastly improved penetration power. In consequence, the K-I resembles the Ml in some respects, but was designed to a Korean specification, which resulted in it being powered by a diesel engine instead of a gas turbine and equipped with a hybrid hydro-pneumatic suspension. South Korea is now developing a new tank, the XK-2, which will have a three-man crew and an autoloader for its 120mm gun, and it is to be powered by a 1,500-horsepower German-developed MT-883 diesel engine. Japan is also developing a new tank. The current Japanese Type 90 is already an advanced tank with an autoloader, and it is equipped with the same Rheinmetall 120-mm as the German . Innovative technology includes a laser and thermal-guided gun. The third country in the Far East to develop a new tank is China. This tank is a further development of the Type 98, which appears to be a mere clone of the Russian T-72 to the casual observer, but is actually a larger and much more advanced tank with general characteristics that resemble recent western tanks. Russia is developing a new tank and has produced a number of T- 90 tanks, which are a further development of the T-72 with modern fire control systems and powerful 840-horsepower diesel engines. India started to develop an indigenous tank, the . It's design has some external similarity to the "Leopard 2" . Additional armament is similar to all Russian made main battle tanks: the 7.62-mm coaxial machine gun, and 12.7-mm anti-aircraft machine gun, placed on the roof. Grenade launcher blocks are mounted from the both sides of the turret.

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To counter India's tanks, Pakistan is producing the Al Khalid, which was developed in collaboration with China and is very similar to China's tanks. It is operated by a crew of three, and armed with 125mm smoothbore gun with mechanical autoloader, capable of firing anti-tank missiles, and it has a modern fire-control. Like that of the Chinese Type 98, its general configuration follows that of Russia's T- 72 and T-90. Along with South Korea, Japan, China, Russia, and Pakistan, Iran is producing a new tank, called the , which has much the same configuration as the Russian T-72 and is armed with a 125mm gun. Israel is also producing a new tank, the Merkava 4, which is even better armored than the earlier versions. 1,500-horsepower diesel engine makes it more mobile. The Mk-4 is equipped with a 120 mm gun it has a modern fire control and sighting system. Merkava Mk-4 is believed to be protected by a new type of hybrid armor, which can be conformed from modular elements, to match specific threats. As for the United States and Europe, no new tanks are being developed. The Main Battle Tank is made by General Dynamics Land Systems Division of USA. The first M1 tank was produced in 1978, the first M1A1 in 1985 and the first M1A2 in 1986. Infantry Fighting Vehicles Armored combat vehicles have armored protection and cross- country capability. Armored combat vehicles include armored personnel carriers (APCs), armored infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) and heavy armament combat vehicles. APCs are armored combat vehicles which are designed to transport the infantry as close to their military objective as possible where they can then dismount and fight on foot. The British Army's Warrior is a good example of such a vehicle. APCs could be armed with a weapon of less then 20 millimeters caliber. IFVs are armored combat vehicles which are designed and equipped primarily to transport a combat infantry squad, and which are armed with an integral or organic cannon of at least 20 millimeters caliber and sometimes an antitank missile launcher. On the other hand, the IVFs are designed to play an offensive role on the battlefield with the infantry firing from within the vehicles under armored protection.

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A good example of a modern IFV is the American Army's Bradley. The US Army has installed Explosive Reactive Armor (ERA) on many of its Bradley IFVs. ERA offers greater protection for those inside than the conventional "passive" armor fitted to most APCs and IVFs. Armored infantry fighting vehicles serve as the principal weapon system of mechanized infantry or motorized infantry units of ground forces. In contrast to tanks, new tracked armored vehicles are being developed and produced in Europe. This applies in particular to infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs), the most notable being the Swedish Combat Vehicle 9040, which has a high degree of mobility in difficult terrain. This vehicle is intended to provide even short range air defense supporting mechanized military units. The main task of CV9040 is to safely transport infantrymen and to be able to engage other combat vehicles and ground targets. This IFV has now been procured by five other European armies. However, the version has a 40mm Bofors gun and the export versions have a 30 or 35 mm Bushmaster cannon; although the Bofors gun model has recently been adopted for South Korea's new IFV. Another IFV in production in Europe is ASCOD (Austrian Spanish Cooperation Development) which is a collaborative Austro- Spanish program. This IFV is armed with a 30mm Mauser cannon, known in Austria as the Ulan and in Spain as the Pizarro. The first prototype of the ASCOD IFV was ready and tested by 1992 and production was possible only four years later. The ASCOD family includes a 105 mm gun Light Tank LT 105, a SAM launcher, an AT missile launcher, mortar carrier, Command & Control vehicle, ambulance. The most significant IFV is the German Puma. The Puma vehicles will replace the Rheinmetall Landsysteme Marder 1 infantry fighting vehicles which entered service in 1971 with the German Army. This is the most heavily armored IFV to be built so far and consequently weighs as much as 89,500 pounds; although its weight can be reduced for air transport to 69,000 pounds by dismounting some of its modular armor. The vehicle is operated by a crew of three (commander, gunner and driver) and carries up to eight equipped troops in the rear troop compartment. The only heavier infantry vehicle in use at present is the 315 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Israeli Achzarit, which weighs 97,000 pounds, but it is an armored in- fantry carrier, armed only with machine guns for self-defense. Wheeled Armored Carriers Wheeled APCs tend to be easier and cheaper to operate and maintain and have greater strategic mobility than their tracked counterparts. However, tracked APCs and IFVs tend to have better levels of armor protection and superior cross-country mobility. This means they have greater chances of survival on the battlefield. The most successful of these carriers is the Piranha, developed in Switzerland by Mowag, a small independent company, until few years ago when it was bought out by General Dynamics Land Systems. A total of about 8,000 Piranhas and their derivatives have now been produced, mostly under license in Canada, and they have been used as the basis for the U.S. Stryker. The Stryker is a family of eight-wheeled all-wheel-drive armored combat vehicles produced by General Dynamics Combat Systems, and is the U.S. Other 8x8 wheeled armored carriers recently developed in Europe include the armored modular vehicle (AMV), produced in Finland and already adopted by the Polish and Finnish armies. Future endowment programs The use of composite and titanium-based materials will make future combat vehicles lighter, more easily deployed and versatile. Future vehicle chassis and turrets will be fabricated to integrate advanced designs using a combination of lightweight structures and modular armor packages. The major players in ground vehicle systems integration and design are the U.K., France, Germany, Israel, Japan, and Russia, all of whom have a long history of developing and manufacturing military armored systems including main battle tanks. Switzerland also has a capability in armored vehicles. The British Army has not accepted the idea that future armies should only use wheeled armored vehicles. It has decided that its FRES (future rapid effect system) should consist of tracked, as well as wheeled, armored vehicles. FRES consists in delivering a fleet of wheeled and tracked armored vehicles to the British Army that is rapidly deployable, capable of operating across the spectrum of

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operations. FRES is in some respects the British equivalent of the United States' future combat system (FCS). The British army plans to modernize tanks by replacing, at last, their 120mm rifled guns with smooth-bore guns. They also plan to modernize its Warrior IFVs by replacing the 30mm cannon with a more powerful 40mm cannon. The French army intends to retain a heavy armored force, equipped with its current Leclerc tanks, but plans to complement its force in the 2015 to 2025 time-frame with medium multirole armored vehicles (EBM), weighing between 44,000 and 55,000 pounds, and in all probability, wheeled. The heavy force of Swedish army is based on Leopard 2 tanks and CV9040 IFVs. These vehicles will be complemented by a modular armored tactical system, or Splitterskyddad Enhets-plattform (SEP), incorporating an interesting family of tracked and wheeled armored vehicles of about 38,500 pounds, which are to interchange many common components. Using composite materials or titanium as the primary structure in a combat vehicle is new and there are significant technical challenges. Tests related to composite materials include durability in time and could assure survivability on the battlefield. Current problems obviously deserve priority attention; however, there remains a need to keep an eye on what is happening to armor worldwide.

References http://www.military-sf.com/tanks.htm http://www.army-technology.com/projects/abrams/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFV http://www.usatoday.com/ Tanks adapted for urban fights they once avoided http://www.army-technology.com/projects/merkava4/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K2_Black_Panther http://www.army-technology.com/projects/t90/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCOD_AFV http://www.baesystems.com/FRES/ http://www.generaldynamics.uk.com/solutions/fres.html http://www.haaland.info/sweden/ifv/index.html Armor magazine, January-February 2007, Fort Knox

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RISK MANAGEMENT FOR COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Braboveanu Mioara, Ciortoloman Bogdan

National Registry Office for Classified Information of Bucharest

Abstract All communication and information system (either handling classified or unclassified information) must be submitted to a Risk management process. The risk management process is an ongoing process during the life cycle of a communication and information system (CIS). It comprises mainly two stages: risk assessment stage and risk mitigation stage. The purpose of risk management process is to identify the threats and vulnerabilities which are specific to a particular CIS based upon the results of the risk analysis and the goals are to select and implement countermeasures that will reduce or eliminate the number of threats or vulnerabilities available for exploitation, design a countermeasure strategy that will deter or prevent attacks (Internal and External) and achieve an acceptable level of risk at an acceptable cost. “In GOD we trust, all other we monitor ………”

Security risk assessment is the process of identifying security risks, i.e. the threats and vulnerabilities, of a CIS, determining their magnitude, and identifying areas needing safeguards or countermeasures. Security risk assessment serves to identify the security risks that exist, identify the current security posture of the CIS in respect to storing, processing or transmitting information, and then assemble the information necessary for the selection of effective security countermeasures. Security risk assessment contributes to the decision on which security measures shall be required, and how the apportionment between technical and alternative security measures can be achieved,

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and gives an unbiased assessment of the residual risk. A benefit arising out of security risk assessment is the increased security awareness which will be visible at all organisation levels, from top- level management to operations and ancillary staffs. Security risk assessment is not a task which is accomplished once for all time. It needs to be performed periodically, in accordance with the requirements of the agreed security accreditation strategy, in order to keep up to date with changes to the threats and vulnerabilities; and to the mission, its information, facilities and equipment. The major resources required for security risk assessment are time, skilled manpower, and, preferably, an automated security risk assessment tool using a sound methodology. For this reason, the first security risk assessment will be the most resource consuming. Subsequent updates to a security risk assessment can be based on previous baselines of information, with a resultant decrease in the time and resources required. The time allowed to accomplish the security risk assessment should be commensurate with its objectives. A complex CIS with significant volumes of information, and large numbers of users, will require more resources than a smaller stand-alone information system with limited amounts of information and a small number of users. The success of a security risk assessment depends, largely, on the role of top-level management in the process. There must be management agreement to the purpose and scope of the security risk assessment, with that support being expressed to all levels of the organisation and management review and endorsement of the results of the security risk assessment. Security risk management addresses the options for managing the risk, including elimination, limitation and acceptance. Security risk management involves planning, organising, directing and controlling resources to ensure that the risk remains within acceptable bounds, at optimal cost. It is also a collaborative process where representatives of various interest groups develop a shared understanding of requirements and options. Increased awareness will strengthen security and make it more compatible with user needs. Risk management is the process that allows IT managers to balance the operational and economic costs of protective measures 319 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

and achieve gains in mission capability by protecting the IT systems and data that support their organization’s missions. This process is not unique to the IT environment; indeed it pervades decision-making in all areas of our daily lives. Take the case of home security, for example. Many people decide to have home security systems installed and pay a monthly fee to a service provider to have these systems monitored for the better protection of their property. Presumably, the homeowners have weighed the cost of system installation and monitoring against the value of their household goods and their family’s safety, a fundamental mission need. The head of an organizational unit must ensure that the organization has the capabilities needed to accomplish its mission. These mission owners must determine the security capabilities that their IT systems must have to provide the desired level of mission support in the face of real-world threats. Most organizations have tight budgets for IT security; therefore, IT security spending must be reviewed as thoroughly as other management decisions. A well- structured risk management methodology, when used effectively, can help management identify appropriate controls for providing the mission-essential security capabilities. Security risk management for CIS presents some particular difficulties arising from the dynamic nature of risk factors and the rapid evolution of the technology. Failure to consider security risk factors in an adequate and timely manner may result in ineffective and unnecessarily costly security measures. Therefore, security risk management needs to be considered as an integral part of the overall system life cycle process. 1. The security risk assessment process is a data collection and assessment exercise that addresses two basic questions: (a) what is the value of the subject of the security risk assessment; and (b) what is the probability of the impact or consequence if the threats do in fact materialise (i.e., the level of risk). Risk assessment is the first process in the risk management methodology. Organizations use risk assessment to determine the extent of the potential threat and the risk associated with an IT system throughout its life cycle. The output of this process helps to identify 320 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

appropriate controls for reducing or eliminating risk during the risk mitigation process. Risk is a function of the likelihood of a given threat-sources exercising a particular potential vulnerability, and the resulting impact of that adverse event on the organization. To determine the likelihood of a future adverse event, threats to an IT system must be analyzed in conjunction with the potential vulnerabilities and the controls in place for the IT system. Impact refers to the magnitude of harm that could be caused by a threats exercise of a vulnerability. The level of impact is governed by the potential mission impacts and in turn produces a relative value for the IT assets and resources affected (e.g., the criticality and sensitivity of the IT system components and data). The risk assessment methodology encompasses nine primary steps, as follows:

Step 1. System Characterization In assessing risks for an IT system, the first step is to define the scope of the effort. In this step, the boundaries of the IT system are identified, along with the resources and the information that constitute the system. Characterizing an IT system establishes the scope of the risk assessment effort, delineates the operational authorization (or accreditation) boundaries, and provides information (e.g., hardware, software, system connectivity, and responsible division or support personnel) essential to defining the risk.

Step 2. Threat Identification A threat is the potential for a particular threat-source to successfully exercise a particular vulnerability. A vulnerability is a weakness that can be accidentally triggered or intentionally exploited. A threat-source does not present a risk when there is no vulnerability that can be exercised. In determining the likelihood of a threat, one must consider threat-sources, potential vulnerabilities, and existing controls.

Step 3. Vulnerability Identification The analysis of the threat to an IT system must include an analysis of the vulnerabilities associated with the system environment. The goal of this step is to develop a list of system vulnerabilities

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(flaws or weaknesses) that could be exploited by the potential threat- sources.

Step 4. Control Analysis The goal of this step is to analyze the controls that have been implemented, or are going to be implemented, by the organization to minimize or eliminate the likelihood (or probability) of a threat exercising a system vulnerability.

Step 5. Likelihood Determination To derive an overall likelihood rating that indicates the probability that a potential vulnerability may be exercised within the construct of the associated threat environment, the following governing factors must be considered: Threat-source motivation and capability, Nature of the vulnerability and Existence and effectiveness of current controls.

Step 6. Impact Analysis The next major step in measuring level of risk is to determine the adverse impact resulting from a successful threat exercise of a vulnerability.

Step 7. Risk Determination The purpose of this step is to assess the level of risk to the IT system. The determination of risk for a particular threat/vulnerability pair can be expressed as a function of: - The likelihood of a given threat-source’s attempting to exercise a given vulnerability - The magnitude of the impact should a threat-source successfully exercise the vulnerability - The adequacy of planned or existing security controls for reducing or eliminating risk.

Step 8. Control Recommendations During this step of the process, controls that could mitigate or eliminate the identified risks, as appropriate to the organization’s operations, are provided. The goal of the recommended controls is to reduce the level of risk to the IT system and its data to an acceptable level. 322 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Step 9. Results Documentation Once the risk assessment has been completed (threat-sources and vulnerabilities identified, risks assessed, and recommended controls provided), the results should be documented in an official report or briefing.

A risk assessment report is a management report that helps senior management, the mission owners, make decisions on policy, procedural, budget, and system operational and management changes. Unlike an audit or investigation report, which looks for wrongdoing, a risk assessment report should not be presented in an accusatory manner but as a systematic and analytical approach to assessing risk so that senior management will understand the risks and allocate resources to reduce and correct potential losses. For this reason, some people prefer to address the threat/vulnerability pairs as observations instead of findings in the risk assessment report.

2. Risk mitigation, the second process of risk management, involves prioritizing, evaluating, and implementing the appropriate risk-reducing controls recommended from the risk assessment process. Because the elimination of all risk is usually impractical or close to impossible, it is the responsibility of senior management and functional and business managers to use the lowest-cost approach and implement the most appropriate controls to decrease mission risk to an acceptable level, with minimal adverse impact on the organization’s resources and mission. Risk mitigation is a systematic methodology used by senior management to reduce mission risk. Risk mitigation can be achieved through any of the following risk mitigation options: Risk Assumption. To accept the potential risk and continue operating the IT system or to implement controls to lower the risk to an acceptable level; Risk Avoidance. To avoid the risk by eliminating the risk cause and/or consequence (e.g., forgo certain functions of the system or shut down the system when risks are identified);

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Risk Limitation. To limit the risk by implementing controls that minimize the adverse impact of a threat’s exercising a vulnerability (e.g., use of supporting, preventive, detective controls); Risk Planning. To manage risk by developing a risk mitigation plan that prioritizes, implements, and maintains controls; Research and Acknowledgment. To lower the risk of loss by acknowledging the vulnerability or flaw and researching controls to correct the vulnerability; Risk Transference. To transfer the risk by using other options to compensate for the loss, such as purchasing insurance. The goals and mission of an organization should be considered in selecting any of these risk mitigation options. It may not be practical to address all identified risks, so priority should be given to the threat and vulnerability pairs that have the potential to cause significant mission impact or harm. Also, in safeguarding an organization’s mission and its IT systems, because of each organization’s unique environment and objectives, the option used to mitigate the risk and the methods used to implement controls may vary. The “best of breed” approach is to use appropriate technologies from among the various vendor security products, along with the appropriate risk mitigation option and nontechnical, administrative measures. Therefore the security risk assessment and risk management process should be undertaken jointly by the CIS planning and implementation authority(s), CIS operating authority(s) and the Security Accreditation Authority. The security risk assessment and risk management process should follow a structured approach (either carried out manually or using an automated tool), and should include the following stages: (a) identification of the scope and objective of the security risk assessment; (b) determination of the physical and information assets which contribute to the fulfilment of the mission; (c) determination of the value of the physical assets; (d) determination of the value of the information assets against the following impacts : disclosure, modification, unavailability and destruction;

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(e) identification of the threats and vulnerabilities to the risk environment, and the level of those threats and vulnerabilities; (f) identification of existing countermeasures; (g) determination of the necessary countermeasures and a comparison with existing measures; identifying those countermeasures which are already installed, and identifying those countermeasures which are recommended; (h) review of the risks and the recommended countermeasures, taking into account the following options : • risk elimination – the objective consisting in the total elimination of the real or potential vulnerabilities, by implementing the countermeasures in full; • physical and information asset loss prevention – the objective consisting in the implementation of the countermeasures to prevent the loss as far as possible, knowing that some risks cannot be eliminated due to technological or operational reasons; • physical and information asset loss limitation – the objective consisting in the implementation of the countermeasures to the extent that the loss is limited to an acceptable level; or • acceptance of the risk of physical and information asset loss – where a decision may be taken to accept the risk and the consequences, for example, when the cost / impact of the loss is not significant, or the probability of loss is judged to be sufficiently small, or the cost of the countermeasures are much higher than, or not in balance with, the costs / impacts of the assessed losses; and (i) development of a Security Risk Management Report, including a description of the countermeasures to be implemented, and a description of the residual risk.

References 1. Guidelines for security risk assessment and risk management of secure systems – ISP 205, version 0.3, June 2003, Council of the European Union.

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2. Guidelines for security risk assessment and risk management of communication and information systems, AC/35-D/1017 – Rev2. 3. NIST Special Publication 800-30, Risk Management Guide for Information Technology Systems, US Department of Commerce, octombrie 2001. 4. NIST Special Publication 800-30 Rev.A, Risk Management Guide for Information Technology Systems, US Department of Commerce, ianuarie 2004. 5. Information Security Guideline for NSW Government – Part 1 Information Security Risk Management, NSW Department of Commerce, iunie 2003; 6. Information Security Guideline for NSW Government - Part 2 Examples of Threats and Vulnerabilities, iunie 2003. 7. Information Security Guideline for NSW Government – Part 3 Information Security Baseline Controls, iunie 2003.

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A NEW MODEL OF TRANSPORT – SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

Brânză Graţiela

Maritime University of Constanţa

Abstract Transport is key to our economies and our lifestyles, but it causes too many accidents, too much congestion, too much noise and too much environmental damage, both through climate change and local pollution. Growth in transport use is likely to make these problems worse. As society bears the costs, there is little incentive for transport users to change their behaviour and reduce the negative impacts they cause. All Member State of the European Union have to find solutions and to work together for a sustainable (green) transport. This paper presents the work of European Commission on this problem.

Keywords: transport, sustainable, EU, mobility, cost

1. Introduction European Commission considers that „mobility is key to our quality of life and is vital for the EU’s competitiveness. It is the backbone of the economy making the links between the different stages of production chains and allowing service industries to reach their clients, as well as being a significant employer in its own right”[1]. Between 1995 and 2005, goods and passenger transport in the EU grew by 31.3% and 17.7% respectively and this growth is predicted to continue. But mobility implies a series of negative impacts on society: transport emissions affect our health, our local environmental and contribute to climate change, noise and traffic jams are an everyday

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annoyance for many citizens and transport accidents kill many people each year. “Sustainable mobility” represents a major preocupation of the EU, which considers necessary the infrastructure investments and new technologies in order to achieve this aim. To realise a sustainable mobility, transport users can choose cleaner modes of transport (walking, cycling), that require small prices and respect the environment. These means of transport represent a benefit for the society, as the taxes, charges are small and the negative effects of usual transport dissapear. To make transport greener and more sustainable, the Commission has two types of initiatives. The first type is to “get the prices right” through internalising the external costs of transport. The second type is a set of complementary measures comprising regulatory instruments, infrastructure measures and research and development measures. These measures proposed by EU in the area of sustainable transport must complete the actions taken by each member state. „Both the European Parliament and European Council have recently stressed the importance of a sustainable transport policy, particularly in the context of combating climate change. Transport will clearly have to contribute to the ambitious goals that the European Council set itself in 2007: reducing greenhouse gases by 20% (30% in the framework of an international agreement), increasing the use of renewable energy sources to 20% and reducing energy consumption by 20%, all by 2020” [1].

2. Internalising the external costs of transport In the Commission Communication is presented a strategy that sets out how external costs can be internalised in all modes of transport. It meets the requirement of the directive on heavy goods vehicles charging [3]. „The strategy takes into account that for some impacts - such as noise and congestion - the costs that transport users impose on society vary in space, time and depending on the mode in question, while for others, such as greenhouse gas emissions, this is not the case” [1].

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Efforts to internalise the external costs of transport were an essential part of the 2001 Transport White Paper and its 2006 Mid- Term Review. The EU has already started to internalise these external costs through the aforementioned rules on motor fuel taxation, as well as with the Commission's proposals to include the aviation sector in the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS) and to incorporate a CO2 component in registration and annual circulation taxes for cars. Private transport is not covered because of subsidiarity, but the Commission encourages Member States to implement a charging system for all road transport and not just heavy goods vehicles. The Commission thinks that this would change the behaviour of all road users and would increase positive impacts. The proposal on internalisation for heavy goods vehicles will also have a positive impact in the rail sector. This strategy announces the internalisation of all external costs for inland waterways. For maritime sector the Commission will act in 2009 if the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has not agreed concrete measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by then. Commission action may include integrating the sector into the EU’s ETS. For maritime transport, the strategy will be developed in line with the new European Integrated Maritime Policy [4].

3. Complementary measures To reduce the negative effects of transport, EU member states need to action to get the prices right and complementary measures. As complementary measures are essential, theCommission is presenting a further communication to reduce rail noise and, over the next 18 months, to take measures concerning climate change, local pollution, noise, congestion. Regarding the problem of reducing rail noise, estimates show that 10% of the EU’s population is exposed to high rail noise levels and they are one of the main factors limiting the further growth of the sector. To reduce the rail noise, the communication focuses on existing wagons and sets out measures to equip the majority of them with low- noise brakes. The strategy combines noise emissions ceilings, voluntary commitments and legislation setting financial incentives. 329 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

The Commission proposes in 2008 to harmonise the charging schemes across Europe. Quieter wagons will be charged less than noisier ones to allow payback of the necessary investment. Fitting with low noise brakes should be finished in 2015. For the remaining noisy wagons should be introduced higher charges. As it look the climate change, that is the most important challenge for the EU and for transport. The Commission will propose legislation on emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from aviation, reducing the CO2 emissions from new vans, a system for tyre labelling and revising the existing car labelling directive, by the end of 2008 in the road sector. Concerning the local pollution, The Commission will propose legislation to limit the emission of volatile organic compounds during the refuelling of passenger cars at petrol stations and to reduce NOx from aviation. These proposals should contribute to reducing local air pollution. The reducing of the sulphur content of liquid fuels has been identified as being a cost effective way to reduce air pollutant emissions. Regarding the noise, in addition to the legislative proposal on rail noise, the Commission may take further action to limit noise at EU airports by revising the existing directive on aircraft noise. In 2009, the Commission will also propose revising the directive on environmental noise. Talking about congestion, the directive on infrastructure charging for heavy goods vehicles „will be accompanied by the Commission making funding available under the Trans-European Network programme for actions on electronic toll systems, where tolling systems have been implemented together by at least two Member States” [1]. In the aviation sector the recent Single Sky Package aims to increase the capacity of European airspace three-fold while reducing air emissions per flight by up to 10%. Modern technologies settled by EU through it’s action plans will help to reduce congestion, increase safety and fuel efficiency, avoid traffic jams and allow governmental authorities to direct traffic away from areas where it would contribute significantly to local air 330 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

pollution. In addition, it is important to use the existing infrastructure more efficiently, meaning that less new infrastructure will be needed, avoiding habitat fragmentation and soil sealing.

4. Conclusion Achieving sustainable mobility requires efforts from all stakeholders and not just the Commission. The measures that accompany establish the actions needed to meet sustainable mobility. In 2009, the Commission will present a report on long-term scenarios for the development of transport policy over the next 20-40 years and it will begin internal reflections on the follow-up to the current transport White Paper, which will come to end in 2010. A new vision on transport is needed and that implies a new model of consumer behaviour. People have to be educated to think at a sustainable life, beginning with a sustainable transport.

References [1] Commission of the European Communities, COM (2008) 433 final on Greening Transport, Brussels, 2008. [2] Rapporteur: Mr Albertini, Resolution on Sustainable European Transport Policy, taking into account European energy and environment policies, march, 2008. [3] Commission of the European Communities, Directive 2006/38/EC on the charging of heavy goods vehicles for the use of certain infrastructures. [4] Commission of the European Communities, COM (2007) 575 on the sustainability (greening) of maritime transport, Brussels, 2007.

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HIGHLIGHTING THE SUPPORT OFFERED BY THE CITY OF BUCHAREST IN THE MATTER CONCERNING BREAD SUPPLIES FOR THE ARMY

Bulacu Iulia

University of Bucharest e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The premises of survival and far from all forms of nourishment existent, bread was and still is, at least for the Romanian side, the one product upon which the daily meal depends. During war, bread was the easiest product to procure, prepare and deliver. At the same time it was a nourishing element. Thus, supplying the Romanian army with it became a priority for the upper forums in this field. Due to its function as a political, economical, commercial and social centre, Bucharest was appointed to coordinate this activity and offer the troops, bread. In support of the above mentioned, the following paper provides information contained in official documents from the National Army Archives such as: addresses, official reports, notes, inquiries, etc.

Keywords: bread, army, provisioning

Bucharest, as a commercial centre, represented the main market, within the Romanian space, due to its acquisition and trading volume, for nourishing goods. Starting with the conflicts between 1913 and 1916-1917, the situation changes dramatically in the provisioning and trading market. The articles on sale were no longer of quality, and the necessary goods for a good meal could no longer be offered.

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Only few things could be found in a régime (monopoly) specific to any crisis; only bread was enough for Bucharest’s population. The latter would become vital for the troops during the conflicts, the governors making sure that the necessary quantities existed. The word bread makes us think of our daily food, because the majority of people afford it; it is the main element of everyone’s daily meal, especially for the Romanians.19th century statistics and beginning of the 20th ones, show that bread was the most sought and used one, during war as well as during peace time. Nobody seeks war but such events happen, even at the beginning of the 20th century; the Europeans were preparing a new armed conflict. The preparations included: organizing the army, equipping the soldiers, ensuring the necessary provisions for the civilians’ survival. All these were coordinated from the headquarters in Bucharest, the capital city and the main commercial knot, situated at the crossroads of both European and oriental routes. The first on the list were the backup stores, which contained both finite and non finite goods such as: cans, alcohol, tobacco, clothes and sweets as well as cereals, vegetables and wood. From the very beginning the products were divided according to troops so that provisioning would be permanent and rich at all times. The backup stores were allotted one by one to the army, which were obliged to have quantities of provisions needed: 11 days, fresh food and 4 days backup food; then the stores had to provide with food from the Regional Stores and from the respective army’s resources.1 The capital had the 3rd army under its command. In a necessity précis from the 28th of August 1916 we find out that there was a provisioning store near Obor”2 for the 12th Division; a train has been organized to carry the food from Obor to Budesti .Everything had to be perfect, starting with processing the cereals, transforming flour in a finite product, insuring transportation from manufacturer to beneficiary.3 . Trains had to leave from these stores everyday; the latter had to have the necessary means to bake bread. Those trains traveled on national

1 National Military Archives,Pitesti, file number145/1916, page 168. 2 Idem, file number74/1913, page 89. 3 Idem, file number145/1916, page 168. 333 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

soil as well as abroad, on inimical grounds.1 In order to succeed mills from Bucharest were involved in the process; they had to process the cereals, and then turn them into flour for bread. There was an official list of the mills involved; they were presented by the owners’names:”Andrei Popovici, Nicolae Zaharia, Zehebder Halbustad, State Stancevic, Ciurel Mill, Rahova Mill, and Commercial Mill”2. Following the technological line we can find the names of the bread factories: Lois Muller, ”Life” Society and the Anonymous Health Society”. The production quantities are also mentioned” 5 to 10 carts per 24 hours”3. All those involved have tried to make sure that they are up to the effort but especially to the trust granted to them by the government. That is why the institutions have tried to find out in due time the quantities they had to ensure in order to honour their obligations as providers of bread for the battlefields. The correspondence was kept through necessity precises, written précis’s notes and telegrams, once the military conflict started. An outstanding example is represented by the telegram addressed to the general minister in 1913,where providers ask the general headquarters to be cleared in the matter of the days ,the hours, the quantities and the places where the merchandise had to be delivered” Bucharest, one hundred thousand , explain…when do the troops arrive ;how many per day?”4. The answers were as clear and prompt: “we have asked for provisions for 1500 plus 16000 plus 7000 people. Please take measures for sending them.”5 Providing with food on time was not the only problem to solve, being doubled by the speculation which had emerged due to the lack of many products that had once been on the market at reasonable prices. Some of them were brought from inaccessible places, others were brought from traders who owned important amounts and wanted to sell them at higher prices. Speculation was an obstacle for insuring bread on the battlefield because the army had limited funds and high demands, so it couldn’t afford paying because the list contained other products which were

1 Idem, file number120/1916, page 67. 2 Idem, file number102/1916, page 67. 3 Idem, file number74/1913, page 172. 4 Ibidem, page173. 5 Idem, file number145/1916, page 12. 334 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

more expensive than bread. We can present a picture of the main courses served on the battle field:” meat and green goods, potatoes and veggies, salted fish, spawn with barley, rice, meat and rice, herring, meat and barley, fish and barley, beans and veggies, and daily milk for those recovering”1 ), sent from the capital city after having been collected from the local markets, or even from the country. What shocks is the fact that a loaf of bread’s price is not raised; if in 1910 a loaf of bread was 0, 31 lei, in 1913 it went up to 0, 32 and then in 1916, doubled. The meat’s price jumps from 0,76 per kilo in 1910 to 6 lei in 1916.2 That is why, officially, a written note is required for the quantities acquired and their prices.” Please answer what quantity of flour and what was the price paid for the flour bought at Rahova Mill for the subsistence troops”3 After those obstacles were removed others came along: the flour’s poor quality due to the wheat’s bad storage; the flour was grinded in poor mills and was transported at inappropriate temperatures. As soon as such a case was discovered, the superiors were alarmed so that the “criminals” (traders and small time providers) were punished accordingly. Consequently, on the 30th July 1913 an official address is formulated:” the minister has decided that captain Tanasescu is to punish by 10 days’ imprisonment each and everyone of those who have used bad flour in baking bread instead of writing a note and reporting that fact.”4 Special machineries are ordered from Cassa Staadecker in Bucharest, such as “system krupper”5, in order to be assembled and used directly on the battlefield. Orders from The Wolff House are added to these ones. Each machinery cost 5000 lei, an enormous amount in those days, which proves once more the importance of that product for the soldiers’ existence. We see that this product of vital importance for every day life is provided by institutions from Bucharest. All these activities are done with the help of stores, backup stores, mills, bread factories and even foreign firms which dealt with the necessary machineries for the

1 Idem, file number74/1913, page 357. 2 The national archives , Constanta , file number 2/1914. 3 National Military Archives, Pitesti, file number 74/1913, page 89. 4 Ibidem, page 89. 5 Idem , file number 26/1912, page 27. 335 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

technologic process that was needed for making bread and pastry at best standards.

References [1] The National Archives Of Constanta, [infra: F.P.C.], F.D.A.), file number: 2/1914. [2] The National Military Archives, Pitesti, file number: - 74/1913, - 102/1916, - 120/1916, - 145/1916.

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THE ROMANIAN ARMY’S PRESENCE IN CONSTANTA’S DAILY LIFE BEFORE THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Dominte Paul

University of Bucharest e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The Romanian Army has always been an important factor in our national development, ever since Dobrogea became part of the country, in 1878. The massive presence of the army in the city’s life, has offered a special flavour to its every day activities which were closely connected to the elements specific of the age. Beginning with taking part in certain religious holidays (the navy’s day, blessing waters) and ending with receiving visits from different personalities of the time (visits paid by sovereigns and members of the royal family, by authoritiesor simply by personalities of the moment, while the season for baths was on, or taking part in the horse races), the army has been an important factor and key element in Constanţa’s life between the moment Dobrogea joined the country and the tragic episode when the city was occupied (inhabited) by Central Powers ’troops.

Keywords: holidays, cavalry, race track, uniform, military brass band

The army has played an important part in Dobrogea’s life after integrating with Romania in 1878, and Constanţa was destined to become an important military centre, due to its geographical position and the attention that political parties paid to it.

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Carol I was crossing the Danube on November 14th 1878, to take under command Dobrogea’s teritory which had been arrogated to Romania after the Berlin Peace treaty was signed1. With reference to the units assigned to the new territory, Carol created “the third permanent cavalry regiment for the occupied teritory, which, alongside the second regiment would form the cavalry brigade for the area. There will be two more infantry regiments, one of hunters and six troops instated with the necessary war equipments. Measures for forming a territorial army will be taken afterwards.”2 Remus Opreanu, the prefect of Constanţa, has had trouble quartering the Romanian troops due to the massive presence of the Tsarist troops in the city3. As the Russian garrison counted aproximately 4500 soldiers (according to the prefect’s words, n.n.)4, and the city comprised around 4000 citizens at the time, it is easy to understand the population’s reaction when the Romanian troops joined 5 the Tsarist ones Meanwhile, important navy units had been organised and they probably gave the city its specific flavour. Authors like Jean Bart and captain Nicolae Ionescu-Johnson, both officers, or the local writer Ion Adam painted accurately this social category’s every day life. There were 2 types of sailors in the city: those belonging to the military navy, easily recognisable after their uniforms, and those belonging to the civilian navy, officers and sailors working on the civil services and passenger ships. At the beginning of the I World War, Romania disposed of 40 military vessels6; Constanţa housed The

1 Arhivele Naţionale ale României, Direcţia Ahivelor Naţionale şi Istorice Centrale, Fond Diviziunea Adminstrativă (infra F.D.A.), dosar 226/1878, f. 3. 2 The information appears in the Romanian monarch’s note to Fritz von Hohenzollern, on the 22nd of august/ 3rd of September 1878, - in Sorin CRISTESCU (editor), Carol I, Corespondenţă personală (1878-1912), Editura Tritonic, Bucureşti, 2005, p. 54-55. 3 4th December 1878 Telegram – F.D.A., dosar 226/1878, f. 27 4 It seems more realistic to note the 3000 Russian soldiers who stayed in the city, number provided by George Auneanu, one of the first clerks who came to the city after having incorporated with the country – quoted in: Aurelia LĂPUŞAN, Ştefan LĂPUŞAN, Constanţa. Memoria oraşului, volumul I, 1878 – 1940, ediţia a II-a, Editura „Muntenia, Constanţa, 1987, p. 9. 5 F.D.A., dosar 226/1878, f. 108-109. 6 Gheorghe PETRE, Ion BITOLEANU, Tradiţii navale româneşti, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 1991, p. 156–163. Romania’s financial crisis in 1900 has stopped the navy’s 338 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Sea Division which had mechanics and officers’ schools under subordination1. When it comes to image, the military navy was a daily presence in Constanţa, but joining it was no easy job. Nicolae Ionescu Johnson narrates all the unpleasant things that the navy students had to endure: older students kept bothering them by cutting their hammocks and dirtying their belongings so that they would be taken to «the gods(the vane)» (a sort of a black hole situated on top of the mast) 2. The officers sometimes wanted to enlighten the students, a fact which gave birth to a real ‘epidemics of yawning’3. Although they endured such a schedule, once on land, they started playing pranks and having fun, a thing which pleasured the top rank citizens. The higher ranked officers reacted harshly, gating them back to the vessels in order to stop those scandalous acts. Their measures, however, had no effect4, and the floating settlements, which served as houses for the soldiers, became in time the meeting and fun place for certain families and for the «frame dames» of the city. After graduating and becoming officers, they obtained a certain respect and a well regarded place in society. They were constantly competing with the officers on land, due to their different principles, fact which often lead to rough rivalries among them. Not rarely did they turn into malicious pranks, ending in stupid fights and imprecations. Together with the navy, the inland soldiers were an active lot. Until 1914 the troops in Constanţa’s garrison have grown in number, the latter becoming a headquarter 5.

investments, the arming programmes being re-taken after 1910, as the international situation was getting worse. 1 Ibidem, p. 165. 2 Nicolae IONESCU-JOHNSON, Însemnările unui marinar, vol. 1, E.S.P.L.A., Bucureşti, 1956, p. 51. 3 Ibidem, p. 92. 4 Jean BART, Schiţe marine din lumea porturilor, Editura „Cartea Românească” S.A., Bucureşti, 1926, p. 324. 5Direcţia Judeţeană Constanţa a Arhivelor Naţionale, Fond Primăria Constanţa [infra: F.P.C.], dosar 52/1914, f 6-9 apud Marin STANCIU, Ana CHIRIAC, Aurelia RĂDUCĂNESCU, Maria STĂNECI (editori), Din tezaurul documentar dobrogean, Direcţia Generală a Arhivelor Statului din R.S.R., Bucureşti, 1988, p. 397. 339 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Although by 1900 many garrisons had been built, they were filthy and full of holes1, then things got better. The military hospital was built in 19032, and in 1904 the problem of separating the military garrisons from the navy’s was raised3. The majority built houses close to the garrisons, forming real neighbourhoods, just like the one on Călăraşi street4, a name which evoked the citizen’s jobs. The military had several advantages: they paid half the taxes for healing and music, the inferior ranked ones were absolved from paying5 and, sometimes the royal commissioners interceded with the Town Hall for giving officers with numerous families, places for homes6. The army was given a special ceremonial role. It was present at the main local and national holidays, or when high officials came to town; the military units would march at such events. Wearing their uniforms, they would bring a fresh look to the manifestations7. Uniforms were quite on fashion at the time. The sailor’s ones were the most attractive; they wore blue uniforms with striped T-shirts, white in summer8. The officers wore tunics buttoned up to the neck with shiny buttons and trousers with facings. The braids and the shoulder boards showed their military ranks. The capotes had golden pompons and were buttoned with belts. While attending ceremonies, the generals would wear sam browns, swords around the waist while the navy ones would put on a two-cornered hat 9. When militaries attended several cultural manifestations, the latter became more prestigious. For example when «The Universal Library was opened in 1898 at the initiative of the «Ovidiu’s Circle», the members were accompanied by the 34 regiment’s brass band (offered

1 Ibidem, dosar 20/1900, f. 62. 2 Ibidem, dosar 20/1902, f. 16 apud M. Stanciu ş.a., op. cit, p. 385. 3 Ibidem, dosar 6/1904, f. 52, apud M. Stanciu ş.a., op.cit., p. 295. 4 Constantin M. BONCU, Natalia BONCU, Constanţa. Contribuţii la istoricul oraşului, Editura Litera, Bucureşti, 1979, op. cit., p. 51. 5 Ibidem, p. 62. 6 „Steaua Constanţei”, Constanţa, an I, nr. 18, 17 martie 1902, p. 3. 7 F.P.C., file 9/1914, f. 41–42. 8 N. Ionescu Johnson, op.cit., p. 50. 9 Petru VULCAN (editor), Albumul naţional al Dobrogei, 1866-1877-1906, Tipografia Regală, Bucureşti, 1906, passim. 340 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

free of charge by the unit’s commander)1. An important part was played at the time by captain M. Ionescu, who had adopted the name Dobrogianu, and published in 1904 the collosal masterpiece «Dobrogea at the turn of the XXth century»2. The brass band music pleased everyone in Constanţa. Military brass bands would play at balls, or at countryside festivities held in clubs or fellowships; they were always present at funerals or openings. Besides, they entertained dancing parties (especially women)3. As mentioned above the army played an important part in religious ceremonies and holidays. «The Epiphany» on the 6th of January, when waters are blessed, brought together the most important personalities of the time. The Bishop of the lower Danube took part too; once the sermon was over, the suite would head for the harbour, ending with the military units and the brass band. They were followed by the suite of holy men and the leaders; the event was announced by 21 cannon shots4. Another important local celebration was The Navy’s Day, held on the 15th of August. On Thursday, the 15th of august 1902, the navy’s patron was first celebrated. The official celebration was held on the vessel Elisabeth, the war minister Sturdza, the commander of the active division, general Vasile Nasturel and other few officers operating ashore, plus the officers of the grand division, being present. A similar service was held; besides there was a real water carnival, the costs to hold these ceremonies growing even bigger as the years passed. At first there were ship races, racings, Venetian evenings, balls on water, allegorical ships, America’s discovery, The Medusa’s shipwreck, and later on, banquets; they started selling tickets and awarding prizes, using fireworks and cannon shots, “marine monsters” and allegorical boats. To all these the diving competitions, polo, catching ducks, jumping into the sea with bikes, or balls to the local casino were added. Thus, the Navy’s Day turned into a real

1 Constantin CIOROIU, Marian MOISE, Litoralul românesc la 1900, Editura Europolis, Constanţa, 2001, p. 166. 2 Marin IONESCU Dobrogianu (căpitan), Dobrogia în pragul veacului al-XX-lea, Tipografia Grafice I. V. Socecu, Bucureşti, 1904, passim. 3 C. Cioroiu, M. Moise , op. cit., p. 115- 116. 4 F.P.C., dosar 9/1916, f. 1. 341 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

celebration full of colour, joy and which would soon become an icon for Constanţa. 1 There were many occasions for secular celebrations such as: The Principalities’ Union on the 24th of January; King Carol’s birthday, The Kingdom’s Proclamation and especially the 10th of May, the day when the foreign monarchy was installed, which became the national day. They were followed by the 30th of August, conquering Griviţa during the Independence War; the 14th of November, the day Dobrogea was taken over by the Romanian Administration, festivities were the army was always present. The 10th of May 1909 was especially celebrated because it represented Carol’s 40 years of ruling. The Town Hall built a stand for the troops to march on, leaving late at night in torch light2. At 8 o’clock in the morning, 21 cannon shots were fired from the Elisabeth vessel, while all ships were adorned with flags3. The military units marched along the extremely well cleaned streets and, at night they would leave in torch light while the 34 regiment’s brass band would go on playing until the clock stroke 234. On the 30th of August the celebration of Griviţa’s occupation by the Romanian troops in 1877, was well-renowned for its cannon shots and pyrotechnic effects. That is why the Town Hall had to order the fireworks in advance from the «Army’s Pyrotechnics Department»5. Another way for the military men to manifest their skills were the horse races. In time the latter developed into full public events; 10000 people participated in the events held in 1902”6. The racings were organised in May and September. They started around 3 o’ clock in the afternoon, the most important being the one for cavalrymen. The riders often used to trick their opponents by scaring the horses or cutting across their way. At the end of the race, prizes were offered and during brakes the military music entertained

1 Marian MOŞNEAGU, Ziua Marinei la români, Editura Companiei Naţionale, Administraţia Porturilor Maritime, Constanta, 2002, p. 19 – 22. 2 F.P.C. , dosar 11/1906, f. 66. 3 „Conservatorul Constanţei”, an I, nr. 15, 14 mai 1909, p. 3. 4 C. Cioroiu, M. Moise, op.cit., p. 121-122. 5 F.P.C., dosar 12/1900, f. 38. 6 „Constanţa”, an XI, nr. 396, 19 mai 1902, p. 3. 342 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

the viewers1.The military racings were 2500 metres long and prizes were between 250 and 100 lei; at the end of the racing there was a parade2. The monarchs were well received in Constanţa; the military would play a decorative part in such events when the city and the harbour were lit3, „a giorno”, as it was commonly said at the time. One such occasion was the day the Russian Tsar visited Constanţa, in June 1914, when police cordons were organized along the road to keep away the curious ones. The streets were decorated, speeches and receptions were held, distinctions were awarded and the troops from the garrison marched. The closing of the parade involved torches and military music4. The celebrations held in different occasions had been a way of spending free time and, for the army, a demonstration of Romania’s ruling in Dobrogea. Celebrating was a motive to take part to the collective frenzy, to make new acquaintances and, also, an important coordinate of that period’s every day life.

References [1] Arhivele Naţionale ale României, Direcţia Ahivelor Naţionale şi Istorice Centrale, Fond Diviziunea Adminstrativă [infra: F.D.A.], dosar: 226/1878. [2] Cristescu Sorin (editor), Carol I, Corespondenţă personală (1878-1912), Editura Tritonic, Bucureşti, 2005. [3] Lăpuşan Aurelia, Lăpuşan Ştefan, Constanţa. Memoria oraşului, volumul I, 1878 – 1940, ediţia a II-a, Editura „Muntenia, Constanţa, 1987 [4] Petre Gheorghe, Bitoleanu Ion, Tradiţii navale româneşti, Editura Militară, Bucureşti, 1991 [5] Ionescu Nicolae - Johnson, Însemnările unui marinar, vol. 1, E.S.P.L.A., Bucureşti, 1956 [6] Bart Jean, Schiţe marine din lumea porturilor, Editura „Cartea Românească” S.A., Bucureşti, 1926 [7] Direcţia Judeţeană Constanţa a Arhivelor Naţionale, Fond Primăria Constanţa [infra: F.P.C.], dosar: 12/1900; 11/1906; 9/1914; 9/1916

1 Ion ADAM, Constanţa pitorească cu împrejmuirile ei, Edit. Minerva, Bucureşti, 1908, p. 175–176. 2 „Dobrogea jună”, an I, nr. 24, 29 mai 1905, p. 3. 3 F.P.C., file 9/1914, f. 67. 4 Ibidem, f. 126. 343 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

[8] Stanciu Marin, Chiriac Ana, Răducănescu Aurelia, Stăneci Maria (editori), Din tezaurul documentar dobrogean, Direcţia Generală a Arhivelor Statului din R.S.R., Bucureşti, 1988 [9] Boncu Constantin M., Boncu Natalia, Constanţa. Contribuţii la istoricul oraşului, Editura Litera, Bucureşti, 1979 [10] „Steaua Constanţei”, Constanţa, an I, nr. 18, 17 martie 1902, p. 3. [11] Vulcan Petru (editor), Albumul naţional al Dobrogei, 1866-1877-1906, Tipografia Regală, Bucureşti, 1906 [12] Ionescu Marin Dobrogianu (căpitan), Dobrogia în pragul veacului al-XX- lea, Tipografia Grafice I. V. Socecu, Bucureşti, 1904. [13] Cioroiu Constantin, Moise Marian, Litoralul românesc la 1900, Edit. Europolis, Constanţa, 2001. [14] Rădulescu Adrian, Lascu Stoica, Haşotti Puiu, Constanţa, ghid de oraş, Editura Sport – Turism, Bucureşti, 1985. [15] Moşneagu Marian, Ziua Marinei la români, Editura Companiei Naţionale, Administraţia Porturilor Maritime, Constanta, 2002. [16] „Conservatorul Constanţei”, an I, nr. 15, 14 mai 1909, p. 3. [17] „Constanţa”, an XI, nr. 396, 19 mai 1902, p. 3. [18] Adam Ion, Constanţa pitorească cu împrejmuirile ei, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1908. [19] „Dobrogea jună”, an I, nr. 24, 29 mai 1905, p. 3.

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THE WHITE AL-QAEDA

Frunzeti Daniel

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract In this paper I present few aspects regarding on the evolution of the phenomenon, Al Qaeda in Europe through the development of what we call White Al-Qaeda. It started from around 800 bosnian mujahedin, Bosnian locals who have proposed that objective, among other things, expanding Al-Qaeda in Europe as a step forward to achieve the "Pan-Islamic Califat" worldwide.

Keywords: terrorism, White Al-Qaeda, Islam.

Al-Qaeda organization was founded in 1988, during the Afghan war against the Soviets, the organization being kwown as Al-Qaeda (Base) Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK-Office services), the International Islamic Front for Jihad against Jews and Christians. Members of the group are based war veterans Afghans throughout the Muslim world 1. The main objective of the organization is to dissolve the governments of some Muslim states - considered to be corrupt and heretical - and to replace them with Islamic governments able to rule by Sharia. Al-Qaida has a deeply anti-occident attitude, United States being the biggest enemy of Islam. Al-Qaeda is a network made up of several fundamentalist organizations in various countries. The common factor to all these groups is the use of terrorist acts in order to achieve their political goals and an agenda whose first objective is to dissolve "heretic

1 http://worldwildewar.3x.ro 345 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

governments" in their countries and the creation of Islamic governments that will lead on the basis of Islamic law. A confidential report, consulted by the Associated Press, indicates that immediately after the attacks on 11th of September 2001, citizens of Muslim religion from outside Europe or the U.S. have encountered increasing difficulties to travel to these countries because of the anti- terrorism security strategy adopted. According to this report, terrorist organizations have concluded that their work in these territories should be to recruit people who were born and have lived here. They are known as "terrorists with white skin" or Al-Qaeda White, with the major advantage of being less visible and more difficult to detect 1. A known case is that of a Swedish citizen, having Bosnian origin, Mirsad Bektasevic, popularly known as Maximus, aged 19. In his house, bosnian police found explosives and detonating devices. Police claimed that the Swedish citizen targeted a member of European embassies in Sarajevo. His case is just an example of what American and Bosnian services appoint a "broad recruitment campaign of potential terrorists in the states of the Balkans". According Bulgarian publication “Clock 24”, Al-Qaeda recruits Bulgarian students from religious Universities in Jordan and tries to attract young people from Romania, Bosnia, Macedonia and Kosovo2. Mosques, café, libraries or prisons are "incubators" of radicalization, where young Muslims are recruited3. During the 1992-1995, ethnic civil war in the Former Yugoslav Republic came about 10,000 islamic combatants from North Africa and countries of the Near and Middle East4. Contrary to the allegations of the Dayton Peace Agreement, signed in 1995, Muslim authorities in Bosnia-Herzegovina gave all Al-Qaeda mujahedin bosnian citizenship and IDs. Many of them have been advised by the bosnian leaders to mary local ladies in order to be able to remain as civilians in the country5. It was an appropriate mean for bypassing the

1 http:// indexmedia.ro 2 www.adevarul.ro 3 www.realitatea.net 4 Pyotr Iskenderov, 2006, http://en.fondsk.ru/article.php?id=210 5 Ali Hamad, 2006, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,451729,00.html 346 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

article of the Dayton Peace Agreement wich stated that all foreign mercenaries and volunteers had to leave the country. Mujahedinii who remained in Bosnia after Dayton are "coaches". The most important entity is Aktivna Islamska Omladina (A.I.O.) with strong influences wahhabite (wahhabism's followers, the current ultra- religious, which aims the re-birth of "true islam"), training terrorist techniques in the so-called youth camps1. Fundamentalist Saudis Wahhabi, which militates for a pure Islam, tends to infiltrate more and more in the religious structures in Bosnia. There are even fears according to which the movement seeks abolition of secular state and hopes to introduce Islamic religious law in political life. In subsequent years the inflow of fighting Islam in Bosnia- Herzegovina has not stopped and was conducted under the mask of Islamic funds and organizations. The Al-Qaeda` number of members doubled since 1995 until today, the estimate is thus more than 800 bosnian supporters. Their recruitment has been maintained and facilitated by the economic crisis of the country2. Some of the White Al-Qaeda aims is the enlargement of the organization in Europe and the fulfillment of the "Pan Islam - Califat" worldwide. During an interview on bosnian newspaper “Nezavisne Novine”, Sredoje Novici, head of Special Services, a division of the National Agency for Investigations and Protection (S.I.P.A.), declared " I’m more than convinced that Bosnia is a potential outbreak and a nursery of terrorists." Potential danger of terrorism has been present in Bosnia- Herzegovina in all the years after the conclusion of the Dayton Peace Agreement. This comes in full agreement with his Sredoje statements, according to which "various terrorist organizations in the world can be very interested to set up bases in Bosnia where it could recruit future terrorists". Closer links between ethnic Albanian extremists and Islamic combatants in Bosnia-Herzegovina are well known, and the danger of creating a single Islamic front with another base in Kosovo is more real than in the past.

1 Jürgen Elsässer, 2006, http://www.voltairenet.org/article143050.html 2 Ali Hamad, 2006, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,451729,00.html 347 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

In Romania, the existence of structures related to international terrorist organizations is frequently reported by specialist sources1, as the major existing threats to national security. Organizations such as the Muslim Brothers, Abu Nidal, The Front for Palestine` Liberation, Hezbollah, Hamas, Hizb - Al Tahrir (Islamic Liberation Party), or Islamic Group military and last but not least, Ash Wolves have a virtual true potential to grow. This organisations must adopt “reserved positions in order to avoid the riposte from the Romanian state" 2. The Romanian Intelligence Service has established the National Center CYBERINT in order to anticipate the risk situations created by terrorist organisations. The Center mission is to ensure the prevention, the protection, the reaction and the consequences` management of cybernetic attacks. At the same time, it provides a platform for institutional cooperation within the national security system and the interface for cooperation with similar structures within NATO. Considering the evolution of the terrorist phenomenon, it is possible to anticipate that terrorism will certainly exist in the future, growing quantitatively and qualitatively, especially because some states already use terrorism in order to achieve certain purposes.

References [ 1 ] Andreescu A., Radu N., Jihadul Islamic de la “Înfrângerea terorii”şi “Războiul Sfânt”la “speranţa libertăţii” Ed. M.I.R.A., 2008, p. 246-247 [ 2 ] Andreescu A., Radu N., Organizaţiile teroriste. Conceptualizarea terorii vs. securitatea europeană, Ed. Artprint, Bucureşti, 2007, p. 100-104 [ 3 ] Andreescu A., Radu N., Terrorism from The Big Encyclopedia of Jihad to Hamas Covenant and The White Qaeda, în Romanian Military Thinking, ianuary - march, vol. 1, 2007 [ 4 ] Andreescu A., Terorismul, analiză psihologică. Ed. Timpolis, Timişoara, 2000 [ 5 ] Andreescu A., 11 septembrie 2001 . provocarea secolului XXI în materie de terorism, Ed. Artprint, Bucureşti, 2002 [ 6 ] Radu N., Recurs la siguranţa statului, Ed. Fed Print, Bucureşti, 2005 [ 7 ] Iskenderov A., Bosnia-Herţegovina, pepinieră a teroriştilor, 2006, în http://www.vor.ru/Romanian

1 www.sri.ro 2 Antipa M., Securitatea si terorismul. Prevenirea si combaterea actiunilor extremist-teroriste pe teritoriul României, Ed. Celsius, Bucuresti, 2004. 348 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

[ 8 ] Antipa M., Securitatea si terorismul. Prevenirea si combaterea actiunilor extremist-teroriste pe teritoriul României, Ed. Celsius, Bucuresti, 2004 [ 9 ] Delcea C., Terorismul internaţional, în Terorismul Azi, an 1, iulie, 2006 [ 10 ] Frattasio A., Epistemologia terorii, Ed. Era, Bucureşti, 2006 [ 11 ] Moisescu F., Andreescu A., Antipa M., Terorismul Ameninţare majoră asupra democraţiei secolului XXI, Ed. U.N.A.P., Bucureşti, 2004 [ 12 ] *** Profil, Buletin Serviciul Român de Informaţii, an I, nr. 1, martie 2003 [ 13 ] ***Musulmanii albi. Grupările teroriste recrutează musulmani balcanici, 2007, în www.indexmedia.ro [ 14 ] http://en.fondsk.ru/article.php?id=210 [ 15 ] http://worldwildewar.3x.ro [ 16 ] http://www.s.r.i.ro [ 17 ] http://www.realitatea.ro [ 18 ] http://www.adevărul.ro [ 19 ] http://www.voltairenet.org/article143050.html [ 20 ] http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,451729,00.html

349 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

MANAGEMENT OF CLASSIFIED INFORMATION IN ELECTRONIC FORMAT (INFOSEC)

Petrescu Anca Gabriela, Tudor Remus Ion

Government of Romania, National Registry Office for Classified Information of Bucharest Cert Sing – UTI Group, Bucharest

Abstract The security of information in electronic format is not a new activity, but, up to recent times, it was only the special services’ concern, as a security culture for the common users did not exist. The accession to NATO and EU imposed a modification and adjustment of the classified information legislation to the technological level of the third millennium, an evolution within which the term “INFOSEC” was used for the first time in a Romanian legal act in 2002. Starting from the idea that an organization can fulfill its objectives only if it manages to adequately and safely use its information resources, our paper will describe the legal framework governing the INFOSEC field and the specific measures for the management of classified information in electronic format.

Key words: management, security of information, INFOSEC, encryption

1. Security of information in electronic format Security of classified information in Romania is not a new activity, but it was concentrated on providing the security of information on paper support or of information on other various materials. In the past, the security of the intangible form of information, the information in electronic format, was the concern only of a small number of personnel, in particular the one belonging to

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the special services, without the existence of a security culture for the common users. In 2002, the legislation on the security of classified information was modified and adjusted to the technological level of the third millennium, within which the term “INFOSEC” was used for the first time in a legislative act. Thus, article 237 of the Government Decision no. 585/2002 for the approval of the national standards on the protection of classified information, defines INFOSEC as being “all measures and structures for the protection of classified information processed, stored or transmitted in communication and information systems and in other electronic systems, against threats and any other actions that may endanger the confidentiality, integrity, availability authenticity and non-repudiation of classified information, as well as any actions that may affect the functioning of the information systems regardless their accidental or intentional emergence”. In conformity with NATO, CM (2002)49 security policy, reproduced in the national legislation on the security of NATO classified information, INFOSEC is the application of security measures to protect information processed, stored or transmitted in communication, information and other electronic systems against loss of confidentiality, integrity or availability whether accidental or intentional, and to prevent loss of integrity or availability of the systems themselves. At the same time, in order to achieve the security objectives, a balanced set of security measures (physical, personnel, security of information and INFOSEC) shall be implemented to generate a secure environment in which to operate a communication, information or electronic system. National Information Systems Security (INFOSEC) Glossary published by the National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems Security Committee within the federal Government of the USA, defines information systems security (INFOSEC) as: “Protection of information systems against unauthorized access or modification of information, whether in storage, processing or transit and against the denial of service to authorized users, including those measures necessary to detect, 351 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

document and counter such threats”. The approach is correct up to a certain point, but it is limited to communication and information systems without taking into consideration the aspects related to the process setting up, implied structures or technical and operational provision. Furthermore, the term INFOSEC can also be defined as all security norms, structures and measures for the protection of classified information processed, stored or transmitted in communication, information or other electronic systems, as well as those measures necessary to detect, document and counter the risks referring to such information. This definition highlights the following aspects: • it refers to the security of information in general; • it unitarily addresses all security aspects of classified information; • it is not limited only to the security of classified information; • it is not concentrated only with the support of the information; stress is also laid on the process for ensuring all aspects of security; • it also refers to other types of systems, measures and structures responsible for the execution of the risk management process; • it also treats about pro-active measures/actions with the involvement of all the structures contributing to the security of information in electronic format.

2. INFOSEC legal framework At present, in Romania, the legal framework settling the INFOSEC field consists, besides the legislation for classified information, in directives, methodologies and INFOSEC technical instructions approved by order of Director General of the National

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Registry Office for Classified Information (ORNISS), published in the Official Journal of Romania starting from 2002 onwards1 Law no. 182/2002 on the protection of classified information defines as main objective for the security of classified information (besides its security against espionage, compromise or unauthorized access, alteration or modification of its content as well as against sabotage or unauthorized destruction), the carrying out of the security of information and transmission systems for classified information. In the same way, the legal act highlights that the measures resulted from the observance of the law are meant to: a) prevent unauthorized access to classified information; b) identify the circumstances and the individuals that, by their actions, may endanger the security of classified information; c) guarantee that classified information is transmitted exclusively to the persons authorized, according to the law, to know it; d) ensure the physical security of information as well as of the personnel required for its protection. The Government Ordinance no.153/2002 on the organization, and functioning of the National Registry Office for Classified Information establishes its tasks in the INFOSEC field, namely article 4, letter j “ensures, through specialized agencies, the implementation of the national Standards on the protection of classified information in Romania and of the Norms on the protection of NATO and EU classified information, with reference to the information stored within the communication and information systems”. The Government Decision no.585/2002 on the approval of the national standards for the protection of classified information in Romania defines information in electronic format as: texts, data, images, sounds recorded on storage devices or on magnetic, optical, electric supports or transmitted under the form of currents, tensions or electromagnetic field, in the air or in the communication networks. Likewise, the section General Provisions in Chapter VIII “Protection

1 The Official Journal of Romania Part I publishes only the orders for the approval of directives, methodologies or technical instructions. The content of these orders of approval published in the Official Journal of Romania is sent exclusively to the authorized public or private legal entities. 353 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

of the information-generating sources - INFOSEC” defines the objectives of the classified information security as: • confidentiality: grant of access to classified information only based on the personnel security certificate in agreement with the secrecy level of the accessed information and with the permission resulted from the observance of the need to know principle; • integrity: interdiction of modification – by erasure or addition – or of unauthorized destruction of classified information; • availability: ensuring the necessary conditions for the easy finding and use, whenever required, of classified information, with the strict observance of the confidentiality and integrity conditions. The organizational framework, at national level, implemented for the security of classified information in electronic format (INFOSEC) is ensured, through the specialized agencies, by the National Registry Office for Classified Information that, with the support of the designated security authorities, fulfills regulations, control, authorization and accountability tasks regarding the systems for the security of classified information stored, processed or transmitted in electronic format. The collocation “classified information stored, processed or transmitted in electronic format” refers to national, NATO, EU classified information and of other states with which Romania has concluded treaties, understandings and agreements on the security of classified information. At the same time, ORNISS coordinates and is responsible for the development of the security policy of information in electronic format, in conformity with the national provisions harmonized with NATO and EU standards and according to the bilateral and multilateral treaties or agreements on the security of information to which Romania is part of. Within the structure of ORNISS the three specialized agencies have the following responsibilities: • Security Accreditation Agency – SAA – is an agency responsible for the security accreditation of the communication and information systems;

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• Communication and Information Security Agency – CISA – is the agency responsible for the establishment and implementation of the means and methods for the protection of classified information handled within the communication and information systems; • Cryptographic Material Distribution Agency – CMDA – is the agency responsible for the management of cryptographic material and equipment.

3. INFOSEC main components/fields Computer Security (COMPUSEC) is the application to each computer of hardware, software and firmware security facilities for the prevention of unauthorized disclosure, handling, modification and erasure of classified information or unauthorized invalidation of certain functions; Communication Security (COMSEC) means all the measures applied to prevent unauthorized persons’ access to information transmitted through the communication systems and to guarantee the authenticity of this information. Communication security consists of cryptographic security, transmission security, emission security as well as physical security of cryptographic material. Cryptographic Security (CRYPTO) Encryption (ciphering) is a powerful mechanism that ensures confidentiality. It provides data confidentiality when the mechanisms for the prevention of data access have failed. It is wise using encryption because of the complexity of the information systems (regarding both hardware and software), so that breaches may appear in the systems of access restriction (as it is known, the probability for a threat to exploit a system vulnerability can never be equal to zero). If the data encryption mechanism is powerful and adequately applied, the attacker will be confronted with some data that he will not be able to use. The encryption renders the information from its initial intelligible form into an unintelligible form, so that it becomes impossible to be read by unauthorized holders, owners of secret knowledge or special

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privileges. The initial text, which is to be protected, is called plain text and the result of the encryption is called ciphered text or cryptogram. Decryption (deciphering) is a reverse process of recovering the plain text from the ciphered text. Transmission security – TRANSEC – is the component of the communication security addressing information transmission security against interception and exploitation, by enforcing security measures, others than cryptographic. TRANSEC objectives are the following: • minimization of the interception probability; • minimization of the detection probability; • ensuring protection against the jamming signals. TEMPEST is a short name given by the Government of the USA to designate the set of standards on the measures for limitation of the electrical or electromagnetic radiations emanated by the electronic equipment. Therefore, TEMPEST is the unintentional radiation of electromagnetic signals that may contain compromising (sensitive) information within the electronic equipment.

4. Security of information in electronic format INFOSEC mechanisms, used for ensuring the security of the information and communication systems envisage: • evaluation, by detailed examination, of the INFOSEC products or structures from the point of view of security; • certification, issuance of an official document, based on an independent analysis of the assessment and of the results of this assessment, according to which the evaluated product or structure resolves a set of predefined criteria. • accreditation, authorization given to a CIS to take classified information in its own operational space/environment. At the same time, accreditation may represent authorization of an entity to develop certain activities in the support of the CIS evaluation, certification or security accreditation process, as the case may be, and production and security evaluation activities for the IT security products.

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The activities developed are included within each stage as follows: The initialization stage assesses the sensitivity of the information that is to be handled within the system by a group of management representatives and experts acquainted, in details, with the information flow within the authority of the public or private legal entity (authority of central or local public administration, state entities, private companies, etc). Development/acquisition stage will involve the establishment of security requirements that the communication and information system has to fulfill. The security requirements are also set up dependent on the level of sensitivity of the information handled and on the results of the risk analysis. The specifications of the hardware and software configuration of the communication and information system are established contingent on the security requirements to be met. Subsequent to the system acquisition, confirmations (attestations) of the existence and functionality of the previously determined security requirements may be necessary. Implementation stage includes installation / initialization of the security controls necessary to meet the previously established security requirements. Within the lifecycle of a communication and information system the security training of the personnel is a necessary step, but often ignored. The organization or private entity should allocate funds for the recurrent participation of the personnel with assignments in the security of the system in the specialization courses on topics specific to the IT security, finalized with professional certifications. Security accreditation of a communication and information system (CIS) represents the authorization granted to it to process classified information in its own operational space/environment. All CIS must be accredited before storing, processing or transmitting classified information. Operation / maintenance stage – within the lifecycle of information systems includes the following: • security operation and administration – represents the functioning under security conditions of an accredited CIS. Both the users of the system and the personnel with 357 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

assignments in the security field are responsible for the observance and preservation of the approved security measures. • operation safety (monitoring, audit) – implies observance of the manual or automated procedures implemented for providing details on certain relevant events regarding the usage, under security conditions, of CIS and of the reaction procedures to specific events. • administration of changes – to ensure that any modification of the system has no influence on its security facilities. • periodical re-accreditation – a process that ascertains the implementation and observance of the approved security measures. Briefly, the IT security process of a CIS is continuously developed, starting with: • the planning stage – establishing the IT security policy of the system and the configuration of an IT security concept; • the implementation stage – of the necessary security measures, the training and awareness of the system users; • the maintenance stage – where an important part is held by the security audit of the system. To sum up, in modern society, more and more activities are carried out by means of facilities offered by the IT technology development, both in public and private domain. This development led to an expansion of the information networks, to an increase of the volume and importance of the data stored, and to the proliferation of the information means. Therefore, many organizations in the public and private domain totally depend on the smooth functioning of their own information systems or of those they are interconnected with. An organization can fulfill its objectives only if it manages to adequately and safely use its information resources.

Bibliography 1. Law no. 182/2002 on the protection of classified information;

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2. Law no. 101/2003 for the approval of the Government Emergency Ordinance no. 153/2002 on the organization and functioning of the National Registry Office for Classified Information; 3. Government Decision no. 585/2002 for the approval of the national standards on the protection of classified information in Romania, art. 236-336; 4. Government Decision no. 353/2002 for the protection of NATO classified information in Romania, art. 179-294; 5. Dumitru Oprea, Protecţia şi securitatea informaţiilor (Protection and security of information), ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2003; 6. Marius Petrescu, Neculae Năbârjoiu, Mioara Braboveanu, Managementul informaţiilor (Management of information), vol II – Informaţii clasificate (Classified Information), ed. Bibliotheca, 2008.

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COMPLEXITY IN EFFECTS-BASED APPROACHES TO OPERATIONS

Voievoda Ramona

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The strength of an effects-based approach to operations is that it squarely addresses these complexities by concentrating on their most nonlinear aspects: humans, their institutions, and their actions. Indeed, the entire effects-based approach can be characterized by four things: a focus on the human dimension of competition and conflict; the consideration of a full spectrum of actions whether in peace, crisis, or hostilities; a multifaceted, whole-of-nation concept of power; and the recognition of the complex interconnected nature of the actors and challenges involved.

Effects-Based Approaches to Operations Effects-based approaches to operations are simple, even elegant concepts in theory. Yet this idea has, like network centric approaches to operations, been misunderstood in a variety of ways. The resulting confusion is responsible for a great deal of unnecessary argument and has hindered progress. Some current approaches have served well for a considerable time and have become enshrined as dogma rather than doctrine. At the risk of over-simplification, an effects-based approach is about maintaining a laser-like focus on the “why” of a mission rather than a given approach or means to that end. It is a reminder that we operate in a world that requires constructive interdependence between organizations and agencies. Effects-based approaches are also inevitably about orchestration, about developing synergies that result in effects greater than those that

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are additive. It is this aspect of effects-based approaches that makes them a natural partner with network centric approaches. Because the focus is on what observers perceive rather than on what we do and because any action is but one part of an observed whole, all operations are necessarily whole-of-nation or whole-of- coalition. Finally, any effects-based approach must proceed from the recognition that all actions and the reactions they provoke are inextricably linked in a system of ever-changing and adapting human systems whose complexity shapes both the nature of the problem and the task of assessing, planning, and executing any operation. Effects-Based Operations (EBO) is a United States military concept which emerged after the 1991 Gulf War for the planning and conduct of operations combining military and non-military methods to achieve a particular effect. The doctrine was developed in light of the emergence of new threats in irregular or small-scale fourth generation warfare, and a shift towards Operations Other Than War (OOTW), as opposed to formally-declared wars and major force-on-force third generation warfare doctrines of the Cold War. As defined by the United States military Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM), effects- based operations are “a process for obtaining a desired strategic outcome or effect on the enemy through the synergistic and cumulative application of the full range of military and nonmilitary capabilities at all levels of conflict.” [1] Rather than focus specifically at the causing of casualties and physical destruction, resulting in annihilation or attrition of enemy forces, effects-based operations emphasize end-state goals first, and then focus on the means available to achieve those goals. For instance, psychological operations, electronic warfare, logisitical disruptions and other non-lethal means can be used to achieve the demoralization or defeat of an enemy force while minimizing civilian casualties or avoiding the destruction of infrastructure. While effects-based operations do not rule out lethal operations, it places them as options in a series of operational choices for military commanders. Understanding complexity? Complexity is not a new concept. Nonlinear phenomena have always been part of all human interactions and especially of military operations. In fact, one can easily make the case that good military 361 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

leadership and strategy have always revolved about the ability to deal with the innate complexity or, in Clausewitzian terms, the “friction” of the battlefield and that the truly great leaders were those who not only managed to deal with this complexity but who were also able to turn it to their advantage so as to impose their will on the battlefield or in politics. What is new is the emerging body of complexity theory and its formal application to the national security environment and specifically to military operations.[2] Indeed, as Atkinson and Moffat note, the “underlying theory of complexity and networks is not mathematics, science, and technology, but people the way we work and aggregate ourselves.”[3] To capitalize on the insights offered by this new conceptual equipment, we need to arrive at a working understanding of complexity as it applies to military operations across the spectrum of competition and conflict, to examine the challenge that complexity poses in the planning and execution of effects-based operations, to look at how we can deal with it in the current operational environment, and to explore how we might exploit the combination of effects-based approaches and networking to achieve nonlinear impacts in military operations. To accomplish these tasks, as Rosenau suggests, we need not master the intricacies of complexity theory or the mathematics that support it, but rather we need to explore the fundamental nature of complexity, understand its potential impact on how military forces operate, and figure out how best to bound it so as to exploit it. A good starting point for the kind of pragmatic understanding of complexity lies in distinguishing between that which is “complicated” and that which is “complex.” Although the terms complicated and complex tend to be used interchangeably [4], there is a profound difference between the two words that is key to comprehending what complexity is and how to deal with it. This messy reality is clearly at odds with the linear mechanical view of military operations that seems to pervade long-range military planning and acquisition, but it is in an almost uncanny harmony with the view taken by most combat veterans. These war fighters would insist that, “in the real world,” almost none of the assumptions that analysts and planners like to make with respect to the repeatability and proportionality of inputs and outcomes 362 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

are necessarily true. For them, actual military operations are nonlinear, uncertain, and complex with no outcome ever taken for granted. The battlefield presents a grim contrast to the tightly controlled, predictable, and quantifiable operational environment of synthetic models and contains adversaries who are or must always be assumed to be intelligent and resourceful. Indeed, the mantra of combat veterans seems to be that, as the elder General von Moltke put it, “no plan ever survives first contact with the enemy.” This view of a complex reality is at the root of much of the war fighter skepticism about the promises of defense transformation, network-centric capabilities, and revolutions in military affairs. The skeptics note that, despite spectacular advances in information and sensor technologies, there is no such thing as a perfect situational awareness nor can there be a perfect sharing of awareness. They warn that any assumption that new technologies can entirely rid us of Clausewitzian “friction” and “fog” is a misunderstanding of Clausewitz that is prone to potentially deadly consequences.[5] By assuming that we can achieve perfect situational awareness and understanding of command intent, or by thinking in terms of neat and uncluttered “lightening bolt” linkages between sensors and shooters, or by imagining that we can somehow eliminate the uncertainties of the battlefield, they point out, we lay ourselves open to defeat by an intelligent adversary who can use exactly those preconceptions against us. Finally, they also caution against downplaying the complex human dimension of war and note that wars are fought by people and are won in the minds of human adversaries.[6] These misgivings are not entirely new and are not restricted to network-centric operations or to a putative revolution in military affairs. If we look at the concerns in light of complexity theory, much of the criticism revolves about the need to deal with the inherent complexity of military operations and the inability of linear solutions (however technologically advanced) to provide all of the answers needed.

Complexity in Effects-Based Operations The central tenet of an effects-based approach to operations is that we can somehow purposefully shape the interactions of the actors in this complex security environment. Effects-based operations 363 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

themselves can be thought of simply as “coordinated sets of actions directed at shaping the behavior of friend, foe, and neutral in peace, crisis, and war.” The word actions encompasses all forms of military action and all of the diplomatic, economic, and other actions of a whole-of-nation or whole-of-coalition effort. As such, it proposes one basic concept applicable across an entire national effort. Similarly, behavior applies equally to physical and human systems, as well as to all aspects of a whole-of-nation effort. This definition underlines the complexity involved. It does not speak simply of an action creating an effect in an if-this-then-that, cause-and effect relationship, but of coordinated sets of actions, i.e. the use of many interdependent actions. And, it does not look to a single well-defined effect as the outcome, but rather to the actions shaping a behavior end-state. This is to say that it sees both a process and an end-state that are neither precisely nor solely the product of the actions that we take. And, it does not limit this behavioral outcome to a foe’s reactions, but sees “actions” creating diverse effects on many actors at many levels of many different arenas and a requirement for a single set of actions to be able to create opposite effects on foes, friends, neutrals, and the domestic public. In brief, effects-based approaches are inherently complex. The complexity that shapes both the security environment and effects-based operations can be seen as a continually changing array of interdependent variables in which the chain of causes and effects between an action and an outcome will seldom if ever be the same, in which outputs are not proportionate to inputs, in which the whole is not necessarily equal to the sum of the parts, and in which there will be a nearly infinite number of potential outcomes for any action. Living systems theory offers a way of approaching this complexity. It sees the world in biological and sociological terms as an interlocking multilevel system of complex adaptive systems from which no individual system can be extracted without changing both its character and that of the system as a whole. No interaction can be entirely isolated. Each is part of a continuing succession of interactions in which systems co evolve, and each interaction affects all future interactions in some way. However, the systems in this model do have a recognizable order because all are products of an evolutionary 364 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

process that weeds out systems that do not work. This argues that outcomes are not random and that we can identify enduring “essential processes” that explain why some systems survive and others fail. In the multitiered living systems model, we can recognize familiar military organizations from the war fighter to the national leadership and, because the model is generic, we can similarly break down other government agencies, states, and non-states including terrorists. In the model, interactions occur simultaneously on many different levels with each interaction tending to proceed at a pace dictated by local circumstances. These interactions are not just with a foe, but also with different government, non-government, international, and other actors, each of which is part of a different hierarchy/reporting chain but faces similar local problems and timelines and, as a result, tends to evolve local networks of relationships to “get the job done” wherever their formal organization permits. Each interaction can be described as an “action-reaction” cycle in which a person or organization reacts and adapts to a stimulus— anything from enemy fire to a diplomatic note. The stimulus enters the cognitive process through the eyes and ears of an observer who attempts to make sense of it, apply this understanding to judging options for a response, and choose a course of action or inaction that then becomes both the end state of that cycle and the stimulus for a new cycle, this time with the other side reacting in a continuing spiral of cycles, each of which builds on what has gone before and shapes those that will follow.

Network-Enabled Effects-Based Approaches to Operations Whereas in classic effects-based approaches any improvements in performance derive from choosing more capable and perceptive humans with more experience and perhaps a broader education to be the human in the loop, in network-enabled effects-based approaches to operations the objective is to supplement the capabilities of individual decision-makers with all of the knowledge, information, data, analytical tools, and cognitive, social, or cultural anthropological models that networking might bring to bear. Some aspects of this potential network contribution are fairly evident. In dealing with the ambiguities and uncertainties of real-world operations, it stands to 365 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

reason that the poorer the quality of the awareness, the more poorly the problem will be defined and the more an assessor or decision- maker will be forced to hazard a guess as to the ground truth. Likewise, the more limited the available knowledge of a complex problem is, the more the human decision-maker will be forced to rely on his or her own instincts. To be sure, such naturalistic decision- making is not a coin toss but a conscious or subconscious effort to draw upon a mental model library of analogies that might potentially be applicable to the situation. As the decision-maker’s experience and education increase, their library of mental models will grow and their analogies to be applied will become more detailed and pertinent—and their decisions will more likely prove correct or effective. The quality of the support that networking can bring to bear affects this human intervention in two ways. The better awareness it provides, the better defined the problem will be and the less human “guesswork” intervention will be needed. Likewise, the more extensive the knowledge and analogy base that decision-makers can tap through networking, the less they will be restricted to their own experience and education, and the more likely they will be to make correct assessments or decisions. In other words, the better the networking lets us deal with whatever elements of a complex problem we can address, the better the decision-making is likely to be. The object is not to solve the complexity. We cannot. It is rather to bound it by using the elements that we can know to enable the human in the loop to narrow the set of possible answers to a most likely set and thereby improve his probability of being right. This idea is at the root of network-enabled effects-based operations. Whereas success in “classic” effects-based approaches largely depended on the abilities of the humans in the loop to deal with the complexity in their heads, in network-enabled operations they need no longer be left to their own devices. Better and more meaningful support from networking can enable decision makers to bound complexities and deal with ambiguities better and thereby increase the probability of a correct decision. The central issue with effects-based approaches to operations is not whether or not to undertake them. We already conduct them and, in a world of asymmetric foes where traditional models of attrition- 366 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

based conflict do not work, we have little choice but to continue to pursue them. The real question is how to do them better. At the core of the “how to” of any effects-based approach to operations lies a paradox: complexity simplifies. If we accept the innate complexity of both our security environment and any effects- based solution, then we implicitly accept as well: that there is no perfect awareness; that we will never have all of the answers nor be able entirely to understand our adversaries (or friends and neutrals); that we can neither “solve” all complex problems nor plot all of the possible consequences of our actions; and, above all, that the human being a product of biological evolution and a complex adaptive system in his own right is the key to both dealing with the complexity and making an effects-based approach work. Complexity simplifies because it sets a relative standard. We need not do effects based operations perfectly, only better than our opponents. And, the challenge is not “all or nothing,” but a series of finite pragmatic steps, each of which promises in some way to improve human decision- making. Some argue that effects-based approaches are not new. Others argue that they are difficult or impossible to achieve. Still others think that effects-based approaches are tools and find the instantiation at hand wanting. Clearly the idea of focusing on the desired end result and being flexible is not new. The importance of effects-based approaches is not derived from their originality but from whether or not translating this idea into practice will improve our ability to achieve the ends associated with complex 21st century missions. Effects-based approaches need to be accompanied by more comprehensive assessments in order to be better able to conduct effects-based operations, a capability much needed in our century. Complexity actually simplifies the problem we must tackle. If we accept the innate complexity of the problem, then we accept that there cannot be perfect awareness, that we will never have all of the answers, that we will never entirely understand our adversaries (or for that matter the friends and neutrals with whom we work), that we cannot “solve” the problem but must be content with bounding it, and that we will never be able to plot all of the possible consequences of our actions. It is sufficient that we do all of these things well enough 367 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

to succeed, and better than our opponents. Complexity forces us to accept a reasonable standard for decision-making, one that can always be improved upon to be sure, but one that history shows is not overly daunting. If we accept the idea that the best capability we have to deal with the complexities and ambiguities is the human being, then we can begin to look not simply for points at which the effects-based problem becomes complex and, thus, no longer susceptible to linear solutions but rather points at which the intervention of another complex adaptive system a human will be required. In brief, accepting the complexity simplifies what we must do by allowing us to deal with the challenges not as a single overwhelming problem but as a series of specific tasks to be undertaken. As better information tools become available, as new research on human cognitive processes is completed and new modeling tools arise, and as new ways of tapping the knowledge and expertise of a large well-educated population come online and are brought into the family of effects-based capabilities at our disposal, the requirement for unaided human intervention and for human intervention as a whole should diminish. The human role will never disappear just as the complexity of military operations will never go away. The objective of an effects-based approach and of the second generation of network- centric operations is rather to make the human in the loop more right, more often.

References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects-Based_Operations#cite_ note-EBO- BATSCHELET-1 [2] “I am convinced that the ability to thrive in nonlinear environments will have to be among the core competencies of the warrior and statesman of the 21st century...It may be that attaining that ability lies at the heart of the Revolution in Military Affairs that we seem certain is present, but that has proven so elusive.” Chilcoat, LTG Richard A., USA. “Foreword.” Czerwinski, Tom. Coping with the Bounds. Washington, DC: CCRP. p. iv. [3] Atkinson, Simon Reay and James Moffat. The Agile Organization: From Informal Networks to Complex Effects and Agility. Washington, DC: CCRP. 2005. p. 13.

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[4] The dictionary defines complicated as “1. marked by an interrelationship of diverse and often numerous parts, elements, notions, phases, or influences difficult of analysis, solution, or understanding...2. having many interconnected units: not simple or easy to fabricate or comprehend.” And, it defines complex as “1. an association of related things often in intricate combination...2. a conjunction of varied contributing or interacting factors, elements, or qualities.” Complex is listed as a synonym for complicated. Webster’s Third International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Chicago, IL: Britannica. 1986. Vol 1. pp. 485 and 465. [5] Both Barry Watts and Alan Beyerchen point out that Clausewitz’s discussion of friction and fog is firmly linked to human factors and that, largely because of this human dimension, Clausewitz sees war as a fundamentally nonlinear phenomenon in which situational awareness can never be perfect. Watts, Clausewitzian Friction and Future War. pp. 27-32. Beyerchen, “Unpredictability of War.” p. 68. [6] Hammes, COL T.X., USMC. “War Isn’t a Rational Business.” Proceedings. July 1998.

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CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CHARACTERISTICS AND FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE FORCE IN MILITARY PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Assoc.Prof. Stănciulescu Robert, PhD

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The optimization of the educational training process has become a first rank imperative entailed by the ever growing complexity of military training resulting from the increased level of physical performance. Against this background, a thorough understanding of the physical capacities and of the factors contributing to their development becomes essential for the attainment of the desired results.

The maximum valorisation of combatants’ physiological and psychomotor possibilities in view of accomplishing the mission represents a priority of Military Physical Education. Utilitarian applicative skills such as: obstacle running, mountain crossing, weights transportation, river crossing or weapon handling can not be accomplished unless the basic motor qualities, strength and resistance in particular, are well developed. Manifesting itself under different forms, according to the objectives specific to the different military branches, muscle force is the motor force generated to oppose resistance through an intense muscular effort. Though studied by many a specialist, the motor quality of force hasn’t been given a precise definition yet, since that is dependent on its countless forms of manifestation. The definitions given by specialists are not as much different, except in terms of the terminology employed.

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Thus: - V.M. Zatiorski defines force as an individual’s capacity to overcome an external resistance or to act against it through an intense muscle effort;1 - A. Demeter defines it as the capacity of the neuromotor system to overcome a resistance through muscle contraction; - N. Alexe describes it as an individual’s capacity to overcome an external resistance, measured in kg by means of weight lifting and dynamometry; - R. Manno characterizes it as the motor capacity that allows an individual to overcome or oppose a resistance through an intense muscle effort. The human body manifests its force through efforts which may or may not include the mechanical work. The effort is to overcome, to maintain or the give in, depending on the resistance applied. A distinction has to be made between muscle force and muscle strength. Muscle force is the force exerted against a resistance and is not time dependent, whereas muscle strength refers to the mechanical work/time unit. There are countless factors influencing muscle force. For didactic reasons, the most important factors have been classified in two categories: central factors and peripheral factors. The central factors refer to: - the activity of the nerves involved in the voluntary or reflex actions; - the stimuli which through the sensory systems are turned into sensations. These induce different excitation focal points at different levels of the Central Nervous System, on the frequency and scope of which is dependent the degree of mobility of the motor unit which conditions the force; - inter-muscle coordination, accomplished by all the motor, cortical and sub-cortical centres, as movement moderating factors;

1 Dragnea, A., Teodorescu Mate S., Teoria sportului, Fest Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002. 371 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- the adjustment of muscle tonus with implications on force building up. A tonus with decreased values leads to an increased contraction force. The peripheral factors influence all the forms of force and especially the maximal force. They refer to: - the diameter of the muscle which depends on the thickness of the muscle fibres, the quantity of sarcoplasma, the number of myofibrils, the quantity of conjunctive tissue and adipose tissue; - muscle hypertrophy which consists of an increase in muscle fibre diameter. According to the intensity, frequency and duration of stimuli, the structure of the muscle fibre will evolve in favour of either the force or the resistance.1 Hettinger asserted in 1960 that for a section of 1 cm2 there are 6 kg of force; - the quantity of energetic resources and the enzymes that favour burning, such as adenosine triphosphate and phosphocreatine which releases a great quantity of energy necessary for muscle force; - the muscle volume with a great weight in deteriorating muscle force; - muscle structure – the high percentage of phasic fibres with a bigger diameter and increased phosphogen reserves favour the anaerobic processes and are mobilized by high frequency impulses which support force development; - the lengths of muscle fibres and angle of action. Force is also dependant on other factors such as: − the angle value of the working segments; − motivation; − the capacity to concentrate on the task; − the duration of muscle contraction; − the functional state of support segments, ligaments and joints; − the level of development of the other motor capacity; − age; − sex; − the continuity of the training process;

1 Tudor, V., Capacităţile condiţionale şi coordinative componente ale capacităţii motrice, Coresi Publishing House, Bucharest, 1999 372 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

− the initial level of training; − the quality of training organizing forms. As far as force manifestation is concerned it depends on the specific character of each sport and on the motor actions performed. The analyses carried out in this respect point to more forms of manifestation, grouped as it follows according to the criteria used: − according to the muscle mass involved: • local force referring to the force of certain muscle groups required by the specific character of the sport performed or trial; • general force referring to the force of the entire muscle system. − according to the activity requiring the force there are general and specific forces. − according to the character of muscle contraction: • static force, characterized by the fact that it is accomplished exclusively through isometric contractions, with no modifications of the muscle fibres involved in the effort referred to; • dynamic force, also known as isotonic force manifests itself when muscle fibres modify their dimension either by increasing or by decreasing in length. If muscle fibres are shortened the dynamic force is of the overwhelming type (miometric regime) whereas if the muscle fibres are lengthened the force is dynamic of the yielding type (plyometric regime). • mixed force, which includes both static and dynamic contractions. In fact, force is never manifested in a pure state but in combination with other motor qualities, and consequently there are: − force in the speed regime also called explosive force, which represents the capacity to manifest great force values in the smallest time unit; − force in the resistance regime which is the capacity of the body to withstand efforts for a longer period of time.

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According to body weight there are two types of forces: absolute and relative force. D. Harre (quoted by Tudor V.) makes the following classification of force:1 − maximal force, which represents the greatest force produced by the neuromuscular system in a voluntary contraction; − the force/speed characterized by the capacity of the neuromuscular system to overcome resistance with the highest contraction speed possible (Frey quoted by N.Stoica, 2000); − the resistance force, which represents the capacity allowing the human body to oppose fatigue by combining force with duration. Here are according to Weineck the different forms of force expression:2 (figure no. 1)

FORCE (local, specific, general)

DYNAMIC STATIC

MAXIMUM FORCE FORCE FORCE MAXIMUM FORCE SPEED RESISTANCE RESISTANCE FORCE

Figure 1 – Forms of force expression (J. Weineck, Biologia sportului – Sports Biology – 1992)

Resistance to sustained physical efforts, regardless of weather or terrain conditions, is one of the most important prerequisites of success. The fighting capacity depends on the level and quality of combatants. To define the fighting capacity is after all to evaluate training, seen as an ample and complex process, which puts not only the command capacity but also the adaptation of the organizational

1 Idem 2 2 Weineck, J, Biologia sportului, vol. II, Factorii care pot influenţa performanţa sportivă, în „Sportul de performanţă“ nr. 365-366, C.C.P.P.S. Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995. 374 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

structure and the consistency of training to the test. Technical progress is beneficial to the fighting capacity but the latter’s development is also dependent on an appropriate staff training, at least in terms of weaponry and equipment performance. The preparedness is also dependent not only on the equipment but also on the appropriate training of the military. Under these circumstances, training has clearly become the common denominator of all the factors the fighting capacity is dependent on; the level development of coordinating and intermediate physical capacities, fundamental components of the motor capacity, of which the muscle force is an integral part, is essential if the desired performances are to be achieved.

Bibliography 1. DRAGNEA, A., Antrenamentul sportiv, Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1996. 2. DRAGNEA, A., TEODORESCU, MATE, S., Teoria sportului, Fest Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002. 3. TUDOR, V., Capacităţile condiţionale, coordinative şi intermediare – componente ale capacităţilor motrice, Coresi Publishing House, Bucharest, 1999. 4. WEINECK, J., Biologia sportului, vol.II., Factorii care pot influenţa performanţa sportivă., în „Sportul de performanţă” no. 365-366, C.C.P.P.S. Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995.

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TACTIC TRAINING IN VOLLEYBALL FOR GYMNASIUM IN LESONS OF SPORTS EDUCATION AND TACTIC SPORT

Pomohaci Marcel, PhD

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu

Abstract The metodic indications regarding the tactic training is based on two actions: defense and attack. The tactic, as a training factor inclose a good cooperation between players, the result beeing a colectiv tactic, and the actions inside the team play indicates an individual tactic.The individual tactic actions and also the colective ones are made to resolve the strategic plan of the team.

Keywords: volleyball, lesons, sport, education

Serving the ball down the front and side is chosen in preference to students with a reduced physical development. The procedure is used singulary to the level of performance, in special actions of surprising the opponent. Service up front and the side is chosen by students to stage of performance, the first providing a greater accuracy because of further precision. The ball speed and trajectory are influenced by tapping and hand contact with the ball axis. To press the ball a greater speed the contact with it will be tough, may be used and an impetuous impulse to move forward and sideways. The ball`s trajectory is influenced mostly by the lack of rotation, more precisely by the performance of the volplane service. The ball hit with the back of the hand on the axle and fingers cancel any trends of rotation of the ball. To volplane balls may be printed small speeds

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in the case of beginners or a greater speed to the advanced, with long or short trajectories[1]. The place were the ball is sent after the service provides the most tactical content proposed. At the start phase it matters only the appearance of success of the process, so a constant higher in execution. Servicies with lower trajectories and higher speeds will primarily target areas in line II and the others, in line I. Also services will target to the ones that rise the ball to incommode executing the passing of the ball. Men that score can also be disturbed the actions of attack by targeting service behind them, and especially of those who enter into combinations of speed attacks. Tactical recommendations used in the game of the service include special considerations arising from all sports games. The first requirement is accuracy and constant in executing the tactical actions. With regard to students constant is important, and as performance requirements increase, the difficulty will be a priority. This is based on constant, but ultimately it is preferred the risk and not only achieving service, because in such conditions it would facilitate the smooth takeover of the ball by opponent. As a result of the information above, at the beginning of the game it is adiviceable to force in order to detect and trigger mistakes, weaknesses in the opponent, which will then be speculated during the game. Towards the end of the set and match to service the concentration must be greater as a result of physical and mental fatigue which often installs inevitably. Conducting the game leads to special situations, where concentration in serving the ball should be maximum. Thus, if at service is a player in the first line, which has been called up to the minute before, it will be marked by fatigue. Before execution the climber must ensure that all team mates are properly seated in the field. This intentional delay is used as a tactical mean to increase the difficulty of the service, as opponents are forced to focus two or more times, which tires them. For beginning teams in the first phase of preparation, no changes are indicated for players to create them the opportunity of being used with all aspects of the game, all areas of land and thus able to own a technical knowledge - tactical more complex. 377 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Collective tactics in attack after takeover service Attack actions in these circumstances are the most effective and high-yield and spectacular. They are running in great conditions of anticipation of the combinations and adapting them according to the quality of takeover service. Anticipating combinations of attack can be done usually when are used the strategies with three stages strikes and passing the ball to the one that rises it high, which indicates how to conduct the proceedings. In case of imprecisely taking the ball, is a combination of adjustment envisaged in the new situation on the ground. Combinations of attacks from two shots are actions of adapting to the game, which may cancel an early action or it may be closely related to it as a continuation of action .Attack actions of two strikes do not necessarily imply the riser`s intake. Getting the service can go to any player who will make the attack. But it is adviceable, that the ball should be targeted to higher, which ultimately may continue the phase, giving a pass to a team mate and then the actions becomes from one with two strikes in one with three strikes. The strategy of preparing tactical actions reffers to their approach in starters. These actions of the game may be used only after proper processing period of practicing the takeover of service. Tactical actions in the attack with three hits are the base of the higher`s work, he is an intermediary that coordinates the actions of his team mates. In the preparation stage players in the teams of students when specialization is not on positions, the recommended process is normal pass and average one. Collective tactics in attack after taking the attack, or after taking over from double blocking. Tactical blockage in attack are influenced by the following factors - the quality and direction of targeting the takeover - the number of players who can perform the attack - the effectiveness of attack strategic point of view. The quality and direction of targeting the takeover determines tactic combination in the attack and arc and implications on other two factors. Getting the attack may to be good, imprecisely or wrong. Imprecise takeover is not optimally oriented but requires a correction from a team mate, through a pass that sends the ball into an area able to ensure the best solution to avoid a decisive mistake.

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In combinations of attack one or more players may attend, depending on the quality of the takeover. With both increase the number of players in attack, the chances of the opponent's defense are lower. The efficacy of the attack depends on the number of players entering the combination of attack and tactical possibilities of the one who hits the ball as a result of the pass adressed to him. Even in this tactical collective actions in attack, tactical actions with two-and three hits show up. Tactical actions in the attack with two hits are more difficult than those taking the service. Getting from attack or blockage of the takeover should be good quality, although the execution conditions are difficult. The use of these tactical actions are addressed at the level of training of school teams - these actions are taught along with those of the takeover service - because at this level are quite often, the situations when the opponent can not act effectively in the attack and his team did not perform any blockagge, takeovers may be targeted by direct passing on the diagonals land, for which a team mate that runs the attack. Tactical actions in the attack with three hits are more frequent as those with two strikes, but rarely enforced after the takeover of service. At the same time, combinations of attack are more difficult to run with a smaller range of possibilities for solving. The cases are high-risk cargo and nervous, especially after such action, points and increase of the team morale usually are performed. Collective tactics in defense This collective action is complex and refers to blockage, the takeover of the attack or blockage, as the phases of the game to be determined each other in a close relation, so the three categories of actions are: -collective tactics in defense without blockage; -collective tactics in defense with blockage individually or in group; - collective tactics in defense in doubling the blockage. First action meets less frequently and applies when the opponent is in difficulty and can not build an effective combination of attack, and also appears in initiating students into the game of volleyball. In this situation we encounter three aspects: 379 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

- without possibility of appeal; - the attack on the net and in difficulty; - the attack near the net. In case the attack can not be carried out, the higher in line 1 expects the takeover from attack of the other team mates, near the net, and in line II remain three players in defense. When the attack is running in difficult conditions, the players in defense are oriented towards the front area of attack depending on their place in that time. Tactics in collective defense with individual blocking is most often encountered at the initiation of juniors. It is considered the best solution because we have the possibility to keep all the players in line II and to conduct an effective takeover of atack. In most of the cases, in the attack far from the net, blockage is done with the player who is the best at blocking the line. When in the blockage participates the player responsable for the attack, doubling is carried out by the nearest team mate in line I, and the others are available in the semi takeover attack. In the collective defense tactics with group blockage, this may be executed by two or three players. In this situation, the player in zone 3 coordinates the blockage in all actions, he decides the best place to jump while others are grouped according to it, without leaving any gap between them. By blockage in two players it ensures the greatest chance of success in this action, reducing the possibility of attack in strength of the opponent. In the case of an attack on an extreme of the net, blocking efficiency is very high because the four remaining players on defense. When attacking from downtown, the defense is lacking. The most effective blockage is the one close to both directions of attack. However, it can overcome the blockage in the force attack, making the difficulties in defense [2]. Collective defense tactics in the double attack is the defense which is given the least attention in preparing students. These actions are necessary to increase the value of the attack. From the doubling positions can attack and stroke by the direction of resolving the action. The basic rule in dubling the attack is that the closest team mates to be placed in low position, near the one who carries out the attack, regardless of area in which it is located. Recommendations of collaboration during the game between team mates are common tactic regardless of the solution adopted. 380 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Players act all the time to attack the area, trying to be closer or further away from the net, depending on the pass. Passes to the net position of defense is more advanced and in the cases far from the net, more withdrawn [3]. Placement of players in defense must be 'elastic', it may adapt and target according to the appeals of players effects of the team. In the situation of blockage in two players, the defense focuses mainly on the success of this action and in the secondary on the takeover of the attack. In defense we shall ensure in preference with blockade doubling, because in such cases shall be placed or put more balls.

References [1] M. Pomohaci - Volleyball Course, “Alma Mater” Publishing, Sibiu, 2002. [2] M. POENAR - Volleyball Course, Garamond Publishing, Cluj-Napoca, 1995. [3] Stroe Şt., Serban M. - Metodic. Guide. Volleyball, Bucharest, 1996.

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THE MISSIONS OF ENGINEER STRUCTURES IN THE CONTEXT REGARDING ROMANIAN ARMY TRANSFORMATION

Sup.Instr. Iacovescu Ion, Iacovescu Andrada

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract The engineer branch has proven to be of a great importance in our country in the accomplishment of the Great Unification from 1918 and also externally, among the actions of N.A.T.O. and E.U. It adopted the terms of mobility and countermobility, which are capital in military action’s development. Mobility is necessary to ensure concentration of effort and rapid deployment in order to engage the enemy or disengage by it and the Countermobility operations affect enemy’s capacity to run without restrictions maneuvers prohibiting his opportunity to use the land. Military analysts feedback reflects that the engineer branch had and will have an important role in the action by the belligerents. There have been used performant technical-material means, techniques and methods of implementing modern engineering works, executed in a considerable volume being started long before triggering the military actions, then continued on a large scale, throughout the war.

In the context regarding Romanian Army transformation passed not less than 149 years since “the birth” of the engineer branch, while this was deeply involved in the accomplishment of the Great Unification from 1918, in the two world wars to reestablish Romania’s territorial integrity and not the last it also actively participated in the events that happened in 1989. Since its origins the engineer branch consists in a highly complex table of specialities – even though meanwhile some of these specialities separated becoming independent branches and specialities, like communications and 382 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

informatics, building, railroading – containing nowadays pioneer units, bridgework units, E.O.D., and also specialized military personnel from technical units. Externally, we must enhance the presence of romanian engineering structures outside the borders, among the actions of N.A.T.O. and E.U., for the peace implementing operation development in Bosnia – Hertzegovina , stability and support operations – in the field operations from Angola, Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Irak. I refer to the activities developed on the national territory against the effects of the afflictions, activities which meant providing food, mineral water, blankets; rescue missions for the people from the afflicted regions; reestablishing road and railroad flow because of terrain instability, by creating check- points on the bridges; participating with forces to ensure the safety on the period to which followed the N.A.T.O. Summit form Bucharest in 2008. In support operations engineering structures are used to help the external or internal civil authorities, when these prepare or answer to crisis and other special situations which are beyond their possibilities, by assuring support, services, equipment, and specialized material. Support operations include internal support operations (I.S.O.) and external humanitary assistance (E.H.A.). In addition to the branch specific missions in domestic support operations, engineering structures like Land Force are running activities in support of the imposition of civil law, such as: a) combating terrorism; b) antidrug operations; c) military assistance during civil disorders; d) general support. As operations within the Alliance, by their nature become more expeditionary, the requirements for support engineering effectively 383 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

given to all participating forces are increased. Since engineering tasks require a large amount of forces, resources and time, the early identification of support engineering requirements will help to establish important constraints at all levels, from the strategic to the tactical. By their nature, engineering forces are often used to work in small groups, organized for the mission, in short periods reorganizing when necessary. The engineering structures reshape undergone a restructuring process in order to adapt to new operational requirements aims to a polarization of engineering support as of its two forms of manifestation: engineering combat support, engineering strength support. This restructuring should lead to a more efficient use engineer force in all types of operations. Modular organization implies the existence of a number determined by subunits for each specialty with the same structure and capacity. This presents great advantages and can provide the operationalization in short time of a sufficient number of structures capable of responding to a wide range of applications. The new organization is based on well-defined functional subunits able to perform tasks for the entire range of expressions of engineering support, filled with subunits for the execution of engineering tasks, which involve high skills and, especially, considerable material efforts engineering support enforcement, should be made, taking into account: ™ type of forces that support them; ™ type of threat which must cope with them; ™ the time, season, relief and climate; ™ the engineer effort to be developed for tasks; ™ level of logistical support; ™ level of interoperability with the structures of the Alliance to fulfill missions. Mobility is necessary to ensure concentration of effort and rapid deployment in order to engage the enemy or disengage by it. The fighting forces need the opportunity to move quickly and freely in the area of operations to accomplish their basic missions. The most important task of engineering forces to support mobility is crossing obstacles. They also should ensure the roads/itinerary viability, so as

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to allow the movement of forces from the rear, of supply convoys and evacuation of the wounded. Countermobility operations affect enemy’s capacity to run without restrictions maneuvers prohibiting his opportunity to use the land. Also these operations can reduce the numerical superiority effect of an attacker and can lead him into areas where it can be defeated. Countermobility planning must also take into account the own forces needs of maneuver. The countermobility operations must be put in balance to disrupt the enemy mobility, but not without limiting your own ability to maneuver without restrictions. The obstacles can be targeted based on the land, objectives or situation. The probability to operate in an urban / close environment requires a capacity for coherent countermobility as in other areas of open land, with the intention to direct the movement of the enemy in areas established before. In order to achieve the required effects upon enemy’s manuever, planning obstacles seeks information to prepare the battlefield and estimative processes. The commander expresses its intention on the integration of the obstacles by the joint forces and seeks to maintain freedom of maneuver of its own forces at the same time with preventing enemy’s maneuver by interrupting, fixing or blocking. Engineering support to maintain operational capability includes the physical protection of personnel, weapons and materials against the effect of enemy weapons and the various systems of detection. May include measures to conceal and trick. Engineering forces strengthen the protection measures of the units within the resources available and considered priorities. Engineering support focuses on tasks that require special skills and specialized equipment. The protective measures are starting to use coatings and the possibilities of natural hide, followed by digging and developing combat positions and defense workings. During stability and support operations the design, ensuring the resources, providing the necessary facilities for force protection, including fields and ensuring utilities are engineer’s responsibility. 385 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

This important task requires a wide range of skills and equipment for force protection to make it able to carry out effective operations throughout the spectrum of operations. Military analysts feedback reflects that the engineer branch had and will have an important role in the action by the belligerents. There have been used performant technical-material means, techniques and methods of implementing modern engineering works, executed in a considerable volume being started long before triggering the military actions, then continued on a large scale, throughout the war. The overall conclusion is that the engineering branch still has an important place and growing role in the modern war, the fight actions efficiently specific to this being determined mostly by the degree of modernization of the structures, technical-material endowment and forces training.

References 1. www.edict.ro

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MORPHO FUNCTIONAL INDICES INFLUENCE IN TERMS OF THE FORCE MOTIVE QUALITY

Sup.instr. Vrâncianu Ionel

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Together with the speed, endurance and skill, force is a psychical skill, which is inseparable from any other sport. This paper aims at presenting the five methods to improve the force, methods, which have a solid scientific base, which in time lead to the best records for the sportsman physical training.

The force represents the human being capacity to fight an imposed force in kilograms. The muscle force is one of the most important motive qualities, which influence not only the execution force, but also the activities which impose certain endurance and skills. The force’s motive quality depends on the central nervous system, on the physiologic parts of the fibers, on the chemical processes which take place within the muscle, as well as the will efforts and attention concentration that the sportsman is capable of. In order to develop the necessary force, we need to take into account the following aspects: • The simultaneous mobilization of the functional units’ maximum number (neuro - muscle ones); • The will effort maximum expressing and also the attention focusing on the developing activity; • Increasing the muscle physiologic section. The motive force’s quality is efficiently and rapidly developed obeying the following principles:

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1. The Continuity In practicing the force training, it is known that the force is obtained in three year time process and is lost in a matter of 3 weeks. During the training process, the body adapts itself more and more to the increased effort, getting ready for sustainable effort. Once the training process is interrupted, or the rhythm is slowed down, the body loses the performing capacity and the force to face the efforts in question. In order to register the increased muscle effort, one needs to train for an increased period of time, as it takes functional changes and also structural ones, at the muscle level, changes that take place as the result of the considerable efforts performing. The decreasing of the muscle force directly depends on the number of the interruptions and pause periods; the more important these are, the more reduced is the performing force to face the effort and also the fastest these take place.

2. Effort’s Continuous Increasing The effort’s continuous increasing, in order to increase the effort capacity and the muscle force, highly depends on the body’s capacity to adapt to new and sustained efforts. This complex process is developed in time and needs quantitative stages, based on the quantitative accumulation of strength which takes place during the sport training process. The qualitative salt, in terms of the muscle force, which strictly depends on the body’s inter-dependence with the effort capacity and is developed on a three month period of time. Although there are no limits to the body’s capabilities to adapt to the new environments, during the training process, we must take into account the fact that there are two essential conditions: • The body’s gradual adapting to the effort in order to successfully face the imposed conditions; • Obeying the rigorous alternation to effort with the proper rest, imperiously necessary for the body’s recovery; The body’s recovery, once the training sessions are over, aim at: neuro-muscle recovery, metabolic and neuropsychological recovery.

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Means to Develop the Force’s Motive Qualities In order to develop the motive force’s quality, we must properly understand the transformation process in our life time. Therefore, we must pay a special attention to the force’s gradual development up to the age of 25-30, then to the stability period, strictly followed by the decreasing period. As a consequence, the force development is based on the natural changes creating, along with the body’s proper development. By force training, we refer to the pedagogic process to guide the development in order to register important changes that we have aimed at.

1. Maximal and Supra-Maximal Effort method This method is highly featured by the fact that the sportsman makes the maximal and supra maximal effort, according to his present capabilities, for a regular exercise. These efforts, which crate a maximum excitement in terms of the central nervous system, train the neuropsychological components, along with the muscle mass, in order to create the essential elements for the force indices’ increasing. As part of the regular exercises, we use weights representing 100- 120 % of the maximal possibilities of the sport man, that day. The repeated number of exercises used by the sportsman in his maximal and supra maximal efforts are of minimum one, as well as the series number, from one to three. The exercises which use these efforts are also unique, from three to six; therefore, a training session volume is reduced and personalized, according to the individual capabilities and needs. In the mean time, this volume is developed within 1-2 stages from 2 to 6 sessions in a weekly cycle, according to the training needs and individual possibilities. The basic features for this method rely on the fact that this method is not to be used be itself, but along with other important methods.

2. Great Effort Method This method is the most often used one in order to develop the pure force. The sportsmen use weights representing 80 to 100% of 389 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

their maximal strength, at a certain time. This methods’ main principle is the one referring to the accomplishment of the maximal effort by mean s of lifting a weight of up to 100% of the strength for that particular day; immediately they go back to the 90% capability which is developed in two series, and eventually they perform exercises using 80% of their capability, in series of three to six exercises with one to three repeating in six to nine series. The great effort method provides the nervous components’ effort by means of maximum excitation, but also by means of muscle fiber hypertrophy, thus increasing the muscle fibers, the muscle transversal diameter, in order to provide the muscle force’s material support. The training session volume is quite reduced, with a short period of time, of about two hours and is developed from two to six times a week, according to the training requirements.

3. Isometric Effort’s Method Isometric method is featured by the fact that the sportsman develops an effort from 80 to 100% of his strength; he performs three exercises using the fixed gym devices, for six to twelve seconds, in six to nine series. This effort, known as the static one, is based on the maximum straining of the muscle groups in different positions, without longitudinally changing the muscle. The main goal of this exercise is to train the neuro-muscle elements necessary for the force development. That is why this method combines more exercises, which aim at the muscle group’s hypertrophy development. It is not recommended to strain for more than 12 seconds, as it suddenly brings along a special fatigue of the nervous system, which in such cases is quite strained. All in all, the total straining time sums up 3.2 seconds (3 exercises in 6 series) and 5 minutes for 3 exercises in 9 series. After each repeating series and after each exercise, it is recommended to have a pause of 90 seconds. It is quite necessary to have a 30 minute pause between the straining sessions, developed in series of 6 and 45 minutes break for those developed in series of 9, adding 30 minutes for each series of free exercises, in order to warm u the body and all the muscle groups performing the training; these 390 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

warming ups are compulsory before the straining sessions, and the necessary time to train, including the isometric effort is of one to ninety minutes and is to be repeated 2-6 times in a week, depending on the training goals. The necessary effort in this respect is reduced, especially due to the central nervous system requirements and that is why the training sessions are quite intense.

4. Power Method – Explosive Effort Training This method is applied during the speed process force development and is developed with weights of 75-95% of the individual capability, thus using 3-6 repeating session, fir each exercise. We perform 3 groups of exercises: the weight lifting exercise, the medicine ball exercise (throwing), the acrobatic exercise (jumps). The 9 exercises are performed in turn, followed by a break of 1-3 minutes and then again exercise. The sportsman programme is the following: after the warming up, the muscle groups are strained according to the weights and then he will take a 3-5 minute break followed by pushing exercises with 75% of the capability, in 3 series and also 4 series, than the walking with 75% in 4 series of 3 repeated sections. Once these exercises are performed and the break is gone, the sportsman develops again the 9 exercises with 85% weight capacity, and then the 95% capacity.

5. Middle Effort Method The middle effort allows the muscle development in a speed stage, but also in a resistance state, according to the weights used and the repeated sessions. According to the specific features, this method is differentiated, as following: • For the force guided sports, the method has the following aspects: when there are weights of 30-50% of the maximal capacity, developed in a maximum speed, in 3-6 repeated sessions and in 6-9 series, one will develop a speed programme; when one performs the same weights and the same number of series, but in a larger number of series, the exercise is performed in order to develop the resistance force.

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• For the resistance force guided sports, there are two situations: when we use weights of 50-80% of the maximal possibilities performed in 3-6 repeated session, and 6-9 series, one develops the speed program; if the same weights and a greater number of series are performed, then the sportsman benefits from a resistance programme. • The training sessions’ volume is a middle one, going back to 3- 6 hours for every training session, in a weekly cycle of training, according to the training requirements.

Bibliography 1. DRAGNEA A. Antrenamentul sportiv, Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House , Bucharest 1996. 2. Tudor, V. Capacităţile condiţionale, coordonative şi intermadiare - componente ale capacităţilor motrice, Coresi Publishing House, Bucharest, 1999. 3. DRAGENEA A. , TEODORESCU, MATE S. Teoria sportului, Fest Publishing House , Bucharest, 2002. 4. FRÂNCU E. Managementul Activităţii sportive, Ex Porto Publishing House, Constanţa, 2003.

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APPROACH ON THE EVALUATION IN THE MILITARY TRAINING PROCESS

Chief Instr. Aramă Ghiţă

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Until not so long ago, the evaluation process gave a great importance measuring the students results, as a manner of objectivity assurance and grades providing. The analyze of negative effects of curriculum evaluation and of teaching-learning activity (it is taught what is evaluated, the students learn only what they have for the exam), has generated an increased interest for a new approach of evaluation: evaluation becomes a process in teaching-learning activity, and has place in ordinary situations. The authentic evaluation supports the teaching-learning process, without changing it, and follows the quality of learning and makes easier the development of self-evaluation skills of the students.

Many specialists don’t agree with multiple choice tests, because they don’t measure the important aspects and they don’t have the capacity to evaluate the superior skills of student, but only memorizing ability, recognizing and solving problem skills. In addition, these tests don’t explain why students have reached those performances, meaning that they have a small diagnose value. A study, made by National Centre of Research from USA proved that only 5-10% of top students at standard tests can explain their answers. The authentic evaluation means ways of evaluation in order to start a complete analyze of students knowledge, emphasizing the idea of requesting to students to prove that he/she can manage in similar situations outside school, of resolving complex tasks, of searching for solutions, of making products, and all these allow the student to use 393 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

the knowledge and generate new ones. In stead of resolving multi- choice items, the students are involved in scientific experiments, run social researches, write essays and projects and solve math problems in real situations. The teacher has to create learning opportunities, regarding the students level, has to involve the parents, and teachers in the evaluation process. For this, teachers need to have more information about “hoe student learn” The evaluation must have a context, must be related to the connection between experience and what they learn at school. To sum up, the basis characteristics of evaluation are based on: − the relevance of evaluation tasks for students performances and testing the students in situations similar to those from the real life: they have to make the experiments, not memorize information, they have to resolve true situations, to meditate upon what they learnt and the way they can express their learning style, their capabilities, skills and interests, all these as a development source and a starting point in the identification of strong points. − the essential aspects, through evaluation criteria and assurance of knowledge unity, recording to the idea:” The whole is more important that one piece” − the developments of self-evaluation skills; the students analyze their results, compare them and reconstruct their learning strategy. − the feeling that their work is important and not only the final results. The authentic evaluation characterizes itself by its integration in the curriculum, in order to become difficult to limit from instruction. The purposes specific to evaluation diversify and combine themselves with purposes specific to teaching and learning. The evaluation becomes indeed a way of sustaining/ transforming the teaching- learning process, of confirming the positive aspects and of rapid and efficient correction of defaults. Another significant aspect when analyzing the contribution of the authentic evaluation to the interdisciplinary projection of knowledge consists in the peculiarity of evaluation methods. The ,,alternative’’ procedures, specific to the authentic evaluation- the lay- out, the 394 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

portfolio, the inquiry and so on.- they are in the same time teaching- learning methods and also ways of evaluation. They allow the teacher to analyze directly the student’s activity, to evaluate the process which finalizes by some results, and not only the final products. In ,,The main body of the National Curriculum for Compulsory Education’’, the principles regarding the teaching and learning activities emphasize the next ideas: − the consideration of age and individual particularities- a main mark in the process of forming the teaching- learning situations; − the vary and flexibility of teaching- learning situations by using the various methods and procedures, and also interactive in order to motivate, to stimulate the kid, to form the initiative, the imagination, the creativity, the wish to learn; − focusing on objectives which pursue the formation of capabilities, competences, attitudes; − focusing on the kid in order to project learning activities. In consequence, fitting the educational process to the students’ particularities demands a new onset of the activity, more flexible and closer to the real experiences of students. The interdisciplinarity is, in this context, an adequate methodological solution. As in case of other elements of the educational process, it’s not sufficient a single innovative intervention. The integral or interdisciplinarity onset of the contents needs to be followed by the modernization of the other aspects of the educational process: the finalities, the procedures of managing the learning, the strategies, the methods and means used, the evaluation and so on. Next, analyzing the contribution of the authentic evaluation to the interdisciplinary projection of learning, we’ll discuss about two of the alternative methods of evaluation which have a major potential in this direction: the lay-out and the portfolio. The lay-out represents an intricate method, which needs a great period of time (one or a couple of week). It appeared at the beginning of the XX century, due to the need of flexibility and of social relevance of the curriculum, also as modality to equalize the chances. The lay-out determines the student to make the plan of some activities deployed in school, but one selected out of the school, under the teacher supervision, starting with the identification of one problem. 395 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

For example, a lay-out at ,, Civic education’’ can follow the direction of the children rights or different moral aspects. Other lay- outs can be about the causes or the effects of the pollution of the environment. In order to make those, students must look for information, to combine it, to formulate problems and to solve them. They need to combine the text with the drawing, collage and so on. The lay-out can be made individual or in group. Its structure in a group brings more advantages. The individual peculiarities reclaim the organization of the activities in small groups, where tasks can be individualized and it can be much easier to measure the performances and the recorded progress. Reciprocal learning represents an efficient way of learning and, usually, less used in school, which appears in the learning context in small groups and in the development of lay-outs. The educational strategies must include the process of learning trough cooperation, the learning trough the discovery system, the game, because these are methods of interdisciplinary onset which create a pleasant , stimulant context, which develops the interests, the child’s needs and their life experiences and also creates the premises of self-learning and those of school success. The portfolio includes the relevant harvests, obtained through the other methods and evaluation techniques (written tests, oral examination, field-tests, self-evaluations, project work, systemic observation of the behavior) or through extracurricular activities. This represents “the calling card” of the student, following his progress in period of time. The structure or the elements of the portfolio are, generally, given by the teacher. The student has the liberty to add in materials which he considers necessaries or which are representative for him. Although some elements of the portfolio were evaluated separately, in that moment, by the teacher, it can be done a global appreciation of the portfolio. In these situations, the teacher establishes abroad criteria, holistic, which he can communicate to the students from the beginning. From the interdisciplinary analysis perspective of learning and evaluation, the project and he portfolio presents the next advantages: ‐ it promote the global development of the personality, through the capitalization of the acquisitions from different study disciplines,

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through the integration of the information, of the capabilities, of the habitudes and the values/ attitudes. ‐ it stimulates the student’s responsibility, through the themes selection and achievements methods free choice. ‐ it evaluates the students when they are in the process of learning/ action. ‐ it emphasizes the identification/ statement of the problems and then the solving them. ‐ it engages the students in real situations, they have practical significations, social, economic and they have some overtones in moral education. ‐ it move de accent from “to learn about” to “to know how”, and promotes learning through the direct contact with the things (active school). ‐ it encourages self-evaluation, thinking, better then retention or recognition of an information. ‐ they are interactive and engage the students into the comprehension of the evaluation. The hole learning tackling and the utilization of the evaluation alternative methods stimulates creating a collaboration relation, of trust and respect between the teacher and students, and between students too. The student does not feel like is “controlled”, but supported. The teacher must be more like an learning situation organizer and an communication element between the student and the society, who goes between and facilitates the access to the information. The involvement of the students in the educational process must be realized in all the sides: teaching-learning-evaluation.

Conclusions The teaching evaluation reform of the grade school, passing from a grade evaluation to one with qualifying, started from the conception in which, the purpose of the evaluation in grade school especially, does not be the punctual punishment or rewarding of the students, to establish of an hierarchy, but learning motivation of the students, in the same time with observation and stimulation of the pro, using the description performance items.

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The curriculum reform followed the flexibility of the training offer, the assurance of the information that they stored, and equalization of he education chances through the appropriateness of the curriculum to the student’s particularities. Using the alternative or complementary evaluation methods encourages the creation of an agreeable learning climate, relaxed, the students being evaluated in their ordinary learning environment, through framework tasks: realizing experiments, project-works, portfolios, being in the same time both training tasks and evaluation tests. It is important that the students understand the evaluation criteria, the evaluation process, for being able to think about their achievements, to explain them and to find modalities of progress. The students don’t have to be evaluated between them; the purpose is not to make a hierocracy, but to see the evolution, the progress, and the achievements. The interdisciplinary approach represents an efficient path for modernizing the finalities and the containing o the education. The evaluating alternative methods impose the interdisciplinary design of the contents, like a base for the authentic evaluation.

References [1] Bloom, Benjamin S., and others, Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. [2] Cucoş, Constantin, Pedagogie, Iaşi, Polirom Publishing House, 1996, pag.77-79 [3] Furst, Edward L., Constructing Evaluation Instruments, New York: Longuano, Green and Co., 1968. [4] Gronlund, Norman E., Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching, New York: MacMillan, 1965. [5] Nunnally, J. C., Educational Measurement and Evaluation, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. [6] Perspective - Revista de Didactica Limbii şi Literaturii Române, Nr.2/2001, Cluj, Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, pag.44. [7] Ungureanu, Adalmina, Metodica studierii limbii şi literaturii române, Iaşi, AS'S Publishing House, 2003, pag.91-97 [8] www.edict.ro

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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT WITHIN MANAGEMENT

Instr. Hila Florin

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu

Abstract Background and purpose. The sport activity and its development could not be referred to without taking into account the management itself. Methods. In this respect, we have adopted a narrative review. The different theoretical explanations concerning the sport activity and management are thus reviewed. Results and conclusions. It is noted that these explanations claim validity for both, the sport activity and the management. Therefore, we draw the conclusion that the sport activity could not be separated from management.

Keywords: Management, Sport activity, Theory, Functions.

We live in a continuous changing world, a world where information is the one providing the supremacy:”The one who holds the information, holds the power”, says the famous futurist Alvin Toffler, while the power, besides income and prestige represent the main indices of the social status, of the collective treasure, which we all enjoy. The third year professionals, regardless of his activity, is the one managing as many information as possible, not by himself, but in a complex system human-technology- environment. The professional training of the future specialists is more than the competence one gets in a strict filed of activity, but he must obey the fundamental society’s principle ” the informational society”, namely the inter-disciplinarily. An economist must have proper sociology knowledge, a jurist needs the psychology competence, while the future trainer must hold

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the key to the psycho-pedagogical skills and capabilities; all these need the managerial knowledge. This is the reason why, the curricula of most universities have disciplines as: economic sociology, juridical psychology, or management, either educational management or economics’ unit management, or as it is the case the sport’s management. The management, as created and developed imposes any type of organization, regardless of its activity, and forces it to lead and organize, according to the modern principles and methods, thus aiming not only at a special outcome, but also at an increased reason. This reason is expressed by means of efficiency, which needs a scientific management of the entire activities, a rational harmonizing of these principles, namely not only a theoretical implication, but also a practical managerial one. Management is a process whose finality is represented by the organizational goals themselves, by means of efficient coordination of the physical rsources’ creating, using and allocating within an organization and by means of maintaining the organization in question, in a balanced environmental state. The term management is quite a new concept in this respect, and it is highly necessary to delimitate the term’s conceptual limits. The modern specialized literature assesses this term as having several meanings: • Management is a science, namely an organized and coherent knowledge assemble systematically defining the norms, processes developing within organization management; • The management is an art reflecting its pragmatic side, consisting in the manager’s skills to apply, on different occasions, the scientific knowledge in terms of efficient conditions; • Management is a specific state of mind, highly reflected by the subjective thinking to search or accept the progress.

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MANAGEMENT

SCIENCE ART STATE OF MIND

Figure 1 – The management meaning

These meanings of the management concept are the result of an impressive defining assessment. Therefore, we mention only the definition provided by H Johannesen and A. B. Robertson, who see management as the art or science to direct, and manage other peoples’ work in order to reach the settled goals, the decision process and the leading one. In this context, THE HUMAN BEING is the centre of the management’s investigation, in his own complexity, not only as a subject, but also as an object, as well as physical education and sport. As a science, management deals with highlighting the management methods, techniques and instruments, with their scientific formal and setting concept, meant to get them within the coherent conception of the management process. The accomplishing of a theoretic management system was allowed by the outstanding scientific personalities’ contribution, out of which we highlight F. Taylor, who, by means of his works has changed the technical conception into a systematic one, H Fayol, who encoded the leading process mechanism, and E. Schmalenbach, the initiator of the economic process mechanism and J. Schumpeter, the first to have raised the issue of the management’s cardinal role, in the modern economy. The previously highlighted major approached themes and also the ones of other outstanding pioneers represented the basic elements of the management science conceptual frame.

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Management as well as physical education is a multidiscipline character science, including the sociologic methods, the psycho logic one, the juridical and statistical ones. Once the theoretic defining of the concept has been processed (definition, theories within management science), almost all specialized books go to highlighting the management functions which also represents our next step in assessing the management concepts, as it is extremely important to efficiently analyze the management functions in this respect, namely: prevision, organization, coordination, training and control-assessment. The prevision function anticipates the conditions’ evolution hat the led social economic system (sport unit), as well as its state, behavior and functioning. By means of this function, we set the sport goals aimed at, the human resources, the material ones, the financial and information ones and also the necessary means to accomplish them. The prevision function is materialized in terms of the plans, programs and prognoses. The organization function designates the management process assemble to set and delimit the physical and intellectual components (moves, tasks, attributions), as well as their grouping on positions, departments; the personnel is grouped on economic criteria on technical and social ones, in order to efficiently accomplish the provisionary goals and conditions. This function provides the answer to the question ”who and how contributes to the goals’ accomplishing?” The management function consists on all the process assemble by means of which one adapts to the sport units, in the present conditions, at a time and a placed previously imposed, while in the same time providing the synchronization of the managerial actions, of the decisions issued within different echelons of the organization’s structure, in order to efficiently accomplish the previously set goals. The coordination practical support is represented by the communication between leaders and subordinates. The training function refers to the labor process assemble to persuade the sport unit’s personnel to contribute to the provisioned goals’ setting and accomplishing, by means of the motivating factors. The practical support of the training process is the motivation itself.

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The controlling- assessing function refers to the labor process assemble by mean of which the sport unit’s performances , its sub- units and personnel are assessed and compared with the initially set standards and goals, in order to eliminate the faults and the positive integration deviations. These five management’s functions are theoretically differentiated, these representing the system to put into practice in terms of all the sport units’ types and of all the hierarchical levels. Still theoretically we have made the difference between the sport management and the other forms of management (education management, commercial management, human resource management), which are all adaptation to the general management, highly connected by a mutual inter-conditioning. The sport management imposes every sport unit to lead and organize itself, according to the modern principles and methods, aiming at its final efficiency. The sport unit may be compared to the complex organism where the organization factors combine, and where the practical training and scientific research, capitals are created. All these management forms are nothing g but some adaptations to the general management, to the human activity field specific. In this context, in order to accomplish a deep assessment at the sport level institution, it is necessary to know the activity goal, the formal features for all the concepts, as well as the existing environment. The sport institution is the type of human organization to train and build up sports men in order to participate in the national and international competition system. The means to develop these sport unit activities are quite numerous, these highly depending on the material development, on the concentration degree of the activities, on the scientific activity development, on the property nature, on the national features, and last but not least, on the professional competence , capacity of the specialists in the field. The sport unit may be compared to a complex organism where the organization nature factors take place, where the practical training, scientific research, and capital are assessed, thus obtaining its necessary existence results. 403 Knowledge Based Organization 2008 International Conference

Besides management and performance the most used concepts in this paper are physical education and sport. We aim at explaining the means of these phenomena, each of them designating different social aspects, strictly connected to one another.

MANAGEMENT PERFORMANŢĂ

EDUCAŢIE SPORT FIZICĂ

The most important assessed terms:

PHYSICAL EDUCATION SPORT - general education’s -it is a conditioning social phenomenon (as component others) according to the social development level and type - goal: biologic potential - goal: maximum performance obtaining dimension - organization: instructive- - organization: sport for everybody, the educative process and performance sport’s basic principle, the independent activity performance sport and the high performance sport - it has a predominantly - it has a predominantly competitive character formal character

We have previously presented, as a table, a brief description of the terms in question, which highlight the institution’s mission in the

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physical education and sport, such as: the social mission, the educative one, the psycho-pedagogic one, the health one, the image one. Management is not only a discipline in the curricula; it is more featured by the profession concept. According to professor Ion Petrescu, “an expert in the management filed”, we do agree that management is the profession to impose, besides experience and personal skills, a thorough training and an aimed one. The manager must possess certain technical and economic knowledge, specific juridical and psychological knowledge, which he uses to improve his actions. “he must approach the practical side, thus using a thorough theoretical thinking, as management has become a scientific concept”. Basically, Management represents the joining of science and leadership. Nevertheless, management refers to the leading science or to the scientific leading of an activity in the field.

Bibliography 1. Bogdan, Ioan (coordonator) – Tratat de management financiar-bancar, Economic Publishing House , Bucharest. 2. Cristea, Ioana – Management sportiv, Ex Ponto Publishing House , Constanţa, 2000. 3. Frîncu, Elena – Managementul activităţii sportive, Ex Ponto Publishing House , Constanţa, 2003. 4. Lador, Ioan Ion – Bazele toretice ale managementului sportiv, University Publishing House , Piteşti, 2000. 5. Nicolescu, Ovidiu and Verboncu, Ion – Management, Economic Publishing House , Bucharest , 1999. 6. Dionisie Marian Turcu – Mangement in educatie fizica si sport, Continent Publishing House , 2001.

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