Muslim

THEIRAustralians BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS A Partnership under the Australian Government’s Living In Harmony initiative

by Professor Abdullah Saeed

DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRATION AND MULTICULTURAL AND INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS and AUSTRALIAN MULTICULTURAL FOUNDATION in association with THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE (c) Copyright Commonwealth of Australia 2004

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Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 3 CONTENTS

Introduction ...... 4

Muslim Community in Australia: A View from the 2001 Census ...... 5

Muslims in Australia ...... 7

Beginning of Islam ...... 12

Key Beliefs of a Muslim ...... 17

The Five Pillars of Islam ...... 21

Commonalities and Differences ...... 26

Muslim Family Life ...... 30

The Milestones in a Muslim’s Life ...... 32

Muslim Women ...... 35

Holidays and Holy Days ...... 42

Sacred Places ...... 43

Sacred Texts ...... 45

Determining Right and Wrong ...... 48

Food and Drinks ...... 52

Mosques and Religious Leaders ...... 53

Community Organisations ...... 55

Islamic Schools: Weekend and Regular ...... 56

Islamic Banking ...... 58

Islam and Violence ...... 59

Islam and Other Religions ...... 62

Stereotypes and Misconceptions ...... 66

Islam, State and Australian Citizenship ...... 73

Contact Details

Mosques in Australia ...... 75

Muslim Organisations ...... 78

Muslim Schools ...... 79

Useful References ...... 80

Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 3 Introduction

Muslims often tends to imply that In a simple and easily Muslims are a homogenous group, this book shows their diversity.

Readers of this book will find understandable way, this book some similarity between topics covered in this book and another presents key aspects of Islam book I published earlier, Islam in Australia (Allen & Unwin, 2003). However, the audience envisaged and Muslim life and shows the for the present book is high school students. The two books therefore variety of voices within Islam on differ in detail, format, choice of topic and voice. Certain topics covered briefly in the present book a number of issues of concern to can be found in some detail in Islam in Australia. the average Australian. I would like to thank Rachel Butson for her contribution in refining the original manuscript and identifying and providing me with some of the his book was commissioned and Muslims in Australia, including ‘stories’ in the book as well as for her as part of a major project in the category of high school research assistance. Similarly, I would which looked into the role textbooks. In the current climate of T like to thank Professor Des Cahill of of religion in Australian society: anxiety about Islam in Australia, and RMIT University and Professor Gary ‘Religion, Cultural Diversity and as a result of the events of September Bouma of Monash University as well Social Cohesion in Contemporary 11, 2001, the Bali bombing in 2002 as Mr Hass Dellal of the Australian Australia’, a project that was funded and the ‘war on terror’, it was felt that Multicultural Foundation, the by the Department of Immigration such a book was greatly needed. three chief investigators of the project and Multicultural and Indigenous Muslim Australians are not very large that commissioned this book, for Affairs. As part of this project, I was in number. In fact they represent less their reading of the manuscript and asked to write a brief introductory than two percent of the Australian their comments. text that was primarily for high population. However, the recent school students but at the same time I hope this book will be helpful in media coverage of Islam and Muslim could be used by the general reader explaining something about the related issues has led to significant with no prior knowledge of Islam. religion of a growing number of interest in Australia in knowing more The book is thus an overview of the Australians and will contribute to a about the religion and its adherents. fundamental beliefs, practices and better understanding of Islam today. In a simple and easily understandable institutions of Islam. In addition, way, this book presents key aspects it contains some basic information of Islam and Muslim life and shows about Muslims in Australia and the variety of voices within Islam on how they interact with the wider a number of issues of concern to the Australian society. Relatively little has average Australian. While the media been written that sheds light on Islam Abdullah Saeed representation of Islam and

4 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 5 Muslim Community in Australia A view from the 2001 Census.

Muslims in Australian cities Muslims in Australia and Country of Birth of Citizenship Australian Muslims Which suburbs do Muslims live in? » An overwhelming majority, » The most frequently cited country 79%, of Muslims in of birth for Australian Muslims Sydney - Auburn Australia have obtained is Australia (approximately (9,737 Muslims or 36% of the Australian citizenship 103,000). The next is Lebanon total population of Auburn) (221,856 out of a total of (29,321). Melbourne - Meadow Heights 281,578). » Turkey is third, with 23,479 (5,195 or 33% of the population) Muslim Australians being born Canberra - Belconnen Town Muslim Migration to Australia there. Centre » Afghanistan, Bosnia-Herzegovina (117 or 4% of the population) » Before 1981 approximately 41,000 Muslims had settled in Australia, and Pakistan are the countries Perth - Thornlie making up 2% of migrants. of origin of approximately (871 or 4% of the population) 27,000 Australian Muslims, with » The proportion of Muslims approximately 9,000 people Brisbane - Runcorn immigrating to Australia is having been born in each of those (388 or 3% of the population) increasing steadily. countries. Darwin - Karama Between 1996 and 2000 Languages Spoken by (82 or 2% of the population) approximately 47,000 Muslims migrated to Australia. Australian Muslims Adelaide - Para Hills They represented 9% of » The three main languages spoken (150 or 2% of the population) Australia’s total immigration at home by Australian Muslims Hobart - Sandy Bay intake throughout that period. are Arabic, Turkish and English. (97 or 1% of the population) » In 2001 a further 7,533 Muslims » Approximately 95,000 of Muslims migrated to Australia. in Australia use Arabic, 45,000 use Turkish, and 32,000 use English Suburb with the highest as their language at home. percentage of Muslims

Dallas in Melbourne had the highest concentration of Muslims at 39% of the population. However, Dallas is a comparatively small suburb with only 6,346 residents.

4 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 5 English Language Proficiency

» The overwhelming majority of Australian Muslims are proficient in English.

» The age group that is most proficient in English is 21–39 (85% of the group), while the least proficient age group is aged 60+ (43% of the group).

Marital Status in Australian Muslim Community

» 41% of Australian Muslim women are married by the age of 24, while only 12% of their male counterparts are married by the same age.

» 51% of Australian Muslim males are married by the age of 34, while another 26% are married before they are 50.

» De facto relationships are uncommon. 3% of males in the age group 24–35 and 3% of females in the age group 21–24 are in de facto relationships.

6 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 7 MUSLIMS IN AUSTRALIA Origins of Islam in Australia

Origins of Islam in Australia A Muslim settler

ong before European Saib Sultan was a Muslim who came to Australia after sailing on the settlement, Muslims had Endeavour. He had eleven and a half acres on Norfolk Island but in 1809 he L contact with Australia and and his wife sailed as third-class passengers to Tasmania (or Van Dieman’s her peoples. Fishing for sea-slugs, the Land as it was known back then) on the Lady Nelson. His name was changed Macassans (an ethnic group from to Jacob and records show that by 1819 he had twenty-eight acres of pasture eastern Indonesia) began visiting the and two acres of wheat.1 northern shores of Australia in the seventeenth century. Evidence of their presence is found in cave drawings of the distinctive Macassan boats In the early twentieth century, From the 1970s onwards, there was a and in artefacts found in Aboriginal Muslims of non-European significant shift in the government’s settlements in the north. background must have found it very attitude towards immigration. difficult to come to Australia because Instead of trying to make new Some Muslim sailors and prisoners of a government policy which limited Australians ‘assimilate’ and forgo came to Australia on the convict ships immigration on the basis of race. their unique cultural identities, but very little is known about them Known as the White Australia Policy the government became more as they left no traces in the history it was used by the government of the accommodating and tolerant of books, except for a few scattered day put in place strict tests designed differences by adopting a policy of references to their names. to keep out people who had dark skin ‘multiculturalism’. By the beginning During the 1870s Muslim Malay or who were from non-European of the twenty-first century, Muslims divers were recruited through an backgrounds. But some Muslims from more than sixty countries had agreement with the Dutch to work still managed to come to Australia. settled in Australia. While a very large on West Australian and Northern In the 1920s and 1930s Albanian number of them come from Turkey Territory pearling grounds. By 1875 Muslims were accepted due to their and Lebanon, there are Muslims there were 1800 Malay divers working lighter European complexion, which from Indonesia, Bosnia, Iran, Fiji, in Western Australia. Most returned was more compatible with the White Albania, Sudan, Egypt, Palestine, to their home countries. Australia Policy. Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India, among others. Afghan cameleers settled in The need for population growth and Australia from the 1860s onwards. economic development in Australia Despite the occasional outspoken Camels were imported and used by led to the broadening of Australia’s politician who criticises European explorers to help open immigration policy in the post-World multiculturalism, broad sections up the dry interior and transport War II period. This allowed for the of Australians have acknowledged goods and services to different acceptance of a number of displaced and welcomed the contributions parts of the country. Due to the Muslims who began to arrive from made by recent immigrants. Muslim Afghans’ knowledge and expertise Europe. Moreover, between 1967 immigrants have become a part with camels, they were credited with and 1971, approximately 10,000 of developing Australia’s culture, saving the lives of numerous early Turks settled in Australia under an economy and religious knowledge. European explorers and were vital for agreement between Australia and exploration. Turkey. Almost all of these people went to Melbourne and Sydney.

1 Bilal Cleland, “The History of Muslims in Australia” in Abdullah Saeed and Shahram Akbarzadeh (eds), Muslim Communities in Australia, Sydney, NSW: UNSW Press, 2001, 14.

6 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 7 Contributions of Muslims to Australia It was the Afghans and their Muslims of various ethnic groups have contributed to the development camels that made it possible to of Australia, although they have not received broad recognition for this. gain access to the vast interior of The Afghans were the pioneers of the Muslim contribution to Australian life. In the nineteenth the Australian continent. century, the Afghan cameleers were recruited to Australia to assist in the On the contribution of Afghans to Australia early European exploration of the It was not until the arrival of the Afghan cameleers that Muslims started to continent. Camels, with their ability make some impact. Viewed mainly as necessary adjuncts to their beasts, the to endure long periods without role of the Afghans in opening up the interior of the continent to European drinking, were rightly recognised as settlement is only now being fully appreciated. At the time, the fear of racial being the best animal to use in the contamination dominated much of the national consciousness. However, European exploration of Australia’s without the Afghans, the exploration of central Australia would have been vast dry interior. impeded, the establishment of the inland telegraph would have been delayed The Afghan cameleers participated and many of the inland mining towns would not have survived2. in many expeditions to explore It was the Afghans and their camels that made it possible to gain access to Australia’s outback. They largely the vast interior of the Australian continent. They further proved themselves controlled the camel transport during the construction of the Overland Telegraph Line in 1870–73, industry in the late nineteenth contributing to both the survey and construction work and carrying loads of century and played a vital role materials into otherwise impenetrable country. When the Coolgardie gold rush in the economic development of occurred in 1894, the cameleers were quick to move in. The gold fields could Australia at the time, from the not have continued in existence without the food and water they transported.3 transport of goods, assistance with laying telegraph and railway lines, to establishing settlements in the In contemporary Australian life, Of the thousands of international outback. The invention of the motor Muslims from all over the world students studying in Australia, a car, however, meant that camels were have helped shape the nation. significant number are Muslims from no longer needed. Due to the end They have developed trade links countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia of the need for cameleers and the between Australia and several and Pakistan. Many have settled in prejudice against Afghans, which Muslim countries, particularly Australia under the government’s made it difficult for them to be Middle Eastern, for instance through ‘skilled’ migration program after accepted socially, many Afghans had the export of meat that has been completing studies at their own to return home or eke out a living slaughtered in a special way (often expense. under the harsh regime of the White referred to as halal meat). These Australia Policy. Muslims have opened up new channels for trade between Australia and their countries of origin.

2 Bilal Cleland, “The History of Muslims in Australia”, 12. 3 Bilal Cleland, “The History of Muslims in Australia”, 17.

8 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 9 Muslim doctors, engineers, lawyers, Australian Muslims Contrary to belief, most Muslims scientists, academics, tradespeople Today and Fundamental do not have any problems with and blue-collar workers are Australian Values4 these values. In fact, many Muslims participating fully in Australian life. have migrated to Australia precisely Australian society is based on a Muslim small businesses abound because of them. From a Muslim number of very important values in the major cities (for example, in point of view, Australia is a generous such as a ‘fair go’; parliamentary Auburn and Lakemba in Sydney and accommodating society that democracy and the rule of law; being and in Brunswick and Coburg accepts people from all over the open and friendly, particularly to in Melbourne) and are another world, of all faiths, colours, languages visitors to Australia; the freedom reminder of the role Muslims play in and ethnicities. Australia gives people to question and debate things the economic life of Australia. recognition and the freedom to rather than accept them blindly; practise, teach, and even propagate Muslims have promoted interfaith human rights, gender equality and their religion here. Such rights religious dialogue in order egalitarianism, and looking after and freedoms are not available in to encourage greater mutual each other in times of need, such as a significant number of Muslim understanding between people. They during bushfires, droughts, and other countries. For most Muslims, the have also been able to provide other disasters. It is safe to say that most values listed here are part of Islam Australians with greater knowledge Australians generally subscribe to too, and Muslims do not see any about the Muslim cultures in African, these values and, given that they are conflict between these values and Arab and Asian nations. a part of Australian society, Muslims their religion. are expected to subscribe to them. The Muslim community has However, there are some people in Certainly there is a small number of enhanced the debate in Australian Australia who believe that Muslims Muslims who insist that Australian society about the interests of cannot and will not do this. This is values, culture and society are foreign minority groups, which have often because Muslims are seen as rejecting to Islam and therefore unacceptable had their needs and opinions ignored Western values and fundamental to them. They think that the by mainstream society. Australian Australian values based on Western more Muslims are integrated into Muslims have asserted their desire to values. Australian society, the less ‘Muslim’ be treated equally and to be free from they are. Their interpretation of Islam negative stereotypes. emphasises maintaining a distinction Given that the community is still between Islam and anything establishing itself, it has not so far perceived to have originated outside participated in Australia’s political of Islam. It is important to remember life in a significant way. However, this that these opinions belong to a small may change as Muslims in Australia minority of Muslims and do not become more settled and interested represent the mainstream Muslim in participating in Australian opinion in Australia. democracy.

4 See Abdullah Saeed, Islam in Australia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 2003, 198-208.

8 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 9 Thirty-six Two Aussie Muslims Waleed was born in Melbourne in 1978 to parents of an Egyptian background. percent of He grew up to love cricket and football and barracks madly for the Richmond Football Club. His brother became a surgeon, while Waleed decided to study engineering and law at university. One of his favourite traditions is the Australia’s backyard Aussie barbeque with halal sausages and lots of rice. As a Muslim, Waleed goes to the mosque every Friday for prayers and fasts during the month current of Ramadan. Sometimes he even prays in the car park of the MCG so that he doesn’t miss his prayers while he is watching a Richmond game. Muslim Rachel, a descendent of English and Irish settlers to Australia, decided to convert to Islam in the late 1990s and has been practising it ever since. Although it sometimes attracts attention, Rachel decided to wear a headscarf population or hijab to show that she is proud of being a Muslim as well as of being an Australian. She has had to learn how to pray, speaking special words in Arabic, and one day hopes to go on pilgrimage to Mecca. Often people ask Rachel was born in where she is from and she smiles and tells them that she was born in Australia Australia. and is a convert to Islam.

Thirty-six percent of Australia’s The main issue for Muslims in Living as a minority current Muslim population was born Australia is not whether Australia is While most Muslims live in Muslim- in Australia. Many others came here a Muslim majority country or not; it majority countries (including at a very young age and grew up in is whether Muslims have equal rights Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Australia. For these people Australia and responsibilities with others, and Iran, Turkey and Egypt), many is their homeland, not a temporary whether they have the freedom to live as minorities in different stopping-place. This is where they practise and teach their religion, and countries around the world. This go to school and university, make Australia gives them this. Muslims was the case even in the time of the friends (with both Muslims and non- play an important part in making Prophet Muhammad, when some Muslims), get a job, establish a family Australia a multicultural and multi- of his followers fled to the Christian and home. There is nowhere else faith society, and are the third largest kingdom of Abyssinia to seek refuge they wish to go. Their understanding faith community after Christians and from the non-Muslim Meccans who of Islam is in harmony with Buddhists. were persecuting Muslims. fundamental Australian values.

10 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 11 Muslim population figures One of the major challenges for of religion, unlike in some Muslim- Muslims living in Western countries majority countries which are ruled » Of the 1300 million Muslims is adjusting traditional Islamic as dictatorships or where religious in the world more than 80% norms to Western contexts. This is a freedom is restricted. are non-Arab. challenge which Australian Muslims For many Muslims living in » A very large number of are facing as well. But it must be Australia, implementing religion Muslims live in Muslim remembered that this challenge on an individual level can be very minority contexts. Muslims live is being met remarkably well by important; for others being Muslim in almost all countries of the Muslims who have spent a good part is a cultural identity rather than world. Only two thirds of the of their lives or lived all their lives in a religious one. Muslims who try world’s Muslim population lives Australia. In this, they are no different to observe the faith may need to in Muslim majority countries, from other Australian citizens. They negotiate what is halal and haram which number 56. have adjusted their lifestyles, thinking (what is permitted and what is and practices to the Australian » There are significant Muslim forbidden in Islam). These areas can context and its basic values and minorities in India, China, include food, banking, dress, and systems. The theoretical discussions Russia, European countries, taking time to pray. For example, on this issue among Muslims are the United States and Canada. a Muslim should avoid pig meat somewhat divorced from reality, as Australia has a Muslim and alcohol when socialising with happens at times in the relationship minority numbering 281,578 non-Muslim friends and relatives. between ideas and practice. according to the 2001 Census. Some Muslims may feel reluctant to This is not to deny that there apply for loans and mortgages from are some Muslims who are not traditional Western interest-based This means that Muslim minorities, comfortable with the idea of banks, because many Muslims believe such as in Australia, are not unique. adjustment. Some Muslims think that charging interest is forbidden by In fact, throughout history, Muslims that it is their duty to establish Islam. Muslims may adopt Islamic have lived in minority contexts for an Islamic state and implement forms of dress and appearance (such very long periods. Thus the sorts Islamic law wherever they are, as a beard for men and a headscarf of problems Muslim minorities in even in a minority context. This for women) and Muslim employees Australia face should not be seen as is a misunderstanding of Islamic may ask to perform obligatory unique or unsolvable. teaching. In a Muslim-majority prayers at certain times during country where the religion of Islam the workday. Generally speaking, is well established, it is natural for Muslims who wish to observe the the society to reflect the norms and beliefs and practices of Islam attempt values of the religion. For Muslims to do so where possible. who live as minorities, it is their duty to implement Islamic norms and values in their individual lives as best they can. A Muslim can function as well in a minority situation as in a majority situation. Some would even argue that it is easier to live as a Muslim in democratic countries like Australia, which protect freedom

10 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 11 BEGINNING OF ISLAM

Muslims of the world Mecca The most important place of at a glance religious significance was the Ka`ba, n the sixth and the early seventh the cube-like building which stands » There are 1300 million Muslims centuries of the Common Era today in the middle of the Sacred in the world today. (CE), Mecca (in the country I Mosque (al-Masjid al-Haram) in known today as Saudi Arabia) was » 22% of the world’s population Mecca. It was visited by Arabs from a commercial town on the trade is Muslim. in and around Mecca as an important route between south and north centre of pilgrimage. It is believed » Approximately one-third Arabia. People of various religious that the origins of the pilgrimage of Muslims live as minorities backgrounds (Christians, Jews to the Ka`ba go back to the time of in non-Muslim majority and pagans) used to pass through Abraham and his eldest son Ishmael. countries such as India, China, Mecca, and a rich religious life Muslims believe it was Abraham and Russia and France. existed there. Most Meccans were Ishmael who built the Ka`ba. pagans who worshipped idols but » Approximately 20 million who also believed in a higher god. The Meccans were Arabs. They loved Muslims live in Europe and There were also Christians and Jews their language, Arabic, particularly the Americas. living in Mecca and the surrounding the art of poetry. Possessing an oral » There are 56 states with regions. In fact, several Christian culture, the Meccans appreciated the Muslim majorities. and Jewish communities existed in power of language. The poet of a clan the south, west and north of Arabia. was its spokesperson, whose poetry » The countries with the largest The Meccan people were aware of would be learned and transmitted Muslim populations include concepts such as God, prophets and to others. During important trading Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, scripture even before the Prophet and religious occasions, festivals were India, Turkey, Iran, Egypt and Muhammad began to teach the held in and around Mecca in which Nigeria. Of these only Egypt religion of Islam. poetry recitations and competitions is an Arab country. were held. Like the rest of Arabia, Meccan » Arab Muslims comprise society was composed of clans and Prophet Muhammad, a native approximately 20% of the tribes, with one tribe in particular of Mecca, began to preach the Muslim population of the world. – the Quraysh – dominating. The religion called Islam in 610 CE. He clans were made up of various taught that Islam’s primary focus is families; some were prominent in acknowledging that there is only one trade and others in political and God and that human beings have religious affairs. a duty to ‘submit’ to God’s will. He also said that all prophets before him (such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Jesus) taught the same thing.

12 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 13 Prophet Muhammad Muhammad’s reputation

Prophet Muhammad was born When Muhammad was a young man, the Quraysh decided to rebuild the in 570 CE in Mecca. His father was ancient sacred building of the Ka`ba. When it was time to replace a special Abd Allah, a Meccan merchant who stone called the ‘Black Stone’, a fight broke out among the different tribes died before Muhammad’s birth. who all wished for the honour of replacing the sacred stone. Finally an His mother was Aminah, who died old man suggested that whoever next walked through the gate to enter the when Muhammad was just six years precinct of the Ka`ba should be asked to arbitrate the dispute. old, so Muhammad was orphaned The very next person to enter was Muhammad, and there was much relief at an early age. His grandfather, and satisfaction with this, as Muhammad was known as ‘al-Amin’ or ‘the Abd al-Muttalib, then took on the trustworthy one’. When the problem was explained to him, he called for care of Muhammad, but he too died a cloak which he spread upon the ground. Then he put the Black Stone just two years later. From then on, in the middle and called for each rival clan to hold onto the borders of the Muhammad was brought up by his cloak so that all would have the honour of replacing the stone. When they uncle, Abu Talib. had done so, Muhammad placed the raised stone into the corner of the Muhammad was known for his building and the holy Ka`ba was rebuilt.5 honesty and hard work. In his early twenties, his reputation brought him to work for a very wealthy widowed Prophet Read in the name of thy Lord, Meccan businesswoman, whose name Muhammad’s mission who has created – created Man out of a germ-cell! Read – for thy was Khadijah. Muhammad worked Muhammad was a person who Lord is the Most Bountiful One for Khadijah as a merchant in the liked to reflect and meditate. who has taught [Man] by the pen caravan trade. Because of his integrity When he was in his thirties he began – taught Man what he did not and honesty, she eventually proposed to spend time alone, away from the know! (Qur’an 96:1-5.) marriage to the young man. He busy life of Mecca. He would go to accepted, and they were married for a nearby cave called Hira, just outside This short passage became the 25 years until Khadijah’s death in 619. Mecca. It was there, in one of those first revealed verses of the Qur’an, Together, they had two sons and four times of reflection, that he received a collection of the revelations sent daughters. the first revelation from God. to Muhammad and which Muslims believe is the word of God. One day, while in the cave, he heard a voice addressing him, asking him Muhammad was deeply disturbed to ‘read’ without saying exactly what by this experience. He hurried to read. The voice asked him to read home to Khadijah who tried to three times. Each time, Muhammad calm him down and comfort him. said, ‘I cannot read’. The third time, Soon, however, Muhammad realised the voice said: what his mission was and what his obligations were.

5 Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources, Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, 1983, 42.

12 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 13 He began to preach his message to Spread of Islam From the Qur’anic point of view, his family and close relatives. His conversion to Islam by force is against With the Prophet’s death, the wife was the first believer, followed by Islam and such a conversion is not revelations from God ended and his children and some close relatives valid. The Qur’an says: ’There is the mission of the Prophet was and friends. His teaching began to no compulsion in religion.’ (2:256) completed. After the death of the spread slowly, but the Meccan elite Deciding to become a Muslim is a Prophet, Abu Bakr, one of his earliest became alarmed at what they saw as personal decision and can only be followers and a close friend, became a challenge to their influence. They truly made if a person is convinced of his political successor and leader of began to resist Muhammad’s teaching what he or she is doing. the Muslim community. Within a and persecute those who followed few years, the Muslims began a series Within a hundred years of the death him. of conquests, largely directed at the of the Prophet, Islam had reached Muhammad continued for thirteen Byzantine and Sassanid empires modern-day Spain and southern years, preaching his message with located in the north and northeast of France in the west, and the borders little success. He had relatively few Arabia respectively. These conquests of China in the east. Over the next converts. Because of the persecution, gradually brought much of the thirteen hundred years, Muslims he and his followers finally departed Middle East and North Africa under founded a series of great empires and Mecca, leaving behind their homes, the political control of Arab Muslims. contributed significantly to world property and often their families, and The conquests and military activities civilisation. Among the famous settled in a town in the north called were not aimed at converting non- periods of Islamic history are: Yathrib, which later became known Muslims to Islam. Rather, they were » The period of the Rashidun as Medina or ‘City of the Prophet’. aimed at expanding the Muslim caliphs (immediately after the There they established their first state’s borders and bringing hostile death of the Prophet) from 632 community in 622, a date which also neighbouring regions under the to 661, which saw the expansion marks the beginning of the Islamic political and military control of of the Muslim state well beyond calendar. Medina became the central the Muslim state. The spread of the the borders of Arabia. place for Muslims, the capital of religion of Islam (as opposed to the first Islamic ‘state’. For the next the power of the Muslim state) was » The Umayyad period from 661 ten years in Medina, the Prophet largely the result of the following to 750, which consolidated the continued to teach his message with factors: Muslim state. great success. At the time of the » Preaching by the Prophet and » The Abbasid period from 750 Prophet’s death ten years later in his earliest followers. to 1258, known as the golden 632, Islam had spread to all corners period of Islamic civilisation, of Arabia and a large part of the » Missionary work of the Muslims in which prosperity, scientific population had embraced the new in the lands that came under the achievements and high culture religion. control of the Muslim state. were achieved. » Missionary work of Muslims outside these lands, in particular by Sufis (practitioners of Islamic mysticism) through their personal contacts.

14 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 15 The Golden Age During the Golden Age, Muslim scholars made important and original The very first contributions to mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and chemistry. They collected and corrected previous astronomical data, built the world’s first observatory, and developed the astrolabe, an instrument that was once called revelation ‘a mathematical jewel’. In medicine they experimented with diet, drugs, surgery, and anatomy, and in chemistry, an outgrowth of alchemy, [they] Prophet isolated and studied a wide variety of minerals and compounds. Important advances in agriculture were also made in the Golden Age. Muhammad The Abbasids preserved and improved the ancient network of wells, underground canals, and waterwheels, introduced new breeds of livestock, hastened the spread of cotton, and, from the Chinese, learned the art of received making paper, a key to the revival of learning in Europe in the Middle Ages. The Golden Age also, little by little, transformed the diet of medieval Europe commanded by introducing such plants as plums, artichokes, apricots, cauliflower, celery, fennel, squash, pumpkins, and eggplant, as well as rice, sorghum, new strains of wheat, the date palm, and sugarcane.6 him to ‘read’.

Muslim contributions From the eighth century CE In this way, Muslims and their to civilisation onwards, Muslims established many colleagues from other religious institutions of learning, scientific traditions made great contributions Islam encouraged Muslims to learn laboratories and libraries. They to the advancement of disciplines and to seek knowledge wherever began a major project of translating such as mathematics, astronomy, they could. The very first revelation scientific works of other civilisations physics, medicine, geography, art, Prophet Muhammad received – in areas such as mathematics, architecture, and literature. They commanded him to ‘read’. It also medicine, physical sciences and all wrote in the lingua franca (or mentions ‘knowledge’ and ‘pen’. philosophy – from ancient Greek, common language) of Islamic One of the Prophet’s oft-repeated Indian and Persian sources into civilisation, which was Arabic. The encouragements to Muslims was Arabic. Over the next few centuries, works of these scholars were later for them to learn and teach. When scholars of Islamic civilisation translated from Arabic into Latin he began preaching there were very (including Jews and Christians who so they could be read in Europe. It few people who could read and lived in the Muslim world) wrote also led to the flowering of medieval write in Mecca and the surrounding commentaries on these works, philosophical and theological regions, but he urged Muslims to gain criticised them, refined them and thinking important in Roman literacy skills. He was so successful wrote independent works in many of Catholic centres of learning. The in this that, when he died, the skills these areas of knowledge. contribution to knowledge made of reading and writing became an by these scholars was instrumental essential part of the Islamic tradition. in the new thinking that led to the European Renaissance.

6 http://islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/Sec7.htm

14 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 15 Mohammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi (d. 840)

Khwarizmi was a [Muslim] mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was perhaps one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived, as he was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. In the words of Phillip Hitti, he influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of Algebra. The very name Algebra has been derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa al-Muqabalah. His arithmetic synthesised Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. Thus, he explained the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance developed by the Arabs.7

Did you know that… » The numbers we use today are » Some of the great Muslim 1037 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) called ‘Arabic numerals’. scholars, scientists and thinkers philosopher, physician. (with their names as they are » The English word ‘zero’ comes 1039 Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) known in the West and their from the Arabic word ‘sifr.’ mathematician, physicist. year of death) are: » Muslim scientists made major 1111 Ghazali (Algazel) 850 al-Khwarizmi contributions to research on light. philosopher. astronomer, mathematician. » Textbooks on medicine written 1131 Omar Khayyam 870 al-Kindi by Muslims were used in Europe astronomer, mathematician, poet. philosopher. for hundreds of years until the 1138 Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) sixteenth century. 923 al-Razi (Rhazes) philosopher. alchemist, philosopher, physician. » Muslims made maps of the world 1185 Ibn Tufayl without which Columbus might 929 al-Battani (Albatenius) philosopher, physician. not have discovered America. astronomer, mathematician. 1198 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) » From the tenth to the fourteenth 950 al-Farabi (Alfarabicus) philosopher, physician. century, the Muslim world had philosopher, poet. the major important centres of 1274 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 998 Abu al-Wafa learning in the physical sciences astronomer, mathematician, astronomer, mathematician. and other disciplines. These philosopher. included centres in Baghdad, 1013 Abu al-Qasim (Albucasis) 1406 Ibn Khaldun Damascus, Rayy, Spain and physician. historian, sociologist.8 elsewhere. 1030 Ibn Miskawayh historian, philosopher.

7 http://www.ummah.com/history/scholars/KHAWARIZ.html 8 http://web.umr.edu/~msaumr/reference/articles/science/contributors.html

16 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 17 KEY BELIEFS OF A MUSLIM

ost Muslims are born » Nothing that exists in the The most into a Muslim family universe is like God. We cannot M and grow up as Muslims. imagine or represent God in any Others convert to Islam from way (through art, for instance) fundamental other religious traditions such as because, however we imagine Christianity. A person becomes a Him, He is always different. Muslim by saying ‘La ilaha illa Allah, belief of a » God has many beautiful names Muhammad rasul Allah’’or ‘there is such as ‘Loving’, ‘Merciful’, no god except God and Muhammad ‘Compassionate’, ‘Forgiving’, ‘Just’, Muslim is is the Messenger of God’, and and ‘Creator’. They all refer to the believing it sincerely. Once a person one and only God. that there is becomes a Muslim, he or she is expected to follow Islam. » God is not male or female. The pronoun ‘He’ is used because it has been the traditional way only one God, One God to refer to God. ‘He’ does not who is the The most fundamental belief of a indicate any gender when we talk Muslim is that there is only one God, about God. who is the Creator and Sustainer of » God existed and will exist always. everything in the universe. There Creator and God has no beginning or end. are no other gods besides God. All God created time, and time began other beliefs and practices of Islam with the creation of the universe. Sustainer of are based on this belief. The most When the end of the universe frequently used name of God is comes, it will be the end of time. Allah (which means ‘the God’ in everything in But God will remain forever. Arabic). God in Islam is not the God of Muslims only, but the God of » All human beings can speak the universe. all people, be they Jews, Christians, directly to God (for example Buddhists, Hindus or any other. Here through their prayers). No one are some Muslim beliefs about God: needs an intermediary between God and him/herself.

» God also has full knowledge of everything that happens everywhere in the universe.

16 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 17 Ghazali (1058–1111), the famous Muslim theologian, on God God created the universe and everything in it God is living, powerful, compelling, constraining. Shortcoming and impotence do not befall Him. Slumber and sleep do not take hold of Him. Passing away Muslims believe that the universe and death do not happen to Him. He is king of the worlds, the visible and the and everything in it (from galaxies invisible, possessor of strength and might. He has authority and sovereignty. down to microscopic bacteria) were His it is to create and to command. The heavens are folded in His right hand, brought into existence by a power and created things are securely held in His grasp. He is alone in creating and other than itself, namely God. When producing; He is unique in bringing into existence and innovating. He created Muslims say that God created the the creatures and their works, and determined their sustenance and their universe, they do not say how this appointed terms. Nothing determined escapes His grasp.9 creation occurred or how long it took. For Muslims there is no contradiction between the idea of Allah God creating the universe and the possibility of it evolving over billions Allah is the proper name in Arabic for the one and only God, the Creator of the of years. universe and everything in it. In Hebrew language Eloh-im is also used, and in Aramaic (the language of Jesus) it is Allaha. Christian Arabs also use Allah for Muslims also believe that God created God. From a Muslim point of view, Allah is the name of the God of Jews and human beings at some point in Christians as well. time. Again, they do not say when this happened. It may have been Muslims use the phrase ‘glory be to Him’ after mentioning the name of Allah thousands or even millions of years to show their respect. It is considered disrespectful to use the name of Allah ago. For Muslims, the first human without this phrase or a similar one. beings as we know them were Adam and Eve, who became the ‘parents’ of all other human beings. Thus, all human beings are equal before God.

9 William M. Watt “Al-Ghazali” Islamic Creeds: A Selection. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994, 73-74.

18 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 19 Equality of Humankind: Prophets A blessing upon the Prophet A Common View Muslims believe that God sent When the Prophet Muhammad’s among Muslims prophets and messengers to all the name is mentioned, Muslims use the Allah created a human couple to peoples of the earth. No people were phrase ‘peace be upon him’ to show herald the beginning of the life of excluded from this, from Australian their respect. Similarly, a blessing mankind on earth, and everybody Aboriginal people to indigenous is given after the names of earlier living in the world today originates Americans and Europeans. Prophets Prophets as well. from this couple. The progeny of and messengers were sent to teach this couple were initially a single people primarily about God and Scriptures group with one religion and the about treating others kindly, justly same language. But as their numbers and fairly. Another important belief is that gradually increased, they spread all God provided certain instructions Muslims believe that God sent over the earth and, as a natural result (revelations) to various prophets in thousands of prophets to humanity of their diversification and growth, the past. These revelations became before Prophet Muhammad. The were divided into various tribes and Holy scriptures. Muslims believe first was Adam and the last was nationalities. They came to speak that God gave scriptures to prophets Muhammad, although the Muslim different languages; their models of such as Abraham, Moses, David, Holy scripture, the Qur’an, mentions dress varied; and their ways of living Jesus and Muhammad. The Qur’an the names of only twenty-five also differed widely… Islam makes mentions the Gospel (Injil) of Jesus, prophets. These prophets came with clear to all men [people] that they the Psalms (Zabur) of David and the a similar message: people have a have come from the same parents and Torah (Tawrat) given to Moses. The duty to recognise the Creator and are therefore brothers [and sisters] basic message in these scriptures is submit to His will. This submission and equal as human beings.10 the same: to believe in God and to is referred to as ‘Islam’ in Arabic. live life according to His will. For Thus all prophets, including Muslims, the final scripture is the Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Holy Qur’an, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, are ‘submitters’ to God Muhammad. The Prophet Muhammad and therefore called ‘Muslims’ (those said in a famous sermon: who submit to God).

‘All humankind is from Adam and The last prophet, Muhammad, did Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a not teach a new message as such. Like non-Arab nor does a non-Arab have prophets before him, he taught the any superiority over an Arab; also oneness of God and how to lead a a white [person] has no superiority righteous life. over black nor does a black have any superiority over a white except by piety and good action.’

10 Abul Ala Maududi, The Islamic Social Order, http://www.islam101.com/sociology/socialOrder.htm

18 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 19 Muslims treat the Qur’an with great Day of Judgment respect, as it is believed to be literally Muslims believe that one day life as we know it will come to an end and at the word of God revealed in the some point the Day of Judgment will come. On that day each person will be Arabic language. It forms the basis accountable to God for his or her actions in this life. God will bring back to of Islamic law, ethics and belief, and life all human beings and gather them for judgment, showing everything each is recited by Muslims during prayers person has done in his or her life. Those who lived on the whole a ‘good’ or and all the important rituals and moral life in line with God’s instructions will be saved. Their reward will be moments in life. Pages of the Qur’an eternal life in a place called Paradise. Those who lived a ‘bad’ life, or did not are often decorated with beautiful believe in God, or rejected His prophets’ teachings, will be condemned. Their calligraphy. Similarly, verses of the punishment will be life in Hell. People whose bad deeds outweigh their good Qur’an may decorate the walls of deeds will experience Hell for a certain period of time. mosques. Because the Qur’an was first revealed as an oral recitation, The most commonly used Arabic word for Paradise is jannah and the word for Muslims try very hard to recite the Hell is jahannam. We have no way of knowing what Paradise and Hell look like, verses they learn in a beautiful and or what it will be like there. The Qur’an gives some metaphors and descriptions melodious voice. It is a great skill to in order to help people understand some basic things about life after death, but be able to recite the Qur’an and its only God knows what it is like in reality. sound has an evocative power. Paradise Angels The fruits of submission to God, of living in harmony with His will, of living the Muslims also believe in beings called natural way, is satisfaction (ridwan) in this life (whatever the outward signs of angels, although they do not know difficulty and hardship or easy and plenty) and eternal happiness in the next. … what they look like, how many there Paradise is also a place of degrees and categories. In the lofty parts, there will be are, or what their functions are, the Prophets, those who struggled and died as witness in the path of God, and because they belong to the unseen those who were totally honest and truthful to their trusts in their dealings. ‘God world. Each angel has been given a has promised believing men and women gardens, underneath which rivers function by God, and, unlike human flow, wherein they shall abide, and pleasant abodes in the Garden of Eden – but beings, angels do not have the power the pleasure of God with them is greater and that is the great success.’ to disobey God. Qur’an (9:72)11 Only a few angels are mentioned by name in the Qur’an. Two of them are Gabriel (Jibril) and Michael (Mika’il). God’s timeless knowledge Gabriel is the angel who takes Muslims also believe that God knows everything that happens in the universe. revelations (messages) from God He has full knowledge of the past, present and future, although we cannot to His prophets. He is believed to understand how. This means that good and bad things may happen for a reason have conveyed the revelations of the that may be unclear at the time, so patience in the face of adversity is important. Qur’an to the Prophet Muhammad What may appear to be a bad thing, in fact could be a good thing and vice versa. and announced to Mary that she would give birth to the Prophet Jesus. Michael is considered to have the responsibility for death.

11 Abdul Wahid Hamid, Islam the Natural Way, London: MELS, 1989, 169-170.

20 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 21 THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

Muslim is expected to Call to Prayer perform certain duties. A These are called the ‘five pillars of Islam’. Throughout the Muslim world, these five duties are God is great. God is great performed by practising Muslims. This is one of the areas of Islam that unify Muslims around the world.

I bear witness that there is 1. The declaration of faith Muslims must declare and accept no god but God that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God. It is usually declared by saying: ‘There is no god but God I bear witness that and Muhammad is the messenger of God’ (in Arabic La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad is the Muhammad rasul Allah). messenger of God 2. Prayer (salat) A Muslim is expected to pray at least five times a day. The prayers (salat) have names and are performed at Come to prayer certain times of the day: Fajr ~ between dawn (first light) and sunrise Come to felicity Zuhr ~ from noon until mid-afternoon

Asr ~ from mid-afternoon God is great until sunset Maghrib ~ from sunset until about an hour later

Isha ~ from an hour or so after There is no god but God sunset until dawn

20 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 21 When prayer time comes, a ‘call to Muslims can pray anywhere, not Praying consists of a number of prayer’ is usually made from the local just at the mosque. Any place that is actions and activities: standing, mosque (a Muslim place of worship) clean – such as an office, a classroom bowing, prostrating, sitting, recitation and is heard in the neighbourhood or even a park – is suitable. Many of the Qur’an, and supplication. in Muslim countries. In Australia, Muslims go to the local mosque to Muslims all over the world generally because of council regulations, the pray, but in Australia, because of follow one common format for the call to prayer cannot be heard outside work or the distance involved in prayers. the mosque. going to a mosque, many pray at Apart from the five daily prayers home or at work. Only on Friday and the Friday prayers, there are two (at noon) do Muslims have to The call to prayer special prayers called Eid prayers that pray in congregation in a mosque. occur during the year. One is straight The following is a translation of This prayer must be performed after the month of fasting (Ramadan) the words of the call to prayer. Any in congregation, whereas other and the other during the annual person may make the call to prayer, daily prayers can be performed pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims gather and the first person in Islam to do so individually. together in large numbers and pray was an Ethiopian man called Bilal. Before prayer, a Muslim is expected to the Eid prayers. Afterwards they share Each line is repeated twice. The last wash his or her hands, face, arms and food and sometimes give each other line is said only once. feet. This prepares the person to meet presents. Eid is a very happy time for God is great. God is great God in prayer in a clean and pure Muslims, when they visit relatives and state. Under certain circumstances, he friends, give charity and remember to I bear witness that there is no god but or she may have to take a shower or thank God for all His blessings. God bath before praying. Clothes must be I bear witness that Muhammad is the clean and cover the body. Men must messenger of God be covered from at least the navel to knee, and women must be completely Come to prayer covered except for the face and hands. Come to felicity Muslims often use a prayer mat to make sure the place where they God is great pray is clean. Some prayer mats are There is no god but God beautifully decorated with pictures of the Ka`ba and geometrical patterns, while others are plain and simple pieces of cloth.

Worshippers then face towards Mecca (qiblah) and commence praying. If there is more than one person, the prayer leader (imam) stands in front of the others who form rows behind him. Men and women form separate rows.

22 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 23 Concept of Muslim Worship 3. Charity (zakat) Giving charity

Muslims believe that worshipping Zakat is the payment of obligatory The Prophet said, ‘Every Muslim has God is much more than simply charity. Muslims must pay zakat to give charity’. The people asked, performing certain rituals such if they have savings that have not ‘O Allah’s Prophet! If someone has as prayer and fasting. Worship gone below a certain amount for a nothing to give, what will he do?’ He means recognising the existence whole year. This amount is equal said, ‘He should work with his hands of God, loving Him, and following to approximately eighty-five grams and benefit himself and also give His guidance in all aspects of life. of gold. Today, the value of gold is charity [from what he earns]’. The It also means encouraging people translated into the local currency and people further asked, ‘If he cannot to do good and avoid evil, to be the amount of zakat is two and a half find even that?’ He replied, ‘He just and fair, to help the poor and percent of a person’s average annual should help the needy who appeal for disadvantaged, and to contribute to net savings. help’. Then the people asked, ‘If he the well-being of the community. cannot do that?’ He replied, ‘Then he The zakat that Muslims pay is should perform good deeds and keep Worship includes anything a person given to the poor and needy, the away from evil deeds and this will be does to seek God’s pleasure. If a disadvantaged in the community regarded as charitable deeds’.12 Muslim eats or exercises to keep fit in such as orphans, poor relatives, order to help the community, or does those struggling to repay their debts, well at work, it is seen as worship. students, and general welfare projects Even greeting someone or expressing such as educational institutions, kindness is a form of worship. The mosques and hospitals. key point is that, in Islam, worship In addition to the annual zakat, is not limited to particular rituals. A Muslims are asked to make a small Muslim’s whole life revolves around donation at the end of Ramadan, in the idea of worshipping God. order to allow the poor to celebrate the end of fasting as well. Muslims also give voluntarily at other times. They are expected to be generous; stinginess is strongly discouraged.

12 Sahih Bukhari, Volume 2, Book 24, Number 524, http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/Hadithsunnah/bukhari/024.sbt.html

22 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 23 4. Fasting (sawm) Maryam’s Ramadan

Muslim adults are expected to fast This year Maryam fasted the month of Ramadan properly for the first time. during the month of Ramadan. This At first it wasn’t easy getting up very early in the morning trying to eat some is the ninth month of the Islamic of the delicious breakfast her mother had made before praying the dawn calendar and is either twenty-nine or prayer, and falling back into bed for a few more hours before getting up to go thirty days long. They eat a light meal to school. Her friends had wondered why she wasn’t eating lunch as usual but before dawn, then go without food or Maryam explained she was fasting. In the evenings, her father took the whole drink all day until sunset. At sunset, family to special prayers at the mosque and the nights of Ramadan seemed to they break their fast. go on forever.

Fasting involves abstaining from Soon the end of the month drew close and Maryam was excited. Her mother food, drink and sex during daylight had promised she could go shopping for a special new outfit to wear at the Eid hours from dawn to sunset. prayers which would be celebrated after the end of Ramadan. Maryam chose Ramadan is not just about food a blue dress and a matching light blue scarf. When the day of Eid came, it felt and drink. During fasting, Muslims weird to have breakfast during daylight hours. In just a few weeks Maryam had are expected to avoid bad deeds, become used to her pre-dawn meal, but now she was again allowed to eat once words and thoughts. They should the sun had come up. spend time, where possible, in Maryam washed herself, brushed her teeth and put on her new outfit. Arriving prayer and meditation, and help the at the mosque with her family she saw hundreds of people including her best disadvantaged in the community. friend Layla. ‘Assalaamu alaykum’ (peace be upon you) she called out to Layla Finally, fasting is a time to forgive and the two of them hurried upstairs to find a spot to sit and wait for the Eid others for things they have done to prayers. Everyone was excited and chanting special prayers of praise to God. you and make amends for your own Others were collecting last minute donations of charity for the poor. Very misdeeds towards other people. soon the imam began to lead the Eid prayers, and Maryam joined in with the Children are expected to fast when rest of the worshippers. She felt good that she had managed to keep the fast of they reach religious maturity; this is Ramadan and thanked Allah for all the blessings He had bestowed upon her. the beginning of menstruation for girls, and the onset of puberty for boys. Although all adult Muslims are expected to fast in Ramadan, there are some exemptions. Those who are too old or sick or people on long journeys do not have to fast, nor do women who are pregnant, breastfeeding or menstruating. They can fast afterwards.

No matter where Ramadan is observed, normal life continues. Muslims still go to work or school even though they are fasting.

24 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 25 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) Lucy’s Hajj

At least once in a lifetime, a Muslim We put on our ihram [special pilgrimage clothes] in Riyadh, just before who is physically and financially able boarding, and it was amazing what an impact this dress had on our characters. is expected to perform the pilgrimage It made us want to be more serious and devote our time to Islamic study – so to Mecca, called hajj. This takes place any thoughts our husbands had on fast cars had to be temporarily put on hold! during the twelfth month of the As we flew from Riyadh to Jeddah, we passed the miqat point, the point at Islamic calendar. which you make your intention for hajj and from which you must recite the Today, nearly two million Muslims talbiyah (the special prayer for hajj) as frequently as possible. We all knew how travel to Mecca to take part in this important our hajj was, and we were determined to do it properly. annual religious event. It takes about We arrived around 11.30 pm in Makkah in an underground car park, with an five days for the various hajj rituals to escalator leading to just outside the Sacred Mosque. There was a small pile-up be completed in and around Mecca. as some women had never seen an escalator before and were understandably Pilgrims spend their time praying, nervous. Above ground, we found people were sleeping all over the mosque reflecting, supplicating and reciting – on windowsills, on floors, on the marble both inside and outside. the Qur’an. Many Muslims express a feeling of spiritual renewal following Our first priority was to performumra [a minor pilgrimage]: despite being hajj. During the pilgrimage, they past midnight, the area around the Ka`ba was crowded with people doing tawaf also experience a sense of oneness worshipping Allah as they circled the Ka`ba seven times. I loved sharing the with humanity, as pilgrims from all occasional smile with an unknown fellow Muslimah (female Muslim), creating around the globe gather in peace an instant feeling of bonding. Four people carried each infirm person on their and unity to worship God. Hajj is shoulders, so that the old and ill could also perform tawaf. considered the great equaliser, as all Everyone was there for one reason, supplicating to Allah. My supplications people (rich and poor) wear the same were mainly thanking God.13 simple two pieces of plain cloth for the duration of hajj: billionaires and kings side by side with the poor and down-trodden.

Muslims believe that if their hajj is accepted by God, their previous misdeeds and sins are washed away and forgiven.

13 http://www.newmuslimsproject.net/nmp/meeting_point/issue_14/lucy’s_hajj1.htm

24 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 25 COMMONALITIES AND DIFFERENCES14

here are over 1300 million A sense of unity among Muslims Sunnis and Shi`a Muslims in the world today. around the world is also achieved The most commonly understood They come from various through various means: T difference between Muslims is related ethnic, cultural and linguistic » Common beliefs and practices. to a political issue of leadership communities in Asia, Africa, Europe, going back to the seventh century. America and Australia. They » A common moral and ethical Immediately after the death of the speak many different languages: code based on these common Prophet in 632, one of the first Arabic, Persian, English, Chinese, beliefs. important problems Muslims had to Urdu, Spanish, Japanese, German » A feeling that all Muslims belong face was who should be the successor and Russian are only a few. It is to one single ‘community’ of to the Prophet and lead the Muslim impossible that all these people believers wherever they live or community. Some Muslims argued would think, behave and act exactly reside. This is similar to the idea that one of the family members of the in the same way, even as Muslims. that all Jews or all Christians Prophet should be the successor, in For most people who consider belong to one single ‘community’ particular his cousin and son-in-law themselves Muslim, there are a few of believers. It is not a political Ali. Those who followed this view basic things on which they usually idea but a religious one. came later to be known as Shi`a. agree. These things may be called the Beyond the core beliefs and practices, Other Muslims, who seemed to be core beliefs and practices of Islam, for Muslims disagree on many things. in the majority, disagreed that the example: These differences can be seen in a succession should be based on family » Six fundamental beliefs (see p.17). variety of contexts. ties. They argued that anyone who was capable of leading the Muslim » Five pillars of Islam (see p.21). Main divisions within Islam community could become the » Prohibition of pork and alcohol. successor and leader. They supported Like any other religious tradition, Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s close friend, » Prohibition of murder, theft, such as Christianity or Judaism, Islam as his successor. Those who held this adultery. has many groups and sub-groups. view were later known as Sunnis. » Importance of honesty, Some of these divisions are related to This division continues to this day. truthfulness and kindness. the theological school or legal school Over time, the Shi`a and Sunnis have a person belongs to; others are related » Importance of helping the poor developed their own theological and to how people try to find answers and disadvantaged. legal schools and their interpretations to contemporary problems; still of various religious teachings. There are many more such beliefs and others are related to how one should practices. If you travel around the interpret religious teachings. Some Today, the vast majority of Muslims world and talk to Muslims, you will divisions are political while others are (about eighty-five percent) are find that whether in Morocco, India theological or spiritual. Sunnis. The rest are Shi`a. The Shi`a or Australia, they will generally agree live mainly in Iran, Iraq and Lebanon. that these things are an essential part Small communities of Shi`a exist of Islam, even though they may not throughout the world. always practise them as they should.

14 See also Abdullah Saeed, Islam in Australia, 64-77.

26 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 27 In Australia, the majority of Muslims Hanafi ~ India, Pakistan, Spirituality and Sufi orders are Sunnis. They come from all over Bangladesh and Turkey Those Muslims who give a high the world: from Turkey, Lebanon, Shafi`i ~ Indonesia, Malaysia and degree of emphasis to the spiritual Indonesia, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, Egypt dimension of Islam are called Sufis to name a few countries. There is (mystics). Their ultimate goal is also a significant Shi`a community Maliki ~ North and West Africa refining the soul and ‘reaching’ God. in Australia, mainly from Iraq, Iran, Hanbali ~ Arabia and the Persian Sufis also differ among themselves Lebanon and Afghanistan. Gulf about the best way of achieving this goal, and over the past one thousand Ja`fari ~ Shi`a Muslims of Iran, Different schools of law years have developed ‘Sufi orders’ Iraq and Lebanon for this purpose. Examples of Sufi There are five legal schools (schools All Islamic legal schools are orders are the Naqshabandiyya order of law) in Islam, which is another represented amongst Australian and Mevlewiyya order. Throughout example of the diverse opinions held Muslims. In any mosque, you may the Muslim world (including among by Muslims. Most Muslims belong to find a practitioner of the Hanafi Australian Muslims) many Muslims one of these schools, although this is school praying side by side with a would like to be associated with one not compulsory. practitioner of the Shafi`i school. of the Sufi orders as such orders are The term ‘legal school’ refers to a However, much of the legal debate highly influential. However, there particular way of interpreting or on issues such as criminal law or is also an opinion among some understanding Islamic teachings. contract law does not concern the Muslims today that associating with For instance, a legal school says how majority of Australian Muslims as it Sufi orders and practising Sufism a Muslim should perform the five is not relevant to their context. is not Islamic and therefore should daily prayers, or what rules must be be discouraged. This attitude has followed in marriage and divorce, its roots in a rejection of some or who can have custody of the of the excesses committed by a children when parents divorce. Since small minority of Sufis who would Islamic law covers many things, such encourage their followers to abandon as rituals, family law, contract law, religious law, or attract crowds criminal law, and many other areas by performing magic tricks and of law, each legal school has its own illusions. Because of the tendency for position. The five main schools are these extreme Sufis to move outside prominent in different countries and of what was considered legitimately regions: Islamic, other Muslims have felt it best to avoid Sufism altogether. In the long history of the Muslim world, however, Sufism has had a legitimate place alongside other Islamic disciplines such as theology, law, philosophy and Qur’anic exegesis.

26 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 27 Sayings of Rabi`a, the Mystic Dealing with modern issues Cultural issues

O God! There are differences among Muslims There are Muslims who emphasise on how to deal with modern the culture of their own community. If I adore You out of fear of Hell, problems and challenges. Some For instance, Pakistanis and Turks burn me in Hell! Muslims are ultra-conservative in have different ways of dressing for If I adore You out of desire for their approach; others are liberal. and celebrating religious occasions. Paradise, Others come somewhere between. The food they cook will also be For instance, on the question different. Similarly, French Muslims Lock me out of Paradise. ‘Should a Muslim participate in and American Muslims will have But if I adore You for Yourself alone, Christmas celebrations in Australia?’, cultural differences in their approach conservatives would argue not, but to Islam. These differences are Do not deny to me Your eternal liberals may have the opposite view. important in the life of Muslims, and beauty. Those in the middle may say that include the languages they speak, the such participation is acceptable with clothes they wear and other customs. certain conditions. I swear that ever since the first day You brought me back to life, Converts Observant and The day You became my Friend, There are Muslims who are converts non-observant Muslims to Islam from another religion. I have not slept – Some Muslims are practising and For instance, in Australia, there are And even if You drive me from your observant Muslims. They perform converts to Islam from Anglo-Saxon door, the obligatory prayers, fast during Christian backgrounds. Converts Ramadan, pay zakat, and also who grew up in Australia may be I swear again that we will never be observe dietary and other regulations comfortable with much of Australian separated – set down in the Qur’an and the culture, while a Muslim who has only Because You are alive in my heart.15 traditions of the Prophet. Others recently migrated from somewhere may be Muslim only in name. They like Afghanistan may have very may identify themselves as Muslim different attitudes to Australian but may not observe the rituals or culture, as well as to certain Islamic regulations. They are considered issues. ‘cultural’ or ‘nominal’ Muslims.

15 http://www.digiserve.com/mystic/Muslim/Rabia/index.html

28 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 29 Michael’s story There is no single religious authority in Islam

Michael decided to become a Muslim Because there is no religious hierarchy in Islam (especially in Sunni Islam), about a year after marrying his there is no one person – apart from the Prophet Muhammad – whose views on Malaysian born wife Aisha. Before Islam are considered final. Anyone with knowledge of the religion and related becoming a Muslim, Michael was matters can express an opinion on a religious issue. In practice, those who have pretty much your average Aussie. studied Islam and are knowledgeable about the religion have the strongest say. He liked going to the pub, watching These people are called ulama (scholars). They may have spent many years the footy and even played guitar in studying the religion in schools and universities such as al-Azhar in Egypt. If a band. He and Aisha would spend they have gone through a traditional method of Islamic learning they may have hours talking about the meaning a certificate, called anijazah , that allows them to teach religious knowledge to of life, and soon Michael became others. Sometimes popular preachers become well known in the Muslim world interested in her religion. At first he and they may pass on their interpretation of Islamic teachings via modern thought it was a bit strange, but soon media such as television, radio, cassettes and videos. he found himself reading books and

becoming more and more fascinated with Islam. Anyone with knowledge One day Michael felt he had to make a decision. Becoming a Muslim of the religion and related would mean he wouldn’t be able to have a couple of beers down at the pub anymore, but apart from a few matters can express an opinion small changes Michael felt that Islam was pretty compatible with what he on a religious issue. already believed. So Michael became a Muslim. He still watches footy and plays guitar, but now he also goes to the mosque on Friday.

28 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 29 MUSLIM FAMILY LIFE

he basic unit of society Young Muslims Abortion in Islam is the family. Muslim youth in Australia, like any For many Muslims today, abortion The individual within T other young people, have their fair is considered prohibited unless the family has obligations towards share of problems: homelessness, there is an immediate danger other members of the family (both drugs, delinquency and crime. to the life of the mother. In some immediate and extended) and However, there is no research to back Muslim majority countries, to society. Islam recognises the up the view that these problems abortion is tolerated, but in traditional family of husband, wife are more prominent in Muslim others it is strictly prohibited. and children. communities than in other Australian Parents have a duty to care for their communities. It seems that, of all Abortion: a common children, educate them, and teach the problems faced by Muslim youth, view among Muslims them the basics of Islam. Children the drug problem is perhaps the are expected to respect their parents, most challenging.16 Abortion is the wilful cessation of and look after them when they are pregnancy. It is a crime against a old. Husbands and wives have duties living human being. Technological Family planning towards each other. In the family, advances have made it possible all members are dependent on one Generally speaking, many to show that an unborn child has another. The mother has a particularly Muslims have no objections attained all human characteristics important place in the family. to family planning or controlling within eight weeks of conception. the number of children that two Miscarriages due to biomedical The Prophet Muhammad parents might have. Various family factors are not abortions, as those on Mothers planning measures are widely used. happen without human interference. However, in many Muslim societies, If, however, it is reliably established A Companion of the Prophet asked it is still quite common to have that the continuation of the him, ‘Messenger of Allah, to whom large families. Even in Australia, pregnancy will result in the death should I be dutiful?’ He replied, Muslims from certain ethnic of the mother, then the principle ‘Your mother.’ I asked, ‘Then whom?’ groups tend to have larger families. of choosing the lesser of two evils He replied, ‘Your mother.’ I asked, In Australia, as elsewhere, the size is followed, and an abortion is ‘Then whom?’ He replied, ‘Your of the family depends on many allowable. The mother’s life takes mother.’ I asked, ‘Then to whom factors: class, education, generation precedence over that of her baby in should I be dutiful?’ He replied, ‘Your and ethnicity. This is not to deny such an instance because the mother father, and then the next closest that there are some Muslims who is already established in life with relative and then the next.’ strongly believe that having a large many duties and responsibilities. family is a religious requirement It is thus less disruptive to family encouraged by Islam. life (although just as regrettable) Despite these teachings, the to sacrifice the life of the unborn practice among Muslims varies child which has not yet acquired greatly. Some believe that the wife a personality nor has any duties, is subservient to the husband, responsibilities or obligations.17 more or less like a servant. In some cultures, Muslim children sometimes ignore the teaching of Islam about their duties towards their parents.

16 For further details see Abdullah Saeed, Islam in Australia, 90-92. 17 Ghulam Sarwar. Sex Education: The Muslim Perspective. Sydney: The Muslim Educational Trust, 28.

30 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 31 Divorce Children are taught about changes Despite these teachings, some to their bodies at puberty, how they Muslim men believe that it is Marriage in Islam is highly should deal with those changes, and acceptable to beat their wives, hurt encouraged and considered to be what is permissible or prohibited them, or treat them badly. Some a life-long commitment. In fact, with regard to sex. Usually, girls are men may even want to justify this the Prophet said that marriage taught by their mothers and boys by in the name of Islam. They may constitutes half of the religion, their fathers. Teaching and talking point to a Qur’anic verse which perhaps meaning that the tests and about sex is a normal part of life in appears to give permission to men trials that are naturally encountered many Muslim societies. However, to discipline their recalcitrant wives. in marriage and family life help make many Muslim parents in Australia But today many Muslims interpret a person a better Muslim if they appear to be concerned with the this verse in ways that do not permit can deal with them successfully. If way sex education is taught in any physical disciplining of the wife. a marriage is in trouble, the Qur’an schools, and with what they perceive encourages the couple to seek help as encouragement to students to and advice from others, such as elders experiment with sex outside marriage, Prophet Muhammad on and those who can competently give or an expectation that they will. treating wives well such advice. If all attempts to save the marriage fail, divorce is seen as O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your a reasonable option, but it is not Domestic violence generally advocated. If a marriage is women but they also have rights to be terminated, this should be done Islam condemns domestic violence in over you. Remember that you have with honour and respect. In the event the strongest terms. The relationship taken them as your wives only under of divorce, the wife’s rights are safe- between a husband and wife is to be Allah’s trust and with His permission. guarded under Islamic law. based on mutuality, cooperation and If they abide by your right, then to love. The Prophet said: them belongs the right to be fed Despite the Islamic teaching against and clothed in kindness. Do treat resorting to divorce, the divorce rate The most perfect believer is one your women well and be kind to among young Muslims in Australia who is the best in courtesy and them for they are your partners and (particularly between 16 and 29 years amiable manners, and the best committed helpers.18 of age) is higher than for the overall among you people are those who Australian population. are most kind and courteous to their wives.

Even in the case of divorce, the Sex education Qur’an says: Islam does not consider sex as a bad When you divorce women, thing. In fact, sex is considered one and they fulfill the term of their of God’s ‘gifts’ and essential for the waiting period, either take them continuation of the human race. back on equitable terms or set Islam encourages a healthy attitude them free on equitable terms; towards sex, but insists that it be but do not take them back to within the bounds of marriage. injure them, [or] to take undue advantage; if any one does that; he wrongs his own soul. (Qur’an 2:231) 18 Prophet Muhammad’s Last Sermon.

30 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 31 THE MILESTONES IN A MUSLIM’S LIFE19

Birth Circumcision in Turkey

hen a child is born to As an Islamic country, in Turkey all Muslim boys are circumcised between Muslim parents, one the ages 2–14 by licensed circumcising surgeons. From the social point W of the first things done of view, the most prominent feature of circumcision is the introduction in many Muslim cultures is to make of a child to his religious society as a new member. Circumcisions are the ‘call to prayer’ in the right ear of generally made with big ceremonies in festive atmosphere. After the the baby and the ‘call to commence circumcision he will receive many gifts. prayer’ in the left ear. On the seventh When a family determines a date for their feast, they invite relatives, day after birth, a naming ceremony friends and neighbours by sending invitation cards in advance. Depending called `aqiqa is held. The child is on the economic position of families, feasts might take place in a ceremonial given a name and the child’s hair is hall or a hotel instead of a house. They prepare a highly decorated room for shaved. Gifts and charity are given to the boy with a nice bed and many colourful decorative things. Boys should the disadvantaged in the community. also wear special costumes for this feast.

In the morning of the feast, the children of guests are all taken for a tour Circumcision of boys around in a big convoy with the boy either on horseback, horse carts, Boys are circumcised early in their or automobiles. This convoy is also followed by musicians playing the drums life. There is no particular age and the clarinet. After they come back, the boy wears a loose long white dress for this, and practices vary from and is circumcised by the surgeon while somebody holds him. This person culture to culture. Nevertheless, who holds him is called kirve, and has to be somebody close to the boy. it is regarded as an occasion for After the circumcision, the boy is in pain and has to be kept busy with music, celebration with presents, visits lots of jokes or some other animation. Presents also are given at this time to from family, and sharing of food. help him forget his pains. In the meantime words from the Qur’an are recited How this is celebrated varies from and guests are taken to tables for the feast meal which is a special one laid with culture to culture. different food changing from region to region. After a few days the boy recovers Contrary to what many people and festivities end. believe, female circumcision is not Today, there is a small group of people who prefer their children to an Islamic requirement. be circumcised in hospitals while they are in hospital after birth, whereby ignoring the traditional side.20

19 For further details see Abdullah Saeed, Islam in Australia, 78-94. 20 http://www.zawaj.com/weddingways/turkish.html ON 3-9-200.

32 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 33 Learning about religion Eighteenth birthday Old age

From early childhood, a Muslim Muslims do not attach any religious Children have a duty to look after child begins to learn about Islam, significance to the eighteenth their aged parents. Neglecting to do including learning how to recite the birthday. However, in Australia, this is considered a grave sin in Islam. Qur’an and memorising some of its Muslims follow the laws in place short chapters (or suras), performing in relation to the age of eighteen, prayers and learning about what such as on voting and driving. The Qur’an on parents is acceptable and not acceptable in In Australia, many Muslims do not ‘And your Lord has commanded Islam. This way the child learns how leave home when they reach the that you shall not serve [any] but to be a Muslim from early childhood, age of eighteen. Even afterwards, Him, and that you be kind to your mainly within the family. parents are obliged to support their parents. If either or both of them children until they can stand on reach old age with you, say not to Puberty their own feet. Usually, many young them a word of contempt, nor repel Muslims only leave home when they them, but address them in terms Puberty for a boy is when he starts get married. Even then, some prefer of honour. And make yourself to produce semen and for a girl it is to live with their extended family. submissively gentle to them with when she starts to have her periods. compassion, and say: O my Lord! When children reach puberty, they Have compassion on them, as they are considered to have entered the Marriage brought me up [when I was] little.’ adult world for religious purposes Theoretically, puberty is also the time (Qur’an 17:23–24) and are expected to perform the when marriage becomes permissible, various rituals of Islam, such as the but nowadays it is usually deferred five daily prayers and fasting during until at least sixteen. In many Muslim Death the month of Ramadan. In Islam, societies, early marriage is common. once a boy or girl reaches puberty, There are no complicated or Even in Australia, Muslims tend they are technically ‘adults’. There elaborate rites performed when to marry earlier than the overall are no celebratory rituals Muslim a person is dying. When a Muslim Australian population. This is the children are expected to perform on is close to death, he or she is case for both males and females. reaching puberty. encouraged to utter the declaration However, a much larger number of faith ‘there is no god but God; of Muslim females get married Muhammad is the Messenger earlier than Muslim males. One of God’. It is also common for reason for early marriage is that someone present to recite verses Islam strictly prohibits sex outside of the Qur’an and pray for the marriage, and marrying early helps peaceful departure of the soul. prevent young adults from falling into illicit sexual relationships. When the person dies, the body must be handled with care and respect. Burial should take place as early as possible, usually within twenty-four hours, unless there are reasons for a later burial. The person is expected to be buried in the town or city where he or she died.

32 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 33 Burial Practices Muslims usually have great concerns about post-mortems unless there is When a Muslim dies, the following a valid reason. This is because, even The body practices are observed by a spouse or in death, a person’s body must be a family member of the same sex: handled with great care and respect, is washed » The body is washed being careful and post-mortems are seen to be to handle it with great care and violent and intrusive to the body. dignity. being careful Following the burial, those present at » The body is wrapped in three to the graveside perform a prayer led by five pieces of cloth, preferably an imam, and ask God to forgive the to handle it white in colour. deceased and to have mercy on him or her. Members of the community » The body, having been prepared are encouraged to visit the family with great care for burial, is taken to the afterwards and to provide support. cemetery and funeral prayers are performed. It is strongly When Muslims visit graves and and dignity. encouraged that as many Muslims cemeteries they are encouraged to as possible should join the funeral reflect on the belief that all people die procession and perform the and will one day face God. It helps prayers. them to be aware of their own future death and to try and live good lives until that time. A simple burial is preferred. In some

Muslim countries, particularly in dry, hot areas, coffins are not used. If one is used, it has to be simple and inexpensive. Similarly, headstones are not encouraged and cremation is considered prohibited.

34 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 35 MUSLIM WOMEN22

Women’s position In most Muslim societies, in Muslim societies In most Muslim societies, women and men are equal before the law. women and men are Both have access to education, employment, and participation in the political system. In several equal before the law. Muslim societies, women have held the highest office in the country. They have been prime ministers and heads of state in key nations such as any people in the West » The wearing of a veil or other Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and believe that Muslim form of head covering by women Turkey. women are oppressed or is seen by many in the West as a M However, in a number of Muslim disadvantaged in Muslim societies. symbol of oppression and lack societies, there is systematic There are several reasons for this: of equality between women and discrimination against women. men. » Oppressive practices that Much of that is related to local discriminate against women » Certain positions taken in cultural practices, values and norms, in some Muslim societies. For classical Islamic law are seen as although these are often justified on example, in some countries, disadvantaging women. One the basis of Islam. Other Muslims women are not allowed to work example is inheritance laws, where who do not agree with this object to outside the home except in a in certain situations a female is such misuse of Islam and argue that very limited arena, participate bequeathed half the share that Islam has nothing to do with such in the political system, become a male receives. For instance, if discrimination. judges, work in so-called male a parent leaves an estate to be For many Muslim women, professions, or drive cars. distributed, a son will receive challenging oppressive practices and double the share of the daughter. » In some places girls may also be ideas where discrimination exists is discouraged or forbidden to go to » The practice of polygyny in which an important part of the struggle for school. a man can marry up to four wives justice, and many find the strength (with certain conditions) whereas and ability to do exactly that by » Images of how Muslim women a woman can only marry one appealing to Islamic texts, values and have been treated in countries husband at a time. norms. They do not believe that Islam such as Afghanistan (under the itself is oppressive to women, but rule of the Taliban) have been certain interpretations of religious shown on television around the texts. For them such interpretations world, especially after September can be questioned and revised. 11, 2001.

22 A significant part of this section relies on Abdullah Saeed,Islam in Australia, 157-182, where further details are provided.

34 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 35 Riffat Hassan on Role of women in Islam women in Islam The dominant, It is difficult to talk about the role What I will say may surprise both of women in Islam in general terms. patriarchal Muslims who ‘know’ women’s place Different Muslims see women’s and non-Muslims who ‘know’ what roles in different ways. Some are Islam means for women. It is this: conservative, others are liberal, and interpretations I am a Muslim, a theologian, and a others fall somewhere between, women’s rights activist, and while I although all claim that their views are of Islam am critical in a number of ways of the based on Islam. Wherever Muslims life that most Muslim societies offer live, these differences will be found. to women, twenty years of theological Traditionalist have fostered study, as well as my own deepest (conservative) view faith, convince me that in real Islam, the myth the Islam of the Qur’an, women and Some Muslims of a more traditional men are equals. Liberating ideas lie (conservative) persuasion argue that at the heart of most enduring faiths, women’s roles in Muslim societies of women’s and Islam shares in these. should be restricted. The primary task of women, according to this The dominant, patriarchal view, is to be at home as wives and interpretations of Islam have fostered inferiority in mothers. Strict segregation of men the myth of women’s inferiority and women in these communities is in several ways. They have used maintained and women may wear a several ways... sayings attributed to the Prophet garment that covers the entire body Muhammad (including disputed including the face. sayings) to undermine the intent and teachings of the Qur’an, which Liberal view Muslims regard as the Word of God. Other Muslims say that the They have taken Qur’anic verses out conservative position has no basis of context and read them literally, in Islam. From their point of view, Some Muslim women point to ignoring the fact that the Qur’an women are able to play a role equal discrimination and oppression that often uses symbolic language to to men in all areas and there should exists all around the world and portray deep truths. And they have be no discrimination against women argue that many different factors failed to account for the overriding in any area of life. They argue for have contributed to discrimination ethical values of the Qur’an, which absolute equality. They tend to reject experienced by women. They feel stresses that human beings – women religious texts or their interpretations that when women are free from the as well as men – have been designated that appear to promote any constraints of poverty, have access to to be God’s ‘khalifah’ (vicegerent) discrimination against women as education, and can control their lives on earth and to establish a social outdated or not relevant today. then discrimination and oppression order characterized by justice and can be fought. compassion.23

23 http://www.religiousconsultation.org/hassan.htm

36 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 37 Between Traditionalists Polygyny The Prophet Muhammad had a and Liberals monogamous marriage with his wife Polygyny, which is one type of Khadijah. They were happily married There is a more popular trend among polygamy, is marriage to more than for twenty-five years until she passed Muslims which sees no conflict one wife at the same time. In Islam, away. In that time polygyny was not between Islam and the needs and it is believed that a man may marry at all unusual, and after Khadijah’s aspirations of Muslim women today. up to four wives. However, there death the Prophet married a number Their views can be summarised as is a debate among Muslims about of women, mostly for political and follows: whether polygyny should be allowed charitable reasons. The first woman today. Polygyny is practised in some » The Qur’an and the Prophet he married after Khadijah, was a poor Muslim societies, but is banned in taught that men and women elderly woman whose husband had others, for example Tunisia. In others, are equal in the eyes of God and died and she had no one to protect such as Indonesia, it is allowed in society. The rights given to her. Some of his other wives were with strict conditions and often women by the Qur’an and the married to cement political ties (as requires permission from the court, Prophet in the seventh century was the custom for Arab leaders of which is only given once those strict were ignored by Muslims in the time). Muslims believe that the conditions are met. Other countries subsequent generations. Prophet Muhammad had special such as Saudi Arabia allow polygyny permission to marry these wives. » Women should have equal without any constraints. They were all called ‘Mothers of the opportunities in all areas of Often the attitude towards polygyny Believers’ and cared for after the education, political participation, is influenced by local cultural norms Prophet passed away. and decision making in society. and practices. In societies where Many Muslim women say that » Women are also capable of taking polygyny has been widely practised polygyny was a practice permitted responsibility for themselves, and in the past, such as Saudi Arabia or in seventh century Arabia, but do not need a man to support some West African countries, it can that it is irrelevant today in many them all the time. be the norm. It is easier to ban or societies, as women often have restrict polygyny in societies where it » A woman is an independent equal opportunities for education, has not been practised before. While person, even in marriage. She has employment and earning an income. many Muslim women find polygyny the right to own property and Others continue to argue that, since difficult to deal with, there are other retains that right after marriage. it is permitted in Islam, it cannot Muslim women who do not object Her husband has no right to her be banned no matter what other to the practice, especially in societies property or wealth; in fact he changes happen in a society. where it is common. should provide for her and their children even if she is wealthy.

These Muslims respect religious texts related to women in the Qur’an and traditions of the Prophet but interpret them in the light of circumstances of today and emphasise texts that support equality.

36 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 37 Concept of hijab (veil) I am a Muslim Woman As with any other issue in Islam, there I am a Muslim Woman I am a are different views among Muslims Feel free to ask me why on the meaning of hijab. For some, When I walk, I walk with dignity hijab means covering a woman’s When I speak, I do not lie Muslim body including her hair and face. For others, it is covering the entire body except the face and hands. I am a Muslim Woman, Woman. Another opinion is that hijab simply Not all of me you’ll see means covering the body modestly, But what you should appreciate not necessarily including the hair Is that the choice I make is free So please and face. Proponents of these views attempt to support their arguments by quoting from the Qur’an, the I’m not plagued with depression traditions of the Prophet and I’m neither cheated nor abused don’t pity me. opinions of Muslim scholars. A literal I don’t envy other women reading of some texts may indicate And I’m certainly not confused that covering for a woman means the entire body, whereas a more ‘liberal’ Note, I speak perfect English reading of such texts (particularly Et un petit peu de francais aussi taking into consideration their context) may indicate that the I’m majoring in Linguistics covering can be less than that. So you need not speak slowly Some people believe that ‘covering’ I own my own small business is for women only, but men are also Every cent I earn is mine required to cover certain parts of the body. This is usually considered I drive my Chevy to school and work to be at least ‘from navel to knee’. And no, that’s not a crime However, in many cultures, Muslim men actually cover their entire body, You often stare as I walk by including their hair. The Tuareg You don’t understand my veil men in Africa even veil their faces as But peace and power I have found well. Attitudes to covering, whether For I am equal to any male for men or women, and the degree of covering, are influenced by local norms and practices. In Saudi Arabia, I am a Muslim Woman for instance, even men often cover So please don’t pity me their entire body including their hair, For God has guided me to truth whereas in Indonesia this would be And now I’m finally free!24 considered unusual.

24 http://www.thermodernreligion.com/index2.html

38 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 39 Female circumcision Those who promote female Arranged marriage circumcision believe it has health Female circumcision (also known In the West and in many non- benefits and makes women more as ‘female genital cutting’ or ‘female Western societies, couples usually get ‘beautiful’. They also see it as genital mutilation’), which is the married through a ‘love match’. The reducing feelings of sexual arousal cutting away of a part of the female man and woman meet without any in women so that they are less likely genitals, has no Islamic basis or intention to marry. They begin seeing to engage in pre-marital sex or justification. There is nothing each other; they fall in love and adultery. Those who want female legitimate in the Qur’an or the become involved in each other’s lives. circumcision banned argue that it traditions of the Prophet to suggest If things work out well, they may get leaves women permanently mutilated that Muslims should engage in this married. Otherwise, they move on to and vulnerable to many sexual and practice. As a result, most Muslims another relationship. physical problems. around the world do not engage in it. In some cultures, arranged marriage Where it is done, it is largely a local Female circumcision exists in some is quite common. This can have cultural practice (at times justified communities around the world, many forms. One is that parents or on the basis of religion). In Islam, particularly in parts of Africa. If it is guardians select the bride or groom, boys are circumcised, although even common in the area where they live, having considered social status, here it is only recommended, not an Muslims also tend to practise it. relationship, profession, or the wealth obligatory duty. of both. The bride and groom may or Female circumcision is a procedure may not have any say in this arranged that is performed on girls usually marriage. before puberty. There are three types Another form of arranged marriage is of female circumcision, which vary in planned marriage, where individuals degree of surgery performed. Because or their parents search for a possible a part (or sometimes all) of the marriage partner (either through clitoris is surgically removed, female friends, specialised agencies, elders, circumcision appears to leave women or even family). Once they find a with reduced or no sexual feeling. possible partner, they meet with the The most dramatic form is called intention of getting married. infibulation where the outer lips of the vagina are sewn together, leaving a small hole for bodily fluids to pass out. Infibulation is extremely painful and has many dangerous health risks.

38 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 39 Under Islamic norms of marriage, Wedding ceremony in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) ‘love matches’, particularly where As a tradition in the UAE, the setting of the wedding date marks the beginning the individuals are involved in pre- of the bride’s preparation for her wedding. Although the groom is also put marital sex or living together, are through a series of preparations, the bride’s preparations are naturally more considered unacceptable. Arranged elaborate and time consuming. marriages where the consent of both parties is not sought are also In preparation for her wedding, she is anointed with all sorts of traditional considered un-Islamic. A marriage oils and perfumes from head to toe. Her body is rubbed with cleansing and is a contract and those who enter conditioning oils and creams, the hands and feet are decorated with henna and into it must give their consent. If a the hair is washed with extracts of amber and jasmine. She is fed only the best young woman, for instance, is forced of foods and her girlfriends prepare the best dishes which they share with her. into a marriage which she does not Traditionally, she is not seen for forty days except for family members as she want, this is considered un-Islamic. rests at home in preparation for her wedding day. Fine pieces of jewellery, Although sex before or outside perfumes, silk materials, and other necessary items are presented to her by the marriage is forbidden in Islam, it is groom, from which she creates her elaborate trousseau called addahbiya. considered normal for individuals to know one another before marriage. The festivities usually take about one week before the wedding night. During that week, traditional music, continuous singing, and dancing take Many Muslims therefore opt for a place reflecting the joy shared by the bride’s and the groom’s family. planned marriage. However, in many Nowadays, although most weddings are celebrated in less than one week, Muslim societies, in practice, love they are just as elaborate and ceremonial, if not more. matches and arranged marriages are quite common. In Australia, A few days before the wedding night is the henna night or laylat al-henna planned marriage and forms of ‘love which is a very special night for the bride since it is a ladies’ night only. On match’ appear to be common among this night, the bride’s hands and feet are decorated with henna, which is a dark Muslims, but arranged marriages brown paste made from the henna plant. When left on the skin for some time, appear to be rare except in certain the henna leaves a dark red stain. ethnic communities. The henna night is a time for all the bride’s sisters, female family members, and girlfriends to get together and sing and dance. All female family members and guests also decorate their hands with henna. Another traditional element of the UAE customs is the Arabian kohl or eyeliner. The bride, as well as many other UAE women, like to line their eyes on almost all occasions.

After her eyes are lined, her hair is perfumed and her hands and feet are decorated with henna, the bride is ready for her wedding night. The back- to-back feasts and celebrations involve both men and women who usually celebrate separately. Although different areas of the country may have slight differences in their celebrations and customs, the general traditions are the same throughout the country most of which are still adhered to.25

25 http://islam.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.ecssr.ac.ae/Land/wedding%2520.html

40 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 41 Inheritance Furthermore, whatever a woman It is also worth noting that there is inherited was hers to keep. The debate in Muslim scholarship today One of the criticisms that are made of husband had no claim to any of on the application of inheritance Islamic law is that it seems to favour her property and wealth, a right law. Some Muslim scholars argue men in the area of inheritance, and that English women did not receive that the inheritance laws apply only it is commonly believed that when until 1882. On the other hand, a where a person has not left a will. it comes to inheritance a woman is Muslim man had the responsibility Another viewpoint is that a Muslim only worth half of a man. In actual of looking after the female members can specify that up to one third of his fact, inheritance laws are much of his family and supporting them or her estate be given to whomever he more complex than that, and many from his means. This is why, some or she chooses. Generally speaking, Muslims argue the entire social fabric Muslims argue, the amount of a however, Muslims follow the pattern of an Islamic society must be taken son’s inheritance is double that of inheritance laws laid down in into account when appreciating the of a daughter’s: because he has the Qur’an, and in Australia it is wisdom of Islamic inheritance law. the responsibility of looking after important for Muslims to leave a will In Arabian society before the Prophet the female members of his family, stating this.26 Muhammad, women often could while she may spend or keep her not inherit anything. In fact, they inheritance for herself. were sometimes thought of as ‘goods’ However, a man’s share is double that to be inherited themselves! The ...the division of a woman’s only some of the time. Qur’an changed the Arab custom At other times men and women have and forbade the inheriting of women. an equal share. For example, both the of inheritance Then the Qur’an stipulated that mother and the father equally receive women should also receive a share of a sixth of the inheritance of their inheritance: deceased child, so Muslims argue is not simply ‘From what is left by parents and that the division of inheritance is not those nearest related there is a simply based on gender. based on gender share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large, a determinate share’. (Qur’an 4:7)

26 See http://www.jannah.org/sisters/inheritance.html

40 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 41 HOLIDAYS AND HOLY DAYS

ike any other religion, Islam Special days has its share of festivals, Two festivals (Eid) Lholidays and holy days. Most of these days are marked in » Eid al-Fitr: The first day of the month of Shawwal, which occurs the Islamic calendar. This is a lunar immediately after the month of Ramadan. calendar, meaning that its days and » Eid al-Ad ha: The tenth day of Dhu al-Hijja. This occurs during the months are related to the movement pilgrimage season, in the last month of the Islamic year. and phases of the moon, unlike the Gregorian calendar we use in Throughout the world, Muslims celebrate Eid (both Eid al-Fitr and Australia, which is based on the solar Eid al-Ad ha) with much fanfare. In the morning, they perform the Eid prayer, year. Australian Muslims often use and then they celebrate the day. Relatives and friends visit each other, give gifts both the Islamic calendar and the to children, wear their best clothes, and take part in festivities. Gregorian calendar.

The Islamic calendar has twelve months. Each month is either twenty- nine or thirty days long. The Islamic calendar began with the migration of Birthday of the the Prophet Muhammad in 622 from Friday Prophet Muhammad Mecca to Medina, known as the hijra On Friday, at noon, Muslims The birthday of the Prophet, known (indicated by AH). Therefore the first gather in the mosque for special as mawlid al-nabiy, is celebrated on year (or 1 AH) in the Islamic calendar congregational prayers. After the call the twelfth day of Rabi` al-Awwal. is equal to 622 in the Gregorian to prayer, the imam gives a sermon. While it is not a formal religious calendar. They then pray in congregation. In event, many Muslims mark this day The months of the most Muslim countries, Friday is a in celebration of the special place that Islamic calendar holiday (part of the weekend). the Prophet Muhammad has in their hearts. 1 Muharram Islamic New Year Month of Ramadan 2 Safar This is the first of the month of Muharram. In Muslim majority Ramadan is the most sacred month 3 Rabi` al-Awwal countries, it is a public holiday even if of the year. Adult Muslims fast for 4 Rabi` al-Thani not a formal religious celebration. the whole month, every day from dawn to sunset. They believe that it 5 Jumada al-Ula was in Ramadan that the Prophet 6 Jumada al-Thaniya Muhammad received the first revelation from God. 7 Rajab

8 Sha`ban

9 Ramadan

10 Shawwal

11 Dhu al-Qa`ida

12 Dhu al-Hijja

42 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 43 SACRED PLACES

Mecca Jerusalem and the Dome of the Rock

he most sacred place for The beauty and tranquillity of the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem attracts Muslims is the Ka`ba in thousands of visitors of all faiths every year. Many believe it was the site of the Tthe sacred city of Mecca in Temple of Solomon, peace be upon him, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 modern day Saudi Arabia. Muslims BC, or the site of the Second Temple, completely destroyed by the Romans in believe that the Ka`ba was built in 70 CE. For Muslims the area has a special significance, as the site of the Prophet time immemorial by the Prophet Muhammad’s Night Journey, peace and blessings be upon him, and as the first Abraham and his son Ishmael as a qibla (direction of prayer) for Islam. 27 place to worship the one God. Mecca In 685 CE the Umayyad Caliph, `Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, commenced is where the Prophet Muhammad work on the Dome of the Rock. Essentially unchanged for more than thirteen was born and lived, and began his centuries, the Dome of the Rock remains one of the world’s most beautiful and mission. Muslims from all over the enduring architectural treasures. The gold dome stretches 20 metres across the world gather there for their annual Noble Rock, rising to an apex more than 35 metres above it. The Qur’anic verse pilgrimage (hajj). Ya Sin is inscribed across the top in the dazzling tile work commissioned in the Medina 16th century by Suleiman the Magnificent.28

The second most sacred place for Muslims is Medina, the city of the Prophet, which is also in Saudi Arabia. The Mosque of the Prophet is in Medina. It is where the Prophet Muhammad and many of The third most sacred place his immediate followers are buried. Only Muslims may visit Mecca and in Islam is Jerusalem. It is Medina. Jerusalem believed to be where the Prophet The third most sacred place in Islam is Jerusalem. It is believed to Muhammad miraculously be where the Prophet Muhammad miraculously travelled in his famous Night Journey, and from where he travelled in his famous Night ‘ascended’ to the heavens. There are several sacred monuments for Muslims in Jerusalem, such as the Journey, and from where he Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque. ‘ascended’ to the heavens.

27 http://www.noblesanctuary.com/HISTORY.html 28 http://www.noblesanctuary.com/DOME.html

42 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 43 The Mosque (masjid) Other sacred places Images of living beings and mosques One of the most important everyday There are places considered sacred places for Muslims is the mosque, by some Muslims but not others. No images of living beings where they perform their daily For example, Karbala, in Iraq, is (people, animals) are used in prayers as well as other important one of the holiest places for Shi`a mosques. Muslims believe that it is prayers such as the Friday and Eid Muslims. It is the place where the blasphemous to represent God in prayers. A mosque can be anything, third Shi`a Imam, the Prophet’s any form. They do not use images of from a place to pray, to a simple grandson, Husayn, was killed. Shi`a the Prophet or of any other prophets building, to a large, highly decorated Muslims from around the world visit such as Moses or Jesus either. structure with a dome and a tall Karbala to commemorate the death Mosques are decorated only with minaret. Although the notion of of Husayn. Qur’anic verses, or with the names a mosque as a separate building of God, the Prophet, and the senior Throughout the Muslim world there has taken deep root in Muslim companions of the Prophet in very are tombs and shrines of mystics communities, it does not have to be a elaborate calligraphy. Geometrical and other prominent religious building. In fact, any clean place may patterns are also used for decoration. personalities. Many Muslims consider be used as a mosque, including a park Another feature of mosques is that no such places as sacred as well. This or the desert. musical instruments are played in the is despite the fact that there are worship that occurs there; the human Muslims who consider such tombs voice is the only ‘musical decoration’ and shrines and visits to them as permitted. un-Islamic.

44 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 45 SACRED TEXTS

The Qur’an The main subjects that are dealt with Muslim beliefs about in the Qur’an are: the Qur’an he Qur’an is the holy scripture of Muslims. It is in » God’s creation of the universe. » The Qur’an is literally the speech Arabic and is a compilation of God, not the words or opinions T » God and His message to of revelations sent from God to the of Prophet Muhammad or any human beings. Prophet Muhammad between 610 other human being. and 632 CE. It has one hundred and » Ethical and moral issues, such as » The Qur’an was ‘compiled’ (or fourteen chapters (suras), of unequal the evil of injustice and the need put together) soon after the death length. The longest sura has two to help the disadvantaged. of the Prophet. This has prevented hundred and eighty-six verses while » How Muslims should behave in the Qur’an from being ‘corrupted’ the shortest has only three verses. certain circumstances. or ‘distorted’. Thus the Qur’an The Qur’an talks about many has remained unchanged for over » Stories of past prophets such as different things and issues. Each fourteen hundred years. Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, chapter may have several topics, Isaac, Joseph, Moses and Jesus. » The Qur’an remains the Qur’an and the same topic may appear in only if it is in Arabic. If it different parts of the Qur’an. » The problems and difficulties is translated into any other faced by the Prophet Muhammad language, it is a translation of the and the first Muslim community. meanings of the Qur’an, not the » Life after death, Paradise and Hell, Qur’an itself. and accountability in the life after death.

44 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 45 The most often recited chapter of the Qur’an is the first chapter. It is read Hadith several times a day by a Muslim, in his or her prayers. The second most sacred text and Translation of the first chapter in the Qur’an the source of Islamic ethics, beliefs In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Dispenser of Grace: and practices is the anecdotes that document what the Prophet All praise is due to God alone, the Sustainer of all the worlds, Muhammad said and did. These are The Most Gracious, the Dispenser of Grace, called the Hadith.

Lord of the Day of Judgement! During the twenty-three years of the Prophet’s mission (from 610 to 632), Thee alone do we worship; and unto Thee alone do we turn for aid. many of the things that the Prophet Guide us the straight way – said and did were told and retold by Muslims and were later documented. The way of those upon whom Thou hast bestowed Thy blessings, These anecdotes are important in Not of those who have been condemned [by Thee], understanding what the Qur’an says on many issues. A good example of Nor of those who go astray! (Qur’an 1:1–7) this is how to perform the five daily prayers. The Qur’an commands Muslims to perform daily prayers but does not give any details as to how, when, and in what form these prayers While all Muslims hold that the There have been many great should be performed. The Prophet Qur’an is the Word of God, they also interpreters of the Qur’an who have Muhammad explained the prayers have different views and opinions on written commentaries (tafsirs). All in detail and showed Muslims how how it should be interpreted. Some of them had different approaches to perform them. These are reported emphasise a legalistic approach, in interpreting the Qur’an and in Hadith, and Muslims rely on concentrating on discovering what they contributed much to the such Hadith to understand how to it has to say about how to live life. understanding of the Muslim holy perform the prayers. Others take a more mystical approach book. Not all Hadith have the same degree and try to understand deeper Today many Muslims also try to of reliability. Some are historically meanings in its metaphors and interpret the Qur’an and make reliable. Some are falsely attributed parables. it meaningful for Muslims living to the Prophet. A Muslim relies on around the world. Some Muslims feel historically reliable and authentic that the Qur’an should be re-read Hadith to understand the Prophet’s and reinterpreted afresh by each practices and guidance. group of people who receive it. This way, the Qur’an remains eternally relevant and meaningful.

46 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 47 Islamic law A Muslim Muslim scholars over the past Muslims are subject to the laws fourteen hundred years have in place in Australia like other developed a large body of laws, Australians, and should abide by relies on called Islamic law (also known as these laws. There is no reason why shari`a), based on the instructions a Muslim cannot be a committed historically provided in the Qur’an and Hadith. practising Muslim while following The literature on Islamic law is vast Australian laws in matters that govern and is considered part of the sacred life here such as taxation law, criminal reliable and literature of Muslims. There are law, traffic laws and so on. literally thousands of books that deal In some countries, Islamic law – or a with Islamic law. authentic particular version of it – is the state Muslims throughout the world law of the land. Problems tend to consult some of these legal texts occur when this is imposed on the Hadith to to seek guidance in their daily life. citizens without full acceptance, or Islamic law, unlike secular law such as where it is used as a political tool, understand Australian law, covers wide-ranging as in Afghanistan and Nigeria. In issues, such as how to pray and how many places of the Muslim world, to wash. It is consulted in regard to Islamic law is part and parcel the Prophet’s family matters, criminal law, and of the way societies have been international law. For Muslims in running for centuries. There, debate practices and Australia, only a relatively small tends to occur around particular part of Islamic law really applies, interpretations of Islamic law or mostly in the area of rituals, dietary implementation of specific laws, guidance. regulations, ethical norms and some rather than on the question of areas of marriage law. In other areas, whether the society wants Islamic law Muslims, like other Australians, at all. follow Australian law.

Example of a Hadith

Anas ibn Malik who was the servant of the Messenger of Allah reported that the Prophet said, ‘No one of you [really] believes [in Allah and His religion] until he loves for his brother what he loves for his own self’ (narrated by Bukhari and Muslim).

46 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 47 DETERMINING RIGHT AND WRONG

In case of necessity, what is prohibited may be allowed, but only as long as the necessity lasts.

uslims believe that God created human beings and gave them free will. However God does not leave us to find out right from wrong Mentirely on our own. God provided guidance and instructions from the very beginning, through prophets. The first prophet, Adam, taught this to his children. Similarly throughout history other prophets came and transmitted God’s instructions to their people.

In addition to guidance, God also provides human beings with the faculty of reason, which also helps us to discern right from wrong. The faculty of reason is important to understand what God wants people to do.

Knowing what is right and what is wrong

Islamic norms, ethics, moral values Muslims understand that their Those things that are considered and law are based on two sources: actions or activities, broadly speaking, permissible fall into four sub- the Qur’an and the Hadith (reported fall into two main categories: categories. The first category covers sayings) of the Prophet. When a permitted and prohibited. Anything the obligations, such as the five Muslim wants to know whether considered harmful and dangerous to daily prayers. The next category is something is right or wrong, the first the individual or to the community things that are recommended; that question to ask is ‘What does the is usually prohibited. In reality, this is, it is a good idea to do them (for Qur’an or the Prophet have to say on applies to only a few things. Examples example brushing one’s teeth several this?’ If there is a clear instruction include murder, theft and fraud. times daily). The third category in the Qur’an or in the Hadith, a covers things that are disapproved Muslim will follow it. For instance, of or disliked, such as laziness, and the Qur’an says ‘Do not commit the fourth is things that are simply murder’, which indicates that it is allowed, such as eating rice. wrong to kill a person unlawfully.

48 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 49 Some principles to help Many things Muslims are There are certain things that Muslims decide how to act expected to do concern Muslims should not do: appropriately consideration for others: » Place any other being equal (in From a religious point of view, all » Treat others as you would like to importance) to, or above God. things are allowed in Islam, except be treated. » Tell lies or act unkindly. It is also whatever is clearly prohibited by the » Always be honest, tell the truth. wrong to be lazy, boastful, or Qur’an or by the Prophet. This means jealous. that Muslims can go about their » Dress and behave modestly. day-to-day life without feeling that » In economic matters, it is wrong » Be patient in difficult religion unnecessarily limits their to hoard money or to waste circumstances. freedom. Islam primarily prohibits it. Muslims should not exploit things that are clearly harmful to » Be gentle in dealing with others. others, give or accept bribes, people. For example, alcohol is or steal in any way. Gambling » Be generous and courteous. prohibited because it is considered is forbidden, as is prostitution, harmful both at an individual and at » Be forgiving and compassionate. erotic dancing, and black magic. a community level. » Be polite, good tempered and » Both murder and suicide are sins. If something is clearly prohibited warm. It is also wrong to endanger the in the Qur’an or by the Prophet, life of an unborn baby, except if » Be hardworking. Muslims do not have the authority the mother’s life is threatened. to change that rule, and vice versa. » Be thankful to God and other » Muslims are not allowed to be For example, murder is prohibited. human beings. cruel to animals. Muslims have no authority to make » Respect your parents. murder permissible. In another » Sex outside marriage is forbidden. example, Muslims are allowed to » Show kindness and compassion Muslims also should not invade eat rice. No Muslim can declare rice towards others. others’ privacy by looking at their prohibited. genitals, regardless of whether they are of the same gender or In case of necessity, what is not. prohibited may be allowed, but only as long as the necessity lasts. While » As in the Bible, there are rules for alcohol is prohibited, if someone who can marry. For example, a happened to be locked up in a place man may not marry his mother, where there was nothing to eat step-mother, daughter, sister, or or drink at all and the only drink aunt. A woman may not marry available there was wine, the person men who are their close relations. could drink the wine to stay alive.

48 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 49 Some Qur’anic commandments Islam’s attitude to evil and suffering » Say: Come I will recite what your Lord has forbidden to you. [Remember] that you Many thinkers have pondered over the question: ‘Why does God allow » do not associate anything with Him evil and suffering to exist?’ In Islamic » show kindness to your parents, and history, Muslim theologians and scholars also thought about this » do not slay your children for [fear of] poverty- We provide for you and for question. The Qur’an teaches us that them- and life is a test, that God gives us all a » do not draw nigh to indecencies, those of them which are apparent and measure of responsibility and that on those which are concealed, and the Day of Judgment we will be held responsible for our deeds. Because we » do not kill the soul which God has forbidden except for the requirements of have this responsibility, some human justice; this He has enjoined you with that you may understand. beings choose to follow the will of » And do not approach the property of the orphan except in the best manner God and others reject God. It is in until he attains his maturity, and rejecting God that sin and suffering come into the world. » give full measure and weight with justice - We do not impose on any soul a duty except to the extent of its ability; and

» when you speak, then be just though it be [against] a relative, and

» fulfil God’s covenant; this He has enjoined you with that you may be mindful;

» And [know] that this is My path, the right one therefore follow it, and follow not [other] ways, for they will lead you away from His way; this He has enjoined you with that you may guard [against evil]’ (Qur’an 6:151-153).

50 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 51 The story of Iblis The Qur’an When God created the human being Adam, He ordered the angels to bow down before Adam. They all obeyed, but there was a jinn among them called Iblis who rebelled against God. He did not wish to prostrate himself before teaches us Adam and he argued with God saying: ‘I am better than he: you created me from fire and him from clay’. Because Iblis was arrogant and rejected God he that life is a was called ‘Satan’ and his pride in his own creation [or racism] became the first sin.

Muslims believe that God allows Satan to test human beings, and that the first test, that God example of this was when he tempted Adam and Eve in the Garden. According to the Qur’an, both Adam and his mate were tempted to eat the fruit of a gives us all special tree which they had been forbidden to approach. Both Adam and Eve gave into Satan’s temptation and ate the fruit. However, in Islam, there is no concept of original sin, as both Adam and his mate asked for and received a measure of forgiveness from God.

For Muslims, this story teaches that we should resist the temptations of Satan responsibility to disobey God. It also teaches that God forgives us if we truly repent of our and that on sins and make a genuine effort to do His will. the Day of Judgment we will be held responsible for our deeds.

50 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 51 FOOD AND DRINK

any people have heard Islamic method of slaughter Can a Muslim eat beef, lamb of halal food these days. and chicken from local This applies to all animals that There are halal butchers, supermarkets and butchers? M Muslims may consume such as cows, halal restaurants and halal takeaways. sheep, goats and birds (e.g. chickens, Some Muslims believe (following ‘Halal’ is an Arabic word which turkeys and ducks). The animal or traditional Islamic law and Qur’anic means ‘permissible’. In the context bird should be: instructions) that animals and birds of food it means what Muslims are slaughtered by Christians and Jews allowed to consume. » Free from disease which is likely may be consumed by Muslims. This to cause harm to consumers. In general, Muslims are allowed means that meat from a normal to consume all foods (e.g. grains, » Handled with kindness. abattoir and bought from any vegetables, fish and meat), except Desensitisers and restraining supermarket or butcher is acceptable. those that are explicitly prohibited in methods can be used but should Other Muslims are stricter on this. Islam. Prohibited foods are very few not lead to the death of the For them, only meat slaughtered by a but include: animal before slaughter. Muslim may be eaten, so they will go to a halal butcher to buy their meat. » Alcoholic drinks such as beer and » Killed quickly, with a sharp object wine. such as a knife, to minimise pain Many Muslims also avoid and suffering. After that, the » Pig meat (eg. ham, pork, bacon) » Cakes, biscuits or ice cream blood must be drained. and by-products of the pig such containing animal-based products as pig fat. Many believe that God’s name such as lard, gelatine or enzymes. should be pronounced at the time of » Meat of an animal that has died » Packaged foods that contain slaughtering the animal. of natural causes, or as a result of ‘animal fat’ in case the fat comes strangling or beating. It is very important to treat animals from pigs. well because they are God’s creatures. » Blood that is in liquid » Restaurants and take away shops If someone treats them with cruelty (‘drinkable’) form. that serve pig meat, as the utensils or kills them unjustly, then that used to prepare such meat might person will have to answer to God also be used with other foods. on the Day of Judgment. Muslims should also be thankful to God when Many other Muslims view the matter they eat of the meat of animals which differently. While they avoid pig have been provided for their benefit. meat or alcohol, they do not have any objections to eating at an average restaurant or take away.

52 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 53 MOSQUES AND RELIGIOUS LEADERS

here is no official religious hierarchy in Islam, particularly Sunni Islam. Similarly, there is no figure such as a priest to act as an intermediary Tbetween a person and God. A Muslim has direct access to God through prayer, and the relationship between God and the individual is a personal one.

Even in religious worship and rituals such as prayer (salat), anyone with a basic knowledge of the religion and who can recite some portions of the Qur’an can be a leader. No one has to be appointed by a committee in order to perform this function. However, in practice in Australia, an imam is generally appointed at each mosque to look after the mosque, lead worship, and conduct other associated activities. This is essentially a management issue, not a religious one. The imam appointed usually has some training in Islamic religious disciplines (often with a degree from an Islamic seminary or a university). This enables the imam to help the community with matters of religious law and practice.

What does a religious leader (imam) in Australia do?

The officially appointed imam of a Most religious leaders in Australia are mosque usually: from overseas. They are trained in overseas seminaries and brought to » Provides guidance to the Australia to serve a particular ethnic community in their religious life. community, for example Pakistani, » Runs the day to day affairs of the Bosnian, Turkish or Lebanese. As yet, mosque. there are only a few Australian-born imams. » Conducts regular prayers (usually five times a day) in congregation.

» Gives the Friday sermon.

» Conducts religious education classes for Muslim children as well as for adults.

» Participates in the activities of the local Muslim community.

» Performs marriages and funerals (where licensed to do so by Australian authorities).

» Engages in interfaith activities.

» Represents the community at local functions.

» Liaises with the local government where required.

52 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 53 Mosques in Australia Islamic decoration in the art and architecture of mosques

There are more than one hundred Calligraphy: Calligraphy is considered one of the most important of the mosques and a large number of other Islamic arts. Nearly all Islamic buildings have some type of surface inscription prayer facilities throughout Australia. in the stone, stucco, marble, mosaic and/or painting. The inscription might Most mosques are in Sydney and be a verse from the Qur’an, lines of poetry or names and dates. An inscription Melbourne, but all capital cities also might be contained in a single panel. Sometimes single words such as in Australia have mosques. Most Allah or Muhammad are repeated and arranged into patterns over the entire mosques are non-sectarian; that is, surface of the walls. they do not belong to one particular Geometric patterns: Islamic artists developed geometric patterns to a degree of religious group or legal school. complexity and sophistication previously unknown. These patterns exemplify Usually, any Muslim, whatever his the Islamic interest in repetition, symmetry and pattern. or her ethnicity, culture, theological orientation or legal school, may Floral patterns: Islamic artists reproduced nature with a great deal of accuracy. go and pray in any mosque. At a Flowers and trees might be used as the motifs for the decoration of textiles, typical mosque you may find a Sunni objects and buildings. Muslim praying side-by-side with Light: For many Muslims, light is the symbol of divine unity. In Islamic a Shi`a Muslim, or someone from architecture, light functions decoratively by modifying other elements or by Africa praying next to someone who originating patterns. Light can add a dynamic quality to architecture, extending was born in Australia. patterns, forms and designs into the dimensions of time. A mosque may be run by a society Water: In hot Islamic climates, the water from courtyard pools and fountains dominated by one ethnic group, cools as it decorates. Water not only reflects architecture and multiplies the such as Pakistanis, Bosnians or decorative themes; it also serves as a means of emphasising the visual axes.29 Afghans. However, the congregation is not made up of any one ethnicity. Muslims living in that area, regardless of their ethnic background, usually attend the local mosque.

In Australia there are three different types of mosques. The largest have several facilities such as classrooms, a bookshop and offices. There are also smaller mosques that have no extra facilities, and, finally, there are prayer rooms, such as at workplaces and universities.

29 http://www.islamicart.com/main/architecture/index.html

54 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 55 COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS

uslims have formed a Is there one religious large number of Islamic leadership across Australia? societies, centres and M At the time of writing, there is no It may take some time before associations in Australia. Some of single religious leadership across a unified religious leadership these are ethnically based. In each Australia, although attempts have emerges, if ever, in Australia. One state, many of these societies join the been made recently to develop one. difficulty is the enormous diversity state Islamic council, which becomes Both Victoria and New South Wales among Muslims (ethnic, religious, the umbrella organisation for the have a Board of Imams (representing theological, legal, spiritual), and it is societies in that state. all or perhaps most imams of the often difficult to agree on one person All Islamic councils are members of state). Officially, the Board of Imams or body to represent the religious the national umbrella organisation represents the religious views of the views of the entire community. called the Australian Federation of community. In practice, relatively few Islamic Councils (AFIC). Not all imams are actively involved on the societies in a given state join that Board. This means that, even at state state’s Islamic council because it is level, there is no unified religious entirely optional, so it is difficult to leadership. say that AFIC represents all Muslims or even the majority of Muslims in Australia.

54 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 55 ISLAMIC SCHOOLS

he Islamic weekend school (Saturday and/or Sunday school) plays an important role in the life of Muslim children in Australia. Many go Students are Tto the weekend school based at the local mosque or prayer facility or even a rented property to learn about Islam, to read the Qur’an, and study the language of their parents, for example Arabic, Turkish or Urdu. In these expected to weekend schools, teachers are often volunteers. Most mosques in Australia offer some form of weekend program. follow Islamic The Muslim community also established a number of regular primary and secondary schools in Australia from the early 1980s. Most of these schools are based in Sydney and Melbourne where the vast majority of Muslims live, but rules and norms there are also schools in Perth, Adelaide and Brisbane. At the time of writing, there were about twenty-four of these schools. The total number of students in regarding dress these schools is still relatively small. Most Muslim students in Australia attend state (public) schools, and some go to prestigious private schools as well. and food while Islamic schools, like other non-government schools, receive Australian government subsidies. Fees are kept low so that parents (who are often recent migrants or from working-class backgrounds) can afford to send their children they are at to these schools. Students learn the same subjects as taught in other public primary and secondary schools. The various state education departments school. monitor the curricula to ensure that basic standards are maintained. The difference is that students at Islamic schools receive Islamic religious education, and are usually taught Arabic as well. In all other respects, the curriculum of the Islamic school is like that of any other public school. Teachers in these Islamic schools come from a variety of ethnic and religious backgrounds. Only the religious education teachers are expected to be Muslim.

Students are expected to follow Islamic rules and norms regarding dress and food while they are at school. The school attempts to provide an environment in which students can enrich their understanding of Islam.

56 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 57 Al Zahra College

Al Zahra College is a regular Islamic school based in Sydney, run by Muslims of Shi`a background. Their aims are not much different to many other regular Islamic schools throughout Australia.

The aims of the College are:

» To provide a centre for educational activities and studies that will result in high quality education in a caring and stimulating Islamic environment

» To observe that the school curriculum will meet the standards set by the NSW Board of Studies

» To provide Islamic studies based on the Holy Qur’an, the Sunnah and the teachings of the twelve Imams30

» To create a harmonious and stimulating community atmosphere in which staff are mutually supportive and care for students and in which students can grow as persons, developing a feeling of self-worth, a high level of personal integrity and a sincere respect for others

» To ensure that appointed teachers adhere to the underlying philosophy of the school, recognising the pre-eminent position of the teacher in the educational process

» To promote the understanding and respect of other cultures and religions within the school community

» To actively involve families and the local community in the education of their children

» To develop cordial relations with other educational institutions and public schools.31

30 This refers to the 12 Shi`a imams. 31 http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alzahracollege/

56 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 57 ISLAMIC BANKING

n the time of the Prophet, the Arabs used to engage in a practice called For those Muslims who do not wish riba, which involved lending a person some goods or money. If they to take or pay interest, an alternative, Icould not repay the loan after a certain amount of time, then they would Islamic banking, has been set up end up having to repay much more, sometimes double the amount or over. in many places around the world, The Qur’an prohibited the practice of riba saying: ‘O ye who believe! Devour including in Australia, which is home not riba (usury), doubled and multiplied; but fear God; that ye may [really] to the Muslim Community prosper’ (3:130). Because of the prohibition of riba, many Muslims view Co-operative Australia (MCCA).32 Western banking practices involving interest as being riba-based and therefore The principles of Islamic banking are forbidden to Muslims. However, some Muslims argue that interest and riba are as follows:33 two different things and that riba was prohibited because it was unjust. As such, » Only ethical investments must in their view, if interest is not unjust it does not need to be prohibited. be made. Islamic banks will not invest in companies that trade in products such as pork, alcohol, gambling, and pornography.

Rather than taking and paying » Rather than taking and paying interest, Islamic banks offer a interest, Islamic banks offer a partnership arrangement so that customers share in profits made, but also take a share of the risk if partnership arrangement so that there is no profit or an investment fails. This is a bit like having customers share in profits made shares in a company. » Customers can arrange with the bank to receive finance for buying major things like cars and houses. Both the customer and bank agree to a fixed amount which will be paid over time including a known amount of profit for the bank.

» The bank and its partners have a responsibility to contribute to social development through Islamic investments and the paying of zakat.

» The bank usually has a supervisory person or board to ensure that the bank is acting in accordance with Islamic principles and ethics.

32 See http://www.mcca.com.au/ 33 See http://www.islamicbankingonline.com/ovrv3.htm

58 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 59 ISLAM AND VIOLENCE

any people in the West A European convert to Islam on images of Islam in the West believe that Islam is a And was it any wonder then, I asked myself, that, fortified by such tangible religion that teaches M evidences of Muslim decay, so many erroneous views about Islam itself violence against non-Muslims and were prevalent throughout the West? These popular, Western views could be that, compared to people of other summarized thus: The downfall of the Muslims is mainly due to Islam which, faiths, Muslims are more likely to be far from being a religious ideology comparable to Christianity or Judaism, is a violent and intolerant. rather unholy mixture of desert fanaticism, gross sensuality, superstition and This belief is largely based on dumb fatalism that prevents its adherents from participating in mankind’s negative images that existed in advance toward higher social forms; instead of liberating the human medieval Christian Europe about spirit from the shackles of obscurantism, Islam rather tightens them; and, Islam and Muslims; for example, consequently, the sooner the Muslim peoples are freed from their subservience Muslims were falsely thought to to Islamic beliefs and social practices and induced to adopt the Western way of be barbaric, violent and fanatical, life, the better for them and for the rest of the world. an image that has continued to the My own observations had by now convinced me that the mind of the average twenty-first century. Westerner held an utterly distorted image of Islam. What I saw in the pages of the Qur’an was not a ‘crudely materialistic’ world-view but, on the contrary, an intense Godconsciousness that expressed itself in a rational acceptance of all God-created nature: a harmonious side-by-side of intellect and sensual urge, spiritual need and social demand. It was obvious to me that the decline of the Muslims was not due to any shortcomings in Islam but rather to their own failure to live up to it.34

33 Muhammad Asad. The Road to Mecca. Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, p. 190.

58 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 59 While the portrayal of Islam and What many Muslims think Islam does, however, condone self- Muslims in the media today has about violence defence: to defend one’s life, property, a historical basis of negative bias homeland, and religion. This is For the average Muslim, Islam against Muslims, the portrayal acceptable in almost all religions and is a religion of peace. It does not of Islam as violent has also been communities we know of today. In encourage the use of violence against encouraged by the actions of a few this, Muslims are no different from non-Muslims. In fact, it encourages Muslims who have violated the most other religious groups. peaceful and harmonious relations fundamental precepts of the religion. with others. Where Islam allows violence in For example, terrorist activities self-defence, for example when the against American or Western interests Islam as peace community is under attack by an often in the name of Islam are the Islam is the religion of peace: its enemy or its homeland is occupied, cause of some of the fear of Muslims. meaning is peace; one of God’s it is a duty of the community to Examples of such terrorist activity names is peace; the daily greetings defend itself. This duty usually include the September 11 attacks on of Muslims and angels are peace; belongs to the state; that is, the New York and Washington in 2001 paradise is the house of peace, the government which represents the and the bombings in Bali in October adjective ‘Muslim’ means peaceful. community. For instance, if Australia 2002. Peace is the nature, the meaning, the is under attack or threatened with Muslims point out that, as in any emblem and the objective of Islam. occupation, it is the duty of the religion, there are Muslims who Every being is entitled to enjoy the Australian community to defend use violence to achieve religious or peace of Islam and the kindness of itself. Since Muslims are also part of political objectives. However, the the peaceful Muslims, regardless of the Australian community, they are vast majority do not advocate or use religious or geographical or racial obliged religiously to defend Australia violence, but wish to live peacefully considerations…35 and its people. with other people. They argue that it is unfair to label all Muslims as violent or as terrorists because of the actions of a few extremists. They say that there are violent or fanatical groups among Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Hindus and Buddhists, for example, and that the majority in those groups should not be blamed for the actions of the minority. In their view, the same should apply to Muslims.

35 Hammudah Abdalati, Islam in Focus Indianapolis, American Trust Publications, p.143.

60 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 61 Islam prohibits the killing of any Jihad: a common view among Muslims today innocent person, Muslim or non- Jihad is essentially a doctrine of self-defence. It can be used only by a Muslim Muslim. According to the Qur’an, state against imminent and certain aggression by an enemy. In this, jihad is killing an innocent person is like equivalent to the doctrine of self-defence in a modern nation-state. It can also killing the entire community of be declared in a liberation struggle, as was the case in Afghanistan after the human beings. According to the Soviet occupation. It cannot be declared against a Muslim or Muslims or a Qur’an, ‘…. whosoever kills one Muslim state, thus denying the legitimacy of militant-extremists’ declaration person [unlawfully] it is as if he has of jihad against other Muslims or Muslim states. A jihad cannot be declared killed the entire humankind’ (Qur’an against a person or a community just because they belong to a different 5:32). Where someone deliberately religion. Thus Jews, Christians, Buddhists, Hindus and others cannot be the kills another, Islamic law imposes target of a jihad simply because of difference of religion. Neither can a jihad capital punishment as a deterrent. be declared by a group of Muslims against a nation that has peaceful relations For many Muslims, suicide bombing with Muslims. Thus calls for jihad against a state like the United States are and killing innocent people with considered illegitimate, as these states are part of an international order that it is also prohibited in Islam. This submits to the Charter of the United Nations and generally speaking promotes is also related to the idea that peaceful relations with others. This interpretation also rejects the idea of an Islam prohibits suicide. When offensive jihad as not in line with the Qur’anic command of non-aggression.36 this is coupled with the ban on killing innocent human beings, the prohibition becomes even more severe.

Islam prohibits what it calls fasad (corruption on earth), which may include disruption to peace, spreading injustice, exploitation of the weak, and breaking of the law. Muslims expect decisive action by the authorities to put a stop to such activities by individuals or groups. In doing so, Islam encourages the use of force by the authorities against such individuals and groups, if all other means fail.

36 Abdullah Saeed, “Changing Understanding of Jihad among Muslims”, Tony Coady and Michael O’Keefe, (eds.) Terrorism and Justice. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2002, p. 85.

60 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 61 ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS

uslims believe that Connection with other Muslims’ beliefs about all three Abrahamic religions like Christianity and Abraham and Ishmael religions, Judaism, Judaism M Muslims believe that the Prophet Christianity and Islam, emanate from From a Muslim point of view, Islam Muhammad was a descendant of the same source – God. Their basic means ‘submission to God’. It is not a Abraham, through his son Ishmael. message and the answers they give new religion brought by Muhammad, They believe that Abraham took to the fundamental questions of life but one that was taught by all Ishmael and his mother Hagar from are essentially the same. The Qur’an prophets before Muhammad, from their homeland to the place where emphasises that all prophets before Adam onwards. Mecca is situated now. At the time, Muhammad were also sent by God Mecca was a barren land with no and that Muhammad was not unique Thus Islam is closely connected to all water. Hagar and Ishmael, having run among them. In fact, believing biblical prophets. Stories of biblical out of water and food, were searching in all prophets who came before figures such as Noah, Abraham, Isaac, in vain for water, when miraculously Muhammad is an essential part of Moses, Jonah, David, Solomon and water began to gush out from a place Islam. Jesus are told and retold in Muslim which came to be known as Zamzam, communities around the world. The which still provides water today basic message of these prophets was, to many Meccans. Because of this according to Islam, belief in one God. water, people came and settled there There are shared ideas, beliefs and and a commercial town gradually values. Muslims refer to Christians developed. It was Abraham and and Jews as ‘People of the Book’. Ishmael who built the Ka`ba, the The Qur’an commands holiest place for Muslims, as a place Muslims to say: of worship of the one God. Ishmael married a woman who had settled Say: We believe in God and that there and from this lineage came the which was revealed to us, and that Prophet Muhammad. which was revealed to Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes and that which was given to Moses and Jesus and to the Prophets from their Lord; we make no distinction between any of them, and to Him we submit (Qur’an 3:83).

62 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 63 Jesus and Muslims The Prophet Muhammad said:

For Muslims, Jesus is one of the greatest prophets of God, although he is Whoever believes there is no god viewed differently from the way many Christians view him. His mother Mary but God, alone without partner, that is a model of a great woman. There is a chapter in the Qur’an entitled ‘Mary’, Muhammad is His messenger, that in which the story of the miraculous birth of Jesus is narrated. The Qur’an also Jesus is the servant and messenger of recounts certain aspects of Jesus’ birth, life, mission and miracles. Muslims all God, His word breathed into Mary over the world tell and retell these stories. and a spirit emanating from Him, and that Paradise and Hell are true, Muslims believe in the virgin birth of Jesus and in the miracles that Jesus shall be received by God into Heaven performed such as healing the sick and the blind and bringing dead to life by (Bukhari, Sahih). the will of God. Many Muslims believe that Jesus will return one day before the end of time (known as the second coming of Jesus). However, unlike Christians, Muslims do not believe in the doctrine of the Muslims and followers of Trinity: three equal persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in the One God, and other religions the Son incarnated on earth in the figure of Jesus Christ. For Muslims, God The Qur’an is clear that Muslims has no partner or equal. Most Muslims also do not believe Jesus was crucified should deal kindly and fairly with and died on the cross. The Qur’an says: ‘They killed him not, nor crucified people of other religious traditions. him, but so it was made to appear to them’ (4:157). Some Muslims believe that It says: Jesus died at a later time, while others believe that he was raised up to Heaven without having died. ‘Allah forbids you not, with regard to those who fight you not for [your] faith nor drive you out of your homes, from dealing kindly and justly with them: for Allah loveth those who are just’ (Qur’an Muslims believe that all three 60:8). Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, emanate from the same source – God.

62 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 63 The Prophet Muhammad on protection of ‘people of the Book’ Muslims and Interfaith under Islamic rule in the 7th century CE dialogue in Australia

“Whenever monks, devotees and pilgrims gather together, whether in a Many Muslims feel it is very mountain or valley, or den, or frequented place, or plain, or church, or in important to establish good relations houses of worship, verily we are back of them and shall protect them, and their with members of the wider Australian properties and their morals, by myself, by my friends and by my assistants, for community. Because of this, Muslims they are of my subjects and under my protection. sit on interfaith bodies such as the Women’s Interfaith Network and the No one is allowed to plunder their pilgrims, or destroy or spoil any of their Council for Chaplains in Tertiary churches, or houses of worship, or take any of the things contained within Institutions. Muslims also participate these houses and bring it to the houses of Islam. And he who takes away in various interfaith forums such anything therefrom, will be one who has corrupted the oath of God, and, in as the Multifaith Conference on truth, disobeyed His messenger. Reconciliation and Justice and They must not be forced to carry arms or stones; but the [Muslims] must meeting with members of Catholics protect them and defend them against others. It is positively incumbent upon Involved in Interfaith Dialogue. every one of the Islam[ic] nation not to contradict or disobey this oath [sic] Muslim representatives of Islamic until the Day of Resurrection and the end of the world.”37 state councils often visit schools and churches to give talks on Islam and to help build bridges with the wider There are many examples from the In the modern period, mainstream community. past that demonstrate how Muslims Muslims do not divide the world treated non-Muslims under Muslim into the ‘world of Islam’ and ‘world rule. In great empires of the Islamic of non-Islam’. In Muslim majority world, religious communities had the countries, they do not think of freedom to practise their religions, non-Muslims there as second-class and to establish places of worship and citizens. Today for most Muslims, educational institutions. Religious what matters is citizenship in a minorities were also governed by nation-state which gives equal rights their own laws, not by Islamic law. to all citizens regardless of their This does not mean that in the religion, who are equal before the law. history of Islam, there were no Muslims and non-Muslims are equal problems at all for non-Muslims members of these societies. under Muslim rule at certain points The debates among Muslims in the in time. pre-modern period on ‘limited rights of non-Muslims’ under an Islamic state are considered outdated and have been taken over by the emphasis on equality of all citizens.

37 “The Oath of Prophet Mohammed to the Followers of Nazarene”, trans. Anton F. Haddad, New York: Board of Counsel, 1902.

64 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 65 Cross Cultural Coffee

After the tragedy of the September 11 bombings, Jennifer decided to approach a local mosque to visit and meet with Muslim women. She had heard that Muslims were experiencing a backlash of prejudice because of the activities of the terrorists. Before her visit, she did not know any Muslims but she felt that it was important to try and contribute something positive in building a bridge for friendship between Muslims and non-Muslims.

After meeting with some Muslim women, they decided to organise a get- together which they called ‘Cross-Cultural Coffee’. The Muslim women and Jennifer invited lots of friends to meet together and introduce each other. There people could ask questions, and discuss things they wanted to share.

Today the Cross-Cultural Coffee group meet once every two months and they continue to share and build friendships with each other. They have also decided to volunteer time doing activities that will help the local community, such as organising for children to become pen-friends, and to plant trees to help the environment.38

In great empires of the Islamic world, religious communities had the freedom to practise their religions, and to establish places of worship and educational institutions. Religious minorities were also governed by their own laws, not by Islamic law.

38“For further details, see “Conversation over cross-cultural coffee”. The Age, March 18 2003 http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/03/17/1047749718632.html

64 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 65 STEREOTYPES AND MISCONCEPTIONS

uslims believe that in Australia there are widespread misconceptions about Islam and Muslims. MThe following are some of the most common ones and how Muslims often respond to such misconceptions:

Muslims worship a Muslims worship Muslims hate Jesus different God Muhammad It is a fundamental belief of Muslims Some people believe that Muslims For Muslims, the Prophet that they respect and love Jesus. It is worship a different god from people Muhammad was the last Messenger true that Muslims do not consider of other religions, a god whom they of God. Like other messengers who Jesus to be God or the son of God. call Allah. In fact, Muslims believe came before him he was a human But they believe that he is one of the that they worship the same God that being, nothing more. A Muslim greatest messengers of God and one was worshipped by Abraham, Moses cannot worship Muhammad or any of the most honoured human beings. and Jesus. The following verse of the other human being. Muslim worship The Qur’an is full of references to Qur’an makes this clear: is directed to God alone. That is why Jesus and his birth, his miracles and Muslims object to being referred to mission. And do not dispute with the as ‘Muhammadans’, which is an old People of the Book [Christians Islam is a racist religion English name for Muslims. and Jews] except by what is best, Islam stresses that all human beings except those of them who act Muhammad wrote are created by God, are equal before unjustly, and say [O Muhammad]: the Qur’an Him, and are descended from the We believe in that which has been Muslims believe that the Qur’an is same parents: Adam and Eve. The revealed to us and revealed to the word of God, communicated Prophet emphasised many times you, and our God and your God to the Prophet Muhammad in that human beings cannot claim is One, and to Him do we submit. the Arabic language. Muhammad superiority over one another on the (Qur’an 29:46) then transmitted the Qur’an to basis of colour, language, ethnicity The name Allah simply means ‘the his followers, family, friends, and or race. There are many references to God’ in Arabic. It is also the name other people in the community. For this in both the Qur’an and Hadith. used by Christian Arabs for God. Muslims the Qur’an is not the speech or word of Muhammad, but entirely the word of God.

66 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 67 The Qur’an is full of references to Jesus and his birth, his miracles and mission. Islam is a religion for Islam was spread by the sword Islam condones the killing of Arabs only innocent people In the West, there is a belief that It is true that the Prophet Islam was spread by force. According The Qur’an clearly prohibits taking Muhammad was an Arab, the Qur’an to this view, Muslims from the the life of an innocent person, is in Arabic, and the first Muslims seventh century onwards conquered whether they are Muslim or not. were mostly Arabs. But Islam spread non-Muslim lands and forced The Qur’an holds all human life as to all corners of the world from the non-Muslims to convert to Islam. sacred. According to the Qur’an, if time of the Prophet in the seventh For Muslims, this is historically someone kills another human being, century. Today, less than twenty inaccurate. It is true that Muslims it is as if all of humankind had been percent of Muslims are Arabs. Most from Arabia conquered lands outside murdered. It is against Islamic law belong to other ethnicities such as Arabia. But they were following to commit murder, and there are Indonesian, Turkish, Chinese, Indian, a tradition that was practised by harsh punishments (including capital Pakistani, European and American, to powerful empires of the time. They punishment) for anyone convicted name a few. As well, not all Arabs are conquered these regions and brought of murder, whatever the religious Muslim. There are Arab Christians them under the political and military background of the victim. and Arab Jews. control of Muslims. However, they Some people point to a small number did not require the inhabitants of verses in the Qur’an that seem to to become Muslims. It was not advocate killing of non-Muslims. until about one hundred and fifty These verses, however, must be taken years after the conquests that large in their correct context and not numbers of non-Muslims converted misrepresented by isolating them to Islam through their own free will. from other verses in the Qur’an. The Even today, in almost all Muslim Qur’an allows justified self-defence countries, there are significant groups in protecting the safety and well- of Christians and other minorities. being of a community which is being The Qur’an says: attacked, but strictly maintains that There is no compulsion in if the warring party seeks peace, then religion; truly the right way has the other party must stop military become clearly distinct from action and seek peace as well. error; therefore, whoever rejects Satan [and what he calls to] and believes in Allah, he indeed has laid hold on the firmest handhold, which shall not break off, and Allah is Hearing, Knowing (Qur’an 2:256).

66 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 67 Islam is intolerant of Muhammad’s respect for a Jew Islam is a backward religion other religions One day the Prophet was sitting with There is nothing in the religion First of all, Muslims believe that some of his companions and he stood of Islam that requires a person to Islam was the religion of all prophets up as a funeral procession for a Jew reject the technological and material and messengers who came before passed by. When asked why he stood successes of the modern world. Muhammad. Therefore, Adam, up for the Jew, the Prophet said: Was In fact, the Prophet Muhammad Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and he not a human being? encouraged his followers to travel the Muhammad all taught essentially world in search of knowledge. Nor is Islam recognises that different people the same message. Muslims also there anything in Islam that requires will follow different religions and that believe that God sent prophets to Muslims to pretend that they are not all people will become Muslims. all communities on earth. This is an living in the seventh century. Most The Qur’an commanded the Prophet inclusive view of religion. Muslims feel that their religion can not to force anyone to accept Islam and does adapt to all different times It is true that the Qur’an considers and said that the duty of the Prophet and contexts. While Muslims have certain forms of religion, such as was to convey the message, nothing different ideas on how to cope with polytheism (belief in many gods), more. It is up to each individual to living in the modern world, there as unacceptable, but it recognises accept or reject Islam. is nothing in the Qur’an to say that the right of polytheists to practise Muslims cannot be friends they have to reject modernity or be their religion. The Qur’an even tells with non-Muslims backward. Muslims that they should not ridicule the deities of the polytheists. It also Muslims are encouraged to act Muslims point out that fundamental criticises views expressed by some with kindness and generosity to moral values do not change – it is Christians and Jews for not being in people regardless of their religious no more acceptable to kill or steal line with the teachings of Jesus or background. It is true that Islam now than it was fourteen hundred of the biblical prophets. But Islam teaches that Muslims should not years ago – but sometimes our does not criticise the religion of take untrustworthy people as understanding of how to best live Christianity or Judaism. In fact, it guardian-protectors (sometimes our lives might. They see a difference refers to the Christians and Jews as wrongly mistranslated as ‘friends’). between the fundamentals of Islam People of the Book, and treats their However, that has more to do with (such as believing in one God, doing Scriptures with reverence. However, the intentions of a person than with good to other people, trying to live a some Muslims tend to interpret his or her religious background. righteous life), which never change, certain verses that are critical of The Prophet himself employed a and the cultural expressions of Islam some Jews and some Christians and trustworthy pagan to be his guide for (such as preference for certain types generalise from them to all Jews and the dangerous journey from Mecca of food or dress, political systems and all Christians, ignoring the context in to Medina. Furthermore, he married other customs), which can and do which such verses were revealed. Jewish and Christian women and change. his marriages reflected his love and friendship with them.

68 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 69 Islam is against democratic Women are inferior to Some Muslims, like other Australians, values men in Islam may be critical of individual politicians and the government of the When democracy was introduced It is true that some Muslims believe day. This does not mean that they are into the Muslim world by the West, that women are subservient to men. against Australia or that they cannot naturally many Muslims were But this view is not shared by many fit into Australian society. Muslims hesitant to accept this Western other Muslims who believe that men are a very diverse group of people, institution and argued that it and women are equal before God (see and like other Australians have conflicted with Islamic ideas about section on women, p.35). different ideas of how the country state and rule. But today, the vast Muslims as a group do not fit should be run, what the government majority of Muslims argue in favour into Australian society should be doing, and the direction of adopting democracy, and in many that Australia should take in the Muslim countries some form of Islam is seen by some people future. democracy exists. Although support as a religion that is opposed to for democracy is the norm among fundamental Australian values. Muslims are foreigners and ordinary Muslims , it is true that, These values include commitment therefore ‘outsiders’ in the Muslim world, democracy is to Australia, its interests and future, The fact is that, by 2001, over thirty- yet to take root and authoritarian and the acceptance of the structures six percent of Muslims were born regimes still rule much of the Muslim and principles of Australian society in Australia, and others have spent world. such as the Constitution, rule of law, most of their lives here. There is also parliamentary democracy, freedom Rashid al-Ghannushi, a a substantial number of converts of speech and religion, equality of modern Muslim thinker, to Islam from a variety of different the sexes, and English as the national on democracy backgrounds. Most Muslims who language. have migrated to Australia have made If by democracy is meant the liberal Mainstream Muslims argue that they their homes here, and are unlikely model of government prevailing are committed to these values like to return to their country of origin. in the West, a system under which any other Australians. There may be They have tried hard to make a good the people freely choose their some Muslims who do not hold these life for themselves and their families. representatives and leaders, and values, but this does not reflect the Like other Australians they want the in which there is an alternation of views of mainstream Muslim society best for their children and want the power, as well as all freedoms and in Australia. Furthermore, one of material opportunities that the ‘lucky human rights for the public, then the freedoms we have in Australia is country’ has to provide. Australia is Muslims will find nothing in their the right to debate and criticise our a multicultural society and Muslims religion to oppose democracy, and government and the actions it takes. are part of the diverse makeup of our it is not in their interest to do so society. anyway.39

39John Esposito and John Voll. 2001. Makers of Contemporary Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 114.

68 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 69 Muslim institutions such as Muslims have their own dress code and want to be different Islamic schools are an The wearing of a headscarf or other garment by some Muslim women is given obstacle to integration as an example of Muslim difference. Not all Muslim women wear the scarf, Islamic schools are like any other however. Even if they do, they are exercising their Australian freedom to wear non-governmental faith-based whatever they want. If Muslims want to cover more than other Australians, schools such as those run by Jews, this should not be seen as problematic. Just as Jewish men, in keeping with Catholics and Anglicans. They their religious beliefs, may choose to wear a skull cap, or Sikh men may choose offer the same curricula as do other to wear a turban, Muslim women should be able to wear a headscarf. Those schools in Australia. The difference wearing the veil or scarf do so primarily because they believe it is their religious between these Islamic schools duty to do so. Covering less or more of one’s body does not conflict with and other schools is that Islamic fundamental Australian values. This is similar to the case of Australians who schools teach a subject called Islamic are vegetarians. Vegetarians make a personal choice, and Muslim women who Religious Education. This should not wear a veil or scarf are also making a personal choice. be an obstacle to integration. Even Some people also believe that women are forced to wear a veil by their if one accepts the view that it is an husbands or fathers. Except in a small number of cases, this is not true in obstacle, the fact is that a minority Australia. Most Muslim women who wear a headscarf or veil are doing so of Muslim children go to Islamic out of their personal conviction, not because they are forced to. In fact, the schools and by far most Muslim headscarf is usually viewed in a very positive light by many Muslim women, students are in state schools or other even if they do not wear it themselves. private schools. Recently an Australian politician questioned whether the traditional Islamic dress called a chador should be banned in public places on the basis that it might be possible for the person wearing it to conceal weapons or bombs. Many Australian leaders and spokespeople were rightly outraged at the suggestion. They felt that this attitude questioned a fundamental right of Australians to practise the religion of their choosing, and to express themselves in their choice of clothing. Some even pointed out that, if the suggestion was taken seriously, a whole range of items would have to be banned, including cars, handbags, briefcases and baby carriages. Muslims felt that their right to peacefully practise their faith was being questioned, and that a link was unjustly being made in the public mind between terrorism and Muslim women.

70 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 71 Muslims marry only Muslims Those who argue that it is preferable Muslims want to have their to marry a partner of the same own system of law This is generally not true, nor is religion point to the idea that this marrying a person of one’s own Most Muslims in Australia appear to provides a common, shared system faith a particularly Muslim problem. be comfortable with the legal system of values and beliefs which offers Many different ethnic or religious here, and there is no legal barrier to stability to the marriage partners and groups have members that prefer to practising religion as an individual their future children. Others point marry within that group, and it is the in Australia. It is primarily in the out that, even when people marry same with Islam. Muslims do marry family law area that Muslims have within the same religion, problems non-Muslims, and spouses are not some difficulties (such as questions can arise over having different points required to convert to Islam. This is of divorce, child custody, intestacy of view. Having the same religion particularly the case with Muslim and so on) but Australian law on the does not guarantee that marriage men marrying Christian or Jewish whole accommodates some of those partners will think in the same ways, women. The Christian or Jewish needs. Again, this is not just a Muslim even if that is preferable. wife is not required to convert to problem. Mainstream Muslims do Islam. More importantly, Muslims not call for implementing Islamic come from more than sixty different law in Australia nor do they call for countries and there are converts to having a separate system of law for Islam from all sorts of backgrounds. Muslims here. Their main interest is freedom to practise their religion, and That is not to say that some families this is provided in Australia. may put pressure on their children to marry within the religion, or on a non-Muslim spouse to consider conversion. Muslims are like any other group of people, and some families are more tolerant than others. Generally speaking, though, interfaith marriages with Muslim partners can and do work.

70 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 71 Muslims live separately from Muslims are potential People who leave Islam other Australians in Muslim terrorists and therefore a (apostates) will be killed ghettoes threat to Australia’s future There is a perception among some Muslims do not live in ghettoes. The media’s association of Islam and people that if a person wishes to Their choice of suburb is more likely Muslims with violence, terrorism and leave the religion of Islam (either to to be determined by their economic extremism is based on the actions stop being a Muslim or to become circumstances. Professionals and of a very small minority of people a member of a different religion) wealthy Muslims live in areas they who exist mostly overseas. Given the they could be killed for becoming an think are appropriate to their security clearance needed to migrate apostate. In fact, Australia has laws requirements. Working class Muslims to Australia, it is unlikely that a large protecting freedom of religion, which live in working class areas. Services number of Muslim criminals can means that a person can freely choose such as mosques and Islamic schools migrate. In terms of crime, Muslims to leave Islam. are established where Muslims live, do not appear to be over-represented From a religious point of view, the not the other way around. Most in Australian prisons. Not only are Qur’an stipulates that ‘there is no Muslims live in average suburbs Muslims generally law-abiding, but compulsion in religion (2:256), with other Australians. Given the the religion also forbids criminal acts. and a person can neither be forced ethnic diversity among Muslims, the Muslims are citizens of this country, to become a Muslim nor to stay in emergence of a Muslim ghetto in and like other citizens, most Muslims the religion. In the past, apostasy Australia is highly unlikely. do what they can to stop criminal was often linked with state treason, behaviour. Mainstream Muslims do and for that reason some Muslim not wish to see terrorism in their own rulers imposed the death penalty on country, Australia. apostates. Also, in some parts of the Muslim world today, the threat of punishment for apostasy exists and is often used as a political tool against people by their opponents. However, many Muslims argue that this is abusing a fundamental principle in Islam that each person answers only to God in regard to their faith or lack thereof.

In the time of the Prophet, if a person left Islam because of their own religious choice, then in general there were no repercussions. This is because the Qur’an instructed the Prophet that his duty was to preach the message of Islam but that ‘If then they turn away, We have not sent thee as a guard over them. Thy duty is but to convey [the Message]’ (42:48).

72 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 73 ISLAM, STATE AND AUSTRALIAN CITIZENSHIP

or centuries most Muslims A conservative view A liberal view lived in a state under the There is a view among some Muslims Many Muslims believe that there is control of a ruler called F that it is important to have a caliph no one right model for an Islamic ‘caliph’ or a ‘sultan’. Although there who rules under the authority of state, and that Islam can encompass were regional centres of power, God. For them, a country with a modern political principles such as many Muslims often came under majority of Muslims does not mean democracy, equality, and universal the ultimate authority of one person it is an Islamic state, even if it puts human rights. According to one who led the community (ummah) some of the shari`a laws into effect. famous Muslim thinker of the particularly in the first two centuries These Muslims believe that there are twentieth century, Rashid al- of Islam (7th and 8th centuries four conditions that must be fulfilled Ghannushi, a re-reading of the CE). While the first four caliphs before there is an Islamic state: Qur’an supports the idea that after the Prophet Muhammad are Muslims could organise a society acknowledged to have ruled the » Sovereignty belongs to God with based on the ideas of freedom of Muslims with wisdom and justice, all law being derived from the belief (including Muslims who wish soon there arose in the Muslim world Qur’an and traditions of the to change their religion); equal leaders who created huge dynasties Prophet. If human beings make citizenship and taxation and the right and passed the role of the caliph on up laws to run their society they of non-Muslims to hold public office to their descendants, who were often are going against the will of God. (except for the religious positions of despotic. In the twentieth century » Authority is with Muslims, which imam).41 the last major Muslim dynasty, the means that an Islamic state Ottoman Empire, came to an end Muslims and Australian cannot be ruled by anyone who and the office of caliph was dissolved Citizenship does not believe in Islam. in 1924. Since that time there has Although many Muslims still have been no caliph for the worldwide » There is only one caliph, who fond memories of the lands of their community of Muslims. Like many rules the entire ummah. birth and may feel ties of loyalty to other issues, Muslims have different » The caliph is the only one with those countries, mainstream Muslims opinions on the idea of an Islamic power to implement laws in (particularly those who have taken state. society.40 citizenship in Australia) consider that their loyalty should be primarily to this country.

Citizenship in Australia gives certain rights to Muslims and places obligations on them as well. We cannot say that Muslims should be interested in the rights which citizenship confers but not the obligations. Citizenship in Australia gives people safety and security, freedom, justice, equality, freedom of belief, personal privacy and welfare. All of these rights have corresponding obligations.

40 See http://www.islamic-state.org/khilafah/ 41 See Abdullah Saeed, “Rethinking Citizenship Rights of Non-Muslims in an Islamic State: Rashid al-Ghannushi’s contribution to the evolving debate” in Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, vol. 10, no. 3, 1999, 307-323.

72 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 73 Citizenship is considered a contract Differing views: loyalty to From their point of view, the only between the Muslim and Australia. Islam or Australia? way their loyalty to Australia and Under Islamic norms, Muslims their loyalty to Islam clashes is if A few Muslims may argue that their should abide by its terms and the Australian authorities prevent primary loyalty is to Islam. Where the conditions. This contract requires: Muslims from practising their requirements of Islam clash with the religion; that is, preventing them » Commitment to fundamental requirements of loyalty to Australia, from performing the basics of Australian values upon which the they say that they have to follow their religion, oppressing them or Australian society is based. their loyalty to Islam. These Muslims persecuting them because of their often feel that the values, norms and » Tolerance towards other religious religion. Since Australian society is environment of Australia are not traditions and followers of other based on the idea of equality, rule of sufficiently Islamic and the systems in faiths. This is also in line with law and freedom of religion, such a place are not based on Islamic norms Islamic ideas about religious clash is unlikely. and values and therefore they cannot tolerance and dealing with others be loyal to Australia. Their loyalty to For most Muslims, there is no on the basis of fairness and Australia, in their view, clashes with question that loyalty to Islam and justice. their loyalty to Islam. loyalty to Australia can co-exist. » Commitment and loyalty to They feel even the suggestion of the However, mainstream Muslims Australia. This means that a alternative is a little bit like asking a (many of whom were born and have Muslim is under obligation to Christian to choose between being a lived in Australia for a long time do his or her best to protect this Christian or an Australian, or to ask and made Australia their permanent country from those who may a Jew to choose between his or her home) will say that there is no real want to harm it, and to defend Jewish faith and being Australian. conflict between the two. Loyalty it against outside aggression, as to Australia means primarily three defence of one’s homeland is things, none of which clashes with required under Islamic norms. Islamic norms and principles: abiding by the law, commitment to fundamental Australian values, and protecting and defending the homeland.

74 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 75 APPENDIX ONE Key Mosques in Australia42

Queensland New South Wales Darra Mosque Al Hijra Mosque UNSW Islamic Centre 47 Ducie St 45 Station St The Religious Centre UNSW Darra 4076 West Tempe 2044 University of NSW 2052

Kotku Eagleby Mosque Al Jihad Mosque Wyong Islamic Centre 262 Fryer Rd 12 South Creek Rd 13A Howard St Eagleby 4207 Dee Why 2099 Wyong 2259

Kuraby Mosque Al-Imam Ali Mosque Zetland Islamic Centre 1408 Beenleigh Rd 65-67 Wangee Rd 932 Bourke St Kuraby 4112 Lakemba 2195 Zetland 2017

Gold Coast Mosque Auburn Gallipoli Mosque 2 Allied Dr 15-17 North Parade Arundel 4214 Auburn 2144

Holland Park Mosque Erskineville Jami 309 Nursery Rd 13 John St Holland Park 4121 Erskineville 2043

Lutwyche Mosque Global Islamic Youth Centre 33 Fuller St & Prayer Hall Lutwyche 4030 265 George St Liverpool 2170 Mackay Mosque 3 Tom Thumb Crt Masjid-e-Abu Bakar Bakers Creek 4740 2 Winspear Ave Bankstown 2200 Rochedale Mosque 2674 Logan Rd Redfern Mosque Eight Mile Plains 4113 328 Cleveland St Surry Hills 2010 Townsville Mosque 153 Ross River Rd Rooty Hill Mosque Aitkenvale 4814 Cr Woodstock & Duke Sts Rooty Hill 2766 Mareeba Mosque Cr Walsh & Lloyd Sts Rydalmere Mosque Mareeba 4880 465 Victoria Rd Rydalmere 2116 West End Mosque 12-14 Princhester St Smithfield Mosque West End 4101 30 Bourke St Smithfield 2164 Woodridge Mosque Cnr Third Ave and Curtisii Crt Suburban Islamic Kingston 4114 Association of Campbelltown 44 Westmoreland Rd Lumeah 2560 42 http://www.islamaustralia.com.au/Mosques/Aust_List/mosques_in_aust.htm

74 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 75 Victoria Islamic Council of Victoria Fitzroy Mosque Springvale Mosque 66-68 Jeffcott St 144 Palmer Dr 68 Garnsworthy St West Melbourne 3003 Fitzroy 3065 Springvale 3171

Coburg Islamic Centre Footscray West Mosque Sunshine Mosque 31 Nicholson St 294 Essex St 618 Ballarat Rd Coburg 3058 Maidstone 3012 Sunshine 3020

Turkish Cypriot Community Geelong Mosque Thomastown Mosque of Australia Cnr Orr & Bostock Sts 157 Station St Lot 1 Ballarat Rd Manifold Heights 3218 Thomastown 3074 Deer Park 3023 Heidelberg Mosque Islamic Society of Footscray Cnr Lloyd & Elliot Sts 50 Raleigh St West Heidelberg 3081 Footscray 3012 Jaame Masjid Afghan Islamic Society of Victoria 14 Photinia St 90 Cramer St Doveton 3177 Preston 3072 Lysterfield Mosque Broadmeadows Mosque 1273 Wellington Rd 45-55 King St Lysterfield 3156 Broadmeadows 3047 Maidstone Mosque Brunswick Islamic Centre 36 Studley St 660 Sydney Rd Maidstone 3012 Brunswick 3056 Mildura Mosque Campbellfield Mosque 49 Tenth St 46 Mason St Mildura 3502 Campbellfield 3061 Newport Mosque Carlton Mosque 1 Walker St 765 Drummond St Newport 3015 North Carlton 3054 Noble Park Mosque Croatian Mosque 18 Leonard Ave 36 Studley St Noble Park 3174 Maidstone 3012 Prahran Mosque Dandenong Mosque 16 Kent St 10-12 Dalgety St Prahran 3181 Dandenong 3175 Shepparton Mosque Doncaster Mosque 8 Acacia St 72 George St Shepparton 3630 Doncaster East 3109

76 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 77 South Australia Western Australia Australian Capital Territory Adelaide Mosque Geraldton Mosque Canberra Islamic Centre 20 Little Gilbert St 67 George Rd 29 Goldfinch Cres Adelaide 5000 Geraldton 6530 Theodore 2905

Park Holme Mosque Katanning Mosque Canberra Mosque 658 Marion Rd 24 Britannia St 130 Empire Circuit Park Holme 5043 Katanning 6317 Yarralumla 2600

Al-Khalil Mosque Newman Mosque Cnr Audley St & Torrens Rd Lot 1536 Woodville North 5012 Abydos Way Tasmania Newman 6753 Gilles Plains Mosque Hobart Islamic Centre 52-56 Wandana Ave Perth Mosque 166 Warwick St Gilles Plains 5086 427 William St Hobart 7000 Perth 6805 Whyalla Islamic Society 5 Morris Crs Port Hedland Mosque Whyalla Norrie North 5608 34 Trumpet Way Northern Territory South Hedland 6722 Alice Springs Islamic Centre Lot 8130 Lyndavale Dr Rivervale Islamic Centre Alice Springs 0871 7 Malvern Rd Rivervale 6103 Darwin Mosque 53-59 Venderlin Dr Casuarina 0810

76 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 77 APPENDIX TWO Key Muslim Organisations

The Australian Federation of Islamic Society of Victoria Islamic Councils 90 Cramer St Mail Address Preston VIC 3072 PO Box 1185 Federation of Australian Muslim Waterloo DC NSW 2017 Students and Youth (FAMSY) 932 Bourke St PO Box 451 Zetland NSW 2017 Newport VIC 3015

Islamic Council of Suite 2/108 Haldon Street New South Wales Inc. Lakemba NSW 2195 405 Waterloo Rd Muslim Aid Australia Chullora NSW 2190 Suite 15-16 Islamic Council of Victoria 168 Haldon St 66-68 Jeffcott St Lakemba NSW 2195 West Melbourne VIC 3003 Muslim Women’s National Network Islamic Council of Queensland of Australia Compton Rd (cnr Acacia Rd) PO Box 213 Karawatha QLD 4117 Granville NSW 2142

Islamic Society of South Australia Islamic Women’s Welfare 658 Marion Rd Council of Victoria Park Holme SA 5043 169 Fitzroy St Fitzroy VIC 3065 Islamic Council of Western Australia 7 Malvern St Rivervale WA 6103

Islamic Council of the Northern Territory 53-59 Vanderlin Dr Casuarina NT 0810

Islamic Council of Tasmania 166 Warwick St West Hobart TAS 7000

Islamic Council of Christmas Island PO Box 132 Christmas Island WA 6798

Islamic Foundation for Education and Welfare PO Box 111 Bonnyrigg NSW 2177

78 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 79 APPENDIX THREE Key Muslim Schools43

New South Wales Victoria Queensland Al Noori Muslim Primary School Werribee College Brisbane Muslim School 75 Greenacre Rd 201 Sayers Rd 6 Agnes St Greenacre NSW 2190 Hoppers Crossing VIC 3029 Buranda QLD 4102

Arkana College Darul-ulum College of Victoria Islamic School of Brisbane 344 Stoney Creek Rd Baird St 45 Acacia Rd Kingsgrove NSW 2208 Fawkner VIC 3060 Karawatha QLD 4117

Malek Fahd Islamic School King Khalid Islamic College 405 Waterloo Rd Head Office Greenacre NSW 2190 Merlynston Secondary Campus South Australia 56 Bakers Rd Noor Al Houda Islamic College Islamic College of South Australia Coburg North VIC 3058 2b Third Ave, 52 Wandana Ave Condell Park NSW 2200 Coburg Primary Campus Gilles Plains SA 5086 653 Sydney Rd Qibla College Coburg VIC 3058 44-48 Westmoreland St Minto NSW 2566 Minaret College Western Australia Main Campus King Abdul Aziz College Al-Hidayah Islamic School 36 Lewis St 420 Woodstock Ave Hedley St Springvale VIC 3171 Rooty Hill NSW 2766 Victoria Park WA 6100 Noble Park Campus Al-Amanah College The Australian Islamic College 18 Leonard Ave VIC 3174 2a Winspear Ave 17 Tonbridge Way Bankstown NSW 2200 Ilim College Thornlie WA 6108 30 Inverloch Cres Liverpool Campus The Australian Islamic College Dallas VIC 3047 55 Speed St Liverpool 2170 81 Cleveland St Dianella WA 6062 Al-Faisal College 149 Auburn Rd The Australian Islamic College Auburn NSW 2144 President St Kewdale WA 6105 Al-Zahra College 3-5 Wollongong Rd Arncliffe NSW 2205

43 http://www.islam-australia.com.au/Schools/schools_in_aust.htm

78 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 79 APPENDIX FOUR Useful References

The following are some references that readers may find useful in further study:

Abdalati, Hammudah (1998) Islam Deen, Hanifa (1995) Caravanserai: Murata, Sachiko and William C. in Focus, Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Journey among Australian Muslims, Chittick (1996) The Vision of Islam: Book Trust. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. The Foundations of Muslim Faith and Practice, London: I.B. Tauris. Ahmed, Akbar S. (1999) Islam Esposito, John and Voll, John (2001). Today: A Short Introduction to the Makers of Contemporary Islam. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1994) A Muslim World, London: I.B. Tauris Oxford: Oxford University Press, Young Muslim’s Guide to the Modern Publishers. 2001. World, Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society. Anway, Carol L (1995) Daughters Esposito, John L. (ed.) (1999) The of Another Path: Experiences of Oxford History of Islam, Oxford: Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2002) American Women Choosing Islam, Oxford University Press. The Heart of Islam: Enduring Missouri: Yawna Publications. Values for Humanity, New York: Haddad , Anton F. (Trans.) (1902) HarperSanFrancisco. Asad, Muhammad. The Road to “The Oath of Prophet Mohammed to Mecca. Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus. the Followers of Nazarene”, New York: Nawawi, (1996) Imam Nawawi’s Board of Counsel. collection of Forty Hadith: Arabic Bouma, Gary (1994) Mosques and Text, Translation and Notes, Kuala Muslim Settlement in Australia, Hamid, AbdulWahid (1989) Islam Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust. Canberra: Bureau of Immigration, the Natural Way, London: MELS. Multicultural and Population Omar, Wafia and Kirsty Allen (1997) Johns, A. (1997) “Muslim Research. The Muslims in Australia, Canberra: Communities in Australia: AGPS. Carey, Hilary (1996) Believing in An Opportunity for Interfaith Australia: A Cultural History of Conciliation”, Hamard Islamicus, 20 Pickthall, Mohammed Marmaduke Religions, Sydney: Allen & Unwin. (3) pp 7-21. (trans.) (1994) The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an: An Explanatory Cleland, Bilal (2001) The Muslims Jones, Mary Lucille (ed.) (1993) Translation, reprint, New Delhi: UBS in Australia: A Brief History, An Australian Pilgrimage: Muslims Publishers Ltd. Melbourne: Islamic Council of in Australia from the Seventeenth Victoria. Century to the Present, Melbourne: Saeed, Abdullah (2003). Islam in Victoria Press. Australia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Cleland, Bilal (2001), “The History of Muslims in Australia” in Abdullah Lings, Martin (1983) Muhammad: Saeed, Abdullah and Shahram Saeed and Shahram Akbarzadeh his Life Based on the Earliest Akbarzadeh (eds.) (2001) Muslim (eds), Muslim Communities in Sources, Vermont: Inner Traditions Communities in Australia, Sydney: Australia, Sydney, NSW: UNSW International. UNSW Press. Press.

80 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 81 Saeed, Abdullah, “Rethinking Citizenship Rights of Non-Muslims in an Islamic State: Rashid al- Ghannushi’s contribution to the evolving debate” in Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, vol. 10, no. 3, 1999, 307-323.

Saeed, Abdullah, “Changing Understanding of Jihad among Muslims”. Tony Coady and Michael O’Keefe, (eds.) Terrorism and Justice. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2002.

Sarwar, Ghulam, Sex Education: The Muslim Perspective. Sydney: Muslim Educational Trust.

Stevens, Christine (1989) Tin Mosques and Ghantowns: A History of Afghan Cameldrivers in Australia, Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Wadud, Amina (1999) Qur’an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective, New York: Oxford University Press.

Waines, David (1995) An Introduction to Islam, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Watt, William M. “Al-Ghazali” Islamic Creeds: A Selection. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994, 73-74.

80 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS 81 NOTES

82 Muslim Australians:THEIR BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS ByFriday DLD 04