The Wittenberg History Journal Wittenberg University • Springfield, Ohio Volume XXXI Spring2002 From the Editors: In reading this year's WittenbergHistory Journal, we hope that you will be able to enjoy the high quality of the collection of papers presented. This publication is possible thanks to a small group of people, the History Journal Staff, who unselfishly devoted their time to selecting the following papers. This journal would also not have been possible without the helpful guidance of our advisor, Dr. Jim Huffman. We would like to extend a special thaks to all of you for your assistance and in helping to make the process of creating this year's History Journal great. Luke Clarkson & Dustin Plummer

The Wittenberg University History Journal 2001-02 Editorial Staff

Co-editors ...... Luke Clarkson '02 & Dustin Plummer '03

Editorial Staff ...... John Ameen '02, Kristen Baughman '02, Eric Cusick '03, Mark Huber '04 & Elizabeth Schwartz '04

Advisor ...... Dr. Jim Huffman

The Hartje Papers The Martha and Robert G. Hartje Award is presented annually to a Senior in the spring semester. The History Department determines the four finalists who write a 600 to 800 word narrative essay dealing with a historical event or figure. The finalists must have at least a 2.7 grade point average and have completed at least six history courses. The winner is awarded $400 at a spring semester History Department colloquium and all four entries are included in the History Journal. This year's Hartje Paper award was presented to Kristen Baughman. Table of Contents

Working-Class Alcohol Habits in England during the Decade of Decadence: Refuting Past Investigations and Writings by John Ameen Wittenberg University Class of 2002 ...... 5

Uchimura Kanzo: The Impact of America on His Christian Theology and Japanese Nationalism by Joshua Schnacke Wittenberg University Class of 2003 ...... 19

Irish Romantic Nationalism and the German Motive by EricaFornari Wittenberg University Class of 2004 ...... 25

The Battle of Blair Mountain: Remembering the Story That Got "Left Out" by KristenBaughman Wittenberg University Class of 2002 ...... 32

Taking Advantage of Innocent Girls by EmilyKingsley Wittenberg University Class of 2004 ...... 44

The First Coid War: On the Teutonic Knights and Alexander Nevsky by Ryan 7".Miller Wittenberg University Class of 2003 ...... 49

Hartje Award Winner

Floyd Coilins: The Man and the Legend by KristenBaughman Wittenberg University Class of 2002 ...... 58

Address correspondence to: Editor The Wittenberg University History Journal Department of History Wittenberg University P.O. Box 720 Springfield,OH 45501-0720 4 ° The Wittenberg History JoumaI

We would like to dedicate this year's edition of the WittenbergHistory Journal to the lovely Margaret DeButy. Her friendly smile, knowledeable assistance and tireless commitment to the History Department has been an inspiration to all of us. Thank you for once again helping make this publication a reality. Working-Class AlcohoI Habits in England ... • 5

Working-Class Alcohol Habits in England during the Decade of Decadence: Refuting Past Investigations and Writings By John Ameen WittenbergUniversity Class of 2002

The 1890s in Europe, coined as the "Decade of consuming alcohol during this "Decade of Decadence," rather than careless spending and Decadence," saw a number of social probiems that concerned government and upper-class immoderation suggested by social investigators. elites.1 Drug use, homosexuality, and Before examining the evidence supporting degeneration in intelligence and strength were working-class moderation, it is important to among these problems in this decadent society. understand the larger picture of alcohol One issue in particular, the increase of alcohol consumption in England during the last part of consumption among the working-class, the nineteenth century. In the 1870s, the drink concerned these elites in Britain. Social rate in England reached its peak. Historians investigators of the time, such as Charles Booth today have reached estimations based on and Seebohm Rowntree, suggested that many research and analysis conducted by investigators working-class citizens drank immoderately and from the late nineteenth century. It is now spent the majority of their incomes on alcohol. estimated that thirty-eight to forty gallons of One social investigator from the 1890s stated beer and 1.3 gallons of spirits were consumed that the working-class picked up more than per person in the seventies.6 After temperance "two-thirds of the nation's yearly drink bill of movements slowly lost their appeal in the 1880s, £162 million."2 Concerning secondary poverty, the 1890s saw a steady increase in alcohol Rowntree wrote, "there can be but little doubt, intakeJ In fact, alcohol intake during the 1890s however, that the predominant factor is drink."3 rivaled that of the 1870s. Other contemporary However, research and analysis into English research suggests that fifty-seven gallons of beer family budgets suggests that the working-class per man, woman, and child, and two gallons of did not indulge in nor did they spend an spirits per man, woman, and child, was consumed through the nineties.8 As far as enormous proportion of their wages on alcohol. Only as much as twelve percent of the families' expenditure is concerned, social investigators food budget, not total budget, was spent on from the nineteenth century estimated that £4: alcohol.4 This percentage is far less than what 5s: ld was spent, per head, on alcohol in a year. This statistic also rivals that of the 1870s.9 social investigators estimated. There was little Although these statistics include every social surplus for the family to spend on alcohol, while sometimes some families were in debt at the end class in England, social investigators concluded of the workweek. Other factors, such as wages, at the turn of the twentieth century that the • working class squandered the majority of the leisure and pub activities, temperance movements, drunkenness reports, contradictions money spent on alcohol. Therefore, made and indefinite conclusions assembled by interpretation suggests the majority of the consumption was also done by the working- social investigators provide great support for working-class moderation. Economic and social class. When studying the budgets of working-class factors of everyday life show that some of the families through the 1890s, it is hard to ignore working-class in England totally abstained from the lack of surplus earnings these households alcohol; while those who chose to imbibe did so had at the end of the workweek. Families spent responsibly by expending trivial amounts of the majority of their budget on food and rent. their earnings on drink and then moderately 6 • The Wittenberg History Journal

Additionally, other expenditures arose that In addition, he paid 10s/season for harbor dues further deteriorated the families' budget. It is a and fishing equipment.17 The earnings of a constant wonder how agricultural laborers and professional dock laborer were greatly their families survived at all. One social dependent on the fluctuations of trade.18 With observer stated that, "Laborers did not live in the additional expenses such as these, it was proper sense of the word, they merely didn't imperative that working-class families conserve die."1° Also, a Royal Commission report stated their earnings in order to achieve subsistence. that working-class laborers as a whole barely Seebohm Rowntree, a social investigator lived above subsistence. They were better off from the time, conducted a town study of York than they had been before the 1890s, but they in the 1890s concerning living conditions of the hardly lived satisfactorily.11 Working-class laboring classes. He concluded that while family budgets show that it was improbable, twelve percent of the population lived in and impossible for some, to indulge in alcohol. comfortable, sanitary houses, eighty-eight First, the incomes of the rural and urban percent lived in squalid domiciles.19 Why is the working-class wage earners varied between 10s/ quality of working-class houses important when wk and about £3/wk. The income the wage studying their alcohol habits? For one, it earner received depended greatly on what career reiterates the point of how destitute some of he worked. The wage one brought in also these families actually were. Social investigators depended on the town or city in which they from the time and also social historians widely lived. It seems that the larger the town, the wrote that the working-class lived in poorly higher the wage for many artisans and built and ventilated homes. Even furniture laborers.12 Sometimes income came from other sometimes scarcely existed in some poor, sources besides the typical workweek job. In working-class homes. If there was furniture, it one instance a carpenter earned 15s/wk during was usually adjusted from some other purpose, the summer and only 12s/wk during the winter. such as children's cots made from packing cases, However, his family received supplemental or dressing tables made from fruit crates.2° funds by lending out rooms during the week.13 Another reason why quality of housing should In most working-class households, the wife be addressed is that child mortality has also stayed at home to tend to the children and also been blamed on the irresponsible spending on to keep the house in order. Many times, alcohol. However, child mortality rates can be though, she would contribute to the budget by blamed on the poor housing the working-class doing odd jobs. One wife went out doing lived in. Food is essential to a child's existence, menial household tasks and washing laundry, but according to some studies, so are light, air, which made her family's income considerably warmth, and freedom from damp environments. greater.14 Wages also vary greatly from the Basement dwellings were popular because they rural setting to the urban setting. One man were cheaper, but they provided harsh living supported his family of seven on only 13s/wk. environments.21 His house was in shambles due to the fact he Although many working-class homes were needed to spend the majority of his earnings not satisfactory for everyday living, families feeding his family rather than sheltering them. could not improve on them. For one, a large Compared to the city where a man made an proportion of working-class budgets were spent average of 23s/wk, and although his house may on rent alone. In Rowntree's study, percentages not have been a palace, at least he has a solid of earnings spent on rent revealed these edifice surrounding him and his family,is statistics: Some career fields came with extra costs to Earnings % of Budget the wage earner. For example, one journeyman 18s/wk or less 29 carpenter needed to supply his own files and 18s to 20s/wk 18 tools at a cost of £1/yr.1 For some trades, 20s to 25s/wk 17 incomes fluctuated from week to week. One 26s to 30s/wk 16 31s to 40s!wk 16 fisherman had no regular earnings and 41s to 50s/wk 13 sometimes did not make any money for weeks. 51s to 60s/wk 12 Working-ClassAlcohol Habits in England ._ o 7

The tabie exhibits the average percentage of they afford the luxury of indulging in alcohol? budget a family would spend on rent in Though these statistics may be hard to accordance to how much money they earned in comprehend when viewed in their isolated a week. The less a family made, the higher the states, it is helpful to see them in a likely family percentage they would spend of their earnings scenario in order to understand the budget on rent. In addition to the rent expenses, situations of the working-class. In Henry Higgs' minimum of expenditures on household study of family budgets, the families studied sundries, such as wood, coal, tools, burial averaged 5.1 persons per family.28 This is a expenses, cooking utensils, etc., came out to 4s: reasonable estimate for working-class household 11d/wk for working-class households.22 The since most of the families studied in various minimum for food expenditure is: 3s/wk per budgets reports usually had at least one or two adult and 2s: 3d per child.23 children, while some had as many as eight or Just as most working-class families could not ten. According to Charles Booth, the income afford to improve on their living environments, group that earns 21s-30s/wk is "...more than many could not improve on their dietary habits. any other (group), representative of the way we Though alcohol is blamed for secondary live now."29 So with these estimations in mind, poverty, Rowntree noted that primary poverty is a fictitious family will consist of five people, the cause for malnutrition. He wrote, "... two adults and three children, and the wage every laborer who has as many as three children earner brings in 25s/wk. Therefore, this family must pass through a time, probably lasting for will spend sixteen percent of its budget on rent, about ten years, when he will be in a state of or 4s/wk. It will cost 6s/wk to feed the mother primary poverty; in other words, when he and and father, while it will cost 6s: 9d/wk to feed his family will be underfed."24 Low earnings, the children. Then for household sundries not alcohol, caused many families to be around 4s: 11d/wk. Out of 25s made in a week, malnourished. In order to keep the wage earner this particular family has 3s: 4d/wk left for other healthy, a higher proportion of the families' expenses. However, other expenses such as calories needed to be consumed by him. Men clothing, past debts, and/or medical expenses averaged 3,321 calories while women and may also hinder the working-class budget. With children averaged about 1,870 calories per day.2s the possibility of a minimum of 3s per week left, What happens, then, is a problem that cannot be this family can buy only a minimal amount of solved. If a family were to feed their children alcohol, and certainly not indulge in it more, the chance of the wage earner falling sick irresponsibly. would greatly increase. If this happened, they By analyzing these budgets, poverty or lack would fall deeper into poverty. What happens of funds is not the effect of alcohol instead is that the children and women of the overspending. Poverty is caused by and can be house will be fed less so the wage earner can the effect of so many other circumstances. For stay healthy. This problem also directly one, in the humid factory atmosphere, workers correlates with infant mortality. When the were more likely to become sick.s° More often mother nurses a baby, her diet greatly affects the than not, working-class families would not have survival rate of the infant. For instance, if she insurance to cover the cost of doctors or cover only lives off of bread and tea, the baby will not the time of lost wages. In the town of York, the receive the proper nutrients and may perish.26 reasons for poverty were quite simple; nearly And since, on average, fifty-eight percent of seventy-five percent of the people lived in working-class citizens' budget was spent on poverty because of low wages or large family food, not much opportunity existed for dietary size.sl In another town, one particular family improvement. Research into social earned a little over £2/wk, yet were still in investigator's studies show that the more a deficit. The reason, however, was because the family earned in a week, the more calories and husband had been obligated to take care of his essential nutrients they receivedY In essence, mother and pay her bills after she fell ill.a2 many working-class citizens could not afford the Widows, it seems, tended to have difficulty luxury of a good diet. Therefore, how could supporting themselves. In many cases the 8 ° The Wittenberg History Journal children had already moved out and were wk he could keep would go toward fares, supporting their own families; therefore, these clothes, or alcohol. It did not, however, allow children did not have the time and possibly not much margin for drunkenness.36 enough money to help out significantly. One In order to understand the expenditure on widow relied on her eighteen year old son for alcohol, it is important to become acquainted income. Her three daughters married young and with the price of the drinks. During the 1890s, she could not count on them.s3 Also, beer cost, on average, about 2.5d a pint,37 or wastefulness and carelessness concerning budget about 4d per quart,as Spirits cost around 3s: 4d management and household goods usage caused per pint and wine averaged about 3d per pinty financial stress. M. Loane remembers several although the research suggests the working-class particular instances where the family bought a loyally committed themselves to drinking beer. whole pound of butter and all of it was set on A working-class citizen could, therefore, buy the table for dinner, but then most of it spoiled three quarts of beer for around ls. and was later tossed out. She also saw many For many families, especially those studied families wasting bread. 4 in Family Budgets:Being theIncome and Expensesof With this analysis of family budgets, it is Twenty-EightBritish Households 1891-1894, hard to discern how social investigators alcohol expenditure was virtually non-existent. concluded that working-class citizens picked up In fact, out of the twenty-eight families, only much of the 1890s drink bill. Although they did five spent a significant amount on alcoholic not spend their earnings on alcohol beverages. Of those five families, one family irresponsibly, many still did spend some of it to spent tweDe percent of its food budget, not total buy a quart or two here or there. The amount budget, on alcohol, while the rest spent between spent, however, was usually very minimal and three and ten percent.4° In one family, both did not greatly affect the families' living parents enjoyed a stout w.th their dinner every conditions. From a report by the Royal night, hardly an example of overindulgence.41 Commission on Labor in 1893, the laborer In family budget studiescompiled by Henry tended to eat, dress, and read better than earlier Higgs from the 1890s, the statistics resemble in the century; and on the whole, was drinking those of FamilyBudgets. For one family, their less. Generally, it has been understood, total yearly income was £125. They spent only "Increased earnings were not generally spent in 10.5d on alcohol, which works out to less than trade drinking customs, but were handed over to three quarts in a year.42 Another family earned the wife who became the decision maker in all 105s over five weeks, roughly £1/wk. For beer aspects of household expenditure. In many and tobacco, they spent 3s: 2d, which comes out households the husband was only entrusted to twelve quarts over five weeks time.43 with pocket money to be spent on fares, beer, Though this is higherthan the first family tobacco..." 5 The husband, usually being the mentioned, two quarts a week could hardly be main drink consumer, would then have limited considered significant in the depletion of the funds to indulge in alcohol. Also, with a rise of family's income. Lastly, one family averaged real wages, the 1890s was the first time greater out £1: 15s: .25d over five weeks time. Out of spending did not go to alcohol. A v lder range this, this family spent 11d/wk on alcohol, almost of consumer goods was available, mainly three quarts per week.44 clothing, furniture, or metal-ware, which many Finally, in Rowntree's York study, one people purchased. This purchasing power family, renamed the Smith's for this definitely benefited the working-class since their investigation, barely earned enough to have a homes were not in satisfactory condition. While surplus. Mr. Smith brought home on average many social investigators' presumed higher •20s/wk and then handed over 18s to his wife. alcohol consumption with higher wages, many With the 2s he kept for himself, he spent it in working-class families were determined to live a the following manner: 1d/day on beer, 3d/wk on better life. And finally, M.S. Reeves states that tobacco, 3d/wk in children's savings box, and married men who earn between 18s and 26s/wk then what was left he kept for clothing. After do not and cannot drink. The maximum of 2s/ Mrs. Smith was done buying the food, sundries, Working-Class AIcohol Habits in England .... 9 and other miscellaneous items, she had 2d/wk about his childhood as a working-cIass youth. left.45 So, Mr. Smith spent about 7d/wk on The Lanigans incurred hard times, however, beer, which is maybe two quarts. Mrs. Smith when Jack's father passed away. The cause was only had enough left to buy a pint, possibly. not alcohol. Jack, his brother, and his mother Once again, evidence illustrates working-class struggled for some time trying to make ends families cannot afford to spend much on alcohol meet. due to their lack of funds. In accordance with FamilyBudgets, those Other than family budget reports, families that made more money, usually over a autobiographies and interviews have been pound and a half a week, spent the highest published concerning working-class life in percentage on alcohol.49 In Rowntree's study, England during the 1890s. From these texts those making over 30s/wk, the skilled laborers come similar practices of working-class alcohol for the most part, spent much more on alcohol habits--responsible and moderate drinking. In than those in other categories,s° Just to reiterate the following examples some fathers and/or the point, according to a Select Committee of husbands seem to have drank more than those Parliament, the most well paid workers, the in budget studies; however, what is written by artisans, could drink more because they could these firsthand accounts reveals only innocent afford to do so.s1 Although these well-paid expenditure and consumption. workers might have drunk more, there is no In one household, one woman stated that evidence that suggests these people spent the she and her husband brought in 35s/wk, or majority of their income on this activity. about £1: 15s. With that money, she saved 7s. But these more prosperous working-class This left 28s to pay for food, sundries, etc., citizens, as well as the others, in Edwardian which was plenty enough, she said, for the two England who chose to drink did so for reasons of them. Seeing that the pubs were too that have been the same for years: to socialize attractive for her husband, she had a quart of and to escape. In order to socialize and beer at home every night for her husband and escape, the working-class found no better venue friends to enjoy.46 If she brought home a quart thanlocal pubs and inns. The working-class of beer seven days a week, this would cost her citizens were attracted because beer ... was 28d/wk, or approximately 2s: 4d out of the 35s/ associated with manliness and virility, and in its wk that she and her husband brought in each principal locus, the public house, with week. conviviality, good fellowship, class, and Furthermore, there are two examples of occupational identity."53 Although alcohol was autobiographies where the father's would drink, one attraction of the pubs, other enticements but not immoderately. Faith Dorothy Osgerby provided the working-class a place to relax and said one thing she did not inherit from her father socialize. was the love of drink. On cold days he would First, pubs were the focal points of local warm his milk with rum. Sometimes her father news and gossip. Instead of meeting at each would not come for dinner and he had to be other's houses, home would extend into the sent for at the neighborhood pub.47 Although pubs.54 Secondly, bars all over England were this may seem like a questionable act by her being remodeled during the latter part of the father, her autobiography did not state he nineteenth century. The bars that remodeled or indulged irresponsibly. She seemed to love her were rebuilt became more eye-catching to pub father and her family lived happily and well for attendantsY Saloons with billiards, fine a working-class family. Nowhere in her furnishings, carpets, and wallpaper provided, to autobiography did Faith complain about their say the least, a delightful environment for living standards. A similar situation occurred socializing. Furthermore, the ways the bars with Jack Lanigan's father. Every morning Jack's were designed with their warm and welcoming father needed a pint of beer with breakfast. Jack color of "pitch-pine boarding offered a and his brother would take turns running the remarkably sympathetic atmosphere to drinkYs errand.48 Jack, though, never complained about Many of the pubs also offered banquet rooms his father abusing beer nor did he complain that served as meeting rooms for Trade Unions, t0 ° The Wittenberg History Journal

Football Clubs, etc. According to Rowntree, the Besides the pubs and clubs, society offered demand for these rooms during the 1890s was little for working-class recreational activities and still immense. 7 social diversions. During the mid to late Since these pubs provided a nice, roomy, nineteenth century, most of the leisure activities and clean atmosphere to socialize, there is little were created by and for the upper classes.66 wonder why many working-class citizens spent Although other activities did emerge, such as their time there. Working-class houses still parks, museums, exhibitions, public libraries, remained very small and very squalid in and local churches, these attempts by the upper appearance. For example, one family of five classes at reforming working-class social people lived in a two-room abode. The large activities failed.67 One working-class husband living room served as the parents' bedroom and father refused to take his family to a while the two boys sleep in the backroom. The museum. He had never been to one even little girl sleeps in the living room with her though he grew up in London. He feared his parents. Furniture is very scanty in this family would be looked down on because of particular house.5s In Higgs' study, the average their inferior dress. Instead, this gentleman rooms per family were only 2.8.59 In these found pleasure just by staying at home helping cramped conditions, working-class adults out around the house or entertaining their needed to leave the house once in a while in children. He played the flute for the children-- order to free themselves from the tight living he finds great pleasure in doing this. Then, quarters. when he left the house for leisure, he ventured Another attraction was the lunch specials over to his brother's house where they engaged some pubs offered. One example of a lunch themselves in dominos,s8 Sunday seemed to be special would be potato pie, cheese, pickles, the dullest day for the workingman. Instead of thick twist tobacco, and a pint of beer.6° To involving themseDes in social activities, some make life easier on the tired working-class, men would stay in bed all day and all night until some pubs would cook meat that customers the Monday workday dawned.69 would bring in from their local butchers.61 This Since pub attendance rose due to the lack of made the pub evermore attractive since after a other leisure activities for the working-class, long workday, both by the mother at home and many middle class citizens began to form the father at his employer, many working-class prohibition movements. Although the research citizens might not have felt like cooking. shows the working class drank moderately and Although it seems that many working-class spent only a slight portion of their budget on this citizens attended pubs for drinking and other leisure activity, many upper class citizens saw social activities, research suggests that little, if this "drink problem" as a serious threat to any, drunkenness occurred. First, in one England. Many working-class citizens did not workingmen's club, members spent £5: 8s: 10d a buy into this propaganda, however. Because the year on beer.62 Over the course of a year, this working-class as a whole refused to take part in works out to about eight pints each week, or a this movement, many upper class citizens, and, little over ls/wk in expenses--hardly - consequently, social investigators, concluded immoderate. This amount certainly does not they indulged in alcohol. This conclusion, suggest drunkenness. And even though Charles however, is unconvincing. Booth suggested that a quarter of working-class Anti-drink enthusiasm was so strong budgets were spent on alcohol,63 he remarked throughout some areas, especially in northern that drunkenness had decreased. He continued England, that there were very few towns that to say that the pub has remained the focal point were not without a temperance council pushing of working-class life.64 Speaking about the for a reduction in licenses.7° One group at the 1890s, Allen Clarke stated, "I am glad to say head of the temperance movement, the there is not quite as much drunkenness ... as teetotalers, believed in complete abstinence from there was twenty years ago."65 This reveals any alcoholic drink. Though it has been stated that the 1890s in England experienced much that some working-class families did not spend more temperance than the immoderate state one pence on alcohol, there were many that during the 1870s. drank occasionally, such as at lunch or at dinner. Working-Class Alcohol Habits in England ... " tl

Complete abstinence for many working-class consumption of and expenditure on alcohol, workers was unlikely, especialIy since the pub temperance movements gave alcohol an remained one place where they could enjoy infamous reputation, even in moderation. some socialization. Because of the temperance movement's Overall, the teetotalers' movement did not characteristics, it probably did little to sway attract or please the working-class because of those in the working-class who drank. Of their "pro-employer" stance. Throughout the course, as the research suggests, little nineteenth century, workers struggled with propaganda was needed because of the families' employers for shorter hours and higher wages. lack of income and also various other expenses Since these teetotalers, in the workers' minds, they needed to pick up. were fighting on the employers' sides, wages did Another factor that would keep the not significantly increase because the teetotalers working-class away from alcohol is the amount were lobbying against it71 In addition, the of hours they worked each week. Although teetotalers refused to admit that there was working hours decreased in the late nineteenth actually something wrong with the laissez-faire century, the decrease was not very significant. economic system and blamed trade depressions In some workplaces, the fifty-four hour on drink. For these teetotalers, blaming drink workweek began to emerge, but for many was an easy way out to explain social and professions, only a minimal cut in hours economic problems.72 occurred. For instance, shop assistants often The Church of England also took part in this worked eighty to ninety hours per week. temperance movement during the latter part of Agricultural laborers also toiled vawmg hours75 the nineteenth century. Named the Church of In different industrial areas, hours ranged from England Temperance Society (CETS), they fifty hours per week to over sixty. Data suggest mostly drove for alcohol moderation instead of that most people worked between fifty-two and totaI abstinence. It is not surprising that the fifty-eight hours.76 From 1850 to 1890, the GETS ran into trouble v¢lth total abstinence decrease in hours was gradual and a significant groups. The GETS also supported the opening decline did not happen in England until the of offqicensed shops on Sundays for a couple 1920s. A point of interest, however, is that the hours. This way, the GETS said, if people biggest decrease in hours occurred between 1870 wanted to have a drink with their Sunday and 1880, the height of alcohol consumption.77 dinners and suppers, they should have the During the 1890s, however, hours did not facilities to purchase the alcohol7a decrease substantially. The working-class still Toward the end of the century, groups were toiled many hours per week in this decade. The separated into either the chapel or pub category. 1890s left the working-class very iittle time or The chapel turned into a hostile place even for energy to spend in drinking customs or any the moderate drinker. Therefore, for many other social activity. working-class citizens, the chapel offered a place The estimations of data drawn in these of resentment toward their lifestyle. Thus, secondary sources reflect that of family budget many citizens who did not take the side of the studies. In one example, "The husband is chapel were considered defenders of evil. In the engaged from 9am tilt 6pm daily; Saturdays 9am final years of the century there was little mixing tilt 3pm at the dispensary; and occasionally does between the two groupsJ4 a little work after dispensary hours for the The temperance movement brought about doctors at ls per hour."Ts As a woodsman, one much hostility over alcohol consumption. The particular man worked six days a week from views of the teetotalers and chapel groups and 8am to 6pm. From time to time he also repairs the propaganda spread throughout the years clocks and watches during the late evening made it seem that if someone drank, they were hours.79 In another family, the husband works on the side of the devil. It also made the as a slipper maker and labors for eighty to working-class seem immoral and irresponsible. eighty-four hours a week.s° Lastly, one So not only were social investigators making husband and father works as a plumber for inaccurate estimates on working-class about fifty-three to fifty-six and half hours per !2 * The Wittenberg History Journal week. Sometimes he cannot find enough work his regular job, he took on a part-time job so he does various other odd jobs, such as paper figuring the assurance book with the Royal Oak hanging in homes or working as a porter in Society. He also took the title as the Collector auction rooms.81 of Dispensary for a local doctor. His father As seen here, depending on the trade, the performed these duties because he insisted he working-class worked varying hours. In needed something to do with his spare time .88 addition, it should be noted that along with the In this case, the wage earner took on other jobs chief wage earner's job, income is brought in as his "leisure activity," and did not spend it some other way, either by the wage earner drinking or at the pubs. himself or by his wife. This reiterates the point While working-class husbands and fathers that many working-class citizens worked extra worked long hours in their respected trades, hours. In addition, it also supports the fact that many would not venture to the pubs for many of these working-class families needed the drinking or socialization, but would come home extra money in order to live comfortably. to finish up some work around the house. In a study titled, Local Wage Variations, Often, men of the working-class have been varying trades were examined to see the amount characterized as bad husbands and fathers. This of money each made and also the amount of generalization, M. Loane points out, is only true hours per week these laborers worked. In this for a minority of the population.89 Though the particular study, work hours for various trades reasons why working-class men might be seem to be lower than that of the previous ones characterized like this are not given, Allen mentioned. However, their workweek is still Clarke gives one related to the pub atmosphere. rather long. The following professions were He states many times the attraction to the pubs charted over various towns across England. The will provide for a lonely and stressful home life average hours per week have been adjusted to fit for the wife. The wife would stay at home for the different hours worked during the summer most of the day, cleaning the house, taking care and winter months. of the kids, and in some cases, holding down a part-time job. Needless to say, she would be as Plasterers, information collected from eight tired or more tired than the father. But towns, 50hrs/wk82 sometimes he would come home from work, Painters, information collected from six see that everything was in order, and then head towns, 54hrs/wk8S out to the pub.9° In Loane's observations, Carpenters, information collected from nine however, a working-class father would spend towns, 50.6hrs/wk84 his half-day off at the washtub or finish up his Plumbers, information collected from eight day's work cleaning around the house. Some towns, 51hrs/wk85 husbands, she says, pick up some thread and a Stonemasons, information collected from needle to help out.91 seven towns, 48.75hrs/wkas It has been displayed clearly that the Bricldayers, information collected from working-class in England did not indulge in seven towns, 51.4hrs/wk87 alcohol like many of the social investigators had These hours serve as the normal workweek stated. Budget studies, working hours, and forthese respected professions. In many cases temperance analysis revealed that many lacked these particular trades also work overtime, the money, time, and/or will to drink therefore further extending their workweek. themseDes into inebriation. Furthermore, This study reinforces the fact that many convictions for drunkenness, as reported by the working-class citizens do not have the time, or British House of Commons, actually declined as energy, to participate in drinking customs the 1890s progressed. In comparison with some In another example, the principal wage report samples from the 1870s, clearly less earner worked in a pottery factor from 7am to drunkenness occurred during the 1890s. 6pm. From his earnings, according his child's When analyzing these reports on drunkenness autobiography, the father considered them of convictions, four different geographic areas were the high working-class strata. But in addition to examined. The following statistics and analyses Working-Class Alcohol Habits in England ... o "13 come from rurai towns, port towns, mining number of drunkenness convictions will slightly communities, and large cities. The characterized fail as the years proceed. England's population communities are separated as follows: is still growing at this point; therefore, the percentage will actually be slightly higher than if Rural: Rutland, Sussex the actual population from the current year was Mining: Gloucester, Somerset used. According to the reports, and also Large City: London (Metropolitan Police displayed in "Table 1" and "Table 2," District-MPD and City Ordinance), Liverpool drunkenness declined in some towns while it Port Towns: South Shields, Sunderland, stayed relatively constant in the others. Great Grimsby The examination of these drunkermess Percent of Population Charged with Drunkenness reports show the whole nation of England did

Year Rutland Sussex S. Shields Sundedan G. Gdrnsb' not have as many drunkenness convictions as 1889 0.15% 0.35% 2% 1.10% 2.60% the 1890s progressed. However, what does this 1890 0.09% 0.24% 2% 0.90% 2% mean for the working-class? If they actually 1891 0.13% 0.25% 1.70% 0.80% 1.70% purchased and drank the majority of the alcohol 1892 0.15% 0.30% 2.70% 0.60% 1.40% during the 1890s, this means they drank 1893 0.14% 0.25% 1% 0.65% 1.10% moderately, not immoderately, due to the fact 1894 0.06% 0.27% 1% 0.70% 1.20% less drunkenness occurred. But as the budget 1895 0.09% 0.27% 1.10% 0.68% 1.10% reports show, it is highly unlikely they spent July very much on alcohol anyways. So when one 1871-72 0.90% 0.90% 5.40% 2.50% 6.10% social investigator stated that, "In our town Table there are hundreds of families, the head or heads, of which indulge, not moderately, but Year Liverpool London-City London-MPE Somerset .%loucester immoderately in drink,"93 one should deeply 1889 3% 1.10% 0.40% 0.20% 0.80% question the meaning of indulgence. Also, the 1890 2.40% 1.50% 0.40% 0.25% 0.30% type of town chosen, rural, urban, etc., really 1891 1.80% 1.20% 0.40% 0.25% 0.30% 1892 1.60% 1.40% 0.40% 0.20% 0.20% showed no significant evidence whether the 1893 1.40% 1.20% 0.45% 0.20% 0.27% amount of drunkenness depended on how much 1894 0.80% 1.80% 0.50% 0.20% 0.20% the working-class consumed. In addition, how 1895 0.80% 1.60% 0.50% 0.18% 0.16% did the law enforcement officials charge july someone with being drunk? What was the L871-72 7% N/A 12% 1.10% 0.90% evidence? For over one hundred years now the social Table 2 investigators' statements and conclusions about The calculationsin tables one and two were taken from House of Commons reportspresented during the years of 1873 and then the working-class and their alcohol consumption 4890 1895. See thebibliography for furtherdocumentation on habits have plagued modem British history. The these reports. copious amount of evidence put forth suggests that the working-class drank moderately, and, in When examining individual municipalities, some cases, did not drink at all, while the social the percentage of the population convicted for investigators concluded immoderate dtinking drunkenness is the important statistic, not the habits and high proportion budget spending on number of convictions. Obviously, London will alcohol. As M.S. Reeves states, "Drink is an have a higher number of convictions than some accusation fatally easy to throw about," which is rural town because its population will be done often by the upper classes.94 Despite the substantially larger. Another important fact is fact that these social historians, such as Charles that the population recorded in 1890 will be the Booth and Seebohm Rowntree, are respected for same reported population in 1894 because their research and are continuously cited for England's census is taken every ten years. The studies conducted about late nineteenth-century importance of this fact is that from 1801 to English society, the solidity of their evidence 1901, England's population grew 365%, from remains in question. 8,893,000 to 32,528,00.92 As will be seen, the ¢4 * The Wittenberg History Journal

It seems from the wording in their scholarly .66%.99 And although Rowntree states the works that they might have been unsure about cause of secondary poverty is drink, the the facts of working-class alcohol habits. For drunkenness convictions in York are low and as instance, "Charles Booth suggested it was he observed many times, most people in the common for one-quarter of the working-class pubs are drinking, but not heavily)°° earnings to be spent on drink as did George Along with lackluster evidence to support Sims, while Seebhom Rowntree accepted one- their arguments, there are some contradictions sixth as a reasonable estimate for York."gs Then, in these studies and scholarly works. Although "In regard to the allocation of the total drink bill, Rowntree states that competent authorities have Levi consideredthat the working-class purchased made these estimates of alcohol expenditure seventy-five percent of all beer and spirits and carefully, he states that the classification of ten percent of all wind sold."96 When family those in secondary poverty is made largely by budgets are examined, there are definite opinion,lm Then in the book Liquid Pleasures, contradictions concerning alcohol expenditure John Bumett writes that only the poorest with the working-class. In addition, these women in the slum districts would be caught in investigators' research does not include any a pub.l° However, he writes later that public actual family budget information documenting houses became more comfortable where even these estimates. In Family Budgets, there are no women could go and stay. Even "respectable" admittances of indulgence of alcohol or women now attended pubs. Finally, in one of extraordinary spending by these particular Booth's studies, he observed many vagrants in families. The suggestion of immoderation came the streets. He saw them as drunks, thieves, or from families in the study describing people that loafers. According to SaDationArmy statistics, live around them spending money carelessly on though, a high proportion of these men and alcohol. women were looking for work and were indeed In Rowntree's study of York, he recognized morally decent people.1°3 Not only does past secondary poverty and its causes. He states evidence lack solidity of evidence, but in some that, "There can be but little doubt, however, cases contradict itself. that the predominant factor is drink. I have Even though the evidence supports working- been unable to from any close estimate of the class moderation, some questions cannot be average sum spent weekly upon drink by answered, while others need to be raised to working-class families in York, but a careful address the complexity of this issue of working- estimate has been made by others of the average class alcohol expenditure. First, the reports of sum expended weekly by working-class families drunkenness made in these studies and in throughout the United Kingdom."97 Rowntree secondary sources come from people who saw admits he has not obtained enough evidence, their fellow neighbors or peers spending their but others have, to make this estimate of money carelessly on alcohol and even saw them working-class alcohol expenditure. Who are heavily intoxicated. The validity of these these other people? He never says. The reports is questionable. On a less academic side estimation of 6s/wk spent on alcohol by the of the argument, of those working-class citizens working-class came out of a portion of the that drank moderately, was inebriation national drink bill that "competent authorities" acceptable once in awhile? assigned.98 Who are these competent Secondly, the highest drink rate reported in authorities? Once again, Rowntree does not England during the nineteenth century occurred say. during the 1870s. The only decade that rivaled When looking at the House of Commons it with consumption per head, expenditure, and drunkenness convictions, York resembles that of brewing output was the 1890s. So who was the other municipalities sampled. In 1890, the drinking the beer, wine, and spirits? Could it percentage of drunkenness convictions was have been the upper classes? Or since these .95%. Then as the years went on, the numbers social investigators stated that the working-class gradually decreased. By 1894, the percentage of took the brunt of the bill, was it the working- people convicted for drunkenness was down to class? The evidence put forth states the Working-Class Alcohol Habits in England ... o 15 working-class could not support this drink bill; examination of those budgets shows the however, they could have carried a decent working-class citizens who did spend money on amount. Is it possible that the working-class alcohol did not purchase a significant amount. drank, but did not drink themselves into poverty In addition, with the amount of hours many of or drunkenness? Since there was little these people worked, any leisure activity opportunity for other social and leisure seemed only like a far-fetched dream. And even activities, they participated in responsible though some working-class citizens drank, they drinking customs. did so moderately according not only to the Finally, an obvious point, some working- family budget examinations, but also according class citizens indulged in alcohol and spent the to declining drunkenness convictions' majority of their budget on it. Nowhere in the percentages. Although the evidence exhibited world has there ever been a utopia where some thus far is critical of past research and class of people is one hundred percent morally historiography, it is not newly discovered data. perfect. However, those working-class people History is being written and rewritten everyday. that did spend a high proportion of their budget New analyses, hypotheses, and research projects on alcohol might not have been married or are surfacing everywhere. This subject on might not have had a family. In Rowntree's working-class alcohol habits during the 1890s study, he observed that the company in pubs is has not been rediscovered. Those social almost entirely composed of young persons, investigators of the 1890s reported what they youths and girls, sitting around the room saw and diligently studied their reports. chatting, drinking, and smoking. °4 Did this However, what was socially unacceptable division of the working-class take the brunt of during the 1890s now might be seen as an the bill? After all, these young persons had no innocent social activity. The drinking activities direct familial obligations. And as stated before, carried out by the working-class might not have those who drank in the working-class were been seen as legitimate socialization, even in better off economically in the first place. moderation. In the twenty-first century, these The evidence displayed on working-class moderate drinking habits of the working-class alcohoi habits during this "Decade of seem harmless. The job of a historian is to look Decadence" definitely portrays the working- at a subject objectively and then find the truth. class as a struggling class economically, but not With these ample amounts of facts supporting because of drink. Examination of family the working-class responsible drinking habits, budgets clearly shows the difficulty many the truth is there, but needs to be examined working-class families experienced and that the differently than it has been over the last one purchasing occurred hardly at all. Further hundred years.

End Notes

1 At the end of the nineteenth century, 2 Standish Meacham, A Life Apart: The Western European nations, mainly France and EnglishWorking Class (Cambridge: Harvard England, began to decline as world powers in University Press, 1977), 124. ** English money industry, trade, and colonization. With their system during the 1890s: d= Penny, pence; s= decline saw the emergence of new powers such shilling; £= Pound. Conversions: 12d= ls; 20s= as the United States, Germany, Japan, and even £1. China. The upper-class elites and government B. Seebhom Rowntree, Poverty:A Study of officials in Britain blamed their decline on Town Life, 4th ed (New York: Macmillian and breaking of social paradigms. These new Co., 1902), 142. attitudes such as homosexuality, new htyles of art, drug use, and drinking were the brunt of the criticisms handed out by the upper classes. 46 * The Wittenberg History Journal

** Secondary Poverty occurs when a family's 27 Oddy, "Working-Class Diets in Late earnings would be sufficient for physical Nineteenth-Century Britain," 319, 322. efficiency but wages are wasted by carelessness 28 Henry Higgs, "Worlcmen's Budgets" in spending, i.e. gambling, drinking, poor budget Journeyof Royal StatisticalSociety, 56, no.2 (June management, etc 1893), 259. 4 Family Budgets: Being theIncome and 29 Oddy, "Working-Class Diets in Late Expenses of Twenty-EightBritish Households t89f- Nineteenth-Century Britain," 321. 1894 (London: P.S. King and Son, 1896), 76. 30Allen Clarke,The Effects of theFactory s John Bumett, Liquid Pleasures:a social System(London: Grant Richards, i899), 53-4. I I historyof drinks in modernBritain (London: 31Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 120. '1 Rutledge, 1999), 126. s2 FamilyBudgets, 25. 6 Derek Oddy and Derek Miller, eds., The 33 Ibid., 38,39. Making of theModern BritishDiet (London: Groom s4 M. Loane, 76. Helm, 1976), 98. 32Bernard Waites, Popular Culture:Past and 7 Mark Girouard, VictorianPubs (London: Present(London: Groom Helm, 1982), 106. Yale University Press, 1984), 63. 36 Reeves, 9-10. s Seebhom Rowntree and Arthur Sherwei1, 37 Oddy, Making of theModern British Diet, 120. The TemperanceProblem and Social Reform, 9th ed. 38 Girouard, 4. (London: Judder and Stoughton, 1901), 139. 39 Oddy, 120. 9 Burnett, Liquid Pleasures,128. 4oFamily Budgets,75. 10John Bumett, Plentyand Want: a social 41 Ibid., 27-8. historyof diet in Englandfrom t815 to present 42Higgs, 279. (London: Scolar Press, 1979), 151. 43Ibid., 280. 11Ibid., 169. 44 Ibid., 283. 12 F.W. Lawrence, Local Variations in Wage 4s Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 55. (New York: Longman's, Green, and Go., 1899), 18. 46 Loane, 9 i. is Family Budgets,31. 47 Faith Dorothy Osgerby, MyMemoirs, 14 Ibid., 51. unpublished autobiography, in DEstinyObscure, 15M. Loane, From TheirPoint of View ed. John Bumett (New York: Penguin Books, (London: E. Arnold, 1908), Reprint (New York: 1984), 91-2. Garland Publications, 1980), 248-255. 48 Ibid., 96. is Family Budgets,51. 49Family Budgets, 70. 17 Ibid., 39-40. 2o Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 78. 18 Charles Booth, Life andLabour (London: 51 Oddy and Miller, 126. Macmillian and Co., 1902), 28. 52 Meacham, 124. 1 Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 179. 23 Bumett, Liquid Pleasures, 125. 2o John Bumett, ed., Destiny Obscure (New 24 Bumett, Destiny Obscure, 226. York: Penguin Books, 1984), 223. 5 Girouard, 87. 21 M.S. Reeves, Round about a Pound a Week 26 Ibid., 74, 77. (London: G. Bell, 1913), Reprint, (New York: 7 Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 310. GarlandPublishing, 1984), 29. 28Family Budgets, 21. 22Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 165. 29 Higgs, 256. 23Ibid., 105. s0 Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford 24Derek Oddy, "Working-Class Diets in Life in the FirstQuarter of the Century(London: Late Nineteenth-Century Britain" Economic Penguin, 1971), 112. History Review 23, no.2 (August 1970), 321. 61 Oddy and Miller, 162. ** Primary Poverty is simply not bringing in 62 Meacham, 123. enough income to survive adequately. s30ddy and Miller, 120. 25 Ibid., 320. 64M.A. Bienfeld, WorkingHours in British 26Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 44. Industry:An EconomicHistory (London: Redwood Press, 1972), 101. Working-Class Alcohol Habits in England ... • t7

65 Clarke, 151. 87 Ibid., 56. s6 John Benson, ed., The Working Class in 88Albert Goodwin, Autobiography, England 1875-1914 (London: Croom Helm, unpublished autobiography, in Destiny Obscure, 1985), 179. ed. John Bumett (New York: Penguin Books, 6z Waites, 99-100. 1984), 283. 68Family Budgets, 21 89 Loane, 25-6. 69 Benson, 148. 9o Clarke, 139. 7o Lilian Shiman Lewis, CrusadeAgainst 91 Loane, 147-8. Drink in VictorianEngland (New York: St. 92 H.A. Monckton, History of the English Martin's Press, 1988), 194. Public House (London: Bodley Head, 1969), 77. 71 Ibid., 207. 9s Oddy and Miller, 227. z2 Ibid., 209. 94 Reeves, 76. 73 Ibid., 108-109. 9s Oddy and Miller, 120. ** Author of paper 74 Ibid., 153, 156. added italics in quote. 75 Benson, 135. 96Ibid., 120. ** Author of paper added z6 Bienfeld, 153. italics in quote. 77 Ibid., 111. 97Rowntree, Poverty:A Studyof TownLife, 142. 78 FamilyBudgets, 27. 98 Ibid., 142. 79 Ibid., 50. 99 House of Commons, t890-t895. 80 Ibid., 29-30, 32. 100Rowntree, Poverty:A Study of Town Life, 81 Ibid., 19. 311. 82 Lawrence, 66. 101Ibid., 141. 88Ibid., 54 102Bumett, Liquid Pleasures,130. 84 Ibid., 62. 103Burnett, Plentyand Want, 206. 8 Ibid., 60. 104Rowntree, Poverty:A Study of Town Life, 86 Ibid., 58. 311.

Works Cited

Bailey, Peter. Leisureand Class in Victorian Bumett, John. Plentyand Want: a social historyof England. London: Routiedge and Kegan diet in England from t815 to Present. London: Paul, 1978. Scolar Press, 1979.

Benson, John, ed. The Working Class in England Clarke, Allen. The Effectsof the FactorySystem. 1875-1914. London: CroomHelm,1985. London: Grant Richards, 1899.

Bienefeld, M.A. WorkingHours in BritishIndustry: Family Budgets: Being the Income and Expenses An EconomicHistory. London: Redwood of Twenty-Eight British HousehoIds Press, 1972. 1891-1894.London: P.S. King and Son, 1896.

Booth, Charles. Life andLabour. London: Girouard, Mark. Victorian Pubs. New Haven/ Macmillian and Co., 1902. London: Yale University Press, 1984.

Bumett, John, ed. Destiny Obscure. New York: Higgs, Henry. "Workmen's Budgets." Journal of Penguin Books, 1984. the Royal StatisticalSociety 56, no. 2 (June 1893): 255-294. Burnett, John. Liquid Pleasures:a social historyof drinks in modernBritain. London: Rutledge, Hunt, E.H. Regional Wage Variations in Britain, 1999. 1850-19f4. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. 18 • The Wittenberg History Journal

Lawrence, F.W. Local Variations in Wage. New United Kingdom. House of Commons. "Return York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1899. for England and Wales of the Total Number of Drunkenness Convictions." Sessional Loane, M. From Their Point of View. London: E. Papers, t890. Vol. 59. Arnold, 1908. Reprint, New York: Garland Publications, 1980. United Kingdom. House of Commons. "Return for England and Wales of the Total Number Meacham, Standish. A Life Apart: The English of Drunkenness Convictions." Sessional Working Class. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Papers, 1890-1891. Voi. 64. Harvard University Press, 1977. United Kingdom. House of Commons. "Return Monckton, H.A. History of the EnglishPublic for England and Waies of the Total Number House. London: Bodley Head, 1969. of Drunkenness Convictions." Sessional Papers, 1892. Vol. 65. Oddy, Derek and Derek Miller, eds. The Making of the Modern BritishDiet. London: Croom United Kingdom. House of Commons. "Return Helm, 1976. for England and Wales of the TotaI Number of Drunkenness Convictions." Sessional Oddy, Derek J. "Working-Class Diets in Late Papers, 1893-1894. VoI. 74. Nineteenth-Century Britain." Economic History Review 23, no. 2 (August 1970), 314- United Kingdom. House of Commons. "Return 323. for England and Wales of the Total Number of Drunkenness Convictions." Sessional Reeves, M.S. Round about a Pound a Week. Papers, f895. VoI. 81. London: G. Bell, 1913. Reprint, NewYork: GarlandPublishing, 1984. United Kingdom. House of Commons. "Return for England and Wales of the Total Number Roberts, Robert. The Classic Slum: SalfordLife in of Drunkenness Convictions." Sessional the First Quarter of the Century.London: Papers, 1896. Vol. 69. Penguin, 1971. United Kingsom. House of Commons. "Return Rowntree, B. Seebohrn. Poverty: A Study of Town of Convictions for Drunkenness for each Life, 4th ed. New York: Macmillian & Co., County and Borough in England and Wales, 1902. Scotland and Ireland." SessionalPapers, 1873. Vol. 54. Rowntree, B. Seebohm and Arthur Sherwell. The TemperanceProblem and Social Reform, 92 ed. Waites, Bernard, ed., et aL Popular Culture: Past London: Judder and Stoughton, 1901. and Present. London: CroomHelm. 1982.

Shiman, Lilian Lewis. Crusade againstDrink in VictorianEngland. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988. Uchimura Kanzo o t9

Uchimura Kanzo: The Impact of America on His Christian Theology and Japanese Nationalism By Joshua Schnacke WittenbergUniversity Class of 2003

Traditional Christianity was spread Christian. Furthermore, it is interesting to note throughout the world by missionaries how Uchimura was first introduced to representing the established ecclesiastical Christianity, and what influence doctrine and organizations. All faiths, from Roman denomination played in the formation of his Catholicism through post-reformation Protestant early Christian views. Also intriguing is the denominations, actively proselytized their circumstance and experience of Uchimura's particular brand of Christianity. The Pacific rim study while in the United States. How did this countries of Korea, China, and Japan experience influence his faith and nationalistic experienced the influence of missionaries. views? However, after the Meiji Restoration, Japan also Uchimura was born to parents Yoshiyuki experienced a parallel and somewhat unique and Yaso on 23 March 1861, the oldest of five "Non-church" Christian movement which was children. His birth followed, by just seven led by the Japanese nationalist Uchimura Kanzo. years, the Meiji Restoration, which restored Uchimura is considered by many historians power to the emperor. The Restoration to be the most prominent Christian thinker of represented a dramatic change in Japanese the Japanese Meiji era (1868-1912). He was society; for, during the preceding centuries, the converted to Christianity as a college student country had been ruled by the samurai class and and came to the United States in 1884 to a shogun. In fact, the nation of Japan had not complete further coliege study. While in the existed, rather the land had consisted of a series United States, he was discouraged by the fact of separately ruled domains. Uchimura's that America was not the "Christian country" he grandfather had been a warrior samurai under thought it would be. Increasingly he became the old system, an expert shot with both the disenchanted with what he viewed as the bow and flintlock rifle) Little information is limitations and evils of America and its available about Uchimura's mother except that it denominational Christianity. was said that she had a "mania for work" and Upon returning to Japan in 1888, he became that "her little home is her kingdom and she one of the country's most prolific essayists and rules it, washes it, feeds it, as no queen has ever intellectuals, writing for both scholarly and done." We know that Uchimura's father, popular audiences. He began a "non-church" Yoshiyuki, was a samurai of low ranldng status, movement in which he and his followers denied but more refined and genteel than his the validity of denominations. Not only was he grandfather. He was talented in both an influential Christian, but his nationalistic administration and poetry, embracing the views also exerted wide impact. Research has Confucian belief system like many of his led me to believe that Uchimura's trip to the counterparts. Because of his father's beliefs, United States was the crucial element in his Confucianism became the first religion development as a Christian theologian and a Uchimura experienced and embraced,s Japanese nationalist. In order to look at his Uchimura's father wanted his son to receive development as a Christian, we must examine an education based on the Western model; since his early life and Christian experiences. A Japanese society was changing, he believed that question arises as to how a man raised in a non- one would need to be trained in the Western Christian family could have become so devoutly style. Uchimura was not alone in receiving a 20 • The Wittenberg History Journal

western education. Many young men were sent unaware of the fact that sight-seeing, and not overseas to study Western governmental, truth-seeking, was the only view I had in my education, and banking systems. Trips such as 'Sunday excursion to the settlement' as I called the 1871 Iwakura Mission sent both men and it."5 women to the United States to study. Seeing Clark's original students made it their this as the wave of the future, his father enrolled mission to convert all incoming students in him in the Arima School in Tokyo at the age of Uchimura's class to Christianity.6 Uchimura, twelve. Uchimura began his study of English at adhering to his father's Confucian upbringing, the age of thirteen when he was enrolled in the lead the resistance against the conversion. In his Tokyo School of Foreign Languages, and in autobiography, Uchimura describes his 1876, at the age 16, he entered the Sapporo "conversion after coercion" as approaching Agriculture College. harassment from the elder students. He stated, Sapporo Agriculture College was located on "So, you see, my first step toward Christianity the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido, an was a forced one, against my will, and I must area which the government was trying to confess, somewhat against my conscience too."7 develop agriculturally. The college was Nevertheless, after Uchimura's 1877 conversion established in 1875 and the Japanese to Christianity, he began a conscientious study government brought in advisors from America and immersion into his new found faith. He to help the administration of the university. The was one of seven classmates who began their primary advisor, William S. Clark, was president own Christian meetings and dormitory study. of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, The group came to be known as the located in Amherst. Clark was a devout "Brotherhood of Seven." His new Christian member of the Congregational Church, and fervor grew during the next five years. when he agreed to go to Japan he took along In July 1881, Uchimura graduated first in his several English language Bibles, intending to class from the Sapporo College. The seven spread his Christian faith.4 He had a students decided to open their own church in confrontation with the president of Sapporo Sapporo and first approached the Reverend College on his way to Japan about his right to Denning, an Anglican missionary, for the teach Christianity to the students. A concession necessary financial support. Their request was was made which allowed Clark to conduct a denied because there was already an Anglican regular Bible study at the college. Although he church in the community. Undeterred, the only remained in Japan for eight months, Clark students next approached the Rev. J. C. Davison, was profoundly influential with his students. a Methodist Episcopal missionary. He did offer This is evidenced by the fact that all of the first to support the effort to build a new church, but year students at the college converted to the students and Davison soon came to a Christianity. difference of opinion over the students' Uchimura entered Sapporo the year after determination to keep their church independent Clark returned to America. The historian of Methodism. Because of this difference, the Hiroshi Miura points out that Uchimura enrolled students accepted the money, not as a gift, but in the school partially because of the stipend as a loan, vowing to pay it back as quickly as paid to him by the government, which he used • possible. In his diary, Uchimura wrote, "We felt to help his struggling family. Though a member for the first time in our Christian experience the of the samurai class, the family had suffered, like evils of denominationalism."s many others, when in 1876 the government During the summer of 1881, a few other abolished this class. Uchimura describes his first significant events occurred. For one, Uchimura exposure to Christianity with both curiosity and studied the structure of some Christian churches humor. "Sunday after Sunday I resorted to this to insure that the recently founded Sapporo place, not knowing the awful consequence that church would have a proper foundation. was to follow such a practice. An old English Second, with the graduation stipend he received lady from whom I learned my first lessons in from the government, he bought a series of English took a great delight in my church-going, books about Christianity. The books, written in i: :E 1 L Uchimura Kanzo ° 21

Chinese by a German missionary, acted as the American Christians to behave in this manner. foundation of his father's Christian conversion? On the trip from San Francisco, Uchimura spent Uchimura returned to Tokyo for a short time to a day in Chicago with a Methodist minister visit his family and to engage in missionary talking about his plans for spreading the word of work. In the fall, however, he returned to God in Japan. When it came time to leave for Sapporo along with the other members of his the train station, the minister sent one of his graduating class to assume their government deaconsis to help with the baggage. Uchimura jobs; but after less than two years of government recalls in his biography the time at the train service, Uchimura resigned from his position station. and moved back to Tokyo. While attending a With courtesy and many thanks we conference on Japanese Christianity, as a extended our hands to take our goods to representative of his home church in Sapporo, ourselves, to which our Methodist deacon he met a young girl, Takeko Asada. By his own objected; but stretching forth his dusky hand choice he asked her to marry, a custom toward us, said "Jist gib me somding." He had uncommon in Japan at that time.1° The our valises in his custody, and only "somding" marriage, against his parents' will, proved to be could recover them from his hands. Then a disaster and ended within six months of its engine-bell was ringing; it was not time to argue inception. His Sapporo church said the divorce with him. Each of us dropped a 50-cent piece was "against the teaching of the Bible, and into his hand, our things were transferred to us, therefore that Uchimura was a 'heretic.' ,,21 to a coach we hastened, and as the train began Japanese historian, Massaike, believes these to move, we looked to each other in accusations made Uchimura distance himself amazement, and said, "Even charity is bartered from the church and indirectly contributed to his here." Since then we never have trusted in the stand on mukyokai-shugi (Non-churchism) in kind words of black deacons.16 later years.12 Uchimura observed racism against blacks Because of the isolation from his church and and Orientals. He and his fellow Japanese his inability to find an acceptable profession, students were often stereotyped as Chinese. Uchimura decided to study in America and These incidents led to some of his nationalistic London. He sold all of his belongings in order to views on Japan. He felt that America was a finance his trip and set sail for the "Christian hypocritical society and came to believe that Country." Uchimura envisioned America as a America espoused Christian virtues and ethics place "where Christianity having had while there was a distinct evilness rooted in the undisputed power and influence for hundreds of society. He writes, "One thing I shall never do years, must, I imagined, be found Peace and Joy in future: I shall never defend Christianity upon in a measure inconceivable to us of heathen its being the religion of Europe and America."17 extraction."13 He thought of America as a He writes in his biography "O heaven, I am "holy land." "My idea of the Christian America undone! I was deceived! I gave up what was was lofty, religious, Puritanic. I dreamed of its really Peace for that which is no Peace!"is templed hills, and rocks that rang with hymns The longer Uchimura was in America, the and praise. Hebraisms, I thought, to be the more his Japanese national views were 'prevailing speech of the American commonality, rekindled. Only from the perspective of life and cherub and cherubim, hallelujahs and abroad did he come to deeply appreciate his amens, the common language of its streets."14 homeland. Uchimura quotes the Chinese sage, Uchimura arrived in San Francisco in "he who stays in a mountain knows not the November 1884 and immediately began to mountain." He goes on to say, "My views of my experience disappointment. He heard cursing native land were extremely one-sided while I and profanity in everyday conversations, a stayed in it.'u9 His view of Japan became more practice he had been taught was a sin. lofty and nationalistic because of his time in the Someone on the ship stole many of his United States. In 1884, he worked in a hospital possessions, again a practice Uchimura believed for mentally deficient children in Elwyn, disregarded God's laws. He had not expected Pennsylvania.2° He disliked the work and was 22 • The Wittenberg History Journal subjected to some prejudice, being called a principaI of a school north of Tokyo. However, "Jap."21 He was however befriended by he was there for only a short time because he Quakers and experienced their religious became enmeshed in a controversy with meetings and practices. Elements of the Quaker Christian missionaries working at the school. religion were later reflected in his Non-church The missionaries became upset when Uchimura movement. 22 brought in a Buddhist clergy member to help With a few letters of introduction, teach Japanese religious history. He resigned Uchimura began his study as a junior at because he was upset that the missionaries did Massachusetts= Amherst College in September not want the true history of Japan to be taught. of 1885. He took classes in Church history, Shortly afterwards, Uchimura married a Greek, Hebrew, and Western history. He had childhood friend and obtained a teaching difficulty understandingand dislikedthe study position at the prestigious Daiichi Koto of philosophy. Most importantly, while at Chugakko. Again a controversy arose, this time Amherst, Uchimura became friends with the over the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education. president of the university, Julius Seelye, who The Rescript included an oath to the emperor profoundly influenced him by personalizing his and Japan, which students said before each belief in the saving grace of Jesus Christ. school day. In 1891, the school had its first According to Jennings, Seelye called Uchimura reading of the document and Uchimura refused into his office one day to talk. During the to bow to what he thought was a "heathen discussion, he posed this question to Uchimura idol." The case became a national sensation and "Why did he not stop looking within himself Uchimura lost his teaching position because of and look up to Christ who was crucified in the behavior. Almost immediately he became redemption for his sins?" Uchimura said that very sick, and almost died. He recovered, and this question "transformed him from an began to settle into writing the work which ineffectual and doubting student into a vibrant would occupy the rest of his life. Gradually, believer."23 Uchimura graduated from Amherst Uchimura became an influential essayist and in 1887. journalist. Not only did he write about his After graduation he enrolled in the Hartford beliefs and non-church theology, but also about Theological Seminary. There are conflicting a variety of topics of national interest. In 1897, theories about his reason for entering the he became an editor at the largest newspaper in seminary. One is that he wanted to continue his Japan, Yorozo Choho. He held this position for study of church history, and another is that several years until late 1903 when the journal Uchimura actually wanted to become a came out in favor of going to war with Russia. minister.24 Nonetheless, after four months Uchimura became disenchanted because he was Uchimnra withdrew from the Seminary for against the killing of human beings which he health reasons. "Although he had chosen to considered a great sin. After leaving the become a clergyman as his divine vocation, he newspaper, Uchimura started his own journal was therefore unable to complete the course of entitled, Biblical Studies,which was produced for training required of clergyman in the thirty years. institutionalized church. Ohyama suggests that Uchimura was the founder of the largest and this is the fundamental reason for Uchimura's •most influential Non-chnrch movement in Mukyokai-shugi (Non-churchism)."25 Japan.26 He was not trying to destroy Upon Uchimura's return from America in conventional churches or say they were wrong 1888, several incidents revealed his new in their beliefs. He simply felt that conventional devotion to an independent Christianity. By the churches did not always meet everyone's needs. time of his return to Japan, the country had The goal for his Non-church movement was to changed. The country had become more meet the needs of people that the traditional nationalistic and the constitution was about to churches missed. Miura says of Uchimura's be ratified. These changes made what happened belief, "One man may be saved by joining the to Uchimura in the coming years important to church, but another may be saved by leaving it. Japan as well as himself. He took a position as a The important thing is to save people."27 He Uchimura Kanzo ,, 23 said that all of Earth's beauty was the church for hypocrisy, sectarian Christianity, and sterile the Non-church movement. Christians did not theology. In some ways Uchimura, while in need traditional Western-based denominational America, returned to the Japanese samurai support or church doctrine because nothing traditions of his father and grandfather and to a could match the beauty and order of the respect for value of Japanese culture. He never Japanese society. Ministers in the Non-church wavered from his Christian commitment movement are not ordained and they do not professed in the Covenant of Believers in Jesus, receive a salary. It remains customary today, as signed in 1876.29 He accepted Westem-style it was with Uchimura himself, that they hold a Christianity but rejected the Western culture separate profession and give their spare time to upon which sectarian Christianity rests. He the ministry of Christ. Since there are neither wrote "I love two J's and no third; one is Jesus, national organizations nor buildings for people and the other is Japan. I do not know which I to gather in, meetings and worship services are love more, Jesus or Japan. I am hated by my held in private homes or rented buildings.2s countrymen for Jesus' sake.., and I am disliked Uchimura Kanzo left Japan in 1884 to find by foreign missionaries for Japan's sake as his "golden nation of Christendom" in America national and narrow."3° His dual loves lead but ended up v lth a faith which alienated him him to "fuse Christian evangelization with from both Western missionaries and Japanese patriotic loyalty." This, according to historian nationalists. He found true faith thanks to his Raymond Jermings, "resulted in isolation from teacher and mentors, but he also found in both the main Christian group in Japan and America a society where there was bigotry, politically powerful Japanese."31

End Notes

1Uchimura Kanzo, How I Becamea Christian 13TaijiroYamamoto Yoichi Muto, 101. (Tokyo: The EihoshaLtd, 1977), 12. 14Ibid., 105. 2 Ibid., 14. lSWhether the man was in fact a deacon has In 1881 Yoshiyuki Kanzo was converted to been questioned by other authors. Jennings Christianity, four full years after his son's reports him to be a waiter posing to be a deacon. conversion. 6Ibid., 109. 4Sources differ on the actual number of 17Ibid., 119. Bibles. Some place it at 30 and others at 50. lSlbid., 118. 5Ibid., 21. IgIbid., 12i. SThere were 29 people in his class. 2°The spelling of the city was recorded as 7The Complete Works of Kanzo Uchimura,ed. both Elwyn and Elwin. Taijiro Yamamoto Yoichi Muto, vol.1, How I 21Norimichi Ebizawa, ed., Japanese Witnesses BecameA ChristianOut of My Diary (Tokyo: For Christ(New York: Association Press, 1957), Kyobunkwan, 1971), 26. 56. 8Ibid., 57. 22Examples of the influence freedom of 9Five volume set, Commentaryon the Gospel of individuals to come to their beliefs leaderless St. Mark, by Faber meetings, and meetings in home. 1°Raymond P. Jennings,Jesus Japan and 23Raymond P. Jennings,Jesus Japan and Kanzo Uchimura:A Study of the View of the Church Kanzo Uchimura:A Study of the View of the Church of Kanzo Uchimuraand its Significancefor Japanese of Kanzo Uchimuraand its Significancefor Japanese Christianity(Tokyo: Christian Literature Society, Christianity(Tokyo: Christian Literature Society, 1958), 19. 1958), 26-27. 11HiroshiMiura, TheLife and Thoughtof 24Miura, 33-34. Kanzo Uchimura(Grand Rapids, William B. 25Ibid., 34. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996), 29. 12Ibid. ,24- • The Wittenberg History Journal

26His was not the only Non-church a0 Raymond P. Jennings,JesusJapan and movement. Jennings identifies the Omi Kanzo Uchimura:A Study of the View of the Church Brotherhood and Y.M.C.A.!Y.W.C.A. as similar of Kanzo Uchimuraand its Significancefor Japanese groups. Christianity(Tokyo: Christian Literature Society, 27Miura, 108. 1958), 1. 28Ibid., 113. 31Ibid., 2. 29Uchimura Kanzo, How I Becamea Christian (Tokyo: The EihoshaLtd, 1977), 24.

Works Cited

Uchimura Kanzo. The Complete Works of Kanzo Jennings, Raymond P.,JesusJapan and Kanzo Uchimura. Edited by Taijiro Yamamoto Uchimura:A Studyof theView of theChurch of Yoichi Muto. Vnl. 1, Essays and Editorials. Kanzo Uchimuraand its Significancefor Tokyo: Kyobunkwan, 1971. Japanese Christianity.Tokyo: Christian Literature Society, 1958. Uchimura Kanzo. How I Became A Christian. Edited by Tsutomu Shigematsu and Kenji Miura, Hiroshi, The Life and Thoughtof Kanzo Nakajima. Tokyo: The Eihosha Ltd., 1977. Uchimura.Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996. Ebizawa, Norimichi, ed. Japanese WitnessesFor Christ. New York: Association Press, 1957. IrishRomantic Nationalism and the GermanMotive • 25

Irish Romantic Nationalism and the German Motive By EricaFornari WittenbergUniversity Class of 2004

On Monday, 24 April 1916 in Dublin, at IV, the first English pope of Norman descent, 12:15 p.m., Patrick Pearse, the commander of the granted lordship of Ireland to King Henry II. Irish rebel forces, led eight hundred men in a This reallocation of power from the Irish to the seizure of the Dublin Post Office and other English was the beginning of hundreds of years government buildings in the city. Several hours of fighting and bloodshed between the Irish and later, the Irish Provisional Committee declared the English in the Irish quest to regain the independence of Ireland. In the independence. The first rebellion of the modern Proclamation, the leaders of the Easter Rising age occurred in 1798 when The Society of the stated that the "the Irish Volunteers and the Irish United Irishmen, which evolved into several Citizen Army, having patiently perfected her revolutionary and violent secret societies whose discipline, having waited for the right moment policies were like "a terror that walketh by to reveal itself, she now seizes that moment, and night,"2 rose against the English with the supported by her exiled children in America and support of the French. The revolt was a disaster, by gallant allies in Europe, but relying in the first however, because radical Irishmen in the United on her own strength, she strikes in full States misled the French into believing that confidence of victory."1 The Irish leaders made Ireland was prepared and organized.3 it public that "allies in Europe" supported them The direct result of this revolt was The Act and it was known that these "allies" were the of Union in 1800 by Parliament, which Germans. But to what extent did the Germans supposedly marked the equality of Ireland in the really support the Irish? United Kingdom. To keep Ireland in order and The Proclamation affirms what evidence as part of their Empire, the English continued to suggested on the eve of the Easter Rising. Before issue acts and laws that attempted to keep the the Easter Rising, several interactions occurred people of Ireland from revolutionary motives, between Irish nationalists and German such as the Unlawful Drilling Act of 1819 and diplomats to secure support for an Irish Rising the Peace Preservation Act of 1881.4 The against English rule. The Irish attempted to blatant disregard for these English laws, in generate a battalion for Irish prisoners in addition to others, on the part of the Irish Germany to fight on the western front, and they became increasingly evident as Irish nationalist requested German arms and officers to assist the activity dramatically increased until the start of rebel cause in Ireland. To determine if the World War I and continued, often times very Germans acted in concordance with the publicly and without proper repercussions by widespread, nineteenth century European belief the Irish Government, until the Rising in late of self-determination of people and the right of April 1916. those people to realize nationalistic ideas, the The restrictive acts and laws led to the events of the Easter Rising became chief factors formation of two major types of nationalism: in exposing Germany's questionable motives for revolutionary and romantic. The revival of aiding the Irish in order to gain an advantage revolutionary nationalism came in 1848 as a toward a victory in World War I. series of revolts in response to the Great Famine. To understand the source of the Anglo-Irish In 1858, James Stephens organized these rebels conflict, it is necessary to understand its long and the remnants of the Untied Irishmen into history, which dates back to 1155. In an the IrishRepublican Brotherhood (IRB)and attempt to bring order to Ireland, Pope Adrian coined the term Sinn Fein. Sinn Fein refers to the 26 • The Wittenberg History Journal

movement of Irish nationalism, or "ourselves,"5 executive officers, that as long as all anti-British rather than a particular Irish association. In and antiwar feelings remained in the minority, 1842, Thomas Davis, a Protestant, and two nothing needed to be done to suppress the Catholics formed the Young Irelanders, an lawlessness of the Irish nationalists. Advanced influential romantic nationalist group, which rebel organization began to take root in advocated the revival of distinctive and September 1914 when the Irish Volunteers indigenous Irish culture by cultivating broke from the National Irish Volunteers nationalistic symbols and the national spirit.6 because "[they] have been in communication Eventually, the Irish Volunteers of 1914 would with the authorities in Germany and were for a incorporate the romantic ideas of the Young long time known to be supplied with money Irelanders into their beliefs. The old IRB and the through Irish-American societies." ° It also new Irish Volunteers adapted to the modern became public that the Irish Volunteers were anti-British and antiwar recruitment by adopting cooperating with the Irish Citizen Army, a a pro-German mentality. Both of these groups militant civil rights organization formed during printed openly seditious material in Ireland and the industrial strikes in 1913. As new nationalist the U.S. This began with the weekly groups began to form, the term Sinn Fein was newspaper, the Nation, started by Thomas Davis reworked and used to describe the people who in the 1840s, which attacked the "materialism of actively opposed the war and the recruitment of industrial and commercial England," and ignited Irishmen for the British army and navy. Some parts of the population to new nationalistic of the prominent Sinn Fein leaders were men feelings.7 who were also involved with the Irish The increasingly common pro-German Volunteers; one such man was Sir Roger feeling that existed among many Irishmen Casement, one of the twenty-eight founders of prompted seditious articles expressing Irish the new Irish Volunteers. desires for a German-Irish alliance in case of a Casement, a former British diplomat and war between Germany and England to appear in member of the Provisional Committee of the several Irish-American newspapers between Irish Volunteers chiefly responsible for seeking 1911 and 1914. According to Reinhard Doerries German aid during the Easter Rising in 1916, in his Prelude to the EasterRising, although the lived outside Europe where he could devote his Irish did not particularly wish for a German life work to exposing the atrocities committed victory in World War I, they hoped that against minorities, specifically in South America. Germany would severely weaken Britain's When he became too ill to travel, as his work colonial power. The Irish also believed that the demanded, he turned toward his native Ireland war was forced upon the Germans and that they and discovered the increasing conflict stood for "European Civilization at its best," as surrounding the Irish need for Home Rule from Sir Roger Casement, a major authority in the the English. The controversies in Ulster and the Easter Rising, termed it.s The mutual search for abuses of the Irish citizens by the English allies against Britain motivated both the Irish disturbed him, and the European politics in July and the Germans to seek support from each 1914 appalled him. As the war approached, other. Casement sailed to the United States, in rather As the threat of war in Europe amplified ill health, to lecture and raise funds so the Irish during 1914, so did the Irish hope for a free and Volunteers could fight for their freedom. independent Irish nation. In Ireland, Irish Upon arriving, he was introduced to John nationalists saw the European War as an Devoy, a successful propagandist, editor of The opportunity to take advantage of England's Gaelic American, and the influential Fenian leader diverted attention in France. At the beginning of of the Clan na Gael, a federation of clubs with 1914, several antiwar pamphlets, posters and strong influence in the U.S. In 1900, Devoy and demonstrations in Ireland proposed that Daniel Cohalan revived the Clan na Gael with "Irishmen... should not fight for the freedom the Feinian spirit. According to William of others until Ireland itself was free."9 It was Thompson in his Imaginationof an Insurrection, the belief of Ireland's upper classes and John Devoy was less than impressed with IrishRomantic Nationalism and the GermanMotive 27

Casement and had little confidence in his noticed that the Germans had begun to realize negotiating abilities; however, Devoy promised their failing hopes of using the unrest in Ireland. support for Ireland.11 Devoy became the chief Their main purpose was to tie down British agent in America for communications between troops in Ireland and to hinder British Germany and the nationalists in Ireland and recruitment through the successful formation introduced Casement to a number of other and publicity of an Irish Brigade in Germany.16 influential members of the Clan na Gael, In extremely poor health, Casement attempted including Judge Daniei F. Cohalan, an American- to persuade Irish prisoners to fight against the born lawyer and New York machine politician English, but the poor conditions of the German who would also serve as an international contact prison camps created a widespread disdain for for Casement.12 the Germans and hindered many Irish prisoners The first record of Irish-American talks with from cooperating with Casement and the Germany date back to 1907 and since then, the Germans.17 Therefore, in a failed attempt, Irish-Americans have "maintained a continuous Casement could only convince a few more than attack on anything that might suggest Anglo- fifty men to join the proposed Irish Brigade, American friendship.'a3 The first meeting after which the Germans repeatedly tried to send into Casement's arrival in the United States occurred Egypt to fight. Casement's usefulness to the on 24 August 1914, when Irish representatives, Germans dissolved, however, when he insisted through the Clan na Gael, met with German that the IrishBrigade would only fight for Irish Ambassador Bemstroff to ask Germany to nationality in Ireland or with the Germans support the Irish by sending arms and officers to against the English on the western front and not Ireland. At the meeting, "the Irish simply as shields for German soldiers.18 Robert representatives quite clearly stated their Monteith, the Irish Volunteer organizer sent to purpose, namely to use the opportunity of the Germany to help recruit and lead the Irish European war to overthrow British rule in prisoners, had marginal luck arranging the Ireland."14 To Berlin, Ambassador Bemstroff prisoners, but the prisoners' unenthusiastic promoted the product of the meeting, which attitudes prevented the skill and number of Irish was the German declaration of support for the Brigade from improving. After the obvious Irish Irish, because he believed that since no failure at satisfying the German need, the reconciliation with England was probable, it Germans began taking steps to rid themselves of would be beneficial to honor the Irish requests. the Irish Brigade and Casement as quickly as Since Germany's generosity toward Ireland was possible. second to her clashing Anglo-German relations, Along with the failed idea of the Irish it became obvious that Germany was more Brigade, Casement's grandiose idea of achieving concerned about her international image, monetary and material support, in the form of especially in the U.S., than the nationalism and Germans arms and troops to Ireland, to help the self-determination of peoples for which she Irish Volunteers also failed. He believed that the claimed to be fighting in World War I. Irish Volunteers could not succeed without the In October 1914, Casement left the US for help of at least 50,000 German troops, but "to Germany in order to raise an Irish Brigade from expect that soldiers could slip through the tight •the Irish prisoners of war in Germany to fight British naval block was unrealistic.., and no the English. After he arrived in Berlin, his initial troops were sent."19 The German disinclination view of the Germans was expressed in a to help the Irish became even more apparent in transmission from the Foreign Office in Berlin, the early spring of 1915, and when Casement supervised by Secretary of State, Roger realized the complete failure of his attempts, he Zimmerman, to Justice David F. Cohalan that, decided to return to Ireland to stop the "here everything is favorable: authority helping insurrection. Unfortunately, his return to Ireland warmly,"15 but the friendly sentiment that would not end with his desired outcome. Casement encountered would not last long. Accompanied by Monteith, he left Germany in a Casement was unable to develop any close ties submarine on 12 April after a delayed start. with the Germans because after his arrival he They made a submarine change on 15 April due 28 * The Wittenberg History Journal

to mechanical failures, and they arrived at a bay the ship since the ship arrived a day early and at Kerry on 21 April. British officiais, however, the English quickly discovered it. Reinhard were ready and waiting to arrest Casement. Doerries and the British Parliamentary Papers Although Casement's mission was to return to claim that the English sank the ship upon Ireland to call off the insurrection, he readily discovery, but William Thompson believes that admitted guilt and was eventually hanged in the captain of the Aud sank the ship himself to August 1916, a fate that might have been prevent the arms aboard from falling into the avoided providing a more solid communication hands of the English.24 The discovery of the among all the men involved. Devoy made many ship, however, does not seem to be just of the communication errors that would cripple coincidence. As the ship departed for Ireland on Casement's retum to Ireland and eventually either 17 April or 18 April, American officials haunt the failure of the Easter Rising.2° seized Wolf von Igei's office at 60, Wall Street, On 10 February, Devoy decided that he New York. His office posed as an advertising agency but Germans and Irish-Americans used it could not rely on Casement to secure support for the Rising. At the wishes of the Irish for undercover operations. Official papers taken Republican Brotherhood in Ireland, he wrote a from the office proved relations between the letter to Berlin explaining that "Our enemies Kaiser's representatives in the U.S. and the "Irish cannot allow us much more time. The arrest of Plotters" that threatened the security of the US our leaders would hamper us severely."21 He and Britain. 25 Alan Ward claims in his book, also requested that arms, munitions and officers The EasterRising: Revolution and IrishNationalism, be delivered to Limerickon 21 April or 22 April that although the U.S. discovered evidence of and that Casement should stay in Germany as the future Irish Rising, the British Government "Ireland's accredited Representative."22 On 4 already knew of the plot and had already March, the Germans responded by agreeing to captured Roger Casement and the Aud.26 send some arms but no officers to Tralee Bay, William Thompson, however, suggests the sometime between 20 April and 23 April opposite by claiming that, "the German code because they still had hopes of distracting the had been cracked and a warning of the dispatch English. Although this was less than Devoy had of the consignment had been sent to the hoped, he accepted the offer and made Admiralty on April 17, 1916,"27 by U.S. officials. arrangements to dispatch the Aud, which would Whether the U.S. provided the British with pose as a Norwegian freighter and carry the unknown information about the German ship or arms to Tralee Bay on 23 April. When not, is irrelevant since the fact remains that the Casement discovered Devoy's betrayal, he tried U.S. informed the British of Irish and German to warn the leaders of the Rising in Ireland that cooperation, which violated their neutrality. the Easter Rising could not succeed. Casement In addition to the communication problems was in favor of arms from Germany, but he also between Casement and Devoy and the U.S. and realized that a full scale rising as the Irish Britain, the leaders of the Rising could not even Volunteers were planning could not be communicate amongst themselves. Conse- accomplished without a strong military cover quently, the organization and the number of from Germany. His attempts to warn the Irish men needed on 24 April was not what it could Volunteers also failed because the Germans have been. Patrick Pearse, another leader of the prevented Casement's letters and messengers Irish Volunteers and commander of the rebel from reaching Ireland. The Germans need the forces, planned the insurrection without Irish to create a distraction, which is why they notifying Eoin MacNeill, a leader of the Rising still sent arms to Ireland after they realized the who urged the formation of the Irish Volunteers Irish could not satisfy their larger plans, and they in 1913. MacNeill was violently opposed to the could not allow anything to interfere with the insurrection and vowed to do everything in his power to stop it without notifying the British. A Rising, especially Casement. When the Aud arrived at Tralee Bay (some week before Easter, however, the other leaders sources claim that it landed at the bay at Cork)z3 convinced MacNeill to rejoin the insurrection by on 22 April, no rebels were present to intercept presenting him with a forged document "that IrishRomantic Nationalism and the GermanMotive o 29

outlined the British preparations to round up all international appearance, especially to the U.S. nationalist leaders and suppress the The Germans only wanted to provide a little Volunteers."28 As soon as he heard of the confrontation with England so they could say sinking of the Aud and the capture of Casement that they promoted Irish nationalism, and then on Easter Saturday, 23 April, MacNeili again they could become removed from the whole gave Pearse and the other leaders the impression matter. This is evident through Germany's that he no longer wanted to fulfill his duties as treatment of Casement, its unwillingness to send Chief of Staff of the Volunteers. In accordance adequate aid to the Irish Volunteers, and its with this, and without informing the leaders, he eventual lack of interest in the insurrection. No made an announcement to the press matter how involved Germany was with the countermanding the Easter parades, which were Irish Volunteers, according to the English, to be the beginning of the insurrection the "Germany plotted [the Rising], Germany following morning. The mistakes made by the organized it, Germany paid for it,"32 and this Irish gave the Easter Rising its identity because shows an outside view on the conniving motives they were part of the "romantic Fenian of the German invoDement in the Easter Rising. muddle...namely that [the Rising] had taken on Despite the fact that Casement was unable to a symbolic, not a military purpose; that it was reach Ireiand, the Rising continued without not expected to succeed; that it was expected Germany's help. only to happen."29 The Easter Rising that broke out on 24 April Although the Rising was not successful, it 1916, ended one week later with the surrender inspired the people of Ireland to continue to of the Irish Volunteers on i May 1916. The fight againstEnglish Rule in 1919. Immediately climax of the Rebellion was the seizure of the following the Rising, however, the leaders General Post Office in the initial attack on 24 condemned to death and the citizens active April. All of the German cooperation for the against English rule maintained a continued Easter Rising was organized through the IRB in disillusionment that Germany had, in fact, tried Ireland and the Clan na Gael in the U.S., all means available to help the Irish Volunteers including a German attack on England to distract fight for a break from Englishrule. The night the English from the attack in Dublin, which before his execution, Patrick Pearse said "the consisted of Zeppelin raids 24 and 25 April and a help I expected from Germany failed; the British naval raid on 25 April. Because of sunk the ships."3° Pearse, like most of the miscommunication and confusion, the leaders of the Easter Rising, believed to his dying combined total of all Irish Volunteers that fought moment, which was not long after the Rising, the week of the Rising was a pitiful 1,200 as that the Germans were as helpful as they could opposed to the 16,000 men that belonged to the have been. Irish Volunteers. By the end of the Easter Rising Only Sir Roger Casement realized the 450 people had been killed,2,614 were German Government's failure to follow through wounded and fifteen men were sentenced to on their promise to extend material support to death. By Christmas, however, all the leaders of the Irish Volunteers. He felt betrayed by Devoy, the Rising had been executed and interest in the •who went behind his back to negotiate with Rising was lost. Therefore, all prisoners taken Germany, by the other leaders of the Irish during the Rising were released. Volunteers, who could not agree on the plans for The need for Germany to promote its self- the Rising, and by Germany, who backed away image was much greater than maintaining its from supporting the Irish as the Easter Rising pledge to help the Irishfight for nationalismand grew closer. In his diary, which he left to a close because of this need it was probable that friend, he said "[Germany] want[s] to get rid of Germany would never fully supply the Irish. the whole thing at the cheapest cost to Germany's interest in its own image forced the themselves.., the German Government washes sacrifices of the Easter Rising solely on the Irish. its hands of all responsibility."31 Casement Every man who fought for Irish nationalism became increasingly aware of the fact that during Easter week knew he was sacrificing Germany was concerned solely with its himself for Ireland. This feeling was part of a 30 • The Wittenberg History Journal

Romantic Nationalist view held by the Irish themselves for Ireland and by their example, to Revolutionary leaders. While the leaders of the inspire their countrymen." 4 As the leaders Rising, especially Pearse, were revolutionary in made their "blood sacrifices," they successfully their approach to Home Rule, they held a inspired their compatriots to continue fighting romantic view of the Rising. They believed in for Home Rule, which eventually required the mystical vision of sacrifice and the idea that independence from England, and they removed the revival of the Irish nation could only happen immediate attention from Germany's with the overthrow of English imperialism,s3 questionable motives and involvement. To them, war was an opportunity to make German intervention in Ireland during the Easter blood sacrifices. As Ward states, "Pearse did not Rising proves that "nations have no friends, only anticipate a military victory in a rising. Indeed, a interests," and, in the end, only Casement victory would come from not surviving. Pearse understood this principle. and his colleagues planned to sacrifice

End Notes

1 Sean Murray, The IrishRevolt- t916 and 12Ward, 72. After (London: Communist Party of Great 13Ward, 68. Britain,[1936]), 2. 14Doerries, 3. 2 George Dangerfield, The Damnable 15 The Irish Uprising,36. Question: a study in Anglo-IrishRelations (Boston: 16 Doerries, 12. Little and Brown, 1976), 9. 17 Doerries, 12. 3 Alan Ward, The EasterRising: Revolution and 18 The Irish Uprising,45. Irish Nationalism(Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan 19 Thompson, 92. Davidson, Inc., 1980), 61. 2o For more information see Doerries, 4 The Irish Uprisingt914-1921: Papers from the Thompson, and The Irish Uprising. BritishParliamentary Archive (London: The 2I The Irish Uprising,55-56. Stationery Office, 2000), 79-80. 22 Doerries, 17. 5 Dangerfield 23 Thompson, 93. 6 Ward, 56. 24 Thompson, 93. 7 Ward, 57. 25 The Irish Uprising,62. 8 Reinhard R. Doerries, Prelude to the Easter 26Ward, 107. Rising: Sir Roger Casementin ImperialGermany 27 Thompson, 93. (London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2000), 4. 28 Thompson, 95. 9 Ward, 3. 29Dangerfield, 169. o The Irish Uprising, t914-1921: papers from so The Irish Uprising,69. the BritishParliamentary Archive (London: The 31Dangerfield, 166. Stationery Office, 2000), 86. 32 Ward, 10. 11William Irwin Thompson, The Imagination a3 Ward, 61. of an Insurrection,Dublin, Easter,1916: a study of 34Ward, 103. an ideological movement(New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 92. IrishRomantic Nationalism and the GermanMotive o 3 t

Works Cited

Dangerfield, George. The Damnable Question: a Murray, Sean. The Irish Revolts1916 and After. study in Anglo-Irish relations.Boston: Little London: Communist Party of Great Britain, and Brown, 1976.

Doerries, Reinhard R. Preludeto theEaster Rising: Thompson, William Irwin. The Imaginationof an Sir Roger Casementin ImperialGermany. Insurrection,Dublin, Easter, 1916: a study of an London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2000. ideologicalmovement. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967. Irish Uprising, 1914-192f: Papers from the British ParliamentaryArchive. London: Her Majesty's Ward, Alan J. The EasterRising: Revolution and Stationary Office, 2000. IrishNationalism. Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davison, Inc., 1980. 32 • The Wittenberg History Journal

The Battle of Blair Mountain: Remembering the Story That Got "Left Out" by KristenBaughman WittenbergUniversity Class of 2002

Deep in the southern West Virginia significant event in American history. However, coalfields, along the high ridges and steep this is one battle, in one war that is all too easily valleys, trouble was brewing. Thousands of forgotten. Meador adds, "today, almost angry, armed men were gathering, getting ready unbelievably, this war is nearly forgotten. There to make their voices heard. They poured in by is not even a roadside marker to commemorate train, on foot-however they could get there-in the mine war known variously as the Battle of support of their fellow miners that had dared to Blair Mountain, the Miner's March, or the Red walk out and strike against their employers. Neck War." 1 The fact that this story has been This time, surely, they could not be ignored; this "left out" of the history books is a common time, surely, they would succeed. theme among those few who do re-tell this The scene described above did indeed take story. place in the southern West Virginia coalfields. David Corbin, an author on the subject of The year was 1921 and these men were fighting West Virginia Mine Wars, compiled an to unionize their mines. This event, referred to anthology of primary sources collected from as the Battle of Blair Mountain, is part of West newspapers, magazines, and interviews, so that Virginia's "mine wars," a struggle that the story could be heard as the people of the encompassed many different groups of people in time experienced it. In his introduction to this several locations over the course of a decade. collection, Corbin comments on his motivation Unfortunately, it is a story that is often for making sure this story is heard: overlooked in the narrative of West Virginia state history. However, it is important for the "When we were told of the importance of West Virginia held m relation to tb_erest people of the southern West Virginia coalfields of the nation, we were not informed of the to hear this story that gets "left out," as it is a fact that our coal heated its homes, fueled its source of pride and an example of the courage it industries, and powered its battleships for takes to make a stand against entrenched decades. Nor were we told of the thousands economic and social systems that provide for the of West Virginians who died getting that interests of a select powerful few and overlook coal out of the ground. We were not told of the struggle these people underwent for safer the needs of the masses. working conditions and a better standard of According to an article by Michael M. living; that is the struggle for their union."2 Meador, during the Battle of Blair Mountain "as many as 15, 000 men were involved, an Clearly there was a gap in Corbin's educational unknown number were killed or wounded, experience on the history of West Virginia and bombs were dropped, trains were stolen, stores he wishes to make sure others are aware that were plundered, a county was invaded and these events took place. One could say that another under siege. The President had to send Corbin may have just had poor teachers, who in Federal troops, the United Mine Workers of merely skipped over this incident without much America was fighting for its life..." In early thought. However, the fact that his sentiment is 1981 the site of the Battle of Blair Mountain, echoed in so many other voices shows that this located on West Virginia Route 17 between Blair is most likely not the case. Many native West and Ethel, was placed on the National Register Virginians who discover this missing piece of of Historic Places, certifying that this was a their heritage later on in life feel betrayed by its TheBanle of BlairMountain • 33 omission and feel that there are deeper causes conversations explaining the plight of the people behind its getting "left out" of the history books. living in the region. They felt it was very I first encountered the story of the West important to share this story with the group of Virginia Mine Wars and the Battle of Blair people I was with, many out-of-staters, but also Mountain in a college literature class. We read some West Virginia natives-most of who had the novel Storming Heaven written in 1987 by never heard of it. Larry Gibson related: Denise Giardina, which is a fictional account of the West Virginia mine wars. Although the My people are oppressed people . . . and they didn't get there by thereself. It took storyline revolves around fictional characters almost two hundred years to get these and plot, it is a well-researched portrayal of the people to here. This is a testing ground for events going on the southern West Virginia and the coal companies, man, I'm gorma tell you Eastern Kentucky coalfields in the early part of something. Everything they tried in the the twentieth century. A review of Giardina's coalfields, they tried it here first. I been novel, states that the author herself had grown raised in the coalfields all my life. They have little to no resistance here.4 up in the West Virginia coalfields and, "incredibly, she never heard the story of The Gibson was telling the story of the Battle of Blair Battle of Blair Mountain in her mandatory West Mountain because it was an example of those Virginia history class in eighth grade, nor in her who did stand up to the system. They were college-level class that was a prerequisite for a people trapped by the practices of the coal history degree."3 Giardina has captured a great companies who tried to resist them and make a method of introducing the plight and struggles change. In his eyes the people of the southern of the miners of southern West Virginia and West Virginia coalfields are still trapped, and eastern Kentucky to the larger public. Historians must look to their brave counterparts of the past and authors such as Corbin and Giardina, along as a model of grass roots power and strength. with many others who are active in West This "story worth retelling," as Corbin Virginia heritage and politics, want the public states, "is not always a pretty one. It isn't not only to hear this story, but take it to heart always the happy story. But it is history-West and consider what it means to the larger picture Virginia's real history. It is a story of a people of history and how it may even affect current struggling for a better way of life."5 Their way issues in the state of West Virginia. of life was an existence dominated by King My second experience hearing about the Coal." The straggle was a fight against the West Virginia mine wars, specifically the Battle economic and social conditions they were forced of Blair Mountain, occurred just this past to live under as a result of the power of the summer on a trip to the West Virginia coalfields demand for that precious natural resource. Goal to collect some oral histories from people whose is found in fifty-three of the fifty-five counties in homes had been devastated by flooding. There West Virginia. Approximately thirty-five of we met activists worldng to stop mountaintop these counties have mined or are currently removal, the method by which many coal mining coal. An astounding estimate of the companies are now extracting coal from the minable coal available in the state of West mountains. This method is devastating to the Virginia came to 117 billion tons when mining environment and is a major factor exacerbating first began in this region in the nineteenth the floods. We spoke with Judy Bonds of the century. With about 100 billion tons remaining Coal River Mountain Watch, an activist group today, and at today's current rate of production, working to stop mountaintop removal, and estimates show that five hundred years of coal Larry Gibson, a man who lives by himself atop production are left.5 To a nation of consumers, Keyford Mountain protecting his property, especially during the period of heavy worth over a million dollars an acre, from industrialization of the late nineteenth and early destruction by the coal companies who want to twentieth centuries, West Virginia's abundant add it to their mountaintop removal area. natural resources, most importantly its rich coal Interestingly, both of these people made seams, made it a prime destination for those reference to the Battle of Blair Mountain in with the means to extract to them. 34 " The Wittenberg History Journal

Thereby, the economic system of the state George Echols was a union man, president of his of West Virginia became virtually dependent on local chapter, and according to him it was for the production of coal. Under this system, the this he was discharged from the mine, under the coal companies came to control almost every pretenses of many other excuses, of course• His aspect of the miners' lives• They owned the sentiments were a common theme among the land, the houses in which the miners lived, the coal workers of this era-the tip of the iceberg of stores from which the miners bought their complaints against the coal companies. Telling goods, the schools that their children attended, of the severity of the miners' situation and their and on and on. The coal companies devised feelings of being trapped in a system from ways to keep the miners perpetually tied to the which there is no escape, he also stated, "there company and their jobs. They would pay them are some things that we can not stand for. I was in scrip, currency redeemable only at the raised a slave. My master and my mistress company store. From that company store, they called me and I answered, and I know the time were made to buy or rent their own tools for when I was a slave, and I felt just like we feel extracting the company's coal, and to pay high now." 8 prices for goods necessary for everyday living. Many coal workers felt that one solution to The miners were paid by the ton for the amount this problem of maltreatment by the coal of coal they produced and the companies often companies was to unionize. The United Mine found ways to underpay the miners, such as Workers of America (UMWA) formed on through the use of inaccurate scales, a practice January 25, 1890 in Columbus, Ohio under the referred to as cribbing. Young boys were often leadership of John Mitchell, first president, who employed, working just as hard and long as worked to abolish child labor and establish an grown men. All the miners were in great eight-hour workday. The UMWA achieved physical danger while employed in the mines, many of its goals between 1920-1960, including either from immediate threats such as roof falls the aforementioned, along with national wage and explosions, or by long-term illness such as agreements and safety legislation, under the black lung disease. Living conditions in leadership of John L. Lewis. The first success of company towns and houses were often dirty, the UMWA in West Virginiacame in 1902 when noisy, unsanitary, and generally sub-standard. it received some recognition in the Kanawha- A September 1921 interview of an African- New River Coalfield. However, the response by American man named George Echols, expressed the coal operators was to form the Kanawha some of these tactics used by the coal County Coal Operators Association in 1903, companies to cheat the workers as the reason he hiring detectives from the Baldwin-Felts had gotten involved in the strike. He stated: Detective Agency in Bluefield, WV. The job of these detectives was to harass union organizers. They promised to pay us by the ton but they These company "thugs," as the detectives were don't do it. They promised according to often called, were much feared and hated by whatever the coal is to pay us by the ton, and we want them to put it on the scales. mine workers. 9 As Harold West reported to the All they do is say that is too much and we Baltimore Sun in 1913, "No class of men on have to take it. We feel we want to give and earth are more cordially hated by the miners take, and we want them to measure it for us, than these same mine guards who are engaged that is, weigh it, and we are paid whatever to 'protect' them from annoyances by they like to pay us or feel like paying us, and outsiders."1° This hatred was escalated by their they give it out at the office, they give us the balance• We pay for the lights and the fuel fondness for brutality. As West reports: and then the supplies, and whatever they say at the office, they give us the balance. We •.. a number [of guards] have been indicted always felt that we ought to have the coal for offenses ranging from common weighed. I have loaded coal when I got assault to murder• In every case, however, $1.25 a car, and if we had the scales there I bail has been ready and it is rare that charges would get as much as $4•00 a car] against them have been brought to trial. Some of these assault cases in which they The Battle of Blair Mountain * 35

rarely has any serious trouble resulted for the company stores, a nine-hour work day, and guards.11 some others, yet they still did not achieve their goal of gaining the right to organize. This Due to the threats of these men, the UMWA uprising created several ieaders who figure had lost much ground in southern West Virginia prominently into later struggles of the mine by 1912, leading up to the first of the "mine wars including "Mother" Jones, an elderly wars" along Paint and Cabin Creeks. Miners woman who was an activist and vocal speaker along these two creeks got together and walked for the UMWA, and Fred Mooney who became off the job on 18 April 1921 creatinga list of president of the UMWA District 17. Following demands that included: these first violent strikes, things were relatively The right to organize, recognition df their peaceful for the next six years; the coal boom constitutional rights to free speech ,and created by World War I had raised wages. assembly, an end to blacklisting union However, following the war in 1919 the country organizers, alternatives to company stores, went into a recession and coal operators laid off an end to the practice of using mine guards, miners and tried to reduce wages in order to cut prohibition of cribbing, installation of scales costs. This led, once again, to unrest in the at all mines for accurately weighing coal, unions be allowed to hire their own coalfields, especially in Logan and Mingo checkweighmen to make sure the counties, the largest non-unionized coal region companies' checkweighrnen were not in the eastern United States.15 cheating the miners,l Wary of what had happened in the 1912- 1913 strikes, coal operators in southern West Then began a strike that would last over a year, Virginia had strengthened their means of in which both sides committed acts of violence. resisting labor force unrest. They built up police Probably the most famous of these occurred on forces with men supplied by the coal companies 7 February 1913 when the "Bull Moose Special," who would support and defend their wishes. As an armored train led by the sheriff of Kanawha Heber Blankenhom reported to The Nation in County, Bonnet Hill, and Quirt Morton, a coal 1921, "It is public record that the recruits for the operator, made its way through a striker's tent state constabulary were picked from lists colony at Holly Grove on Paint Creek. Mine provided by the coal operators."16 In Logan guards riding the train opened fire, killing striker County, Don Chafin was sheriff and was paid Cesco Estep. A battle lasting for several hours by coal companies to keep union organizers out ensued as the miners, in retaliation, attacked a of the region. He also hired deputies who mine guard encampment, in which at least would aid him in this task. Arthur Gleason sixteen people were killed, most of whom were reported in 1920: mine guards.13 A ballad written by Waiter Seacrist (one of many to write songs about this The coal operators maintain on their pay- labor struggle), tells of the murder of Estep from rolls public officials who preserve order, the perspective of his now-fatherless child: "We guard the company funds, and keep union were oh so happy. We were so wondrous blest. men out of the county. The operators pay directly to the sheriff $32,700 a year for this The Union issued a strike call. Dad came out immunity from unionization. In addition -with the rest. To better his condition, that he most of them pay the individual armed might not be a slave. That they might have a guard salary. These agents of the company Union, and get a living wage."14 Indeed the are deputy sheriffs, appointed by court. The miners did feel like slaves to the coal companies, insider who operates this system is Don just as George Echols who had actually begun Cbafin, county clerk and running for sheriff.17 life as a real slave, attested to almost a decade after this song was written. This is supported by a statement from J. M. The struggle on Paint and Cabin Creeks Vest, president and manager of the Rum lasted until July 1913. Some of the positive Creek Crollieries Company, "Our income is gains made by miners included the removal of approximately $100,000 a year. And of the Baldwin-Felts detectives from Paint and Cabin money perhaps $30,000 is contributed to the Creeks, the right to shop in stores other than 36 o The Wittenberg History JournaI sheriff for police protection."is According to engaged in the present bloody struggIe."22 It Gleason's calculations, "Actually it is one-third was common practice at this time for coal of a cent on every ton [of coal] which the companies to make the miners sign "yellow consuming public of America pays to Don dog" contracts before they would be hired. Chafin.'a9 Working against such strong forces as These contracts forced them to agree not to be those amassed by Don Chafin, dissatisfied involved in any union activity. A sample miners had a hard road ahead of them to make contract from the time reads: their voices heard. The next major event of the mine wars If at any time I want to join or become connected with the United Mine Workers of took place in May 1920 at Matewan, West America, or affiliated organization, I agree to Virginia. Earlier that year operators lowered withdraw from said company, and I further wages in the southern coalfields. To compound agree that while I am in the employ of said problems, the U.S. Coal Commission granted a Company that I will not make any efforts wage increase to union miners, which excluded amongst its employees to bring about the unionization of said employees against the many miners in southwestern West Virginia. companies wishes.23 These non-union men struck in the spring of 1920. On 6 May 1920 FredMooney and Bill If an employee dared join the union, he would Blizzard, officials of the UMWA, gave a speech have been fired and blacklisted. In most cases, in Matewan to about 3,000 miners. About half once a miner was terminated he was also of them joined and were promptly evicted from evicted from his home, due to the fact that most company owned houses on 19 May when miners lived in company owned houses. Upon Baldwin-Felts detectives arrived on the scene. his visit, Gleason noted a sign in the window of The Matewan police chief, Sid Hatfield, the Stone Mountain Coal Company grocery encouraged the residents to arm themselves. store stating "that the houses of the miners were When Albert and Lee Felts attempted to arrest owned by the company, and that the miners Hatfield gunfire erupted, leaving seven must leave the premises at once if they join the detectives and four townspeople dead, including union."24 It was because of this fact that the the mayor C.C. Testorman.2° This event was miners and their families were forced to set up made into the popular 1996 film Matewan, makeshift tent towns in which to live during the written and directed by John Sayles, which strike. George Echols, the man who felt like a provides an accurate portrayal of what took slave to the coal companies, had been abiding in place, as well as the fierce attitudes and one of these tent towns for four to five months hostilities that were held among those involved- at the time of his interview. hostilities that were only growing as unrest Company officials made no efforts to hide continued without solution. their disapproval of unionization in the mines. Gleason's 1920 article, written after a visit to George M. Jones, general manager of the the West Virginia coalfields to assess the Lundale Coal Company, Three Forks Coal situation at Matewan, eerily foreshadows the Company, and the Amherst Coal Company, events that were about to take place within the was quoted in Gleason's article saying, "The next year. He states, "The fight in Mingo principal point of this whole controversy is the [County, location of Matewan] is mild .question of union or non-union in Logan. We compared with that about to explode in Logan oppose the unionization of the Guyan coalfield. [County, location of Blair Mountain], which is We are against the union and expect to do under control of the coal companies."2t The coal everything in our power to prevent its coming to companies did not want their employees to join our miners."25 With viewpoints regarding the the union. According to Gleason's article "there matter of unionization being so polarized are 91,000 persons in West Virginia employed in between coal company officials and the miners, and around mines. Of these 54,000 are a clash such as what was about to occur at the organized in the United Mine Workers of Battle of Blair Mountain was inevitable. America. For possession of the unorganized 37,000, the coal operators and the union are The Battleof BlairMountain o 37

On 1 August 1921 Sid Hatfield went to trial for This left agitated miners to make their way his actions in the incident at Matewan and was home with the intention of gathering weapons acquitted. However, as he along with his fellow for an armed march into Logan County. On 20 defendant, Ed Chambers, walked up the August 1921 six hundred armed men gathered at courthouse steps in Welch, WV they were both Lens Creek near Marmet in Kanawha County. shot down-murdered by Baldwin-Felts agentsY This mass kept growing until it had reached This was the powder keg that set the miners in 7,000 to 8,000 by 23 August.s° The goal was to motion. Calls to action were heard all across the march 65 miles southwest to Logan town. As region; the miners began gathering to start a Lee states: march to fight for the rights that they felt had The avowed purpose of the marchers, as been taken away from them by the coal testified by some of the participants, were to companies. As Echols stated, "We claim to be hang Don Chafin in the courthouse yard in citizens of the United States and we ask for the Logan; overthrow martial law in Mingo rights of citizenship; we claim to be loyal to our County and liberate all strikers and union country, and we are loyal to our country, and all organizers held in jail; and unionize all we ask is that we shall have our rights."27 Even miners in both Logan and Mingo counties,sl the Communist Party of America (a supporter of Curiously, at this point, Mother Jones who had the UMWA, giving the capitalistic mine owners so riled the men on the Statehouse lawn, began even greater reason to hate its presence) printed urging the miners not to go ahead with the a newsletter calling for support of making a march. Upon finding out that those in charge of stand against coal company power: "Fellow the movement would be arrested and charged workers! Act before it is too late! A defeat at with treason, she read a telegram, said to have Mingo will go a long way toward driving the been sent to her by the President, ordering the whole American working class into lower miners to give up or Federal troops would be wages, longer hours, and endless drudgery... sent in. This was proven to be a phony telegram On with the struggle! On to victoryV2s At the and, therefore, Mother Jones lost all influence end of August 1921 hundreds and then over the miners and left West Virginia for good. thousands of men began to gather, hopeful that The question was raised that perhaps Jones had victory would be won and changes in the done this because she had been paid of by coal system created by "King Coal" would be operators in order to stop the march. However, achieved. in 1962 Frank Keeney himself told Lee, "No, On 7 August 1921 Frank Keeney, president mother Jones never took money from the of UMWA District 17, called on miners to meet operators. At that time she was 91 years old, on the State Capital grounds in order to get an and age had quenched much of the fighting uprising underway. Howard B. Lee, author of spirit that characterized her earlier years."s In one of the earliest and most definitive works on spite of Mother Jones' tactics, the miners would the WV mine wars, was a first-hand observer of not be daunted in their pursuit of overtaking this day's events. He writes that the crowd was Logan and the march proceeded. estimated to be around 5,000 and Keeney Once Chafin got wind of what was coming brought in "Old Mother" Jones, hero of the Paint his way he began gathering recruits to fight and Cabin Creek mine wars of the early teens, against the angry miners, even to the point of to speak before those gathered. Mother Jones promising prisoners in the county jail release in was about 91 years old at this point, and Lee return for their fighting. However, some states: prisoners believed in the union cause and did For nearly and hour that fouI-mouthed, not want to help. Chafin resorted to threatening vuigar, profane, old agitator harangued the murder to make some of the men join his side. mob. She assailed Governor E. F. Morgan as Prisoner Floyd Greggs, in an affidavit filed with a 'tool of the goddamned coal operators,' and the U.S. Senate Kenyon Committee (a inflamed the miners with stories of atrocities committee formed after the Battle of Blair inflicted by mine guards upon workers in Mountain to investigate what went on), stated Logan and Mingo Counties, most of which were pure fabrications. 29 38 ° The Wittenberg History Journal

that Chafln put a pistol in his face and said, marchers even stoie a train just before reaching "You v fll either fight or die."83 Chafin's army the Boone-Logan County borders in order to eventually totaled 3,000, supported by 150 State speed up the joumey. A blurry photograph police.34 taken of those riding this train to the foot of Although smaller than the miners' army that Blair Mountain shows men stacked practically was presently marching into his territory, by all on top of one another, hanging out of the tops accounts Chafin's men were clearly more of coal cars, and sitting with legs dangling over adequately armed. the sides of flatbed cars.39 As the men began to Blair Mountain divides Logan County into gather at the base of Blair Mountain they came two unequal parts. The smaller section, to the up with a system to show that they were northeast of Blair Mountain is drained by the supporters of the union. They would wear red Little Coal River, which flows northeast to the handkerchiefs around their necks, after which Kanawha River. The mines m this area, which they were called "Red Necks," and hence, the borders Boone County, were mostly unionized. reason that the Battle of Blair Mountain is often The larger section, to the southwest of Blair referred to as the "Red Neck War." Many report Mountain, is drained by the Guyandotte River, that this is the first use of the term "redneck" which flows northeast toward Huntington. This and at the time the name simply referred to area, bordering Mingo County and containing these men who were radical enough to take a mostly non-union mines, was Chafin's stand. Today the word redneck is used quite stronghold. Marching from Marmet in Kanawha commonly and has taken on the connotation of County to reach Logan town in Logan County, someone who is an uneducated hillbilly.4° It the miners first had to cross Blair Mountain (See seems ironic that one of the lasting impressions Figure 1).s5 Chafin's men were the first to reach from this all but forgotten event is a word that is the crest of Bait Mountain, where they dug in often applied negatively toward the people of a along a fifteen mile stretch and waited for the state whose ancestors so courageously coined it. miners' attack. Meanwhile, West Virginia Governor E.F. It was not just miners who were gathering to Morgan was busy working on a solution to the fight Chafin and his men. Early Ball was a problem growing just south of his capital city. schoolteacher along Hewett Creek in 1921. He An article published in the Independent on 17 had been recruited to lead a group of men over September i921, states, "Morgan had the mountain at Crooked Creek Gap due to the acknowledged the inability of the state fact that he knew every crook and turn that constabulary to deal adequately with the mountain." 86 He states; "Of course, I aimed to situation."41 Therefore, he called on the United be neutral in the case. To tell the truth, my States President, Warren Harding for help. On sympathy was with the miners; still I was not a 30 August, President Harding issued a miner, I was a schoolteacher."87 Similarly, he proclamation "calling upon the armed marchers. recalls that many of the other men who were •. to disperse and return to their homes by noon marching toward Blair Mountain were not just of September 1."42 This too failed to stop the miners: "There were men come up there from miners and various guerilla battles continued to every walk of life-doctors, lawyers, people that be fought at the base of Blair Mountain• The run drugstores and got out of there and took to miners had weapons stockpiled everywhere in the hills with high-powered guns with the the mountains and confrontations between the expression, 'I want to get a crack at those two sides were vicious battles. Cush Garrett, S.O.Bds.''38 who was a schoolboy at the time of the battle, The group of attackers made their way relates, "Men stuck guns everywhere, just in toward Blair Mountain, led by "General" hollow logs, under rocks or anywhere."48 Bill Blizzard, President of the UMWA Sub- Federal airplanes were called out under the district No. 2. The long line of marchers command of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell continued to make its way along Lens Creek from Langley Field near Washington, D.C. from 25 August until most had arrived by 1 September. Along the way, the main body of TheBanle of BlairMountain " 39

Reports are rather unclear as to just how over onto Crooked Creek near Logan."49 (See significant a role the planes actually played in Figure 2.) However, exact skirmish locations theBattle of Biair Mountain. Several ofthe along Blair Mountain are very hard to decipher, planes actually crashed on the way to West especially due to the rough terrain in which the Virginia, killing pilots and crew before they ever fighting took place. It seems that the whole even reached the battle. Some reports claim that time things were very chaotic on both sides of they played no important role in the battle, but the lines and reports were often very confusing recollections from those involved in the battle or incorrect. As Early Bail recalls, "They hint otherwise. Early Ball recollects, "There was [Chafin's men] were everywhere."5° Along one that over us, and it was shooting some kind Hewett Creek where Bail was from, "The of gun, a rifle ore something, and it wasn't very miners were all up the left-hand fork, about high. We both tore loose with high-powered 5,000. That never was published in the papers. guns. If we ever hit it, it never made a They never mentioned Hewett Creek or nothing bobble."44 Bombs were dropped; Bail himself like that."51 It is easy to see how published "saw one drop and the dirt fly up."45 A picture accounts of the events at Blair Mountain often in the UMWA Journal shows a bomb dropped contain variable reports of locations and on i September in Jeffrey, WV, stating that numbers of men involved. "some twenty or twenty-five others were Upon the arrival of Federal ground troops on dropped, many of which exploded, but did no the afternoon of 3 September, the miners material damage."46 Most likely, only the realized that they were outgunned and, miners who had been World War I veterans therefore, surrendered. General Blandholz sent would have much experience seeing airplanes this telegram to the President: "About 400 prior to this event. Regardless of whether or not insurgents surrendered this afternoon at Sharpies the planes did much physical damage to the and Madison, turning in about 80 firearms. attackers' efforts, to these miners, they were an They were immediately sent out of the area to extremely visible and impressive symbol of the St. Albans by train."52 So, in the end, the Battle coal operators' power. of Battle of Blair Mountain resulted in the defeat By 3 September forces had come to a head. of the miners. It was no small war; as Dr. There was active fighting for three hours, then a Miliken, a company doctor at Blair mining retreat and a re-advance after noon for four camp, testified, "I was in the Spanish-American hours. During both of these advances the War, and I heard about as much shooting on miners failed to take the crest of the mountain, Blair Mountain as I heard in Manila."s3 News still held off by Cfiafin's men. At 4:00 p.m. correspondents from all over the country were General Harry Blandholz entered the scene with sent in to report on the events, and it even his Federal troops. He had been put in appeared in international newspapers. The New command of the troops that the President had York Times ran front page headlines including: ordered into the area after his proclamation to "Fighting Continues in Mountains as Federal cease fighting by noon on i September had been Troops Reach Mingo; Planes Reported Bombing ignored.47 According to the testimony of Miners," and "400 Miners Surrender with Arms Colonel Stanley H. Ford, the entire Twenty- as Troops Surrounding Fighting Area Quick sixth Infantry from Camp Dix was Peace in Sight in West Virginia."54 The figures commandeered along with detachments from for the amount of men wounded vary depending the Columbus Barracks, altogether consisting of on the source, but on average it seems that "approximately 106 officers and 2,000 men."48 about ten men were killed on each side of the According to Meador, "Fighting was the fight. There were probably men onboth sides heaviest at three points where the roads crossed whose deaths were never accounted. The total the ridge. These places were above Blair town, number wounded is impossible to know; 'Creek where the main road crossed, at Beech however, it is clear that it was large. Innocent near Sharpies, where a horse trail wound over standers-by were also reported wounded in the the mountain, and at the head of Craddock Fork battle. For example, news correspondent, of Hewett Creek, where an old road crossed Boyden R. Sparks, of the New York Tribune, 40 " The Wittenberg History Journal was even hit by gunfire as he made his way to Federal troops and in effect restored the the "front" to report on the action.55 provisions of the pre-war statutes." 60 Basically, According to U.S. Senator Kenyon of Iowa, during World War I the government suspended who headed a Senate Committee investigating the procedures that had been previously the strikes and mining conditions in West necessary for state authorities to gain Federal Virginia, the cause of these "mine wars" could assistance and, therefore, between the years of be answered in two words, "HUMAN 1917 and 1921 there were unprecedented GREED."56 The greed of coal company officials numbers of federal interventions in domestic who were only interested in making as much disturbances and labor disputes. Laurie money as possible, and thereby created an concludes that the Battle of Blair Mountain is entire economic system that aided this wish- important because it marks the return of without concern for the effects it had on others. responsibility of handling similar disturbances in Historians who have looked at this battle often the future by state police and National Guard suggest similar causes. Howard B. Lee, author forces, rather than the United States Army.61 of Bloodletting in Appalachia, clearly blames There are several other good anthologies collaboration between coal company officials, written on the subject of the West Virginia state government, and local government "mine wars," many of which are included in the (namely Don Chafin) for "this bloody blot on source list at the end of this paper. Clearly then, the State's history,"Sz He ends the section in his the Battle of Blair Mountain did make into some book covering the battle with this quote from a history books. For the most part, however, staff correspondent to the Washington Star on 2 these are not books that often get taken off the September 1921: "Everywhere one goes down in shelves. John Sayles, the director of the movie this country he hears the name of Don Chafin, Matewan, has written, "The story.., is a high sheriff of Logan County... He is the king dramatic and important one, as much a part of of the 'Kingdom of Logan.' He reigns supreme our heritage as that of the Alamo or Gettysburg by virtue of state machine, backed by the power or the winning of the West."62 Yet most people, of the operators."Sa even most of the residents of West Virginia, Probably one of the most in-depth and have probably never heard of what happened at thorough works written on the subject of the The Battle of Blair Mountain. Sayles calls the West Virginia Mine Wars is Lon Savage's miners a "colonized people" who "pulled a hard Thunder in the Mountains: The West Virginia living from a hard land, people who lived under Mine War, 1920-1921. His own father fought in the heel of power and who finally could be the battle as one of Dori Chafin's men.59 Savage pushed only so far." Although Blair Mountain went back to the primary sources and resulted in a tactical and political defeat, Sayles thoroughly describes every aspect of these recognizes that it was a psychological victory, intriguing events. Interestingly, he looks at how shaking the foundations upon which their World War I shaped the battle-providing veteran exploiters sat.6 There are those that would fighters on both sides of the line. Another argue that the people of the southern West historian, Clayton D. Laurie, who is employed Virginia coalfields are still colonized and held as a historian for the United States Army Center under a system that has yet to be altered. Yes, of Military History, wrote an article in 1991 that the union did finally come to coalfields after also looks at the role of World War I in the New Deal legislation allowed them to be Battle of Blair Mountain. His focus is on the recognized in 1933-but unions are often easily changes that The Battle of Blair Mountain corrupted and are not always the answer. caused in the history of military policy, as well Denise Giardina ends her novel Storming as its impact on the larger picture of the Heaven with a singIe sentence paragraph, "The American labor situation during this era. companies still own the iand."64 Owning the According to Laurie, "The West Virginia land means that the coal companies still own the disturbances were significant as they closed a resources and the power. Today, Blair chapter involving extraordinary extra-legal Mountain is home to the nation's fourth largest procedures in the domestic employment of mining complex, owned by Arch Coal. The The Battleof BlairMountain • 4-t people that once made that area their home puts it well: The struggle for a better West have been moved out to "protect" them from Virginia continues and your [those who lived the the blasting and heavy equipment that have mine wars] passionate commitment is an moved in to tear down the mountain through example to those who follow."66 To those who mountaintop removal practices. As activist are willing to listen and are interested in taking a Larry Gibson, stated, "They have little to no stand and making changes in systems of resistance here."6s The fight did not end at Blair oppression too-long entrenched, it is important Mountainin 1921. Ken Sullivan, editor of The that this story be told. Goldenseal Book of West Virginia Mine Wars

End Notes

1 Quotes from Michael M. Meader, "The history/minewars.htm. The following Red Neck War of 1921: The Miners' March and summaries of the early events of the West The Battle of Blair Mountain," p. 57, found in Virginia mine wars (the battles of Paint and The Goldensea!Book of West VirginiaMine Wars, Cabin Creek and the uprising at Matewan) are Ken Sullivan ed., (Charleston, WV: Pictorial detailed in many of the works listed in the Histories Distribution, 1991). Historic register bibliography, but I found this source to provide information also from The GoldenseatBook, p. 65. an accurate and concise description. Therefore, I 2 David Corbin ed., The West VirginiaMine have used it as a reference for my own Wars: An Anthology, (Martinsburg, WV: summaries and have noted where I have done Appalachian Editions, 1990), i. SO. s From "Storming Heaven Book Review," by 13Ibid. Colleen Anderson. Found in The GoldenseaIBook 14Waiter Seacrist, "The Striker's Orphan of West VirginiaMine Wars, 82. Child." Found in Goldenseal,27. 4 Larry Gibson, interview by Oral History 15West Virginia'sMine Wars. Class from the Augusta Heritage Center, 8 16Heber Blankenhom, "Marching Through August 2001, from Kristen Baughman's personal West Virginia," The Nation, 14 September 1921. recording. I added the italics to emphasize the From West Virginia Mine Wars: An Anthology, importance of that line. 111. 5 Corbin, The West VirginiaMine Wars: An 17 "Private Ownership of Public Officials," by Anthology, iv. Arthur Gleason. From West VirginiaMine Wars: 6 Stan Cohen, King Coal: A PictorialHeritage of An Anthology, 97. West Virginia Coal Mining, (Charleston, WV: 18Ibid, 98. Pictorial Histories Publishing Co, 1984), 1. 19Ibid. 7 "Testimony of George Echols," 18 20 West Virginia's Mine Wars. September 1921. From West VirginiaMine Wars: 21 Gleason, "Private Ownership of Public An Anthology, 103. Officials," 97. 8 Ibid, 104. 22 Ibid. 9 West Virginia'sMine Wars, compiled by the 2s Cohen, King Coal: A PictorialHistory of West West Virginia State Archives, found at http:// Virginia Coal Mining, 82. www.wvculture.org/history/minewars.htm. 24 Gleason, "Private Ownership of Public 10Harold A. West, "Civil War in the West Officials." From The West VirginiaMine Wars: An Virginia Coal Mines: The Mine Guards," The Anthology, 96. Survey, 5 April 1913. From West VirginiaMine 25 Ibid, 100-101. My italics. Wars: An Anthology, 19. 26 West Virginia's Mine Wars. 11Ibid, 20. 2z "Testimony of George Echols," 18 12This list was taken from West Virginia's September 1921. From West VirginiaMine Wars: Mine Wars, compiled by the West Virginia State An Anthology, 104. Archives, found at http://www.wvculture.org/ 42 ° The Wittenberg History Journal 46 "Gunmen Resort to Use of Bombs to Kill 28 "Stand by the Miners of Mingo," Women and Children of West Virginia," United Communist Party of America newsletter. From Mine Workers Joumal, from Goldenseal,72. The West VirginiaMine Wars: An Anthology, 118- 47 Lee, Bloodlettingin Appalachia, 101. 119. 48 "Testimony of Col. Stanley H. Ford." 29 Howard B. Lee, Bloodlettingin Appalachia: From West VirginiaMine Wars: An Anthology, 121. The Story of West Virginia's FourMajor Mine Wars 49 Meador, "The Red Neck War," Goldenseal, and OtherThrilling Incidents ofhs CoalFields, 61. (Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University, 50 Meador, "The Siege of Crooked Creek 1969), 96. Gap," Interview with Early Ball and Gush 30 Sources differ on number estimations Garrett. From Goldenseal, 67. throughout the course of the battle. This comes 51 Ibid. from Michael M. Meador, "The Red Neck War 52 The New York Times,4 September 1921. of 1921: The Miner's March and the Battle of Ii 53 Lee, Bloodlettingin Appalachia, 101. Blair Mountain." From Goldenseal, 59. 54 The New York Times,3 and 4 September 31 Lee, Bloodlettingin Appalachia, 97. 1921. 32 Ibid, 96-97. 55 Ibid, 4 September1921. 33 Ibid, 99. 56 Lee, Bloodlettingin Appalachia, xi. 34 Again, these numbers vary slightly from 57 Ibid, 102. source to source, these particular figures coming 58 Ibid, 102-103. from Lee, Bloodlettingin Appalachia, 99. 59 Joe Savage wrote an intriguing account of 35 Meador, "The Red Neck War," 59. being on the "other side" in this battle, which 36 Michael M. Meador, "The Siege of has been published in The GoldenseaIBook of West Crooked Creek Gap," Interview with Early Bail VirginiaMine Wars. and Gush Garrett. From GoldenseaI, 68. 60 Clayton D. Laurie, "The United States 37 Ibid, 67. Army and the Return to Normalcy in Labor 38 Ibid, 67. Dispute Interventions: The Case of the West 39 This picture appears in several sources Virginia Coal Mine Wars, 1920-1921," West listed in the bibliography. One specific location VirginiaHistory 50 (1991): 2. is in GoIdenseal,p. 62. 61 Ibid, 21. 40 Meador, "The Red Neck War," Goldenseal, 62 John Sayles, from the Forward to Lon 59. Savage, Thunder in the Mountains, vii. 41 "The War in West Virginia," 17 63 Ibid. September 1921, Independent. From West Virginia 64 Denise Giardina, StormingHeaven, (New Mine Wars: An Anthology,106. York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1987), 312. 42 Ibid. 65 Larry Gibson, interview by Oral History 43 Meador, "The Siege of Crooked Creek Class from the Augusta Heritage Center, 8 Gap," Interview with Early Bail and Gush August 2001, from Kristen Baughman's personal Garret. From Goldenseat, 70. recording. I added the italics to emphasize the 44 Ibid, 66-67. importance of that line. 45 Ibid. 66 Ken Sullivan, ed., Goldenseal, iv. The Battleof Blair Mountain . 43

Works Cited

Primary Sources: Cohen, Stan. King Coal: A PictorialHeritage of Sullivan, Ken, ed. The GoldenseaIBook of the West VirginiaCoaI Mining. Charleston, WV: West VirginiaMine Wars. Charleston, Pictorial Histories Publishing Co., 1984. WV: Pictorial Histories Publishing Co., 1991.

Corbin, David Alan. The West VirginiaMine Ward, Ken Jr. "Buying Blair." Sunday Gazette- Wars: An Anthology. Martinsburg, WV: Mail. November22,1998. accessed Appalachian Editions, 1990. from http://www.wvgazette.com/static/ series/mining/MINE1122.htm Gibson, Larry. 2001. Interview by Oral History Class from the Augusta Heritage Center. The New York Times.3-4 September 1921. PersonaI Recording of Kristen Baughman.

Secondary Sources: Corbin, David Alan. Life, Work, and Rebellion Savage, Lon. Thunder in the Mountains: The in the CoalFields: The SouthernWest West VirginiaMine War, 1920-1921. VirginiaMiners 1880-1922. Chicago: Pittsburg: The University of Pittsburg Press, University of Illinois Press, 1981. 1986.

Gaventa, John. Power and Powerlessness: Sayles, John. Matewan. Produced by Peggy Quiescenceand Rebellionin an Appalachian Rajskiand Maggi Renzi. Directed by John Valley. Chicago: University of IIIinois Press, Sayles. 142 min. Red Dog Films, 1996. 1980. Videocassette.

Giardina, Denise. Storming Heaven. New York: Spence, Robert Y. The Land of Guyandot:A W.W. Norton & Co., 1987. History of Logan County. Detroit: Harlo, 1976. Lane, Winthrop D. Civil War in West Virginia. New York: Arno & The New York West Virginia'sMine Wars. Compiled by the Times, 1969. West Virginia State Archives. Accessed from http://www.wvculture.org/history/ Laurie, Clayton D. "The United States Army minewars.htm. and the Return to Normalcy in Labour Dispute Interventions: The Case of the West Wheeler, Hoyt N. "Mountaineer Mine Wars: An Virginia Coal Mine Wars, 1920-1921." West Analysis of the West Virginia Mine VirginiaHistory 1991 50:1-24 Wars of 1912-1913 and 1920-1921." Business HistoryReview 1976 50:1 Lee, Howard B. Bloodlettingin Appalachia; The Storyof West Virgininia's FourMajor Mine Wars and Other ThrillingIncidents of Its Coal Fields. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University, 1969. 44 ® The Wittenberg History Journal

Taking Advantage of Innocent Girls by EmilyKingsley WittenbergUniversity Class of 2004

Japan rose to the status of an industrialized charitable effort to lift the financial burdens of nation late in the 1800s through its international the displaced samurai. Simultaneously, a shift textile market. The manufacture and sale of from publicly owned factories to private high quality products needed in every day life, ownership occurred during the 1880s with such as cotton, produced a great deal of revenue, companies "adapting expensive, large-scale and silk, a luxurious commodity, earned even operations to a smaller, less costly enterprise."s higher profits. "When the Meiji government To further reduce wages, factory owners preyed launched its program to 'increase the wealth of upon the financially unstable agricultural areas the nation' (fukoku), first among the industries to fill their ranks at low wages and in subhuman that it sought to foster and build was the silk conditions. This paper will prove that filiality industry.'a Moreover, Japanese industries and rural conditions made the Japanese offered low prices to undercut competition in daughters vulnerable to manipulation by this dominating nations like the United States and rising textile industry. Great Britain. This tactic was lucrative; "by Agricultural areas provided an abundant 1914 Japan was dominating world cotton resource of young women, and the widespread manufacturing,"2 and "by 1912, the last year of poverty of farm families created an even more Meiji, Japan led the world in the export of silk."a advantageous situation for factory owners. The incoming funds were directed towards Evidence that agriculture workers were utilized building "both heavy industry and military in textile mills is demonstrated in historian strength without extensive borrowing."4 These Yukihiko Kiyokawa's claim that "80 percent of improvements were crucial to unleashing Japan the cases, the occupation of the female workers' from the dated depths of the Tokugawa era and parents was agriculture or a related job."9 One laying the foundations for a modem state. reason for this lay in the training girls received To build this thriving enterprise, Japanese at home. Typically, the daughter was industries resorted to a cheap labor force to responsible for both work around the house and sustain low costs without degrading the actual cultivating the crops. "Farm girls and those of product. Such means were poor families were often believed to be needed attainable by the recruitment of women. The more in the home and fields'n° than in Confucian philosophy that" 'respected the attendance at school to earn an education. The male, despised the female' (dansonjoht)"5 created lack of emphasis on schooling indicates that an environment in Meiji that was "heavily male their primary roles were execution of manual oriented."6 Even hard-working, " 'women's chores that required minimal skill. Priority was work'-associated with housekeeping and placed on the success of the family unit as handicrafts-was valued less than was work done opposed to the individual girl. The Japanese by men."7 Factory owners used such perceived custom of filial piety instilled obedience in inferiority to their advantage when they were daughters, emphasizing a passive attitude seeking out predominantly female members of towards parental authority.11 Servitude to the families to be their employees. maintenance of the family household made the The initial factories in Meiji Japan were farm girl accustomed to constant and heavy established by the new government after 1868 labor, and thus a candidate for large-scale with employment mainly fulfilledby the manufacturing. daughters of the dissolved samurai class. Yet, as Additionally, "during the 1880s the famous the earning potential of the textile industry was deflationary policies of Finance Minister realized, a profit-oriented mindset replaced the Matsukata Masayoshi drove large numbers of Taking Advantage of InoocentGirls 45 independent and tenant cultivators into extreme recoilection captures her dual emotions, with destitution"1 and thus vulnerable to promises her devotion to her family persevering above alI of income for their daughters' work outside the else: home. ThE obligation of tenant farmers to "pay I don't know how many times I thought I the exorbitant, oppressive tenant fees, which would rather jump into Lake Suwa and could amount to 50 or 60 per cent of the yearly drown. Even so, when I went home with a crop'a3 left minimal earnings to support a year's earnings and handed the household of several family members on top of money to my mother, she clasped it in her maintaining the land. Since the daughter was hands and said, 'With this, we can manage through the end of the year'...Whenever I the functional unit of the household, her thought of my mother's face then, I could commitment to assisting her family in this dire endure any hardship,is situation involved earning an income from an outside source. "Farmers of Japan around the The immense feeling of pride gained by end of the nineteenth century were so poor that preventing the collapse of a household was they had to decrease the number of their enough to keep workers progressing through the dependents, so they wanted their daughters to daily toil and inhumane conditions. earn any amount of money in just about any Furthermore, strict financial retributions placed walk of life.'a4 The arrival of factory recruiters on the family for unwarranted absences of the to this desperate scene often was at a most worker discouraged thoughts of running away convenient time. Under the contract system, or suicide. The employment of girls deeply "companies hired labor recruiters, who went entrenched in family ties accomplished the labor through the countryside encouraging parents to commitment desired by the textile industries. sign their daughters to a one- to five-year Factory owners used filial piety to appease contract with a distant mili."15 In drumming up any anxieties parents may have had about recruitment of young girls, recruiters cunningly sending their daughters to the factory mills. The exaggerated their concern to provide monetary contract system not only stipulated monetary aid to the family. Farm owners could simply not benefits resulting from the young women's toil resist the immediate possession of money from to fulfill filial piety, but also promised a the factory. With little hesitation to consider the substitute figure to insure the "young girls' welfare of their daughter, possibly due to their moral virtue."19 illiteracy and inability to comprehend the crafted contract, farm families viewed such a The contract system...could not have worked proposition as a blessing. "The advance without the accompanying [acade of traditional paternalism erected by the mill payment they received to send their daughters owners and their recruiters. The illusory out to work as virtual indentured servants relationship created between daughters, enabled them to pay their rent and defray their parents, and factory management was based daily living expenses.'a6 To further assist the almost exclusively on the verbal promises of family, wages earned by the daughter while at recruiters and the willingness of mill owners the factory were sent home. The loyalty of girls to ioan badly needed cash to the families that signed the contracts on to the domestic sphere made them readily their daughters' behalf.2° •available to textile mills once their contributions were no longer beneficial at home. This fabricated guardian provided comfort in the The dedication of females to their families minds of parents that the company would act in was exhibited even in the midst the best interests of their daughters. To easily of exploitation by the factories. "The fact that fool poorly educated farmers, one contract even they were working for the good of the blatantly referred to the factory grounds as a " household made their sacrifices worthwhile."17 'house.' ,, 1 A home-like environment at the Far away from home, the filial relationship factories was contrived so that parents would remained strong and a majority of girls were assume the continuance of a nurturing intent on executing their responsibilities atmosphere that would encourage their regardless of hardships. One worker's 46 ° The Wittenberg History Journal daughters' maturation into respectful and hard- means of grooming the gifts to the ways of the working individuals. factory, preventing uprisings by creating a Parents were also deceived into thinking that uniformly obedient mass. A booklet was even their daughters would receive an invaluable distributed to the workers emphasizing, education beyond the resources available at "together with the Confucian virtue of filial home. The distant location of factories was piety, the virtue of loyalty (chiigOtowards the justified as a mean for providing girls with a master'24 even under harsh circumstances. taste of culture from another area of the country. Clearly, factories replaced the cherished bond "They [were] told of the beautiful sights to be between father and daughter with tyrannical seen, theaters to be visited, the regular Sunday authority. rest, and even of the splendid care and education Although a majority of gifts strongly they [would] receive from the factory."22 Poor detested the conditions at the textile mills, the and uneducated farm families deemed the presence of a satisfied minority needs to be factory life suitable preparation for girls into addressed if we are to fully understand the womanhood. A civilized individual would relatively inhumane rural conditions and the result from the knowledge acquired from skilled factory situation. It is crucial to comprehend the labor in the textile industry coupled with night standard of living these gifts abandoned prior to classes on etiquette and the proper manners of a entering into a national enterprise. Most gifts lady. Ideally, their daughters would be groomed came from tenant farms that had been plunged into quality marriage material and efficient into extreme poverty by the overwhelming house wives. financial demands of national policies. Besides the maintenance of the fields, farmers had to Some filatures opened the night classes for support households of several children. While general ducation, and others provided all hands relentlessly reaped the harvest to its optional lessons in needlework, calligraphy, maximum potential, there was little progress out or flower-arrangement. It is broadly of debt and often a heaIty meal could not be accepted that the management side also obtained the benefit from providing such off- furnished. One girl recalls a typical family diet: duty classes in the better work discipline and the fostering of identity as a member of In the old days we used to put a big pot of 'factory family.'2 tea on the fire, and the whole family would iadle the tea out and pour it on sorghum Yet, the reality was quite different for most powder. That was our staple. Some families gifts. In truth, the residence of the girls at far- added bran to increase the volume. Then we had a little millet rice?s away factories served as a method to regulate their work schedule and ensure regular Rigorous labor and empty stomachs were an attendance on the production line. Most inevitable reality with escalating financial workers did not have access to the classes, as anxieties heating tempers beyond a pleasant they were commonly limited to girls from ex- level in households. For most farm families, samurai or comparable backgrounds. Moreover, there was no hope for cessation of this dismal the fatigue resulting from a grueling workday of situation. So it was a relief for some girls to twelve hours inhibitedtheir ability to properly escape the miserable setting and accept the job absorb information from night classes. It is offer of factory recruiters. "The gifts who were quite possible that girls simply sacrificed left behind in the villageslooked with envy learning an additional craft in order to sleep. upon the girls who were sent off to the city Furthermore, the main purpose of the courses factories."26 was not necessarily for the benefit of the Since conditions were often lowly on the workers. Instead, they were a method of home front, high standards did not have to be improving the worker's skills and bolstering upheld in the factories for incoming girls. camaraderie. These factors augmented Therefore, little effort was required to provide efficiency in the production of textiles, which accommodations that were better than on the corresponded to increased expectations and farms. "...the typical factory diet, which looked pressure on the workers. Education was also a TakingAdvantage of InoocentGirls o 47 so good to the farm girls, consisted or rice, bean taking advantage of the unfortunate situation of paste soup, pickles, or tofu, and occasionally bits their workers, textile mills were able to manage of fish.'aT While there were no qualms from and profit from substandard operations. workers, meals at the factories were still below The combination of their family values and nutritional requirements for growing destitute situations made farm girls adolescents, particularly lacking in meats and susceptible to merciless textile owners. other essential sources of protein. The girls also Persuaded by the embellished words of had to endure confinement, cramped and recruiters, families unknowingly committed unsanitary living quarters, unjust punishment, their daughters to hardships. Factory owners and tedious labor. The reason that they were could justify low wages due to their gender, not keen to these poor conditions lay in their poor standard of living back home, lack of unawareness of a better lifestyle. It is fair to education, and short-term commitment due to assume that a rural upbringing left most factory marital obligations. Furthermore, companies girls uneducated and unaware of the level of could avoid high quality facilities since girls treatment that should be tolerated by a labor were coming from a decrepit rural scene and had force. They had no expectations and were little knowledge of better ways. Yet, the simply content to experience new surroundings industry could have not been a worldwide and a different style of work in the hopes of success without such exploitation. The profits bettering their lot in life. s In the opinion of from such a business endeavor afforded Japan Helen Mears, an American who observed Meiji the opportunity to compete with powerful factories and interacted with the young female nations. "'The life of a family depends upon the workers, "now, 90% of these girl workers are delicate body of a woman' while 'the life of a happy and contented, and 10% discontented. nation depends upon the slender arms of But if propaganda and agitators got in among women.''3° Alas, modernization of a nation was them, within 6 months, 90% would be achieved at the sacrifice of its young citizens. discontented and 10% contented."29 Unfairly

End Notes

1 Mikiso Hane, Peasants, Rebels, and Experience of the SilkoReeling Industry in Outcastes: The Undersideof Modern Japan (New Japan," in The Textile Industryand the Rise of the York: Pantheon Books, 1982), 173. Japanese Economy,ed. Michael Smitka (New 2 Sharon L Sievers, Flowersin Salt: The York: Garland Publishing, 1998), 94. Beginningsof FeministConsciousness in Modern 10Dorothy Robins-Mowry, The Hidden Sun: Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, Women of Modern Japan (Boulder: Westview 1983), 56. Press, 1983), 41. Dorinne K. Kondo, Crafting Selves: Power, 11 Gaff Lee Bemstein, RecreatingJapanese Gender, and Discoursesof Identityin a Japanese Women, 1600-1945 (Los Angeles: University of Workplace(Chicago: The University of Chicago California Press, 1991), 223. Press, 1990), 269. 12 Tsurumi, 22. 4 Sievers, 56. la Masanori Nakamura, TechnologyChange 5 E. Patricia Tsurumi, Factory Girls: Women in and FemaleLabour (Tokyo: United Nations theThread Mills of MeijiJapan (Princeton: University Press, 1994), 42. Princeton University Press, 1990), 16. 14Toshiaki Chokki, "Labor Management in 6 Ibid., 16. the Cotton Spinning Industry," in The Textile 7 Ibid., 16. Industryand the Rise of theJapanese Economy,ed. s Sievers, 60. Michael Smitka(New York: GarlandPublishing, 9 Yukihiko Kiyokawa, "The Transformation I998), 8. of Young Rural Women into Disciplined Labor 15 Sievers, 62. Under Competition-Oriented Management: The is Hane, 175. 48 ° The Wittenberg History Journal

17Vera Mackie, CreatingSocialist Women in 24 Nakamura, 53-54. Japan: Gender, Labour, and Activism, 1900-1937, 25 Hane, 181. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 26 Hane, 180. 117. 27 Hane, 181. 18 Sievers, 55. 28Allen K. Faust, The New Japanese 19Kondo, 272 Womanhood(New York: George H. Doran 2o Sievers, 62-63. Company, 1926), 67. 21 Nakamura, 43. 29 Helen Mears, Year of the Wild Boar: An 22 Sidney L. Gulick, Working Women of Japan AmericanWoman inJapan (New York: J.B. (New York: Missonary Education Movement of Lippincott Company, 1942), 281. the United States and Canada, 1915), 77. s0 Ibid., 279. 23 Kiyokawa, 99.

Works Cited

Bemstein, Gall Lee. Recreating Japanese Women, Kondo, Dorirme K. Cra#ing Selves: Power, Gender, 1300-4945. Berkeley: University of and Discoursesof Identityin a Japanese California Press, 1991. Workplace. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990. Chokld, Toshiaki. "Labor Management in the Cotton Spinning Industry." In The Textile Mackie, Vera. CreatingSocialist Women inJapan: Industryand the Rise of theJapanese Economy, Gender, Labour and Activism, 4 900-1 3 7. ed. Michael Smitka, 1-23. New York: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Garland Publishing, Inc., 1998. 1997.

Faust, Allen Klein. The New Japanese Mears, Heien. Year of the Wild Boar. New York: Womanhood. New York: George H. Doran, ]'.B. Lippincott Company, 1942. 1926. Nakamura, Masanori. TechnologyChange and Gulick, Sidney L. Working Women of Japan. New FemaleLabour. Tokyo: United Nations York: Missionary Education Movement of University Press, 1994. the United States and Canada, 1915. Robins-Mowry, Dorothy. The Hidden Sun: Hane, Mikiso. Peasants, Rebels, and Outcastes: Women of Modern Japan. BouIder, CO: The Undersideof Modern Japan. New York: Westview Press, 1983. Pantheon Books, i982. Sievers, Sharon L. Flowers in Salt. Stanford: Kiyokawa, Yukihiko. "The Transformation of Stanford University Press, 1983. • Young Rural Women into Disciplined Labor Under Competition-Oriented Tsurumi, Patricia E. FactoryGirls: Women in the Management: The Experience of the Silk- ThreadMills of Meiji Japan. Princeton: Reeling Industry in Japan." In The Textile Princeton University Press, 1990. Industryand the Rise of theJapanese Economy, ed. Michael Smitka, 91-111. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1998. The FirstCold War o 49

The First Cold War: On the Teutonic Knights and Alexander Nevsky by Ryan T. Miller WittenbergUniversity Class of 2003

The era of the Crusades stands as a Templar and Hospitallers.1 Their own tale of particularly intriguing and enduring period in the establishment is recorded in the Book of Order, turbulent times of the Middle Ages. Such heroic the official handbook of the Teutonic Knights: (and often tragic) tales about the adventures of intrepid knights have entranced students of In the year eleven hundred ninety from the history since Pope Urban II's epoch-making call birth of our Lord, at the time when Acre was being besieged by the Christiansand, with to arms. But in popular sentiment, the Crusades God's help, was won back again from the are inseparable from the stage of the Holy Land; hands of the infidels, at that very time there the connotations of the term summon the was in the army a band of good people from images of valiant knights, their armor adorned Bremen and Lubeck who, through the with the image of the Cross, locked in grueling charity of our Lord, took pity on the manifold needs of the sick in the army and combat with a sea of Muslims at the gates of the started the [Hospital of St. May of the Holy City of Jerusalem. While the early crusades German House of Jerusalem] under the sail had to do with the Holy Land, the venue was of a ship, called a cog," under which they not a prerequisite for a crusading enterprise. In brought the sick with great devotion and fact, the lands of Europe were to act as hosts for cared for them v lth zeal.2 some of the more fascinating undertakings of Then, at a festive ceremony that supposedly the period. Lands a stone's throw from the Holy transpired on March 5, 1198, the Order See in Rome soon became the theaters of war, underwent a change in purpose: the diminution and skirmishes that would decide the fates of of the role of hospitals, and a correlating re- entire nations were waged within their borders. focus on a military function. The list of Of all the European Crusades, however, the saga attendance reads like a who's who of the that unfolded in Russian lands remains the most medieval world: the Patriarch of Jerusalem, the mesmerizing, epic, and salient to the future of a head of the Crusading army, and the Grand people. The Crusade in the Russian lands was Masters of the Templars and Hospitallers. All waged by the ubiquitously-feared Teutonic partook in this ceremony, which marked the Knights who, as we shall see, had myriad inception of the Teutonic ICnightsas a military reasons for striking when and where they did. order. Pope Innocent III penned a bull, dated This momentous event culminated in the February 19, 1199, which confirmed the event celebrated Battle on the Ice, a happening that and decreed that the Teutonic Order would care •brought to the fore Russia's arch-hero, Grand for the ill according to the bylaws of the Duke Alexander Nevsky. It also served to isolate Russia from the rest of the Occident. To Hospitallers and engage in military operations according to the Templar code. The brethren be sure, both of these ramifications wielded were instructed to drape themselves in the tremendous influence on Russia's subsequent distinctive white cloak of the Templars, with a development. black cross emblazoned on the garment to differentiate the Teutons from the Templars.3 The Order of the Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Knights adopted a hierarchical The Teutonic ILnights, the iast of the major structure patterned after the Templars and the military orders to be formed, does not possess a Hospitallers. At the apogee stood the myth of ancient founding as do the Knights Hochmeister(Magister Geneneralis), under whom 50 " The Wittenberg History Journal were the Landmeister, who ruled at the national favored by God.8 Karlalso goes on to convey level, the Landkomtur, in charge of provinces, and the official line of the Church that anyone taking the Komtur, the local rulers.4 The Hochmeister the Cross would be granted indulgences, and was served by a Grand Council, which was that the Crusade is a divinely-ordained comprised of the GrossKomtur, the enterprise with the design of augmenting God's Ordenmarschall,the Spittler(Hospitalier), the earthly kingdom? Certainly such works, while Tressler(treasurer), and the Trapier written to elucidate key principles of the Order, (quartermaster). The Hochmeisterand the Grand contributed much to the world of literature, and Council were elected by the General Chapter, could be enjoyed on their own account. which convened in the month of September, The Teutonic Order was heavily associated during the Feast of the Holy Cross.5 This with a cult of saints, and this had immense organization is ostensibly modeled after the influence on how the Order was perceived. The feudal arrangement prevalent in medieval Order, naturally, had a connection with St. society. Another comparison can be made to a George, patron saint of Germanic lands, but it modern corporation. The General Chapter can was, in fact, the female saints who were most be likened to shareholders, the Hochmeisterto a venerated by the brethren. This is also tree of chairman, and his Grand Council as a type of the Templars, although their ardor was not as Board of Directors. And while this board of great.1° Of course, the Teutonic Knights directors wields a great deal of power, it is still labored to procure relics, and one of their most answerable to the collective leadership of the cherished possessions was the head of St. shareholders. So it was with the Order of the Barbara, "which they had carried off from the Teutonic Knights. Pomeranians in a raid on the castle Sartowitz in The Teutonic Knights, in attempts to justify the 1240s."u Those who participated in the its existence to the populace, as well as goad raid swear that the saint purposefully individuals to join the Order, churned out abandoned her former resting piace in order to numerous chronicles chock-full of religious be among the members of the Order, witnessing rhetoric and crusading propaganda. These their "great spiritualiw."12 tomes were penned for an audience of The Order, while it revered all the great holy prospective members and donors. Despite the figures, extolled one above all others: the Order's main role as a military association, Blessed Virgin Mary. Along with the Knights however, the literature was principally Templar, the Teutonic Knights claimed Mary to concerned with the group's spirituality rather be their special patroness, but the Teutonic than their exploits on the field of battle. Knights' devotion far exceeded even that of the Nonetheless, these seemingly conflicting brothers of the Temple. In fact, the Order's concepts compliment one another; an army's fervor in lauding the Blessed Virgin became its success in battle was thought to be a product of most well-known feature, and this seems to its spirituality, and not its acumen.6 have had a decidedly positive affect on the One such chronicle that was filled with the populace's perception)a Furthermore, the Order's ideology was the epic Karl, which was Order's laudation of Mary was a factor in its itself adapted from Konrad's Rolandslied. Nearly decision to launch a campaign of expansion in all of the Order's tenets are included in this Eastern Europe (see below). The figure of Mary tome, which rendered it invaluable for Was widely associated with Eastern Europe, proliferating the philosophy of the Order. much in the same way that Christ was seen to Brothers and prospective brothers were have a special affiliation with the Holy Land. therefore encouraged to read the work, so that The Blessed Virgin's relationship apparently they might be infused with the holy sentiment stems from her connection with the Pole Star-- required of a knight of Christ/ The epic draws as sailors looked to the Pole Star for guidance, so numerous parallels between the Teutonic should mankind look to her to show the way. Knights and the Hebrews of the Old Testament The Pole Star is evidently bound with Eastern in an endeavor to color the institution as one Europe because of its north-eastern location. TheFirst Cold War * 5t

The Order made use of this belief, stressing their authority, he expelled them from the territory in ties to Mary to warrant their journeys into 1225. As fate would have it, another ruler was Prussia and beyond)4 being terrorized by pagans in another domain. The Teutonic Knights' meteoric rise to Conrad of Mazovia, a Polish duke, required power is due in large part to the slew of succor in quelling the heathen Prussians. donations made to their organization following Herman yon Salza was more than willing to the papal decree formally recognizing them as a come to Conrad's aid, but he balked out of fear military order. Their patrons were prominent of another expulsion. In order to ascertain that members of the clergy and eminent secular this would not transpire, the Teutons obtained a lords, including Archbishop Theodoric of Trier, charter from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Gilbert of Zottegem, and Henry Halverrogge. II granting them all lands promised by Conrad, The bulk of these donations were hospitals, in addition to any they could conquer from the following the Order's original and mission.15 Prussians. Confident in the security of their In addition to the donation of hospitals, the holdings the Order marched on, subduing all Order's lot greatly benefited from the auspices who stood in their path.19 The inexorable of the Holy Roman Emperors. The Order never march towards Russia had begun. threatened to eclipse the Templars or the Hospitallers in the Holy Land in terms of wealth The Situation in the Baltic or power, but it held primacy within the The reasons to target the lands of Russia in a expanses of Europe itself, especially the German Crusading enterprise were manifold. First, the lands. Indeed, nearly all of the Order's property peoples of Russia did not acknowledge the Pope was viithin Germany, and nearly all of its as God's emissary on Earth, nor did they members had German blood flowing through embrace the tenets of Catholicism. The lands of their veins.16 Rus' instead subscribed to the Greek Orthodox The Order despaired of ever attaining parity variety of Christianity. This had been the case with the Templars in the Holy Land, and so the since Prince Vladimir converted to the Orthodox Knights began to re-focus their gaze closer to religion in 988 after much deliberation.2° This home. The Order's Hochmeister, Herman von decision, one of the utmost import for the future Salza (1210-39), generally regarded as the of the Russian lands, was the result of a greatest of the grand masters, was integral to the systematic examination of numerous religions. targeting of the Order's energies to the European The first group to pay Vladimir a visit were realmJ7 The Order's motive in pursuing this Muslim Bulgarians; they exhorted Vladimir to path was the establishment of autonomous accept their doctrine. Vladimir inquired as to states under its direct control and under the the details of their dogma, and the Bulgarians supervision of the pope. The Order therefore enlightened him. Vladimir scoffed at their waged war for power, land, and prestige, while tenets, "for circumcision and abstinence from the pontiff extended his blessing because of his pork and v/me were disagreeable to him."21 potential influence in the newly converted Next, a band of Germans arrived in the territories.18 stead of the Pontiff. They exclaimed to The Teutons prevailed in several decisive Vladimir: •¢ictories early in their campaign. In 1211, the King Andrew II of Hungary approached the Thus says the Pope: 'Your county is like our Order with a proposition: his eastern border was country, but your faith is not as ours. For incessantly threatened by pagan Cumans, and our faith is the light. We worship God, who he desired the Teutons to colonize the area in has made heaven and earth, the stars, the moon, and every creature, while your gods order to rout the heathen menace. The Order are only wood.'22 endeavored to do so, and in fact achieved a marked success. Too successful, according to Vladimir, intrigued, asked the Germans to King Andrew. Alarmed that the Knights had further expound upon the religion. Fasting as grown too puissant and were subverting his much as one is able, they said, is to the glory of 52 ® The Wittenberg History Journal

God. This perturbed Vladimir, for the concept at the Neva River.2 To signify this decisive of fasting was alien to him. He bade the victory, Alexander attached the surname Catholics to depart.23 "Nevsky," thus rendering his full name The Jewish Khazars next received word of Alexander Iaroslavich Nevsky.27 The exploits of Vladimir's search, and so descended upon the Alexander will be covered at length below. region of Rus'. They edified him in the ways of A third and final condition in the Baltic that their teachings, but Vladimir once again took contributed to its selection as the venue for a issue with abstention from pork and Crusade, was its political fragmentation. The circumcision, and ergo Judaism was dismissed as cause of this fragmentation was economic; a possibility. specifically, it was the fur trade that bustled in Finally, just as Vladimir began to despair at the area. In order to maintain the monopoly finding a suitable religion, the Greeks arrived on enjoyed by Russia in this market, a prince would the scene, and they praised, "their words were be compelled to raid, raze, and haunt the artful, and it was wondrous to listen and surrounding peoples until they yielded and pleasant to hear them."24 A delegation sent to relinquished their furs.2s investigate the respective worship services This lack of political cohesion ensured the further strengthened Vladimir's favor with the Teutonic Knights easy victories over feeble, Greeks: divided rulers (or so they believed).

...We went among the Germans, and saw The Battle on the Ice them performing many ceremonies in their temples; but we beheld no glory there. Then The force of destiny compelled the Teutonic we went to Greece, and the Greeks led us to Knights to march onward towards Lake Peipus, the edifices where they worship their God, their Waterloo. The army was now a and we Knew not whether we were in hodgepodge of peoples: the Teutonic Knights heaven on or earth. For on earth there is no themselves, commanded by the Livonian such splendor or such beauty, and we are at a loss how to describe it. We only iamw Landmeister, Danes under princes Canute and that God dwells there among men...2s Abel, Germans united behind Bishop Hermann of Dompat, and Russian forces following Thus, Vladimir came to choose Greek Orthodox Jaroslav (in exile).29 They marched relentlessly as his people's religion, and verily, it seemed a into Novgorodian territory. Each group had the match made in heaven. Naturally, Vladimir's fervent hope of carving a fragment of Russia for choice vexed the Pope, for he was keenly aware itself. of the influence lost in the region. The hope of In September of 1240 the force arrived at swaying the Russians to look to the Holy See for Izborsk, and hastily captured it.s° Then, spiritual guidance played no small part in the according to the Nikonian Chronicle: selection of the area for a Crusade. The Teutonic Knights were to establish dominion When these tidings that the Germans had over the Russian principalities, and the pope taken Izborsk arrived in t'skov, the entire city marched against them, and there was a would exercise spiritual control over the fierce battle. There was great carnage subjugated peoples. among them. The Germans killed voevoda Another factor that played into the selection Gavrila Goreslavich, and defeated the people of Russia as an objective was the debilitation of Pskov, slaying many in pursuit, and others fomented by the Tatar Yoke. The invasion by they captured. And they chased them to the city, setting fire in the suburbs; and there the warmongers enfeebled economic centers, was much evil.sl scattered the population, and emasculated military forces. Seeing Russia thus vulnerable, The host continued on its bloody campaign. avaricious Western powers began a campaign to By April of 1241 a retinue of Teutonic Knights, carve out portions of Rus' for themselves. The Danish vassals, and native Estonians had Swedes, under the banner of Earl Birger, invaded conquered lands east of Narva. They quickly Novgorodian territory in July 1240. They were constructed a fortress at Kopore, and from this repulsed by an audacious soul called Alexander point launched audacious raids, at times coming The First Cold War • 53 within twenty miles of Novgorod.32 The Order pursued him. OnApril 5, 1242, the two hosts was so certain of imminent victory that Bishop commenced warfare on the banks of Lake Hermann was sent to the Pope to request the Peipus--the Battle on the Ice. The Occidentals bishopric of the yet-to-be-conquered lands.3 had an army of some two thousand men, and Alexander was vehement in his opposition the Russians six thousand. This disparity ,was to the Teutonic presence. This was due to many for the most part balanced by the Teutons factors, including his patriotism, piety, and love superior armaments.3s of peace, but ulterior motives are also relevant. According to the Nikonian Chronicle: Throughout his reign, Alexander prospered under the auspices of the Orthodox Church. He It was Saturday and the sun was rising when the two hosts clashed. The Germans and the had a bond with a certain Metropolitan Krill, Chud', being in a formation shaped like a and they mutually bolstered each other's pig, thrust through the [Russian] regiments, position. Should the Teutonic Knights have and there was an evil and great battle for the succeeded in their endeavor and founded a papal Germans and the Chud'. There were state, the foundation of Alexander's rule would tremors from the breaking lances and there was noise of swords clashing. They moved crumble.S4 over the frozen lake but the ice could not be Late in 1241, Alexander opted to strike seen because it was all covered with blood... Kopore to bring an end to the debilitating raids. The [heavenly Russian] warriors heaved He routed the garrison, and "he destroyed the their shoulders and slashed their swords, city to its foundations, slew Germans and moving as if on air; and the others had no brought some to Novgorod; others he permitted refuge whither to flee, and they were pursued for seven versts on the ice, up to the to go to the German land because he was Subolich shore. Five hundred Germans were merciful above measure."s killed there, and an endless number of The Teutonic occupation of Pskov greatly Chud'. Fifty important Germans were perturbed Nevsky, and so he purposed to captured -- powerful commanders -- and liberate it from their grasp. On March 5, 1242, they were brought to Novgorod. Some others drowned in the water, and some, Alexander "occupied all the roads to Pskov and gravely wounded, escaped... And the name then unexpectedly, entered Pskov and captured of Grand Prince Aleksandr Iaroslavich began the Germans, the Chud' and the German to spread through all lands.., and so he came administrators, sent them in chains to to Novgorod with great victory.39 Novgorod, and liberated the city of Pskov from captivity." 6 A German chronicler describes the At this battle, the fearsome Teutonic Knights episode: were defeated, and Alexander ensured that his people would not kowtow to the Occident. He marched toward Pskov with many troops. He arrived there with a mighty The Aftermath force of many Russians to free the Pskovians and these latter heartily rejoiced. When he Although the Battle on the Ice was a bitter saw the Germans he did not hesitate long. defeat for the Teutonic Order, it did not have They drove away the two Brothers, removed any long-term negative ramifications on the them from their advocacy and routed their Order itself. Only twenty-six brothers were servants. The Germans fled... If Pskov had lost--twenty were slaughtered, and six taken been defended, Christianity would be benefited until the end of the world. It is a prisoner by Nevsky. The real damage dealt by mistake to conquer a fair land and fail to the debacle was that it forced the Order to occupy it well... The king of Novgorod abandon its hopes of further eastern then returned home.37 expansion.4° The most important result of the Battle of On the return to Novgorod, Alexander's forces the Ice is that Russia was able to avoid being were impeded at a bridge by the forces.of shackled under Western domination. (Of Bishop Hermann. Alexander led his army in a course, they had to brook Eastern domination, strategic retreat, but the Prelate's forces met but that is another tale entirely). In many ways, with the remainder of the Teutonic army and Western Europe simply "forgot Russia's 54 " The Wittenberg History Journal

existence and no longer considered her part of And perhaps because this event is so very the European Christian community."41 The salient, the architect of its victory--Alexander Battle on the Ice caused Russia to be isolated Nevsky--has risen to become the Arch-Hero of from the rest of the Occident, and therefore the Russian people. His exploits were prevented it from participating in the events that rendered--albeit somewhat propagandized-- shaped the Western consciousness. Had the into one of the greatest films of all time Teutonic Knights triumphed and been able to (Eisenstein's AlexanderNevsky). His heroism is maintain an orderly state, Russia may well have captured in a masterpiece of music--Prokofiev's experienced the Renaissance, the Scientific score for the aforementioned film. And his Revolution, the Enlightenment, the Reformation, name was invoked by Stalin in Russia's darkest and other such momentous happenings that are hour, when Hitler and his Wehrmachtwere so integral to the formation of modern threatening Moscow itself. And perhaps most Occidental society. As it stands, however, fittingly of all, he is officially recognized as a Russia did not take part in these occurrences, saint by the Russian Orthodox Church,44 the and is ergo an anomaly in the world: not quite very church he saved through his deeds. Western, not quite Eastern, but a nation all its own. Many Russians view this battle as the Conclusion decisive moment in their nation's The Teutonic Knights were a powerful development--the moment when Russia military order that abandoned the Holy Land in prevailed against the tyranny of the West.42 favor of Eastern Europe, partly because of its After the Battle on the Ice, with the Western ethos and partly because of conditions in the forces decisively routed, Alexander was region. This puissant force was halted in its compelled to ruminate upon the future of his expansion by Alexander Nevsky at the Battle on realm. The Tatars inexorably pushed into the the Ice, a battle which served to forever separate region, and he had to decide whether to resist or Russia from the rest of the Occident, for good or yield. Resistance was a bloody path, Alexander for ill. The development of Russia and ergo the knew, and the inevitable defeat it promised world would have been drastically different had would bring an end to his reign and to Russian the Teutons prevailed in that bloody debacle. culture. Should he agree to the Tatar's terms, Because of his resilience, Alexander Nevsky is however, he would be guaranteed limited revered as one of Russia's greatest rulers, and his autonomy, and the Tatar's would allow the memory continually brings hope and inspiration Russians to maintain their cultural to his people. The Teutonic Knights worked to independence. Alexander sagaciously chose the improve the world by their methods, and they latter option, placing Russia in ephemeral chains have in many ways bettered it. Still, while they but forging a key for future freedom.43 are called crusaders, the principles of that breed are best exemplified by Alexander Nevsky: courage, zeal, and love for a higher ideal.

End Notes

1Helen Nicholson, Templars,Hospitallers, and 3Eric OpsahI, "The Teutonic Order;" TeutonicKnights: Images of theMilitary Orders available from: ; University Press, 1995), 115. Internet; accessed 14 April 2001. il 2Indrikis Stems, trans., "The Rule and 4Ibid. Statutes of the Teutonic Knights;" available 5Desmend Seward, The Monks of War: The

i from; Intemet; accessed 14 April 2001. Military Reh,ious Orders (New York: Penguin ! Books, 1995), 95+97. I SNicholson, 108. The First Cold War ° 55

7Mary Fischer, Di HimelsRote: The Idea of 2Slbid. ChristianChivalry in the Chroniclesof the Teutonic 26Serge A. Zenkovsky, ed. and trans, and Order (Goppingen, Germany: Kummerle Verlag, Betty Zenkovsky, trans., The Nikonian Chronicle: 1991), 73. From the Year 1241 to the Year 1381),vol. 3 SIbid. (Princeton: The Kingston Press, Inc., 1986), xiv. 9Ibid., 74+77. 27Seward, 105. l°Nicholson, Templars,Hospitallers, and 28EricChristiansen, The Northern Crusade, 2d TeutonicKnights, 116. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 1997), 45. 11Ibid., 118. 29William Urban, The Baltic Crusade, 2d ed. 12Ibid. (Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies 13Ibid., 116-117. Center, Inc., 1994), 195. 14Fischer, 133-134. 30Ibid. 15Helen Nicholson, ed., Welfare and Warfare, 31Zenkovsky, 8. vol. 2 of The Military Orders (Aldershot, Great S2Urban, 196. Britain: Ashgate Press, 1998), 75-78. SaIbid. 16Nicholson, Templars,Hospitallers, and 34JohnFermell, The Crisis of Medieval Russia, TeutonicKnights, 3. 1200-1304 (London: Longman Group Limited, 17Thomas F. Madden, A ConciseHistory of the 1983), 112. Crusades (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and 3SZenkovsky, 10. Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999), 140. 36Ibid. l Myron Gruenwald, One Cubit of Stature: 37Urban, 197. The Story of the Order of the TeutonicKnights, SaIbid., 198. (Hubertus, Wisconsin: by Guyle O'Cormeli, a9Zenvoksky, 11-13. 1985), 16. 4°Christiansen, 135. 18Ibid., 140-141. 41Zenvoksky, xv. 2°Daniel H. Kaiser and Gary Marker, eds., 42"Alexander Nevsky," EncartaOnline; ReinterpretingRussian History: Readings 860-1860s available from: http://encarta.msn.corrdfind/ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 63. Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761558828; 21Ibid., 65. Intemet; accessed 14 April 2001. 22Ibid. 43Fennell,114. 23Ibid. 44"Alexander Nevsky." 24Ibid., 66.

Works Cited

Primary Sources Zenkovsky, Serge, ed. and trans., and Betty Zenkovsky, trans. The NiteonianChronicle: Kaiser, Daniel, and Gary Marker, eds. From the Year 1241 to 438t, Vol. 3. Princeton: ReinterpretingRussian History: Readings 860- The Kingston Press, 1986. t860s. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Secondary Sources

Sterns, Indrikis, trans. "he Rule and Statutes of Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades, 2d ed. the Teutonic Knights;" available from New York: Penguin Books, 1997. orb.rhodes.edu/encyclop/religion/monastic/ .tk rule.htm{; Intemet; accessed 14 April Fennell, John. The Crisisof Medieval Russia, 1200- 2001. 4304. London: Longman Group Limited, 1983. 5;6 ° The Wittenberg History Journal

Fischer, Mary. Di Himels Rote: The Idea of Nicholson, Helen. Templars, Hospitallers, and Chivalry in the Chroniclesof the TeutonicOrder. TeutonicKnights: Images of theMilitary Orders, Goppingen, Germany: Kummerle Verlag, 1t28-129t. Leicester University Press, 1995. 1991. ., ed. Welfareand Warfare, Vol. 2 of The Gruewald, Myron E.. One Cubit of Stature:The Military Orders. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Story of the Order of the TeutonicKnights. Press, 1998. Hubertus, Wisconsin: By Guyle O'Connell, 1985. Seward, Desmond. TheMonks of War: The Military ReligiousOrders. New York: Penguin Madden, Thomas F. A Concise Historyof the C Press, 1995. Crusades. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999. Urban, William. The Baltic Crusade, 2d ed. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Opsahl, Eric. "The Teutonic Order;" available Center, Inc., 1994. from http://orb.rhodes.edu/encyclop/ religion/monastic/opsahll.html; Intemet; accessed 14 April 2001. The FirstCold War ° 57

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Map of the Occident and Lands of Rus' [1220]

Available from http://historymedren.about.com/homework/historymedrerdlibrar!/atlas/natmapbalt 1220.htm