Access to Vocational Education. a Planning System for Local Secondary and Post-Secondary Program and Facility Accessibility

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 197 213 CE 027 897

AUTHOR 'Rice, Eric: And Others TITLE Access to Vocational Education. A Planning System for Local Secondary and Post-Secondary Program and Facility Accessibility. Step 3: Generating Strategies. TNSTITUTTON Barr!er Free Environments, Inc., Raleigh, N.C.; System Sciences, Inc., Chapel Hill, N.C. SPO!S AGENCY Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE (80) CONTRACT 300-78-0592 NOTE 43p.: Photographs and areen headings will not reproduce well For related documents see CE 027 B9U-901.

EDPS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Accessibility (for Disabled) :*Access to Education: *Educational Planning: Equal Education: Evaluation Methods: *Group Dynamics: Guidelines: *Needs Assessment: Postsecondary Education: Programed Instructional Materials: Secondary Education; Systems Approach: *Vocational Education IDENTIFIERS Brainstorming: Charrettes: Nominal Group Technique: Synectics

ABSTRACT This guidebook focuses on the third of five steps included ina planning system for improving local secondary and postsecondary program and facilities accessibility: generating strategies. The guidebook is comprised of four sections, each describing a specific technique for generating strategies. Techniques Presented are (1) nominal group technique, (2) brainstorming, (3) synectics, and (4) charrette. within each section, specific self-instructional activities for group leaders using that technique are aiven. In addition, examples of esFecific settings where each technique might be most effective are given. (LRA)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** ccess to Vocational Education A Planning System for Local Secondaryand Post-Secondary Program and Facility Accessibility

Generating Strategies

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCAT1ON

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fr Introduction The third step in the Planning System uses group decision-making and planning procedures to develop alternative strategies or solutions for removing each major identified barrier. As you will recall, a strategy or solution is a course of action undertaken to meet specified goals or objectives. Group decision-making and planning procedures have been suggested in this step because the use of such procedures increases the number and validity of ideas generated, stimulates support for and commitment to the program design, and helps to satisfy Federal compliance requirements. How to Use This Booklet Before opening this booklet generating strategies, you have recorded on the Planning Record the names of the two procedures you believe to be most useful in your setting for generating strategies. In this booklet, you will find self- instructional descriptions of each procedure suggested for use in Step 3. Please turn to the sections corresponding to the procedures you noted on the-Planning Record and read the material. Note that the materials assume you will be directing the planning exercise. If you have given responsibility for this step to someone else, this booklet should be studied b; that person. After you have completed the reading, you must consider agein your choice of procedures arid make a final decision about which technique you will use. Jr 4, :z Nominal Group Techniue

The Nominal Group Technique Essentially, the NGT is a was developed by Andre Delbecq and structured group meeting in which his colleagues over a ten-year period; individuals are encouraged first to its purpose is to increase the generate their own ideas or solutions effectiveness of group idea generation to problems, without the pressure for program planning. It has been from other participants toward used successfully in industry, consensus. Then, through a process of government, health and education alternate discussion and anonymous organizations. Delbecq's technique voting, a rank-ordered list of minimizes the limitations of "natural" problems or solutions is obtained. The interacting groups which had been technique is applicable to a great found less than adequate for variety of tasks in many different generating ideas and setting priorities. settings. The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) has been designed specifically to assure equal participation of all persons involved in the planning process so that the dialogue is not dominated by a few assertive individuals. For this reason, NGT is an appropriate technique to use when people with diverse backgrounds and different degrees of responsibility need to make decisions or solve problems. In fact, the NGT has been found helpful to school administrators when they must involve professional staff, support personnel, and parent groups in program planning (Paul, Turnbull and Cruickshank, 19771.

What is one major difference between Nominal Group Technique and othergroup methods you read about in the Guide? a. ideas are prioritized or rank-ordered b.participants do not discuss each other's ideas c. uniqueness of ideas is emphasized d. NGT requires the use of a computer e.it costs absolutely nothing e :Jamsuv STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE

The Nominal Group Technique format demands a single-topic incorporates some advantages of meeting since itis difficult to change interacting groups while minimizing topics in the middle of discussion. If most disadvantages. For example, one after some discussion, it becomes disadvantage of interacting groups is apparent that more than one kind of that natural leaders or verbal problem or goal needs attention, then individuals dominate discussions, the NGT should not he employed. Cioreby discouraging new and You should consider and eliminate innovative thinking about a topic. this problem in your initial selection Interacting groups expend energy and phrasing of the questions and competing for "floor time" and objectives of the meeting. discussion has a tendency to stray A second potential limitation of from the main topic. As a result, too NCI is its structured for mat. I`lough often time is wasted and the decisions the struc tort' Members are sometimes made in haste, if made trorn others' c ritic ism of their ideas, it at all. occasionally makes some participants The structured steps of the NGT feel manipulated and uncomfortable. eliminate the problem mentioned as if the process na, precedence over above. The initial silent period the participants. (wriunit-11reative encourages group members to ideas and the enriching development generate ideas as well as to feel of ideas through in-depth group responsible for the group's success. di cussion ina\, be sacrificed by the The NGT also allows members to need to ntoc' on to the next step in share personal concerns and the procedure. potentially unpopular ideas while The technique also lac ks a certain avoiu'ig the sometimes "hidden degree of precision. The ideas offered agenda" of interacting groups. The during the first round of the NGT may discussion period following the not be preciehy defined and may "round robin" guarantees that appear to overlap, when in fact their meanings are clarified and ideas sponsors had different aspects of the sharpened, as in interacting groups. problem in mind. 1 here is limited The research of Delbecq and others opportunity in the procedure for indicates that nominal groups producemajor refinement of ideas. Also, very more creative and acceptable similar ideas are not always combined solutions than interacting groups before being ranked. Voting without a (Dunnette, Campbell and Justad. 1963). thorough sorting of ideas into When group members are varied in appropriate categories is erroneous status, roles, views or opinions. and results in repetition in the final NGT procedures reduce the amount of list. conflict and tension sometimes found in groups with varied backgrounds. Although the Nominal Group Technique has many advantages, there are several aspects of the process which may limit its use under certain circumstances. First, the structured

The Nominal Group Technique produces a rank-ordered list of possible solutions to the presented problem. Is this a strength or limitation of the technique? Why?

III lf),i .10.11`11(1 1011WS WHEN SHOULD THE NGT BE USED?

The Nominal Group Technique is adaptable to a wide variety of settings and is well within the capacities of most potential participants. This method is appropriate when problem definition or idea-generating is desired. With it the following goals can be accomplished: (1) to identify various elements of a problem; (2) to identify elements of a solution; and (3) to establish a priority listing of these elements. It is particularly helpful when judgments of many individuals must be combined and a group decision made; it is very useful when a ranking of options is desired.

RESOURCES AND MATERIALS REQUIRED The physical requirements for holding an NGT meeting are minimal. A room large enough to accommodate all participants comfortably at desks or at a table with chairs is necessary. All participants need paper, pens or pencils and several ?" x 5" notecards for recording ideas and voting. The person leading or directing the group needs a flip chart on an easel or a chalkboard which the entire group can see for recording ideas and votes. The leader also needs a felt-tip pen and a roll of masking tape for recording and displaying responses. These supplies are not difficult to obtain in most educational settings.

In which of the following situations would the Nominal Group Techniquebe an appropriate technique for an administrator to use? Please selectmore than one answer if more than one situation applies. a. negotiating with a teachers' union b. planning for competency testing C. selecting textbooks for the next year d.fixing the air conditioning system e. choosing the site of an open classroom unit f. eliminating bus routes to conserve gas

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How much would it cost to use participants or the administrator as the NGT to generate solutions for compared with other available removing barriers in your educational methods. Good planning and careful unit? In general, the dollar definition of the group's objectives by expenditure would be minimal, the administrator or group leader will because the materials are inexpensive contribute to lower cost, for this and very little time is required of the technique. 1(0 Let's see how much a nominal group session would costyour educational unit. Assuming the room, paper and pens were available free, estimate the following: Cost of 1/2 day work Participants (at most)

Leader Cost of 11/2 days work

Total Cost

At this point, does the Nominal Group Technique stillseem promising for your own school system? If "yes" continue; if "no", try another technique.

HOW TO CONDUCT A NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE SESSION The Nominal Group Technique is must clarify the objectives for the a structured group meeting which meeting through consultation with follows a prescribed sequence of other administrators (and with group problem-solving steps. It is designed leaders if more than one group is for a small group of seven to nine involved). Specifically, the NGT members whose goal is to generate a question and alternative forms of the variety of quality ideas about a topic.* question should be developed to A larger group must be divided into which participants can respond. smaller groups of this size. To Questions should encourage the complete all NGT steps, each group expression of individual perspectives meets continuously for a maximum of on the issue. three hours. Sample questions for generating Participants should include both solutions to major identified barriers service providers and consumers. In for the Tigris and Euphrates examples the present context, this would found in the Guide might include: include vocational educators, special Tigris: education instructors, vocational How would you suggest that the rehabilitation counselors, program vocational program increase the administrators and handicapped willingness of the vocational persons. R is important to include staff, through improving persons with different perspectives in teaching skills and teacher order to obtain a wide spectrum of attitude, to serve special needs solutions and to provide realistic feedback on the ideas offered. You students in regular vocational should consider using your Local education classrooms? Planning Committee. Euphrates: Prior to scheduling the nominal What means would be used to group meeting yo,,, as group leader, eliminate unnecessary pre- requisites and thereby increase The technique can be used effectively with up to enrollment of handicapped 12 people once the group leader is familiar with students in vocational the technique. programming? 11 Here are a few quick questions about the NGT proceduresso far. Fill in the blanks. a. Who can be a member of an NGT group?

b.What is the optimal number of people inan NCT group? c. What is the first task which the administrators orgroup leader must perform?

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You, as group leader, should You can perform your role as prepare an opening statement to group leader more effectively by begin the meeting which conveysa being sure that you: (1) have sense of the importance of the task, presented the question in writing and clarifies each member's role in the have displayed it in full view of the meeting, and identifies the mission of group, (2) resist clarifying non-process the group. The question to be related questions which might direct answered or problem to be solved or impede the group, (3) serve as a should then be posed and fully model of good group behavior by explained by the leader including writing in silence, and (4) sanction necessary background about individuals who disrupt the silent ioentified barriers and priorities. No indepeodent activity. questions from participants are entertained at this time because (1) your explanation should be sufficiently clear and (2) such questions might inhibit group Activity 2: Round-Robin members' initial responses. After Recording of Ideas. After participants explaining the mission and question, have completed the silent generation you as groLip leader initiate group of ideas, the next NGT activity is to activity according to the following record the ideas of the group schedule. members on a flip chart visible to the entire group. In this step, go around the table asking for one idea from one member at a time. Write each Activity 1: Vent Generation of idea on the flip chart as it is Ideas in Writing. After you have suggested; proceed to ask for another presented background information idea from the next group member in and have read the nominal question turn. Your task during this step in the aloud to the group, you should process is simply to record all of the instruct the group to write their ideas ideas offered by group members on in brief phrases or statements on the the flip chart which is visibly displayed provided worksheets. Ask the group in front of the group. During the idea to work silently and independently. Asrecording process, members should Evader of the group, you are a not discus: or defend their ideas. working participant and should also Time will be provided later for write down your ideas silently and discussion and clarification of the independently. You may answer items that are generated. clarifying questions but avoid making any statement that might direct the This step in the process provides group or focus their attention unduly for equal participation among on a particular idea or area. group members ;n presentation of ideas, The silent generation of ideas in focuses thinking c n the problem, writing should take approximately five helps to separate ideas from minutes; it should not exceed ten personalities, and provides a written minutes. Generally, five minutes is record of the group's thinking. The adequate time for generating a large written list is an important earlygroup number of useful and different ideas. reward. 12 As the group leader, it is presented, asking the leader to rule important for you to describe the on duplications or engaging in side procedures for this step clearly, to conversations. solicit ideas from the group members Remember the goal of this step is in brief words or phrases in a round- a rapid, accurate list of ideas in brief robin fashion, to communicate to the words or phrases, recorded in writin7 group that variations on a theme are on a flip chart in front of the entire desirable, and to record on the flip group. This list will become the guide chart the suggested ideas as quickly as for further discussion; it provides a possible. Be sure to sanction any type clear picture of the group's thinking of disruptive behavior that may occur and is the group's product. during this step. An example of a Redundancy is permissible at this step disruptive behavior would be an in the procedure, though in practice individual trying to discuss ideas members often simply do not suggest rather than simply list them; other ideas which someone has already disruptive behaviors would include essentially presented. arguing with ideas as they are

What is a round-robin procedure and why is it useful in NGT?

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Activity 3: Serial Discussion for During this step, lobbying, Clarification. After all ideas have been aggressive interaction or disruptive recorded, the next NGT activity is to argumentation should not be allowed discuss each of the ideas listed by the to occur. The purpose of serial group. Serial discussion means discussion is to enhance clarification addressing each idea listed on the flip and to minimize influence based on chart in order and allowing a short verbal prominence or status. The period of time for the discussion of group leader should pace the that idea. As the leader of the group, discussion by not allowing discussion you will point to item #1, read it to focus unduly on any particular idea aloud, and ask the group if there are or to degenerate into argument. any questions, clarifications or If there are differences of opinion statements of agreement and/or on a particular item, the leader should disagreement which members would allow both points of view to be aired like to make about that item. Allow a before shifting group attention to a brief period of time for discussion, if discussion of the next item. there is any; after discussion, address Differences of opinion will be attention to item #2, then to item #3, accurately recorded in the voting and so on. It is important to procedure, a later activity in the remember that the major objective of Nominal Group Technique. the discussion is to clarify, not to win The leader must attempt to arguments. Clarification will help balance discussion across all items, other members understand the making sure that no item suffers from meaning of the brief words or phrases inadequate clarification due to time on the chart. Clarification is not constraints. Some items may not need restricted, however. It may include substantial clarification. Still, the discussion of the logic or analysis leader should ask each member of the behind an item as well as the relative group if they have a clarifying 10 importance placed on the item. comment or a question. Make sure that each person has an opportunity remaining four cards, have the group to comment on every item. members select the card on which the least important item is written, write Individual members should not the number "1" in the lower be required to clarify their own items. righthand corner and underline that The leader should instruct the group number three times. After turning that members not to ask individuals to card over, have the group choose the explain items unless the individual most important item listed on the chooses to d ) so. Although most remaining three cards, rank this item individuals will volunteer to clarify "4" and underline the number three their own items, it should be times. Then, select the least important established that clarification is a group item of the remaining two cards, rank task and not necessarily the this item "2" and underline it. Instruct responsibility of the person who the group to write "3" on the last suggested the item. card and underline the number. The figure below, "Index Card Indicating Voting Process", illustrates a sample index card. The group should be given a Activity 4: Preliminary Voting on short time to reexamine their rankings the Priority Strategies. After before passing the cards to the leader. completing the list of strategies, the After collecting the cards the leader next NGT activity is the preliminary may shuffle them to preserve voting on suggested strategies. The anonymity and insure that no average nominal group process individual's voting pattern can be meeting will result in more than 12 identified. However, voting can be items being suggested by each group public, particularly if revoting is not during the idea generation phase. contemplated. You should then make Through discussion and clarification, a balance sheet on the flip chart by group members will come to numbering the lefthand side of the sheet in accordance with the number understand the meanings of the items, the logic behind them and arguments of items from the round-robin listing. for and against the importance of Ask one member of the group to read each. The next task is to determine each item number and the rank the relative importance of individual number from the collected stack of items through a combination of voting cards. With one group member individual judgments. In order to reading and the leader recording, the make this determination and to preliminary vote is tallied as shown in increase judgmental accuracy, you will the figure entitled. "Sample Tally Sheet have group members make individual for Recording; Rankings and Calculating Priority Items." judgments and express these judgments mathematically. Each member of the group should have in INDEX CARD front of them five 3" x 5" index cards. INDICATING Ask group members to select the five VOTING PROCESS most important items from the entire list of solutions or strategies on the Number from original group flip chart. Members should write each flip chart list of the five items on a separate 3" x 5" card,includingitemnumberand statement. The voting process is Teachers lack specific, skit 15 uncomplicated. After each group cor warkins wilt, handicapped member has selected five solutions studenTs. and written each on a separate card, ask group members to choose the card on which the item they consider to be most important is written. Instruct members to write the nu mber "5" in the lower righthand corner of the card and underline that number three times. Have group members turn the card they numbered over. Next, instruct them to look at the Numberindicating remaining four cards. Of the 14 ranking or vote i SAMPLE TALLY SHEET FOR RECORDING RANKINGS AND CALCULATING PRIORITY ITEMS

Times Sum of No. of Ranks Item Number* Rank Ranked Ranks x Sum of RanksPriority

1 3,2,2,2,1 5 10 50 6 2 4,5,5,5 4 19 76 1 3 5,5,5,3 4 18 72 2 4 2,1,3,4,2 5 12 60 4 5 5,4,4,3 4 16 64 3 6 4,4,3,4 4 15 60 4 7 3,1,1,2 4 7 28 7

List as many items as necessary.

At this point, the Nominal Group Technique process can be concluded.

Activities 5 and 6: Discussions of Preliminary Vote and Final Voting. However, in instances where voting patterns and provide an increased judgemental accuracy is opportunity to discuss items which are desired or where the output of several perceived as receiving too many or small groups must be combined, two too few votes. In Activity 5, Discussion additional activities should be used. of Preliminary Vote, you should These are: (1) discussion of the define the discussion tasks as preliminary vote and (2) revoting. In clarifications rather than social pressure situations where you are working with to get members of the group to only one group, discussion of the change their minds. The goal of preliminary vote (Activity 5) and final clarification also serves to insure that voting (Activity 6) are conducted the discussion remains brief so as not similar to Activities 3 and 4 described to distort perceptions of items which earlier. In this instance, you should are not discussed. Please follow the help the group determine inconsistent discussion procedures of Activity 3.

How is the final list of alternatives determined? a. selected by the leader b. thought up privately by group members c. through debate d.secret ballot e. by outside team of evaluators

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In Activity 6, Final Voting, 22 people divided into two groups of individual judgments will be 8 and one group of 6 individuals, then combined into a group decision. The at the end of Activity 4 you would final vote determines the outcome of have five priority strategies listed for the meeting, provides a sense of each group, or three sets of closure and accomplishment, and statements. documents the group's judgment. Integration of the lists produced Voting follows the procedures by these three groups can be followed in Activity 4. accomplished through procedures Activities 5 and 6 shou:.I also be similar to those identified in Activities used when you have had to split your 5 and 6 above. After concluding faculty or school system personnel Activity 4, bring the members of the into several small groups in order to different groups together and compile conduct the nominal group process. the ranked output of the three groups 12 For example, if your meeting included into a single list of priority strategies. Following the compilation of the list, following the procedure outlined in proceed with serial discussion of each Activity 4, as described earlier. As you item in order to clarify each item on will recall, this procedure called for the compiled list. While conducting each group member to select the five this serial discussion, duplicate items most important strategies from the list can be eliminated and/or regrouped of items, and to write each of those as appropriate, thereby reducing the strategies on a single 3" x 5" card. The size of the overall list. In addition, items on the cards are then ranked discussions about each item as wellas with the most important item information about the preliminary receiving a rank of 5 and the least voting permit the entire group to important item receiving a rank of 1. consider the importance of each item The cards are collected and the votes compared to the others. The group are tallied on a tally sheet as depicted leader must insure that each item is in the figure entitled, "Sample Tally discussed sufficiently to encompass all Sheet." Calculations of the priority points of view; however, excessive item can be accomplished through time should not be devoted to any multiplication of the number of times single item. the item was ranked by thesum of After clarification and discussion the ranks. The items with the highest of the items, the membership should overall scores are the most important be instructed to vote on the entire list items.

In the last discussion period of the NGT, what dogroup members talk about? a. time and place of next meeting b.whether the NGT was worthwhile c. the first rank-ordering d.their initial ideas e.whether to vote by secret ballotor not f. who should be the group leader

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At the end of Activity 4 or Activityhours. Because the activities of the 6, you will have completed the process are structured, a break for Nominal Group Technique process. At participants is possible. After the this point, the most important session is ended, the leader should strategies or solutions will have been summarize the procedures and results identified and there will be consensus in a written report to distribute to all among involved personnel about the participants. solutions. Note that implementation of the NGT takes at least two to th.e

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES The Nominal Group Technique is your use. For reports of research well-publicized, and numerous comparing this technique with other resources, people and written group methods having the same materials, are available to assistyou purpose, you might check the subject with the method. Delbecq and Van de indices of Psychological Abstracts and Ven, who first developed the Current Index to Journals in Education technique, have publishedmany for current articles of interest. books and articles which are available through libraries and bookstores. One in particular, Group Techniques for Program Planning, Scott, Foresman and Co., 1975, is recommended for 13 16 I'? Brainstorming

Brainstorming was introduced in The administrator can expect to 1949 by advertising executive Alex receive from a Brainstorming session a Osborn as a method for a group of list of workable ideas numbering five people to generate ideas in quantity. or six times the number of people in It was a very popular technique the group. Participants in the session during the 1950's, primarily with will feel that they have made a advertising firms and other businesses. positive contribution to the solution It has become less popular in recent of the problem. According to years as newer group methods, proponents of Brainstorming, the retaining many of the strengths of enhancement of creative potential Brainstorming and few of Ls resulting from participation in the limitations, have been developed. session should be carried over to Brainstorming often has been other aspects of job performance. incorporated as one step in these newer procedures. When Brainstorming was introduced most decisions represented a consensus or compromise arrived at in "committee meetings" through "group discussions." Often decisions were made just to end the meeting. Meetings usually were dominated by the person in authority who called the meeting, and the decision made usually reflected the leader's opinion. Few participants were satisfied with their contribution; few supervisors would use the outputs of such groups because they were sometimes inconclusive or even erroneous. Brainstorming represented a real improvement in group management, given the context in which it was introduced.

Brainstorming can result in: a. achieving a consensus b. developing creative solutions in depth c. generating many clever ideas d.breaking a problem up into more manageable elements e. arranging problem-solving steps in logical order

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tQ STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF BRAINSTORMING Brainstorming groups have been Block, 1958). Most often a large described as fun, interesting and number of ideas or solutions are stimulating by those involved in them generated, of which eight or ten will (Clark, 1969). The operational rules of be totally appropriate; if the followup "suspended judgment" and "building ranking of ideas by group members is on the ideas of others" encourage all carried out, you, as administrator, will members to participate. Hopefully, have a recommendation of the best the power hierarchy in which group course of action. members are involved outside the Brainstorming group does not operate during the process, allowing the resources of a diverse group of people to be tapped. The list of ideas that a Brainstorming group produces has been found to be superior to the nebulous reports issued by the unstructured committees which the technique replaced (Taylor, Berry &

How do you think the output of a Brainstorming group would compare with the output of other kinds of groups? Quantity Quality

Very high

Somewhat higher

About same

Somewhat lower

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In comparison studies of than other techniques with simple and Brainstorming, newer techniques have familiar problems but worse with been found to be better for group more complex, unfamiliar problems; it decision-making. Groups using the was the best technique in at least one Nominal Group Technique or the study when totally novel solutions Delphi technique produced more were required. ideas of better quality than Some observations about the Brainstorming groups (Dunette, research done on Brainstorming are in Campbell & Justad, 1963; Bouchard order given some of the critical and Hane, 1970). In operation comments about the technique. In Brainstorming groups have been many of these studies researchers observed to be convergent, settling have failed to run the group in its on one line of thought rather than classical fashion, with followup stimulating many lines of thought prioritizing and summary by the (Madsen & Finger, 1978). Opinion facilitator. Most studies have been leaders or persons in authority have done in college social psychology been found to dominate the group laboratories rather than in real process despite the rules prohibiting organizations. Experiment participants such influence. In other studies, lack familiarity with the problem or 16 Brainstorming was found to be better with other participants, so perhaps Brainstorming in this context failedto Nelsen, Petelle, and Monroe (1974) liberate participants from the suggest giving the Brainstorming organizational structure found in group a list of cue words to increase business contexts and failedto the quality of ideas. Conducting the generate enough anxiety to prompt group as originally outlined by great creativity. It would be important Osborn with after-the-meeting to compare Brainstorming with other rankings of alternatives by participants techniques in a real-life setting. will also improve the output (and Though Brainstorming has usually reput-Ition) of Brainstorming. proven less productive than newer group problem-solving methods, it has been found uniformly superiorto traditional, unstructuredgroup discussion in arriving at decisions.

List at least three ways in which othergroup techniques can be more effective ..han Brainstorming.

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WHEN SHOULD BRAINSTORMING BE USED? Brainstorming is unlimited in its problems (Bayless, 1967). Its capacityto applications, according to its stimulate very novel and unique ideas proponents; however, 20 years of related to familiar topics is most useful experimentation with the technique in advertising, the area in which itwas suggest a more restricted range. The originally developed. Brainstorming method has proven most useful in might also be considered when time generating numerous novel solutions and cost limitations rule out other to problems with which group techniques as possibilities. members have had some first-hand experience. Brainstorming has been found to be equal or superiorto the other methods of problem solving with respect to simple problems but much less effective with complex ;20 17 Think of the problem(s) you face in making vocational education accessible to handicapped students. Is it simple or complex? Does it involve many people or few? For what kind of problem does brainstorming produce good solutions? a. complicated, intricate b.those involving transportation and advertising c. logical, sequential d.novel or unusual e.simple, familiar Should you consider this technique further? uamsuv

RESOURCES AND MATERIALS REQUIRED The effort needed to conduct a follow should sufficiently train you to Brainstorming group is slight conduct Brainstorming. considering the benefits accrued. The The meeting itself will use one- first requirement is a group leader, half hour of each participant's time probably you, as administrator, who plus a small amount of timenot will accept responsibility for more than one-half hourfor describing the problem, convening followup procedures. One session will the group, conducting the session, require up to four hours of secretarial and compiling the output in some time to record the session, type and readable form. The leader should circulate the final list, and tabulate have some experience in and circulate the rank orderings of Brainstorming groups, preferably in strategies or solutions. leading them. If you are familiar with the technique, the instructions which

To estimate the costs of operating a Brainstorming group, fill in the following information: Who in your system would you ask to be in a Brainstorming group?

Would you need to pay any of these people extra for 1/2 hour to 1 hour of their time?

NO ; YES ;if YES, how much?$

Who would you designate as leader or coordinator o the group:

How much would 2 days of a leader's time cost? (Include your own rate if you will serve as group leader)

How much will 4 hours of secretarial time cost?

Total Cost. $ In addition to the people costs, secretary of the group. The possibility Brainstorming requires several of obtaining 40 or so good remedies, physical supplies. The group should for a chronic organizational problem have a comfortable, spaciousroom for example, might well be worth the with tables and chairs; such investment. Paper and reproduction accommodations might be rented if facilities to circulate the list for not available. Paper and pencils for rank ordering of solutions after the participants are optional but necessary session is an important though in ample quantity for the leader and nominal cost that must be considered.

HOW TO CONDUCT A BRAINSTORMING GROUP SESSION A Brainstorming group consists of sure members are of equal or nearly 8 to 15 people called together by a equal status in the organization, leader to generate ideas about a because having a person with specific topic or problem; 12 people isauthority over other members ina considered ideal. Your Local Planning Brainstorming group has been found Committee is recommended. Most to restrict its productivity. The leader often, members of the group are all must issue written invitations to the employed by the same companyor by meeting in which the problemor the same public agency. topic to be considered is stated Characteristics of the leader and of completely and concisely. In this the group will be discussed in turn. manner, participants can begin to Though no special leadership think about the problem before they skills, characteristics, or training are convene. The leader must also arrange required, according to developers of for time, space and supplies for the Brainstorming, the role of the leader meeting. in Brainstorming is critical although unobtrusive. The leader must select the members of the group, making

Write down two things the group leader must do before thegroup convenes.

Now, in checking your answers in thetext above, fill in the third activity of the leader. You omitted it from your list becauseyo were asked to list only two activities.

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The people who make up the group has functioned as a group prior Brainstorming group may be from any to Brainstorming and/or if the leader part of the organization that has the is skilled, equal status of group problem, provided they have some members becomes much less basic understanding of the topic being important. The group is given a time considered. Group membership limit for their session (25 minutes should be from the same general level maximum) and a secretary or tape in the organization, middle recorder to collect, verbatim, all the management, for example. If the ideas which are generated. Why does a Brainstorming group need a secretary?

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For groups undertaking specific problems should emerge. The Brainstorming for the first time, a group can be divided in order to warm-up exercise, practicing the consider each of the specific problems procedures on a very simple problem, or it may focus on one topic at a time is highly recommended. For example, as an entire group. you might have participants suggest as The first "sitting" of the group many ways as possible to get a student should not exceed 25 minutes; in a wheelchair into the woodworking therefore, it might be advisable to shop; encourage novel solutions such break up the group before beginning as a crane to lift the wheelchair to the Brainstorming session if further window height and replacement of definition, as described above, is the window with a chute. Suggestions undertaken. When two sessions are should not be bound by historical or needed, one for clarifying issues and traditional constraints. A practice one for Brainstorming, group Brainstorming session should be members should be urged to switch limited to five minutes. chairs between sessions, a practice Brainstorming groups are almost which facilitates idea production by unique in the strict observation of the indicating a change in activity and following rules. You, as leader of the thought patterns. group, are responsible for making To begin the session, the leader sure the rules are observed by the restates the problem to be membership. Violation of the rules, brainstormed, indicates the time limit especially the first one, is indicated by to be imposed (20-25 minutes is the leader ringing a bell. recommended), and asks for 1 No criticism of anyone's ideas,suggestions about how the problem actual or implied, is permitted. may be resolved. The leader's role 2 "Free-wheeling" (spinningafter beginning the session is to keep wilder and wilder ideas) is the ideas coming and to ring a bell welcomed and encouraged by when criticism is offered. Group the leader. members spontaneously and 3 The group should seek to voluntarily offer their ideas. If they generate as many ideas as wish to build upon another's idea, possible in the time allowed. they should be provided "clickers" for The leader frequently urges signaling their desire to break into the members to "come up with discussion. The desire to build on just 10 more ideas." another's idea can be indicated by 4 Combinations of other ideas (if hand signals as well. no denigration is intended) and improvement or refinements of other ideas are sought and encouraged. If, as is probable with the issues addressed by the Planning System, the problem to be considered by the group is very broad, it must be defined or refined before beginning the session. You might consider as a preliminary step, having all participants write down what the topic means; you might then discuss with the group several aspects of the problemsuch as who, what, when, 20 where, why, and how. Several more If silence occurs, you as leader where-why-how else is involved in may choose to wait until someone this problem or solution? If these suggests another idea, to throw out anmethods fail, you 3hould consider the idea of your own, or to have the session terminated, even if the time secretary read out every third item on has not expired. A group which the list. You may also ask, "What ifyouproduced 15 ideas or less should be added something to the problem or considered unsuccessful; you should took something away from it? How initiate another practice session and would that affect possible solutions?" try the Brainstorming procedure You also might ask who-what-when- again.

Which of the following does the leader ofa Brainstorming group do during a session? a. volunteers ideas b.writes down the solutions mentioned c. tries to keep suggestions coming d.restates the problem e. facilitates the accurate communication of ideas p pue :lamsuv

Once the Brainstorming session is non-redundant ideas and circulating it completed, you as group leader have to participants to have them several responsibilities. You should categorize the ideas as being usable, thank each participant for their questionable or unusable. A final contribution, either in person or in summary and list of suggestions is writing. Because Brainstorming only then composed and can be circulated starts the creative process in to participants to have them rank individuals, it is often fruitful to usuable solutions. Omission of these contact group members within 24 concluding steps has contributed to hours after the session to elicit the discrepancy in productivity additional ideas. You also are between this procedure and others responsible for compiling a list of with the same purposes.

How do the products of Brainstorming groups with and without these followup procedures differ?

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ADDITIONAL, RESOURCES Further details of the Brainstorming with other group Brainstorming procedure may be techniques were reported by found in several references. Clark has Dunnette, Campbell and Justad (1963), furnished an extensive description Taylor, Berry and Block (1958), Nelson, supported by personal testimony in Petelle and Monroe (1974), and Brainstorming, The Dynamic Way to Madsen and Finger (1978). Create Successful Ideas (1969). Napier (1973) and Souder and Ziegler (1977) offer fairly adequate descriptions, though many significant details are omitted. Important studies comparing 21 24 al 4 , '' ,t,'' '.J..: 4....*- A 4 * 4 4' N Synectics

W. J. J. Gordon, developing a new associations of meaning. Finding a technique of group- problem-solving method to tap this potential became around 1950, named it synectics, a his goal. His early efforts at group Greek derivation meaning to draw free-association were recorded and together diverse elements. He had in the tapes carefully analyzed for mind two aspects of his technique characteristic response patterns and when he gave it this name avenues by which novel solutions participation of persons with diverse were reached. This led to the backgrounds and the drawing formulation of certain principles of together of different but analogous operation and methods of directing ideas from the group's "free group meetings. association" process of problem- When considering this approach, solving. Gordon believed that the you as group leader and administrator process of invention was not the may expect some completely novel "divine inspiration" of a genius buta solutions to o!d problems or a process of speculation that c-uld be completely new invention or made observable by means of tape suggestion which may, at first, appear recording of the mental "mutterings" improbable. Yo,, should expect to of an individual or group. Gordon, use, temporarily, experts outside the Prince and other of their associates organization to advise the Synectics developed some specific procedures group working on a behavioral to stimulate and support a group in its problem. Unfortunately, the efforts to solve a problem via "group technique is expensive. When used in free association" or muttering, using other settings, several products of analogy and metaphor. Though Synectics have been (1) vapor-proof introduced as a tool for the business closures for astronauts' suits, (2) community, Prince and others have organic paint, and (3) a flexible successfully used it in other settings budgeting strategy for the Department such as government to solve "people" of Defense. rather than "product" problems. Gordon developed the Synectics technique after experiencing psycho- analysis and realizing the tremendous creative potential residing in every person's unconscious which might be unlocked by the verbal means of analogy and simile which depend for their richness on unconscious

The word synectics is a Greek derivation which means:

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A Synectics group in operation might be best described byan observer as: a. "verbal basketball" with two teams competingto score the most points b.a shouting match in which each person tries to utter the most creative ideas to solve a problem c. group free association d.selection of the best method of problem-solving fromamong several alternatives by means of group voting and discussion

3 :Jamsuv STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE ifNECTICS METHOD

Synectics represents an situation to another. In addition, they improvement over the formal or have to feel self-confident and be traditional methods of decision- well-adjusted enough to function making and idea development in comfortably in the Synectics group. terms of the quality and usefulness of Given these requirements, some the output. It may be that diverse individuals will not function well as group membership leads to more Synectics members, which limits the general, more original solutions. At generalizability of the method. least theoretically, the Synectics leader The leader is also a crucial figure does more directly to free the in the Synectics group. Probably more individual's unconscious than in any is required of this person than of the other method, which should lead to leader of Brainstorming or the more creative solutions. Nominal Group Technique because Synectics has other advantages. In the leader must simultaneously (1) this process the knowledge of experts keep the group focused and moving, within and outside the organization is (2) keep the atmosphere effectively and efficiently used. unthreatening for all participants, and Synectics includes small-group testing (3) be able to recognize ideas of of working models of the chosen quality and develop them. Obviously, solution. It is also flexibleit has the leader must have some experience demonstrated potential to solve and training which can add to the people problems as well as those expense of implementation. which represent a combination of technical and people problems, such as providing accessible programming in vocational education for handicapped students. Though not as well-known as some of the other suggested techniques, it has become more available through Prince's recent reformulation of Gordon's theory and his specification of procedures. One problem with Synectics is the qualifications of group members. Members need to be able to make generalizations, to recognize similarities and differences, to transfer knowledge or principles from one

Compared to other techniques available for identifying ways of overcoming barriers, Synectics is a. more creative and more expensive b. more creative and less expensive c. a little less creative and a lot less expensive d. less creative and much more expensive e. more creative and equally expensive p I SUV

In order to function effectively in a Synectics group an ir'i% idual must be able to a. get along well with fellow participants b.understand what the leader of the group is trying to get them to do c. use analogy, simile and metaphor d.think fast e. build models and such using the appropriate tools and machinery 24 :Jamsuv WHEN SHOULD SYNECTICS BE USED? Though first applied to industrial adaptable and useful in any situation product development. Synectics has requiring "making the familiar been used successfully in government strange" (or vice versa) with the and in middle management personnel following precaution: success of the areas. Even critics acknowledge the group depends on the skill and success of Synectics groups for training of the leader in eliciting and improving old products and inventing using the metaphorical and analogous new ones. Though best known for the materials generated by group impressive inventions to which it has members. given rise, Synectics is potentially

RESOURCES AND MATERIALS REQUIRED Gordon contracts with businesses identifyingalternatives for removing for a four-week initial session and ban iers would depend ona number then weekly sessions each month fora of factors which vary from educational year for training a Synectics group, unit to educational unit. First of all, which would be very costly. Prince how complicated is the task of does not mention specifics about providing vocational education for the training but offers sufficient guidance handicapped for the district? How for persons experienced with other many students are involved and how group methods to undertake Synectics spread out are they geographically? on their own. Training courses for To what extent have the existing leaders are offered at Synectics, Inc. programs already been changed in and SUNY-Buffalo in the Training for order to accommodate special needs Creativity program. students? in general, the more How much a Synectics group complex the presenting problems, would cost to operate would depend the more appropriate the Synectics on local resources. The time of five to method would be for addressing seven staff persons participating in the those problems. sessions is one expense. Consultants, A second factor to weigh when to estimate the cost of possible considering the Synectics technique is solutions or strategies, also might have the personnel available in the local to be paid. If none of the existing system who might participate in the administrative staff have sufficient group process. Is there someone who experience leading groups to assume could assume or be trained to assume that role, then training a staff member the leadership role in Synectics? Are or hiring a leader just for this task there potential participants who can would add to the expense. The skills recognize similarities and differences Synectics participants develop could between situations and can transfer be expected to generalize to other learningapply principles ofa problems they encounter on the job, solution to a natural science problem however, so part of the costs would to the problem of overcoming be recovered. If the requirements for barriers, for example? If adequate physical facilities could not be met personnel are present, then Synectics locally, these would have to be rented group techniques would provide the at additional expense. best information of all the methods The cost of a Synectics group for available.

Mark the two most important characteristics of the local schoolsystem to evaluate when considering the Synectics technique. a. the amount of money available b.verbal and abstract abilities of participants c. how long the technique takes to generate results d. cannot say; it depends on the local school system e. how complicated the local problem is .a pue q annsuy 25 ,28 The five- to seven-member provided in order to preserve the Synectics group would need a room concentration of the group. A tape equipped with table and chairs in recorder or secretary to create a which to meet for one to three days transcript of the group process is also consecutively or weekly after an initial needed for participants' reference and session. Coffee, tea, or soda should be to stimulate further thinking as the available. Meals are sometimes group progresses.

Are the above facilities available in your school? Yes No How much would Synectics cost in terms of personnel? Member Name Per Day x # Days = Salary

Leader

Total Personnel Cost: $

HOW TO CONDUCT A SYNECTICS SESSION The method originally developed "free association" characteristic of by Gordon was tc deal with highly Synectics groups. Gordon described it specific and well-defined problems of as a process of "making the familiar invention in industry. The description strange" and "making the familiar which follows is based on Prince's familiar." When faced with derivation of Gordon's model, which strangeness, a person tends to force it is more applicable to groups solving into a familiar, acceptable pattern. human problems. A Synectics group Usually analysis, generalization, and operates like no other and needs analogy are involved. Unfortuantely, careful explanation, so the people often get bogged down in mechanisms of the process are analysis. Making the familiar strange is described and examples are to distort, invest, or transpose the suggested. The role of the leader is ordinary ways of looking at things. crucial and is discussed next. Some Both these principles are incorporated comments on the functions of group in the procedures outlined by Prince. participants complete this section. Perhaps it would be best to try first to describe the process of group Which of the following responses to the problem of transporting handicapped students would involve the process Gordon had in mind? a. moving the program rather than the students b. reorganizing bus routes c. plotting on a map the locations of all handicapped students d. a water vacuum cleaner e. identifying public buildings of recent construction uall1 to IIV 26 :Jamsuv All members of the group are askedand criticism springs to the lips of to use the "spectrum policy," the participants. Often new ideasare ill- habit of looking at the positive aspects formed. By first citing the positive in the "spectrum" of characteristics of characteristics of the idea, asking for a particular idea. Because of natural clarifications and only then pointing competiveness and a tendency to out the flaws in the idea, a participant criticize: the negative facets of the practices the spectrum policy. problem arrest attention immediately,

To give you some practice at using thespectrum policy, consider this idea for getting orthopedically handicapped students intosecond-story shop class: "We would construct an exterior elevator and knocka hole in the shop wall." Positive characteristics of this idea:

Prince has organized Gordon's group member, the first step in methods of analogy into a sequence problem-solving, should provide of activities which he advocates to aid enough detail so the group hasa in problem-solving. He comments that common understanding of the these steps do not need to be problem. Purging involves the airing followed rigidly and that theyare of immediate solutions whichpop characteristic of all successful into mind which should be voiced problem-solving, individual or group. quickly less they inhibit the Think of what you might sayas a participants' ability to think of anything group member considering the else. problems of "students who cannot Please consider the following read simple directions" asyou read problem. How can a regular through the steps. vocational education training program in printing be made accessible to Activity 1: Formulation of the handicapped students, particuarly Problem aE Given (PAG). The leader those with learning disabilities who must present the problem as given. cannot read? The particular problems Analysis, an explanation of PAG byan have to do with operating controls outside expert or a well-informed and reading requirements. Your immediate solution to the problem suggested:

Activity 2: Goals as Understood. several lights, and often helps to Next, each member of the group break a complex problem into expresses their Goals as Understood manageable parts (particularly (GAU) which the leader writesup for characteristic of people problems). all to see. This formal collection of The leader, with consultation from many personal ways of understanding outside experts if necessary, then the problem permits each member to chooses one GAU on which to focus make the problem their own,spurs the group's attention. each member to see the problem in

Your GAU for the suggested problem:

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Now let's try out this method on the problem of making vocational education accessible to handicapped students. Write a direct analogy of your own in the space provided after the example given. Direct analogy. Ex.: The problems generated by enrolling handicapped students 111 vocational education are similar to mainstreaming them into regular academic classes. In mainstreamed academic classes, it has proven useful to individualize instruction so that students work independently more often; this technique frees the teacher to work with more students individually and spend more time where needed.... Another example:

A second type of analogy is termedsymbol to solve the problems of a Book Title; this symbolic analogy is a collapsible lifting device. two-word phrase that captures a Most often Book Title is used to paradox involved in a particular thing generalize about the particular or set of feelings. Symbolic analogy is problem and to suggest another an esthetically satisfying though example. For example, book titles technologically inaccurate image given for "dependable intermittency" which incorporates a compressed from the world of nature were "Old description of the functions or Faithful, changing seasons, tides and elements of the problem. An example rain." would be the Indian rope trick as a

Now try your hand at symbolic analogy with the same problem. Ex.: What we really need is a suit, like an astronaut's suit, which is equipped with all the auxiliary devices that a student might need in order to function in our classes. The teacher would have to turn on the appropriate aides to sight or hearing. The suit would also protect the students from the equipment. Your example:

28 A third type of analogy is Personalfor empathetic involvement Analogy; this logic requires responsesattributions of human participants to put themselves into the feelings to inanimate objects. Personal problem situation as a central elementanalogy goes beyond role-playing (even as an inanimate object) and to because it relies on highly individual imagine what it feels like to be there, responses and sometimes prompts a assume the role of a handicapped Book Title. It also increasesgroup student as a starting point, for trustafter identifying with inanimate example. Personal analogy is objects in particular and sharing that developed by the leader's asking such experience, members tend to trust questions as, "You are a tuning fork. each other with other material. How do you feel?" The leader looks

Ready to think of a personal analogy? Ex.: I am a machine LI the printing shop whicha handicapped student wants to use. I wish I could talk so I could tell the student howto operate me. Your idea:

The fourth type of analogy, Force third technique for FF involves (1) Fit (FF), is the most difficult step in having the leader write down the Synectics because the metaphorical elements of the problem and the material produced must then be metaphorical material for a more forced to be useful. The leader may conscious consideration of them, choose one of several approaches to (2) making a dynamic connection the problem. The leader may try to ("What is the moral of this story?"), stimulate a "happening" by quoting (3) encouraging wild speculation ("If the goal as understood and asking you had all th.. money you needed, how a particular piece of how would you solve this problem?"), metaphorical material might be used and (4) finding some feasible way to to solve the problem. Group membersmake the idea work. The fourth then suggest various solutions which method of Force Fit is the "get-fired" utilize the metaphorical ideas. If the technique: the leader urges group is unsuccessful in generating a participants to come up with solutions solution the leader can go back to the so outrageously violating common analysis in Activity 1 and make some sense that they would immediately be loose connections of their own. A fired for suggesting them.

Here are some solutions offered to the non-reader problem: picture instructions, remedial reading programs, tape cassettes with head phones. What isyour solution?

How could some of these ideas be combined?

29 Activity 4: Viewpoint. The fourth adapts to the surrounding conditions. activity in Synectics, Viewpoint (VP), is This is how the switching works: in a potenual solution and is developed the deepest layer of the cutis are if Force Fit is successful. VP's are not black-pigmented chromatophores. final solutions until they have been When these are pushed toward the made to work subsequent to the epidermal surface the flounder is Synectics group meeting. In dealing covered with hla( k spots so that he with people problems. viewpoints looks black...like an impressionistic usually contain old and new elements painting where a whole bunch of little and no single viewpoint suffices: dabs of paint give the appearance of several VP's set out together may total covering. Only when you get up constitute a new policy for dealing close to a Seurat can you see the little with a particular pr6,,blem. atomistic dabs. When the black Here is a transcript of a Synectics pigment withdraws to the bottom of group working on the problem of the chromatophores then the )roduct technology taken from a case flounder appears light colored. . .Do tudy. The specific problem was how you all want to hear about the t create a roof covering that would Malpighian cell layer and the change colors from winter to summer. guanine? Nothing would give me greater pleasure than to. A: What in nature changes color? 1ou know, I'Le got a hell of B: Aweasel whiteinwinter, an idea. Let's flip the flounder analogy brown in summer: camouflage. over on to the root problem. . let's C: Yes, but a weasel has to lose his say we make up a roofing material white hair in summer so that the brown that's black, except buried in the hair can grow in...Can't be ripping offblack stuff are little white plastic balls. roots twice a year. When the sun comes out and the roof E: Not only that. It's no gets hot the little white balls expand voluntary and the weasel only changes according to Boyle's law. They pop color twice a year...1 think our roof through the black roofing vehicle. should change color with the heat of Now the roof is white, the sun. ..There are hot days in the impressionistically white, that is, a' la spring and fall.. .and cold ones too. Seurat. Just like the flounder, only B: GI;ay. How about a chameleon? with reverse English. Itis the black D: That is a better example pigmented part of the because he can change back and forthchromatophores that come to the without losing any skin or hair. He surface of the flounder's skin? Okay. doesn't lose anything. In our roof it will he the white E: How does the chameleon do pigmented plastic balls that come to it? the surface when the roof gets hot. A: . ..a flounder must do it the There are many ways to think about

same way. this. . .(Prince,1970.1 E: Do what? A: Hell! A flounder turns white if he lies on white sand and then he General Suggestions for the turns dark if he lands on black sand... Leader. The leader of a Synectics mud. group was first described by Gordon D: By God, you're right! I've seen as a highly energetic, optimistic, risk- it happen! But how does he do it? taking individual with a background in B: Chromatophores. I'm not sure diverse fields who operated on equal whether it's voluntary or nonvoluntary terms with a group of similar

. . .Wait a minute; it's a little of each. professionals as an unobtrusive D: How does he do it?I still organizer of the group's activities. In don't plug in. Prince's view, the group leader must B: Do you want an essay? take a more forceful role and follow a E: Sure, fire away, professor. prescribed sequence of activities in B: Well, I'll give you an essay, 1 implementing the technique. A good think. In a flounder the color changes Synectics leader observes the

from dark to light and light to dark.. . following rules, according to Prince. I shouldn't say "color" because 1. Never go into competition with although J bit of brown and yellow group members. Leaders should not comes out, the flounder doesn't have contribute their own ideas until all any blue or red in his register. .. members of the group have expressed Anyway, this changing is partly theirs. Leaders should restate each voluntary and partly nonvoluntary idea expressed and build on or 30 where a refle:.: action automatically strengthen itif they can. Moderators can present their ideas during the 6. Do not manipulate the group. steps called Purge (early possible Leaders must be careful not to have a solutions) and Force Fit (pressing for preconceived goal for the group in ideas later in the meeting). Generally, mind which they foster with leading leaders always give the ideas of other questions or chosen comments. group members precedence over Keeping track of the discussion on their own. large sheets of newsprint often 2. Be a 200 percent listener to yourprevents this from happening. group members. During the session, 7. Keep in mind that leadership will through interactions with each be rotated. Rotating leadership member, leaders prove that they engenders more cooperation because understand and approve each idea by members think ahead to when they restating and supporting it. This will be leader. Their interest is better posture gives satisfaction to each maintained for the same reason. member, creates an atmosphere in As can be gathered from the which it is safe to express ideas, and description of the leader's role, many serves as a model for group members needed characteristics are fostered by in their dealing with each other. other leadership training programs 3. Do not permit anyone to be such as NTL. Synectics leaders should put on the defensiv Leaders do this be sensitive to the feelings of others by seeking out the value in any and be able to recognize subtle comment made. Tkey never require communication, to judge which ideas justification of metaphorical to pursue and which to discard, to contributions. They accept both points protect all members egos. Persons of view in the event of a disagreement,who have already developed these ask for positive rather than negative qualities may more easily lead reactions, keep ideas alive by stressing Synectics groups. generality, and never pin down an One final comment about group individual (instead leaders pose the participants is in order. From the question to the whole group). above discussion it should be clear 4. Keep the "energy level" high. that group participants need to have Leaders of a Synectics group stay alert some knowledge of the problem they and interested; they select as are trying to solve in order to examples and analogies those that are contribute to the process. They also of personal interest. They move the need to be "flexible" in their meeting along at a fast pace and are thinkingnot rigidly bound to the humorous or (at times) over- concrete, able to reverse the order of demanding in order to accomplish events if necessary. This ability to this goal. "make the familiar strange" is present 5. Use every member of the group. to some degree in everyone, and may To get every member to contribute it be elicited in appropriate is often necessary for the leaders to circumstances. Such creativity is not look to the quiet persons and support associated with academic or job warmly their comments while looking standing, it should be remembered away from and only briefly restating when choosing group members. the contributions of members who dominate the group.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES The most complete description of Creativity (1970). For comparison the operational mechanisms of of Synectics with other problem- Synectics is found in the original solving techniques see Haefele (1962) writing of Gordon (1956, 1961). His and Souder and Ziegler (1977). account of how the method evolved and grew is quite interesting. More concise information and exact recommendations are provided by Prince in his book, The Practice of 34 31 :3S Charrette Another method of group group management than other planning or decision-making which techniques. Though most often used has been derived from other by architects, Charrettes have been techniques is the "Charrette," a used by social planners and educators French word meaning an "intensive to develop new educational facilities group planning effort in an open in Brooklyn, Baltimore, and Boston forum format to achieve creative (Holt, 1974), multi-purpose structures solutions" (Holt, 1974). The technique which met a wide range of is used most often by architects to community needs, such as year-round elicit community reactions or input recreation. when designing public buildings. In these materials the Charrette is When a need exists for those directly an activity that brings community and indirectly involved in a program members and experts together fora to contribute to the planning process limited time period to suggest by defining what they want their solutions to a specific problem. The experience in that program to be like, conditions optimal for a Charrette the Charrette provides a suitable include (1) a problem which has not mode of addressing that need. The been solved but has been specified, Charrette can be used by planners of (2) members of the community who vocational education for handicapped will participate, (3) experts at group students where problems of physical management techniques and at the space or allocations exist. It can be technical problems which may be adapted for several other barriers as involved, and (4) a commitment to use well. the plans and recommendations the The Charrette is similar to the Charrette produces. A school Community Forum Technique, one of planning Charrette involves the the procedures suggested to identify consumers, teachers, parents, and barriers; distinctions must be drawn children who will be affected by the between the two techniques. The programs which result. Often the Charrette requires that all factions most valuable outcome of the process within the community be represented is the sense of commitment and at the meeting, and a structured set of cohesiveness that develops in the prescribed steps are followed. The struggle of planning together (Sanoff Charrette also relies more heavily on and Barbour, 1974). outside experts for information and

In what planning context was the Charrette originally developed? a. vocational education b.government c. special education d.business e.architecture f. medicine g- environmental science a :Jamsuv

How does the Charrette differ from other techniques? a. much more expensive to run b. can be led by almost anyone c. relies more heavily on outsideexperts d.participants must be well-informed about the problems e.requires more input from consumers a. pue :Jamsuv

The time allocated for a Charrette is: a. unlimited b.allocated in blocks c. spent in small group meetings d.limited e.spread over weeks and months :Jamsuy 33 36 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF CHARRETTE

Most advantages of the Charrette develop sufficiently clear goals or fails are obvious. Consumers who to relate the solutions suggested in participate develop positive feelings ofthe initial Charrette meeting to those involvement in the activity, can offer goals; the small group will waste time a variety of ideas, and are disposed to identifying its issue and produce support the program long after the relatively little useful information. A Charrette is concluded. The process third caution about Charrettes is that also permits input from more than justrelatively little research has been done the Local Planning Committee. The on the effectiveness of the technique. scope of the problem which a Architects who have employed the Charrette can consider is quite broad method advocate its use in building and may be very complex. More can design, but virtually no systematic be accomplished in a Charrette than research has been reported on the in some other types of group planningCharrette when used to address since the problem is broken down human social problems. and each small group considers some unique problem. The flexible time and cost range are other attractive aspects of the Charrette. There are several limitations to the use of the Charrette. Its success hinges on the sensitivity and skill of the Charrette manager. Usually a trained manager must be hired and there is no guarantee that a particular human relations expert will be able to meet the needs of a particular group, despite past successes. A second potential limitation can occur if the Local Planning Committee fails to

Name two advantages of Charrettes.

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List two problems one might encounter in holding a Charrette:

'00(101.11 .M.11 00 p.)110(1.)1 .1\11l11')VVIS 011111 !S1UPCi! nerd 01 SII'08 011' Hunititen»oI ainrj sivoli In°baso) ampel .nitc,Japrallo)d 34 : J.J.H u WHEN SHOULD CHARRETTE BE USED? Under what conditions has the handicapped students would be an Charrette technique been found application unique but not far effective? In general, Charrettes have removed from previous successful been reported to be successful in Charrettes. It would be particularly planning programs, services and useful when broad community buildings which serve a wide public representation is desired or when the audience whose opinions, reactions problems are well defined anda and suggestions are important in broad range of possible solutionsare shaping the project to fit local needs. required. Charrettes have been used to plan school buildings but not school programs. To employ this method in planning vocational programs for

RESOURCES AND MATERIALS REQUIRED Charrettes actually require consultants. However, free consultants relatively little expenditure of can sometimes be obtained from resources or materials. A room large Federal or state governments or from enough to assemble all participants universities. The possibility of Federal (who can number in the hundreds) is and state financial aid for the whole necessary for two to five sessions. Charrette is worth investigating. Smaller work areas for committee Additional costs of operating a meetings are desirable in order to Charrette can vary widely, depending control noise; if the large room can on the size of the planning effort and be divided comfortably, all the better. the number of program consumers Each individual needs paper and whose interests need to be pencil for note-taking, and large represented at the Charrette. charts that everyone can see are also Charrette participants use lots of handy. The availability of tables and paper and many pencils as they work. chairs is assumed. Since Charrettes The use of a mimeograph and a sometimes are run for several days secretary to compile up-to-the-minute consecutively, some arrangements for reports of all activities of every meals for participants or at least committee is helpful, especially with coffee, tea, or juice and snacks from really large Charrettes involving vending machines must also be hundreds of people. Obviously, considered. physical space can also be an expense, How much would a Charrette though space, paper and duplicating cost? Riddick (1971) estimates the pricefacilities are easier for school systems to run from a few hundred to a few to provide than for other kinds of thousand dollars, depending on (1) organizations. how long it would run, (2) whether full-time people had to be employed to organize it, and (3) how much could be donated by local groups in terms of man hours, facilities, or supplies. The major expense, representing over half the budget, is the cost of outside professional

What is the largest single expense of operatinga Charrette?

sluelinsuo) ieuo!ssajoJcl app :13MSUV 35 Remember that the chief goal of Charrettes is to gather ideas, suggestions, and other input from consumer groups, those people who will be using the facility or program. List some consumer groups in your school system that would be affected or served by making vocational programs accessible to the handicapped. Groups Number to Invite

Total Now you only need to invite to the Charrette a few representatives of each group. Fill in the number which you think you would want to include from each group. Do you have physical facilities available in your school system to accommodate this many people?

HOW TO CONDUCT A CHARRETTE Several activities must occur is another function of the Local before the Charrette itself is Planning Committee. You also must conducted. The Local Planning secure the services of outside experts Committee must meet several times to to assist with the Charrette or become insure that the data developed familiar with the technique in order to through other steps in the Planning conduct the procedure; likewise, System are immediately useful in the transportation and child care must be Charrette; the lead N- also must arranged in advance. What food, if arrange facilities. Advance publicity any, is to be served during the about the event through the local Charrette is still another problem to media and even a house-to-house be handled in advance. announcement of the upcoming event When Charrettes have been used to plan public transportation or buildings, the steering committee which plans for the Charrette is usually composed of interested citizens. Who would you choose for such a committee to plan a Charrette for accessing vocational programs for the handicapped? a. handicapped students b. parents of handicapped students c. teachers d.administrators e. professional planners f. Local Planning Committee

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How long should a Charrette be? invited eight to ten days would not be One day would be sufficient if the too long. The problem under present problem is well-defined and limited in consideration, vocational education scope, a marketing problem in for the handicapped, would fall industry, for example (Riddick, 1971). somewh',e between the second and Four or five days is recommended third types, since it would be when the problem is complex and the important to include students, group involved is homogeneous in teachers, parents and community terms of goals and background, agency representatives (vocational teachers or social workers perhaps. Forrehabilitation, small businessmen a real community Charrette to which perhaps) in the planning. 36 people from all over a town were 39 Of the following, which temporal arrangement would be best for a Charrette on the problem under consid, ration? a. a long weekend b.a week of evening meetings c. two long weekends d.one evening a week for a month e. eight consecutive days PANegold uw,Hold IP MI1.10 SpUad0(l :JOMSLIV

The Charrette includes a variety of activities, usually arranged in the Activity 2: Discussion Session. following manner. Whatever form the sensitizing activity takes, it is followed by a period of "open discussion" at which time conflicting views often are aired. The outside human relations expert is Activity 1: Introduction. The important in managing this exchange Charrette begins with some sensitizing in order that discussion not reach an activity for all participants, a role-play impasse and that all participants finish or film or personal testimony which with a positive attitude toward the all participants view together. The objectives of the Charrette. The purpose of the activity is to present, discussion may last for several hours even accentuate, conflicting interests or even days and is terminated when and views about the issue or problem, the manager feels that all points of to get participants involved, to view have been expressed. This precipitate reactions. A well chosen activity, like the Introduction, is and carried out "s. nsitizing" will do undertaken by all participants this. assembled in one large group.

The sensitizing activity is designed to make participants a. conscious of other points of view b.mad c. sad d. rz,thteously indignant e. more sensitive

:Iamsuv ...19. Why is a consultant necessary to the second stage in the procedure, the discussion period?

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Activity 3: Identification of Goals. Members elaborate, combine, specify, The next stage of the Charrette or further divide the problems, goals usually involves specific identification and objectives until most are satisfied of problems or goals which the group with the list. The problems or will address. Again in a large group objectives may or may not be rank assembly, various specific problems, ordered before being given to smaller goals and objectives are listed on groups of participants to "brainstorm" chalkboards or large posters. ways of dealing with the issue. 37 4f) Activity 4: Small Group Work. The is run over several days. Each day is major work of the Charrette is begun with a brief large group accomplished in these small group meeting to make announcements and meetings. Each group has a secretary report on progress. Each smaller to keep track of the ideas expressed. group has an outside "adviser" to act The smaller groups make periodic as facilitator of the group or a written reports to the larger technical adviser if the problem is a assembled group, usually at the technical one. beginning of each day if the Charrette

What method do the small groups use in addressing their problem? a. NGT b.Synectics c. Decision trees d.Questionnaires e. Brainstorming f. Delphi method a :Jamsuy

Activity 5: The Jury. The final stage discussion between the panel and of the Charrette is focused on a participants, the proposals may be "jury" or panel composed of those reworked by each small committee. A who control the community resources followup committee may then be (and possibly some outside experts) appointed to implement the who react to the proposals of each recommendations of the Charrette for small group in terms of financial and several months or a year after the ...1 political feasibility. After further session has ended. Which group has final powc valuating the proposals of the small committees? a. the large group b.the school board c. the community resources panel d.the Charrette manager and technical advisors e. the consumers

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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Several books outlining the references may be located through general procedures of the Charrette the appropriate indices and abstracts. are available through university The article, "Charrette Processes: A libraries and usually have the name of Tool in Urban Planning" by W. the technique in the title. Several such Riddick is a recommended source for titles include lists of organizations studying the technique. through which consultants can be contacted. Research and evaluation of the method have been reported in 38 architecture and education journals; el1 Concluding Activity Now that you have completed enter the name of the technique you reading the discussion of the two will use to conduct this step of the techniques you considered to be mostPlanning System. You should then applicable to your situation, please continue reading in the Guide with, return to your Planning Record and Step 4, Selecting Strategies.

References Arends, Richard. System Change Strategies in Educational Settings. New York: Human Sciences Press, 1977. Bayless, Ovid L. An alternative pattern for problem solving discussion. J. of Communication, 1967, 18:188-197. Bouchard, Thomas, and M. Hane. Size, performance and potential in brainstorming groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970, 54(1):51-55.

Brauers, W. K. M. Systems Analysis, Planning and Decision Models. Amster:Am, The Netherlands: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1976. Clark, C. H. Brainstorming, the Dynamic Way to Create Successful Ideas. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1969. Collins, B.E., and H. Guetzkon. Social Psychology of Group Processes for Decision- Making. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964. Davis, G. A. Training creativity in adolescence: discussion of strategy. Journal of Creative Behavior. 1969, 2(3) :95 -104. Deats, T. Educational futures: what do we need to know? Educational Theo,y, 1976, 26:81-92. Delbecq, A. L., A. H. Van de Ven and D. H. Gustafson. Group Techniques for Program Planning. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1975. Dunnette, M. D., J. P. Campbell and K. Justad. Effect of group participation on brainstorming effectiveness for two industrial samples. Journal of applied Psychology, 1963, 47:30-37. Egan, D. Creativity in management. 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Comparison of a written feedback procedure,group brainstorming and individual brainstorming. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63(1)120-123. Maier, Norman R. F. Problem-Solving Discussion and Conferences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. The Role-Play Technique: A Handbook for Management and Leadership Practice. New York: Allyn and Bacon, 1970. Meyer, G. Participative Decision Making: Analysis and Review. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970. Napier, R. Groups: Theory and Experience. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1973. Nelson, W., J. Pettelle and C. Monroe. Revised strategy for idea generation in small group decision making. Speech Teacher, 1974, 23:191-196. Patton, B. R., and K. Giffin. Problem-Solving Group Interaction. New York: Harper and Row, 1973. Paul, J. L., A. P. Turnbull and W. M. Cruickshank. Mainstreaming: A Practical Guide. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1977. Prince, G. M. Practice of Creativity. New York: Harper and Row, 1970. Prozer,B.G. Linking program planning, long-range decision making and accountability in special education: a reappraisal of the state of thearts from a user's point of view. Resources in Education, April 1977. Rickards, T., and B.L. Freedman. Procedures for managers in idea-deficient situations: anexaminationofbrainstormingapproaches. Journal of Management Studies, 1978, 15:43-49. Riddick, W. Charrette Processes: a Tool in Urban Planning. York, Penna.: George Shumway Publishers, 1971. Salancik, G. R.,J. Pfeffer and J.P. Kelly. Contingency-model of influence in organizationaldecision-making.PacificSociological Review,1978, 21(2):493-498. Sanoff, H., and G. Barbour. An alternative strategy for planningan alternative school. School Review. 1974, 82(4):731-748. Shull, F. A., A. Delbecq and L. Cummings. Organizational Decision-Making. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970, 151-165. Siantz, J. E. Long-range planning for special education: technical critique ofone strategy. Journal of Special Education, 1976, 4:22-26. Souder, W., and R. W. Ziegler. Review of creativity of problem-solving. Research Management, July 1977, 34-42. Taylor, D. W., P. C. Berry and C. H. Block. Does group participation when using brainstorming facilitate or inhibit creative thinking? Administration Science Quarterly, 1958, 3:23-47. Thorstad, H. L. Psychological decision space in program planning. Educational Technology, 1975, 15(1):58-59. Vroman, H. W. An application of the NGT in education systems analysis. 40 Educational Technology, 1975, 15(6) :51-53.