Busting Big Myths in Popular Psychology

Busting Big Myths inPopular Psychology

By Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn,

John Ruscio and Barry L. Beyerstein GETTY IMAGES

42 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND March/April 2010 Pop psych lore is a bewildering mix of fact and fallacy. Here we shatter some widely held misconceptions about the mind and human behavior

Popular psychology has become a fi xture in our society, and its aph- orisms, truths and half-truths permeate our everyday existence. A casual stroll through our neighborhood bookstore reveals dozens of self-help, relationship, recovery and addiction books that serve up heaping portions of advice for steering us along life’s rocky road. About 3,500 self-help books are published every year, and numerous new Internet sites on mental health sprout up every month. Much of this information is accurate and useful. Yet scores of popular psychology books and articles are rife with what we term “psychomythology,” the collective body of misinformation about human nature. Without a trustworthy fi eld guide for sorting psychological fact from fi ction, the public may fi nd itself at the mercy of self- help gurus, television talk-show hosts and self-proclaimed mental health experts, many of whom dispense dubious psychological information and guidance. In our new book, 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology:

Parts of this article are adapted from 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Wide- spread Misconceptions about Human Behavior, by Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, John PRuscio and Barry L. Beyerstein. Copyright © Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. www.ScientificAmerican.com/Mind SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 43 Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Nature (Wiley-Blackwell, Some see anger as a monster 2010), we bust 50 widespread myths of popular psychology, along with about we must tame by “letting off 250 “mini myths,” explore the ramifi ca- tions of these fallacies in popular culture steam.” Yet expressing anger and everyday life, and trace their psychological and sociological origins. actually amplifi es aggression. For example, we demonstrate that the following widely held beliefs are arise in part from misinterpretations of readily than we do ordinary actions. largely or entirely false: psychological research that are trumpet- Still other myths probably derive ed in pop psych books, articles and from the powerful allure of our everyday ■ Most people use only 10 percent of blogs—in this case, from a warped inter- experience. For instance, our memories their brainpower. pretation of decades-old and now dis- seem subjectively real to us, often lead- ■ In romantic relationships, opposites credited claims that scientists did not ing us to accept their veracity without tend to attract. know what 90 percent of the brain did. question. In fact, hundreds of studies ■ Our memories are faithful record- Other mistaken beliefs probably result show that our memories are subject to ings of events similar to those on a from selective attention and memory. distortions over time [see also “Do the videotape or DVD. For instance, all of us tend to notice and ‘Eyes’ Have It?” by Hal Arkowitz and ■ People with schizophrenia have recall unusual occurrences. Thus, Scott O. Lilienfeld; Scientific multiple personalities. we are more likely to remember American Mind, January/Feb- ■ Only depressed people commit an attraction between two peo- ruary 2010]. suicide. ple who have markedly differ- In this article, we debunk ■ People tend to behave oddly during a full moon. ■ All successful psychotherapy forces people to confront the “root causes” of their problems from childhood. ent personalities than a bond six popular psychology between two people who are myths. We defl ate some of These notions have various origins. alike. Similarly, we notice the widely expressed en- Some, such as the idea that we use only and recall peculiar behavior thusiasm for expressing 10 percent of our brainpower, seem to during a full moon more anger, different learning styles and a positive attitude as a treatment for cancer. We also discred- FAST FACTS it the belief that all alcoholics must aim Conventional Wisdom? for abstinence, that old age is usually characterized by sadness and mental de- Scores of popular psychology books and articles are rife with what we terioration, and that we all deal with 1>> term “psychomythology,” the collected body of misinformation about hu- death in an unvarying sequence of fi ve man nature. stages. The authors’ new book busts 50 widespread psychology myths, along Myth #1: 2>> with about 250 “mini myths,” including “Most people use only 10 percent of their brainpower” and “People tend to behave oddly during a full moon.” Blowing Our Tops Defuses Anger In this article, the authors debunk six fallacies. They defl ate enthusiasm for 3>> expressing anger, different learning styles and a positive attitude as a salve People often opine that releasing an- for cancer. They also discredit the belief that all alcoholics must aim for abstinence, ger is healthier than bottling it up. In one that older people are unhappy and that grief emerges in fi ve set stages. survey, 66 percent of university under-

graduates agreed that expressing pent- AGE FOTOSTOCK

44 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND March/April 2010 up anger is a good way of tamping down playing violent video games such as Myth #2: aggression. This belief dates back at Manhunt, in which participants rate as- least to Aristotle, who observed that sassinations on a fi ve-point scale, height- Different Strokes viewing tragic plays affords the oppor- ens aggression in the laboratory and in for Different tunity for catharsis, a cleansing of anger everyday social situations. and other negative emotions. Psychologist Jill Littrell of Georgia Pupils Popular media also assure us that State University concludes from a pub- In the story “Parents of Nasal Learn- anger is a monster we must tame by “let- lished review of the literature that ex- ers Demand Odor-Based Curriculum,” ting off steam,” “blowing our top” and pressing anger is helpful only when ac- writers at the satirical newspaper The “getting things off our chest.” In the companied by constructive problem Onion poked fun at the idea that a teach- 2003 movie Anger Management, the solving or communication designed to ing style exists to unlock every under- meek hero (played by Adam Sandler) is reduce frustration or address the imme- performing student’s latent potential. falsely accused of “air rage” on a fl ight, diate source of the anger. So if we are up- An expert quoted in the story observed causing a judge to order him to attend an set with our partner for repeatedly ig- that “nasal learners often have diffi culty anger management group run by psychi- noring our feelings, shouting at him or concentrating and dislike doing home- atrist Buddy Rydell (played by Jack her is unlikely to make us feel better, let work.... If your child fi ts this descrip- Nicholson). At Rydell’s suggestion, San- alone improve the situation. But calmly tion, I would strongly urge you to get dler’s character tosses dodgeballs at and assertively expressing our resent- him or her tested for a possible nasal schoolchildren and throws golf clubs to ment (“I realize you probably aren’t be- orientation.” purge his anger. ing insensitive on purpose, but when you Plug the words “learning styles” into Rydell’s advice echoes the counsel of act that way, I don’t feel close to you”) an Internet search engine, and you’ll fi nd many self-help authors. One suggested can often take the sting out of anger. scores of Web sites purporting to diag- that rather than “holding in poisonous Why is this myth so popular? People nose your preferred learning style in a anger,” it is better to “punch a pillow or probably attribute the fact that they feel matter of minutes. These sites are pre- a punching bag. And while you do it, yell better after expressing anger to cathar- mised on a widely accepted claim: stu- and curse and moan and holler.” Some sis, rather than to the anger subsiding dents learn best when teaching styles are popular therapies encourage clients to on its own, which it almost always does. matched to their learning styles. The scream, hit pillows or throw balls Odds are, they would have felt better if popularity of this view is understand- against walls when they get angry. Prac- they had merely waited out their anger. able. Rather than implying that some titioners of Arthur Janov’s “primal therapy,” popularly called primal scream therapy, believe that psychologically dis- Students’ learning styles are turbed adults must bellow at the top of their lungs or somehow otherwise re- diffi cult to reliably identify, lease the emotional pain stemming either from the trauma of birth or from largely because they differ childhood neglect or suffering. Yet more than 40 years of research greatly across situations. reveals that expressing anger actually amplifi es aggression. In one study, people who pounded nails after someone in- sulted them became more critical of that person than did their counterparts who did not pound nails. Other research shows that playing aggressive sports, such as football, actually boosts self- reported hostility. And a review of 35 studies by psychologist Craig Anderson of Iowa State University and psychologist Brad Bushman of the University of

AGE FOTOSTOCK Michigan at Ann Arbor suggests that

www.ScientificAmerican.com/Mind SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 45 students are better or worse learners argues that her cancer was the product investigations, researchers observed a overall, it suggests that all students can of negative thought patterns—in this lower risk of breast cancer among wom- learn well, perhaps equally well, given case, her subconscious rejection of being en who experienced relatively high stress just the right teaching style. a woman. Once she identifi ed her toxic in their jobs, compared with women This idea has become a truism in attitudes, Goodman claims, she changed who experienced relatively low job much of recent educational theory and them into healing approaches that cre- stress. Scientists have also consistently practice. It has been extolled in many ated “radiant health.” Numerous self- failed to turn up an association between popular books and in workshops that help books similarly imply that a posi- positive attitude and cancer survival. attract hundreds of teachers and princi- tive attitude can stop cancer in its tracks For such reasons, journalist and so- pals. In some schools, teachers have even or at least slow its progression. cial critic Barbara Ehrenreich adopts a started giving children T-shirts embla- Most women who have survived decidedly skeptical stance on the power zoned with one of the letters V, A and K, cancer seem to agree. According to sur- of mind-set over healing in her book which stand for three widely accepted veys, 40 to 65 percent of survivors be- Bright-Sided: How the Relentless Pro- learning styles: visual, auditory and lieve their cancers were caused by stress, motion of Positive Thinking Has Under- kinesthetic. and between 60 and 94 percent think mined America (Metropolitan Books, Yet studies show that students’ learn- they became cancer-free because of their 2009). Further, Ehrenreich rails against ing styles are diffi cult to reliably identify, positive attitude. the “cancer culture” that pressures peo- largely because they often differ greatly The weight of the evidence, however, ple with cancer to believe that being up- across situations. A child might display fails to support the notion that optimism beat and cheerful will heal them or at one style in art class, say, and a different is a salve for cancer. Most studies fi nd no least ennoble them as human beings. In- one when trying to learn math. connection between cancer risk and ei- stead Ehrenreich urges people with Moreover, from the 1970s onward, ther stress or emotions. In fact, in several breast cancer to adopt an attitude of most investigations have failed to show that matching teaching styles to learning styles works: for example, it does not im- Between 60 and 94 percent of prove students’ grades in most cases. In- stead certain general teaching approach- cancer survivors think they es—such as setting high expectations for students and providing them with the became cancer-free because motivation and skills to attain them— usually yield better results than other of their positive attitude. strategies, regardless of students’ learning styles. To the extent that the “matching” approach encourages educators to teach to students’ intellectual strengths rather than their weaknesses, it may actually backfi re. In the long run, students need to learn to compensate for their short- comings, not avoid them. [For more on better learning techniques, see the Spe- cial Report beginning on page 32.] Myth #3: Positive Thinking Cures Cancer In the book 9 Steps for Reversing or Preventing Cancer and Other Diseases

(Career Press, 2004), Shivani Goodman AGE FOTOSTOCK

46 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND March/April 2010 “vigilant realism” and not to bury them- selves under a cosmetic veil of cheer. A survey of 40,000 adults The impotence of a positive outlook in the face of physical ailments calls into showed that 18 percent of one- question the medical value of support groups and the emotional assistance time alcoholics could drink they provide. Early preliminary studies seemed to suggest that participating in without abusing alcohol. such groups helps to prolong life. But more recent and scientifi cally solid re- abstain completely from alcohol. grams also teach coping skills that help search, reviewed by University of Penn- Claims that some people with a his- participants “wait out” the urge to drink sylvania psychologist James Coyne and tory of alcoholism can safely engage in and to avoid situations that tempt them his colleagues, showed that psychologi- “controlled drinking” have generated a to drink. cal interventions (including support fi restorm of controversy. Yet a 2001– Such tactics do not work for every- groups) do not extend the lives of cancer 2002 National Institute on Alcohol one. Studies suggest that if individuals patients, although they can enhance Abuse and Alcoholism survey of more are severely dependent on alcohol, have their quality of life. than 40,000 adults revealed that 18 per- a long history of unhealthy drinking, People with cancer can relieve their cent of one-time alcoholics could drink and experience physical and psychologi- physical and emo- in moderation without abusing alcohol, cal problems from drinking, they are tional burdens by probably best off seeking treatment pro- seeking quality med- grams that advocate abstinence. Never- ical and psychological care, connecting with friends and family, and fi nding meaning and purpose in every moment. They can also take comfort in the now well- established fi nding that their attitudes, emotions and stressful experiences are challenging the popular assumption that not to blame for their illness. abstinence is a necessary goal for all alcoholics. Further, researchers have Myth #4: found that behavioral self-control train- theless, controlled drinking is probably a ing programs, in which moderate drink- feasible goal for some ex-alcoholics. In- One Drink, ing is the goal, are at least as effective as deed, problem drinkers may seek help One Drunk those that use the 12-step method. In earlier if they know that complete absti- these restraint-centered programs, ther- nence from alcohol is not the only alter- Can ex-alcoholics eventually drink apists train people to monitor their native. Indeed, controlled drinking may in moderation without succumbing to drinking, set limits for their alcohol con- be especially worth considering for pa- their old addiction? One survey of more sumption, control their rate of drinking tients for whom abstinence-oriented pro- than 3,000 people reveals that only 29 and reward their progress. These programs have repeatedly failed to work. percent of Americans think they can. This perception dovetails with the Alco- (The Authors) holics Anonymous (AA) slogan, “One drink, one drunk.” AA’s familiar 12- SCOTT O. LILIENFELD is professor of psychology at Emory University. He studies person- step program encourages members to ality disorders, psychiatric diagnosis, evidence-based psychological practice, and ques- admit that they are powerless over alco- tionable psychotherapeutic and diagnostic techniques. STEVEN JAY LYNN is professor of hol. Treatment programs premised on psychology at Binghamton University, where he conducts research on hypnosis, memory, the 12 steps boast recovery rates as high fantasy and psychotherapy. JOHN RUSCIO is associate professor of psychology at the Col-

Getty Images as 85 percent. But here’s the rub: as lege of New Jersey, where he investigates statistical methods and the distinction between many as two thirds of drinkers drop out psychological science and pseudoscience. BARRY L. BEYERSTEIN passed away in 2007; within three months of joining AA, and as professor of psychology at Simon Fraser University, he studied myths about the brain

CHRIS STEIN AA helps only about a fi fth of people and the use of critical thinking for evaluating psychological claims.

www.ScientificAmerican.com/Mind SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 47 Myth #5: ly characters exhibited some negative cade. Interestingly, research by Stanford characteristics, and a fi fth fulfi lled only University psychologist Laura Carstensen Older and off-putting stereotypes. demonstrates that compared with young- Sadder Contradicting these representations, er people, older people are more likely to one research team surveyed adults be- recall positive than negative information, Think of someone who is depressed, tween the ages of 21 and 40 or older than perhaps accounting partly for their often cantankerous, lonely, sexually inactive 60 about their own happiness as well as surprisingly rosy outlook on life. and forgetful. Did an elderly person about their assessment of the happiness of Older people are not generally lack- come to mind? In one survey, 65 percent the average person at their current age, ing in sexual desire either. In a national of psychology students agreed that aged 30 and aged 70. Young adults pre- survey, more than three quarters of men “most older people are lonely and isolat- dicted that people would become less hap- aged 75 to 85 and half of their female ed,” and in another survey, 64 percent of py as they got older. Yet older adults were counterparts reported interest in sex. medical students agreed that “major de- actually happier than younger respon- Moreover, 73 percent of people between pression is more prevalent among the el- dents. Population-based surveys reveal the ages of 57 and 64 were sexually ac- derly than among younger persons.” that rates of depression are highest in those tive, as were 53 percent of those 64 to 74 Exposure to dubious media depic- between the ages of 25 and 45 and that the years old. Among 75- to 85-year-olds, 26 tions of the aged begins early in life. In a happiest group overall is men aged 65 and percent said they were sexually active. study of Disney children’s fi lms, investi- older. Happiness increases through the Finally, cognitive abilities do not gators found that 42 percent of elderly late 60s and perhaps even 70s. In one fade dramatically with age. We do expe- characters are portrayed in a less than study of 28,000 Americans, a third of rience some memory loss as the years positive light and as forgetful or crotch- 88-year-olds reported being “very hap- pass, especially minor forgetfulness and ety. Such unflattering renderings also py,” and the happiest individuals surveyed diffi culty retrieving words while speak- pervade fi lms aimed at adolescents. In a were the oldest. Indeed, the odds of being ing. Our ability to manipulate numbers, study of popular teen movies, most elder- happy increased 5 percent with every de- objects and images may also decline some in our later years. But even at age 80, in the absence of serious illness af- Happiness increases through fecting the brain, general intelligence and verbal abilities are not much worse at least the late 60s. In one than they were decades earlier. Further- more, research on creative accomplish- study, a third of 88-year-olds ments indicates that in some disciplines, such as history or fi ction writing, many reported being “very happy.” people produce their best work in their 50s or even decades later. Thus, to tweak an old saying, “You can teach an old dog new tricks … and a lot more.” Myth # 6: A Universal Course for Dealing with Death Legions of mental and medical health professionals who work with the elderly memorize this acronym: DAB- DA. It stands for the fi ve stages of coping with death popularized by Swiss-born

psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in AGE FOTOSTOCK

48 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND March/April 2010 the late 1960s: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. These The process of dying does not stages describe a sequence of transitions that all people supposedly pass through follow the same path for all on fi nding out they are about to die. Ac- cording to Kübler-Ross, when we learn of us, any more than does the of our impending demise, we fi rst tell ourselves it is not happening (denial), process of living. then become angry at the realization that it actually is (anger), next search in vain for a way to postpone the death, perhaps until we can accomplish a de- sired goal (bargaining), later become sad as the awareness that we are dying sets in (depression), and fi nally come to grips with our inevitable demise and accept it with equanimity (acceptance). Many medical, nursing and social work students in North America and Britain learn about Kübler-Ross’s stages as part of their professional training. These stages also pervade our culture and now extend beyond death in the popular mind-set to the psychological processing of grief from any signifi cant disappointment. In the sitcom Frasier, the main character passes through all fi ve stages of grief after losing his job as a radio talk-show psychologist. And in not denial, was the predominant initial hoods dovetail with our intuitions, The Simpsons, Homer experiences the reaction following loss. hunches and experiences. Thus, scruti- same sequence of emotions in a matter Kübler-Ross stages may be appeal- nizing popular psychology claims can of seconds after a doctor informs him ing because they offer a sense of predict- provide a new window onto our mental (erroneously) that he is dying. ability over an event that is out of our worlds and enable us to make better life Despite its popularity, Kübler-Ross’s control. The idea that the frightening ex- decisions. As paleontologist and science theory is surprisingly devoid of scientifi c perience of death can be boiled down to writer Stephen Jay Gould reminded us, support. Studies reveal that many dying a set series of defi ned stages that culmi- debunking a myth necessarily unveils an patients skip one or more Kübler-Ross nate in tranquility is reassuring. In truth, underlying truth, thereby allowing us to stages or even pass through the stages in however, the process of dying does not attune our expectations more squarely reverse order. For example, some people follow the same path for all of us, no with reality. In this way, taking on psy- initially accept their own deaths but en- more than does the process of living. chomythology, example by example, ter denial later. Nor does research bear We can all be fooled by psychomy- can transform us into better informed out the validity for these stages for grief. thology, because so many of its false- and educated citizens. M Not all people experience depression or marked distress after the loss of loved (Further Reading) ones, including partners or family mem- ◆ bers to whom they were deeply attached, Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions about the Mind and Brain. Edited by

Getty Images Sergio Della Salla. Wiley, 1999. according to research by Columbia Uni- ◆ Psychomythics: Sources of Artifacts and Misconceptions in Scientifi c Psychology. versity psychologist George Bonanno William R. Uttal. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003. and his colleagues. Moreover, in a 2007 ◆ The Effect of Refuting Misconceptions in the Introductory Psychology Class. Patricia study of 233 Connecticut residents who Kowalski and Annette J. Taylor in Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 36, pages 153–159;

FRANK TANCREDI TANCREDI FRANK had recently lost a spouse, acceptance, July 2009.