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'Mabhurandaya': the Malawian Diaspora in Zimbabwe: 1895 to 2008 Anusa Daimon

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'Mabhurandaya': the Malawian Diaspora in Zimbabwe: 1895 to 2008 Anusa Daimon ‘Mabhurandaya’: The Malawian Diaspora in Zimbabwe: 1895 to 2008 By Anusa Daimon Thesis Submitted in Accordance with the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of the Humanities for the Centre for Africa Studies at the University of the Free State Supervisor: Prof. I.R. Phimister Co-supervisor: Dr. M. Oelofse NOVEMBER 2015 DECLARATION I declare that the thesis hereby submitted by me for the Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of the Free State is my own independent work and has not previously been submitted by me at another university or institution for any degree, diploma, or other qualification. I furthermore cede copyright of the dissertation in favour of the University of the Free State. Signed: Anusa Daimon Bloemfontein DEDICATIONS To my wife Zenah ‘ZetBee’ for her undying support in my academic career; to my daughter Alice ‘Lilo’ for her sacrifices and son Alvin ‘Vinboy’ for the funny thesis typing and gaming moments together; to the memory of my grandparents N’ona, Nadzonzi and Anusa, as well as all my departed Malawian diasporic interviewees. It is bittersweet, indeed, that they did not live to see their voices in print. CONTENTS Abstract i Acknowledgements iii Abbreviations and Acronyms vii Glossary of Terms ix List of Tables, Maps, Posters and Photographs xi CHAPTER ONE: DOCUMENTING THE MALAWIAN DIASPORA IN ZIMBABWE: SOME HISTORIOGRAPHICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 Migrants or Diasporas? Malawians and the Broader Theoretical Context ........................... 6 Malawian Diasporic Communities in Zimbabwean Historiography: Strengths and Silences .............................................................................................................................................. 15 Tracking Diasporic Subjects: Research Methodology and Sources ..................................... 24 Some Reflections on Oral and Archival Research ............................................................ 25 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................................................ 29 CHAPTER TWO: ULENDO: MALAWIAN (NYASA) MIGRATION INTO ZIMBABWE C. 1895 TO 1952 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 33 Maravi Communities in Pre-colonial Zimbabwe ................................................................. 35 Mthandizi: Nyasas and the Colonial Labour Migration System ........................................... 38 Machona, Nyasa Juveniles and Women .............................................................................. 46 Ulendo wakuRhudhisha: The Journey to Southern Rhodesia .............................................. 51 Industrial Ethnicity: Nyasa Spatial and Occupational Inclinations in Southern Rhodesia ... 70 Tripartite Labour Agreements and the Politics of Remittances .......................................... 74 The Second World War and Migrant Labour Constraints ................................................... 81 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 83 CHAPTER THREE: CHIGWIRIZANO: SOCIAL TENSIONS AND NUISANCE IDENTITIES DURING THE FEDERAL AND EARLY UDI YEARS Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 85 The Central African Federation: A Brief Review .................................................................. 87 For the Love of the Njinga (Bicycle): Federal Stimuli and Ramifications on Nyasa Migration .............................................................................................................................................. 91 Kufa kwaMbwidi Mombe Zalowa: Inter-Marriage Dynamics and Social Tensions ............. 99 Ringleaders and Troublemakers: Nyasa Involvement in Unionism and Politics ............... 107 State, Labour, Nationalism and the Discrimination of Alien Natives: Late 1950s and 1960s ............................................................................................................................................ 116 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 124 CHAPTER FOUR: WALKING A TIGHTROPE: MALAWIAN ENCOUNTERS WITH THE ZIMBABWEAN LIBERATION STRUGGLE: 1966 TO 1979 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 125 Migrant Malawian Encounters with Chimurenga .............................................................. 128 Collaborators and Sell-outs: Malawian Diaspora and Chimurenga-induced Identities .... 143 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 156 CHAPTER FIVE: POST-INDEPENDENCE ANXIETIES, SYNCRETIC CULTURAL EXPRESSION AND PROMINENCE: 1980 TO 1999 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 157 Migrant Anxieties over Belonging, Gukurahundi, Drought and ESAP ............................... 158 Cultural Motifs and Syncretic Expression: Rites, Dances and Kindred Societies .............. 165 Nyau Secret Societies and Gule Wamkulu Dances ........................................................ 167 Military Mimicry and Beni Dances ................................................................................. 176 Post-1980 Mutual Aid Societies ..................................................................................... 178 Chinamwali: Male and Female Circumcision Rites ........................................................ 181 Golden Age: Prominent Mabhurandaya in Independent Zimbabwe ............................... 183 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 197 CHAPTER SIX: THE ZIMBABWEAN CRISIS THROUGH THE EYES OF MALAWIAN DIASPORA: C.2000 TO 2008 Introduction: Problematizing the Zimbabwean Crisis ........................................................ 199 In the Shadows of the Third Chimurenga: The FTLRP and Malawian Livelihoods on Farms ............................................................................................................................................ 205 Citizenship and Suffrage Politics in the New Millennium .................................................. 215 The Quest for Belonging: Agency in Renouncing a Citizenship One Never Had ........... 234 ‘Everywhere is a Heroes Acre; Anywhere I will die is Home’: Malawians and the Idea of Home ................................................................................................................................. 237 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 243 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 245 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 261 ABSTRACT This thesis historicizes the connections between identity, marginality and agency amongst an African diasporic community in Zimbabwe. It uses the case of people of Malawian ancestry or Mabhurandaya as a window into examining how their experiences in Zimbabwe, from the 1890s until the inception of the Government of National Unity in 2008, were shaped by various dynamics. More specifically, it situates and historicizes the place of identity in the marginalization of the Malawian diaspora in Zimbabwe and their counter-initiatives in managing and adapting to challenges. Having come into Zimbabwe initially as migrants under the colonial labour migration (Chibaro/Mthandizi) system before gradually settling down permanently as part of a diasporic minority, some Malawian descendants carved a niche for themselves in what became their permanent ‘home’. Malawian identities emerged and were constructed, imagined, as well as contested in various spaces across Zimbabwe. Fluid and multiple identities were fashioned or negotiated based on foreign ancestry, migration experiences, ethnicity, gender, class, education and unique socio-cultural motifs. Officially dubbed ‘native aliens’ by the Rhodesian state and later simply as ‘aliens’ by the post-colonial state, or more commonly as Mabhurandaya by the Zimbabwean indigenes, Malawian communities became an integral component of Zimbabwean social, economic and political history. Nonetheless, the colonial and post-colonial state historically marginalised migrant descendants with diasporas living as minorities in states of unbelonging. At the same time, the Malawian diaspora exerted individual and collective agency to cope and adapt to the several challenges and anxieties they faced in Zimbabwe. They made their own history, and found ways to assert and express themselves. Their experiences were not homogenous but were multi-layered, varying according to gender, age, education, occupation and settlement. They were also multi-dimensional and often cyclical in nature, manifesting themselves in intricate life cycles of marginality and agency
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