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Race, Identity, and Belonging in Early Zimbabwean Nationalism(S), 1957-1965

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Race, Identity, and Belonging in Early Zimbabwean Nationalism(S), 1957-1965 Race, Identity, and Belonging in Early Zimbabwean Nationalism(s), 1957-1965 Joshua Pritchard This thesis interrogates traditional understandings of race within Zimbabwean nationalism. It explores the interactions between socio-cultural identities and belonging in black African nationalist thinking and politics, and focuses on the formative decade between the emergence of mass African nationalist political parties in 1957 and the widespread adoption of an anti- white violent struggle in 1966. It reassesses the place of non-black individuals within African anti-settler movements. Using the chronological narrative provided by the experiences of marginal non-black supporters (including white, Asian, coloured, and Indian individuals), it argues that anti-colonial nationalist organisations during the pre-Liberation War period were heavily influenced by the competing racial theories and politics espoused by their elite leadership. It further argues that the imagined future Zimbabwean nations had a fluid and reflexive positioning of citizens based on racial identities that changed continuously. Finally, this thesis examines the construction of racial identities through the discourse used by black Zimbabweans and non-black migrants and citizens, and the relationships between these groups, to contend that race was an inexorable factor in determining belonging. Drawing upon archival sources created by non-black 'radical' participants and Zimbabwean nationalists, and oral interviews conducted during fieldwork in South Africa and Zimbabwe in 2015, the research is a revisionist approach to existing academic literature on Zimbabwean nationalism: in the words of Terence Ranger, it is not a nationalist history but a history of nationalism. It situates itself within multiple bodies of study, including conceptual nationalist and racial theory, the histories of marginal groups within African nationalist movements, and studies of citizenship and belonging. It seeks to critically approach the ideologies and practices of Zimbabwean nationalism, and to interrogate the role race played in defining the imagined Zimbabwean nation, her citizens, and her politics. It also provides much-needed detail into the under-examined histories of minority racial groups and their relationships to early Zimbabwean nationalist parties. The conclusions drawn demonstrate that identities and participation within Zimbabwean nationalism were inherently affected by overarching concepts of biological race and skin colour, and that Zimbabwean nationalism was reciprocally shaped by these factors as well. Race, Identity, and Belonging in Early Zimbabwean Nationalism(s), 1957-1965 Joshua Pritchard Robinson College, Cambridge August 2018 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy i Preface This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. ii Acknowledgements As Michel Foucault once said, 'I don't feel that it is necessary to know exactly what I am. The main interest in life and work is to become someone else that you were not in the beginning.'1Nothing describes the process of undertaking a history PhD more accurately. It is a long and often lonely commitment, made possible only through the help of others and consequently there are many people to whom I owe thanks for helping me over the last four years. My greatest appreciation goes to my supervisor at Cambridge, Professor David Maxwell, without whom none of this would have been possible. Your insights, suggestions, and patience throughout provided me with the confidence and guidance I needed to wrestle my thoughts into an actual thesis. Whether editing my ramblings, suggesting new literature, challenging my assumptions, or giving me the opportunity to help organise unbelievably large conferences, I would not be where I am today without your assistance. I will always be grateful to Amy Erickson, Sarah Pearsall, and Martin Reavley at Robinson College for offering me support (both pastoral and financial) in difficult periods of my life, and to Jenni Skinner, Adam Branch, and Victoria Jones in Cambridge's Centre of African Studies for their invaluable role in helping organise and populate seminars and workshops. As all academics know, grand aspirations are often tempered by financial realities and I will be eternally grateful to the University of Cambridge for providing me with a Cambridge Home and European Scholarship Scheme (CHESS) full UK Doctoral Award which made my PhD a reality. This work was also supported by the Smuts Memorial Fund, managed by the University of Cambridge in memory of Jan Christiaan Smuts, as well as the Holland Rose Fund, Members History Fund, Robinson College Academic Expenses Fund, and University Fieldwork Funds. 1 Michael Foucault, 'Truth, Power, Self: An Interview with Michel Foucault - October 25th, 1982', in L.H. Martin, et al., eds., Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault (London, 1988), p.9 iii No research is conducted in isolation and I owe a debt of gratitude to a number of individuals who helped sharpen my thinking, direct my academic inquiries, and provide feedback on work in progress. Zoë Groves was a constant source of assistance and guidance in both my academic and professional development, and her ardent transnationalism forced me to think outside my nation- minded box. David Moore helped shape my understanding of Zimbabwean nationalism in ways I would never have thought (even if I always walked away from our chats far more confused than I was before), and Tim Scarnecchia provided invaluable feedback on the fundamentals of my research and the overlap with his own incredible work. George Karekwaivanane was an always cheerful guiding light during the first year of my PhD and his generous donation of time to talk to an uncertain doctoral candidate gave me the foundations I would need to continue my research. Brian Raftopoulos afforded me an insight into Zimbabwean nationalism from both an academic and an activist perspective which was invaluable and much appreciated. Hasu Patel deserves a multitude of thanks, for not only talking at length with me on subjects hidden in existing literature but providing a list of sources and contacts which made my research a thousand times more relevant. To Lindsay Frederick Braun, I express my heartfelt appreciation for your always insightful communications from Oregon and I offer Ambassador Matthew Neuhaus my thanks for the conversations and the networking he provided; you opened otherwise closed doors to me without a second's hesitation. To Peter Fry, whose interview with me emphasised to me the necessities of nuance and to John Reed, whose diaries let me view the world of 1950s-60s Rhodesia through his own eyes. I owe my gratitude. Whilst conducting the fieldwork for this thesis, I became indebted to too many people to name. All of you know who you are, I hope, and how grateful I will always be. However, there are a few in particular without whom my fieldwork would not have been possible. To David and Gaby Dunkley who opened their home to me in Johannesburg and made me feel like a son to them, I cannot thank you enough. To Janet Mead and Sue Cox who, amongst other things, gave me a roast dinner on a rainy Hillcrest Sunday afternoon, I express my sincere gratitude. I owe a huge thank iv you to Athol and Jenny Allenby for making my time in Cape Town truly enjoyable, and to Annie and Mac Grainger in Harare for welcoming me in and letting me conduct lengthy interviews in their garden. I want to thank Nikky Brown for putting me up in Bulawayo, introducing me to people I would have otherwise never met, and letting me see behind the curtain of Zimbabwean politics (and the social events) in December 2015. Michael Powell at Chetham's Library in Manchester was an incredibly accommodating host during the first tentative research trips of my PhD, as were the many staff at the British Library, the Cory Library for Historical Research, the University of Cape Town library, the University of the Witwatersrand library, the UNISA archives, and SAHA. I owe special thanks to several friends for the distractions and assistance they have offered in equal parts, and for the compromise they offered between academia and the real-world. Jeremiah Garsha has been a constant source of camaraderie, humour, and non-politically-correct conversation in the otherwise stifling world of academia, and will always be my brother-in-arms(-and-short-shorts). Mich Greenfield-Liebst put up with my often ill thought out opinions with more grace than I deserved, and still found a space for me in her busy life: I am a better person for her influence. Rhys Jones kept me grounded by being far too successful, far too modest, and far too fashionably monochromatic for his own good, and for providing the most debonair drinking companion in Cambridge establishments. The three above also contributed more to this thesis than I am willing to admit in terms of discussions, disagreements, and debates, as well as reading and commenting on a draft of this thesis. I will be eternally indebted to them, as well as many more. David Lamoureux made Cambridge feel less strange than it actually was and I owe a great deal to his charming introductions.
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