THE BIAFRAN FRONTER: TRADE, SLAVES, AND AR0 SOCIETY, C. 1750-1905 G. Ugo Nwokeji A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree rf Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto O Copyright by G. Ugo Nwokeji, 1999 National Library Bibliothèque nationale m*m of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellington Ottawa ON KiA ON4 OttawaON KIAON4 calada CaMda The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive Licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in rnicroform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protége cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts firom it Ni ta thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. To the victimz rif the trade ABSTRACT THE BIAFRAN FRONTIER: TRADE,SLAVES, AND AR0 SOCIETY, C. 1750-1905 G. Ugo Nwokeji, Doctor of F'ilosophy, Department of History, University of Toronto, 1999 For 400 years, African societies supplied the labour needs of the Amencas through forced migration. This reality provokes basic questions, such as how Afnca supplied so many captives, the organization of the trade in the hinterland, the trade's political, social and cultural implications, its gender and other composition, and how African societies adjusted to the suppression of the tram-oceanic trafic in the 19" century. This study addresses these questions as they relate to the Bight of Biafh, a major expurring region. The region is of special interest because its trade developed relatively late, expanded dramaticaily frorn the mid- 18h century onwards in the absence of large centralized states, and drew a higher proportion of females than any other region. This enquiry describes the system that produced the individuals who were forced into Atlantic slavery. Based on marinent joumals, quantitative data sets, archival material, oral data, and scholarly literature, this work demonstrates that the nse and expansion of the Aro merchant group primarily influenced the character of the Biafian trade. Unlike previous studies, which explain the organization of the hinterland trade on the basis of presence or absence of state systerns, this anaiysis associates it with the dynamics of a trade diaspora Seeing Aro Settlements in the context of a trade diaspora thmws light on crucial aspects of trade organization, commercial politics, insritutiond change, and cultural development The gender structure of the Biafkan trade was a fwction of the prevailing socio-cultural processes and the specific configuration of slave markets - domestic, Saharan, and Atlantic. Unlike existing studies of the slave trade which have sought to explain the modes of enslavement by reference to export sarnples alone, this work incorporates the categories of captives retained in in the region. The study maintains that the means by which a person becarne captive was the principal determinant of his or her destination. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 would like to thank the individuals and institutions that helped in different ways in shaping this work. The Department of History and the School of Graduate Studies of the University of Toronto were forthcornhg with hancial support throughout my doctoral studies. The university 's Centre for Intemationai Development supported my research with a grant The greatest intellectual debt for this study goes to my supervisor, Professor Martin A. Klein. He has diligently guided rny doctoral studies from the beginning, and intervened financidly at some crucial junctures. The prompt attention he gives to his students has been the singular most positive lwson in my graduate experience. 1 also appreciate the support of Professor Paul E. Lovejoy, a great resource person, who supe~sedmy field preparation in comparative slavery, and is a member of my thesic cornmittee. Professor Nakanyike B. Musisi, also a rnernber of the cornmittee, has provided valuable advice. Professors Julian Dent and Michael LeWi have emiched my University of Toronto expenence. I wish to express my gratitude to Professor David Eltis for inspiration, friendship, staunch support, and exemplary magianimity. Also for their friendship, 1 thank Professors Ogbu Kdu, Vincent Thompson, and M.A. supervisor, Chns Youé. 1 have been a beneficiary of the goodwili and support of Dr. Ibrahim Abdullah, Professor E.J. Alagoa, Professor Michael Echeruo, Professor Peter Ekeh, Professor Felix Ekechi, Professor Toyin FaIola.,-Dr. Paul Idahosa, Professor Joseph Inikori, Professor Ray Kea, Professor Robin Law, Dr. Chidi Nwaubani, Dr. Onaiwu Ogbomo, Dr. Andrew Okolie, Professor John Thornton, Professor Maureen Wamer-Lewis, Ms. Jocelyn Jacquot, Professor David Richardson, Professor Tony Kirk-Greene, Dr. Onwuka Njoku, Professor Phi1 Morgan, Professor Gwendolyn Hall, and Mr. Hans Zell. For their contributions to this research, 1 would like to greet the elders who taught me aspects of hoand Igbo history, and to pinpoint Eze John O. Dike and Eze Jonas Ekemezie Uche -v- both of Aro-nde-hogu, Mazi KG.Ufere, Mazi Aaron Muotoh, Mazi Michael Sunday Igwe, Mazi Jacob Okoro, Mazi Ukobasi Kanu-Igbo, Mazi J.G. Okoro, Mazi Thomas Okereke, and Mai Anibuike Nkemakonam Nwaokoye-Emesuo (Periccomo). Among the rnany archivists that helped, I am especially grateful to U.O.A.Esse, Zona1 Co-Ordinator (East) of the Nigeria National Archives Deparhnent, and Faîher Leo Laden, the archivkt of the Holy Ghost Provincidate, Dublin. Dr. J. Okoro Ijoma, Mai Ohien Okoro, friends Aloy Igbo and Fritz-Canute Ngwa, and cousins Dr. Ifeanyi Ike and Emeka Okoronkwo helped during crucial junctures of the fieldwork. Dr. Gloria Chuku, Dr. Jonathan Sadowsky, and Professor Bob Shenton sacnficed part of their Summer holiday to read the entire dr& and made invaluable comments. Professor Robin Law read and commented on several early chapters. Chapter 2 has benefited from the comments of Dr. Steve Behrendt, and Chapters 2 and 3 fiom those of Dr. Sean Hawkins. Dr. Eli Bentor, and Dr. Douglas Chambers hdly made their theses available to me. Dr. David Dickson, Professor Felicia Ekejiuba, Professor Jane Guyer, Dr. Susan Hargreaves, Dr. Martin Lynn, Professor J.D. Y. Peel, Professor Richard Rathbone, and Dr. Innocent Uzoechi graciously helped when 1intruded in their lives. Finally and most importantly, 1 sdute the members of my family. 1start by paying tibute to my father, Chief Godwin Ukobasi Nwokeji, who is no longer around to witness the culmination of my educational pursuit. My mother, Christiana Ejenene Nwokeji has been a bastion of strength in every imaginable way. 1 also salute my siblings and their spouses for their support: Georgy Umenaa and Philip Urnwuiakwe, May Enda and Tony Okafor, and Uche Cele and Fab Amobi. Not to be left out are Dr. Orizu Nwokeji, Mazi Stephen Nwokeji, Oby and Maureen. For their long-standing support, 1 must also thank my aunts, Theresa Ejeagwu and Martina Ike, and their husbands Sir George and Chief Michael respectively. TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE DEDICATION ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF TABLES vii MAP The Bight of Biafka and its Hinterland CHAPTER ONE Introduction CHAPTER TWO The Aro in the Atlantic Conkxt: Expansion and Shifts, the 1620s to 1807 CHAPTER THREE The Trade Diaspora in Regional Context: Commercial Organization in the Era of Expansion, 1 750- 1 850 CHAPTER FOUR Household and Market Persons: Gender, Deportees, and Society, 1750-1 860 CHAPTER FlVE Culture Formation in the Trading Frontier, 1750-1 890 CHAPTER SE Overlapping Transitions: Slaves, Trade, and Agriculture, 1808- 1905 CHAPTER SEVEN Summary and Conclusions SOURCES CITED LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Captives Exported, by Period, 1470-1699 48 Table 2.2. A Sample of Captive Prices in New and OId Cidabar, 1678-1 704 5 1 Table 2.3. Rounded Figures of AU Captives Exported, by Decade, 1700-1739 52 Table 2.4: Comparative Prices of Biafian Captives in the New World 55 Table 2.5: Rounded Figures of Al1 Captives Exported, by Decade, 1740- 1809 56 Table 2.6: Comparative Export trends via Liverpool Ships: Bo~y,Old Calabar and New Calabar, 1752-99 57 Table 3.1 : Division of Spheres among Lineages of the Obinkita Lineage-Group 76 Table 3.2: Principal Aro Settlements at the Edge of the Igbo Heartland 78 Table 3.3 : Division of Spheres among Aro Lineage-Groups 101 Table 4.1. Comparative Age and Sex Composition, by Period 120 Table 4.2. Mean Male Ratio by Twenty-Five Year Periods, 175 1- 1850 126 Table 4.3. Age Composition, 182 1-22, 1825-39 146 Table 4.4. Child Sex Ratios, 1821-22, 1825-39 147 Table 5.1. Nde-hop lineage-groups before 1890 and the original occupiers of the land Table 5.2: Lexico-Statistics of Aro-Chukwu, nde-hogu, non-Aro Comrnunities around nde-hop, and Nri-Awka Table 6.1: Captives Exponed, by Quinquennia, 18 1 1-60 194 Table 6.2. Mamage Register of Nde-hogu Residents (Grooms), 1919-20 228 THE BlGHT OF BIAFRA AND ITS HINTERLAND O 25 50 75 10Okm 1 Scale 1:2 800 000 MODERN 1 AFRICA CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTlON The Atlantic slave trade from the Bight of Biafra was increasing in 1750. In the hinterland, trade had corne under the control of merchants fkom Aro-Chukwu, a tom located north of the Cross River-Enyong Creek estuary in the south-esstem portion of the Nigerian section of the Biafian hinterland.