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Native Voices Unit 1 NATIVE VOICES Resistance and Renewal in American Indian Literature Authors and Works I How are Native American oral traditions shaped by the landscapes in which they are com- Featured in the Video: posed? Luci Tapahonso, “They Are Silent and Quick,” “A I What role does the land play in oral tradition? Breeze Swept Through” (poetry) I How does the notion of time in American Simon J. Ortiz, “My Mother and My Sisters,” Indian narratives compare with notions of time in “8:50 AM Ft. Lyons VAH” (poetry) Western cultures? Leslie Marmon Silko, Ceremony (novel), Storyteller I How does the chronology of particular narra- (short stories, poetry, photography) tives reflect differing notions of time? I How do Yellow Woman stories and the Night- Discussed in This Unit: way or Enemyway chant influence Leslie Marmon Louise Erdrich, “Fleur” (short story) Silko’s Ceremony and Storyteller? Chippewa songs (songs) I How do Navajo chantways influence the poetry Black Elk and John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks of Luci Tapahonso? (autobiography) I How does the Ghost Dance influence the vision Ghost Dance songs (songs) of Black Elk? Stories of the Beginning of the World (oral narrative) I How does the Ghost Dance challenge nineteenth- Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America century European American notions of Manifest (language primer) Destiny? Thomas Harriot, A Brief and True Report of the New I How do Yellow Woman stories subvert the Found Land of Virginia (ethnographic report) genre of captivity narratives? I How do the poems of Simon J. Ortiz challenge the notion of what it means to be an American hero? Overview Questions I What is the relationship between Native Learning Objectives American identity and American identity? I How does Native American literature reflect or After students have viewed the video, read the head- help create a sense of what it means to be Native notes and literary selections in The Norton An- American in the United States? thology of American Literature, and explored related I What does this literature help reveal about the archival materials on the American Passages Web experience of having a multicultural identity? site, they should be able to I How does the conception of American Indian identity depend upon the writer’s identity? 1. identify some of the genres, meanings, and I What is Native American literature? purposes of American Indian oral narrative and I What makes Native American traditions from song; different regions distinctive? 2. recognize the ways in which contemporary I How has Native American literature been influ- American Indian writers draw upon and trans- enced by politics on and off the reservation? form the oral tradition in their written texts; 2 UNIT 1, NATIVE VOICES 3. generalize about typical themes, concerns, and in terms of what it preserves (whether it be blood or narrative forms in contemporary American In- culture), but rather as a bicultural mixture of Native dian literature; and European American people and traditions. 4. compare the migration legends and creation Some Native Americans have argued that since their myths of the European explorers and the Iro- indigenous cultures have always assimilated aspects quois and Pima Indians; of other cultures (including those of other American 5. sketch out some differences between the values, Indians), to be Indian is to be bicultural, or multi- beliefs, and assumptions of Native North Amer- cultural. icans and Europeans at the time of first contact Many American Indians define themselves not during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. primarily as “Native Americans” but as members of a specific tribe. It is important as you read the authors in this unit to remember that what you know about the Navajo and their religious traditions Instructor Overview probably will not apply to the Chippewa, a people geographically, linguistically, and culturally separate Native American traditions are rich and varied. from them. Some scholars have suggested, however, There are over five hundred Native American lan- that Native American communities within a particu- guages, each one as different as English is from lar geographic region tend to be culturally more Arabic and as Arabic is from Swahili. Each Indian homologous because they are often from the same nation has its own myths, its own histories, its own language family and because cultures are often personal stories. As Native American author N. shaped by the landscapes out of which they emerge. Scott Momaday writes, “The voices are all around There are several key regions in Native American us, the three voices. You have the mythic and the studies: the Southwest, Plains, California, Midwest, historical and the personal and then they become Northeast, Northwest, South, and Southwest. The a wheel, they revolve, they alternate. Myth video focuses on the Southwest; however, in the unit becomes history becomes memoir becomes myth.” you will find information about the other regions. What unites these Native American cultures? What You will also find a balance between information does it mean to study American Indian literature? that is specific to the tribe of each author and infor- To answer these questions is to begin to consider mation about qualities that are shared among Amer- what it means to be American and Native American ican Indian peoples. simultaneously. Oral traditions vary by region and tribe, and The definition of Native American literature is scholars have tended to examine the influence of the closely tied to what people think constitutes the American Indian oral tradition upon contemporary essence of Native American identity. Three views American Indian written literature in two ways: stand out in this highly contested debate: those of (1) the content and (2) the style. When people legal bloodlines, cultural traditions, and bicultural explore how the content of the American Indian oral production. As literary critic Kenneth Lincoln notes, tradition has influenced contemporary literature, one “working definition of ‘Indian,’ though criteria they usually turn to the stories and songs of Amer- vary from region to region, is minimally a quarter ican Indian peoples. These stories tend to focus on blood and tribal membership”; Native American lit- particular characters and to include standard events erature, then, would be those works written by and elements. Some of the most common tale-types someone who legally is Native American, regardless include gambler, trickster, creation, abduction, and of their content or style. A second perspective links migration legends. Contemporary authors can use Native American identity and literature with the these tale-types in their works: for example, Leslie preservation of cultural traditions. Literary critics Marmon Silko’s Ceremony retells Yellow Woman sto- who rely on this view focus on aspects of “tradi- ries—a Pueblo Abduction Cycle. In addition to look- tional” Indian culture in contemporary American ing at the content of the stories, scholars have Indian literature, such as the continuance of oral looked at the style of contemporary American traditions. A third trend in Native American studies Indian literature to examine the influence of the oral defines American Indian identity and literature not tradition. Oral style has been characterized as UNIT 7, INSTRUCTORSLAVERY AND OVERVIEW FREEDOM 3 empathetic, participatory, situational, and reliant written by someone who legally is Native American, on repetition. In the oral tradition, repetition is cru- regardless of their content or style. A second per- cial both for ceremonial reasons and because it aids spective links Native American identity and litera- in the process of memorization and provides narra- ture with the preservation of cultural traditions. tive cohesion. To repeat words is also to wield a cer- Literary critics who rely on this view focus on tain power. Perhaps most importantly, the oral tra- aspects of “traditional” Indian culture in contempo- dition is tied to the land: as author and critic Greg rary American Indian literature, such as the contin- Sarris explains, “The landscape becomes the bible uance of oral traditions. A third trend in Native and each stone, each mountain, each set of trees or American studies defines American Indian identity a river, or a section of the river becomes a text, and literature not in terms of what it preserves because they become a way of remembering stories, (whether it be blood or culture), but rather as a and stories associated with that place.” bicultural mixture of Native and European Amer- The video, the archive, and the curriculum mate- ican people and traditions. Some Native Americans rials situate the writers featured in Unit 1 within have argued that since their indigenous cultures several of the historical contexts and artistic move- have always assimilated aspects of other cultures ments that shaped their texts. Together, these (including those of other American Indians), to be materials articulate the diverse genres and cultural Indian is to be bicultural, or multicultural. traditions that comprise and inform Native Amer- Many American Indians define themselves not ican literature. primarily as “Native Americans” but as members of a specific tribe. It is important as you read the authors in this unit to remember that what you know about the Navajo and their religious tradi- Student Overview tions probably will not apply to the Chippewa, a people geographically, linguistically, and culturally Native American traditions are rich and varied. separate from them. Some scholars have suggested, There are over five hundred Native American lan- however, that Native American communities within guages, each one as different as English is from a particular geographic region tend to be culturally Arabic and as Arabic is from Swahili. Each Indian more homologous because they are often from the nation has its own myths, its own histories, its own same language family and because cultures are personal stories. As Native American author N.
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