Beowulf, the name given to an Old English poem of some 3,200 lines, perhaps the earliest considerable poem in any modern language. The manuscript, of the late 10th cent., formed part of the collection of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, whence it passed into the British Museum.

The poem opens with praise of the deeds of the Danes, Scyld their king, and, his descendants. One of these, Hrothgar, builds a great hall, Heorot. The monster Grendel enters the hall at night and carries off thirty of Hrothgar’s thanes, and haunts the hall for twelve years, accomplishing more murders. Beowulf, the nephew of Higelac, king of the Geats (a tribe living in the south of Sweden), hearing of the trouble, comes with fourteen companions across the sea to give assistance, and is welcomed by Hrothgar. Beowulf and his men sleep in the hall; Grendel breaks in and devours Hondscio, one of these, and seizes Beowulf, who unarmed wrestles with him and tears out his arm. Grendel, mortally wounded, makes off to his lair and Hrothgar rewards Beowulf. Grendel’s mother, a water-hag, enters the hall to revenge her son, and carries off Aeschere, the counsellor of Hrothgar. Beowulf prepares to attack her and reaches a cave where the witch’s lair is, fights with her, and cuts off her head, and also the head of Grendel, who is lying in the cave. Beowulf returns to Heorot. Hrothgar praises hirn, but warns him against pride. Beowulf and his Geats return to their own land. Beowulf surrenders the gifts he has received to Higelac, his king, and receives in return the sword of Hrethel and a part of the kingdom. After the death of Higelac and Heardred his son, Beowulf succeeds to the kingdom, where he reigns for fifty years. A dragon which has been guarding a treasure finds that it has been robbed, and devastates the country. Beowulf and eleven companions go out to meet it. The dragon issues from its mound breathing out fire. All the companions, save Wiglaf, fly to a wood. Beowulf’s sword breaks, and the dragon sets its teeth in Beowulf’s neck. Wiglaf wounds it, and its strength wanes. Beowulf kills it, but is mortally wounded and dies. Wiglaf rebukes his companions, finds the treasure and sends word of Beowulf’s death. Beowulf’s body is burnt on a pyre, with his armour and the treasure.

Many of the persons referred to in Beowulf are known to us from other sources, and it is possible to fix the date of the historical events in the first part of the 6th cent. The date of the composition of the poem is uncertain; it has been strongly argued that it is the work of a Christian poet of the Sth cent. There is a good edition of the poem by F. Klaeber (1922) and a number of translations, one of them by William Morris in collaboration with A. J. Wyatt (1892).

Old English / Anglo-Saxon (Englisc)

Old English was the West Germanic language spoken in the area now known as England between the 5th and 11th centuries. Speakers of Old English called their language Englisc, themselves Angle, Angelcynn or Angelfolc and their home Angelcynn or Englaland. Old English began to appear in writing during the early 8th century. Most texts were written in West Saxon, one of the four main dialects. The other dialects were Mercian, Northumbrian and Kentish.

Anglo-Saxon runes (futhorc/fuθorc)

Old English / Anglo-Saxon was first written with a version of the Runic alphabet known as Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Frisian runes, or futhorc/fuθorc. Anglo-Saxon runes were used probably from the 5th century AD until about the 10th century. They started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet from the 7th century and, after the 9th century, the runes were used mainly in manuscripts and were mainly of interest to antiquarians. Their use ceased not long after the Norman conquest. Runic inscriptions are mostly found on jewellery, weapons, stones and other objects, and only about 200 such inscriptions have survived. Most have been found in eastern and southern England. Sample text in Old English (Prologue from Beowulf) Modern English version

Praise of the prowess of people-kings of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, we have heard, and what honor the athelings won! Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes, from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, awing the earls. Since erst he lay friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him: for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, till before him the folk, both far and near, who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate, gave him gifts:

Elogio della prodezza di re danesi di lancia armati, in giorni da tempo andati, abbiamo sentito, e quale onore gli athelings vinsero! Spesso Scyld the Scefing dai nemici in squadroni, da molte tribù, strappò il seggio dell'idromele, temendone i conti. Da allora egli giace senza amici, un trovatello, il destino lo ha ripagato: perchè egli incerato sotto il cielo, in ricchezza prosperò, fino a prima di lui la gente, vicini e lontani, che dimorati presso il percorso della balena, sentì il suo mandato, gli ha dato doni :