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US Analysis 2016: Media, Voters and the Campaign Early refections from leading academics

Edited by: Darren Lilleker, Daniel Jackson, Einar Thorsen and Anastasia Veneti Centre for the Study of Journalism, Culture and Community (Bournemouth University) https://research.bournemouth.ac.uk/centre/journalism-culture-and-community/

Centre for and Media Research (Bournemouth University) https://research.bournemouth.ac.uk/centre/politics-and-media-group/

For an electronic version with hyperlinked references please go to: http://www.ElectionAnalysis2016.US

For a printed copy of this report, please contact: Dr Einar Thorsen T: 01202 968838 E: [email protected]

November 2016 978-1-910042-10-6 US Election Analysis 2016: Media, Voters and the Campaign [eBook-PDF] 978-1-910042-11-3 US Election Analysis 2016: Media, Voters and the Campaign [Print / softcover]

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Published by The Centre for the Study of Journalism, Culture and Community Bournemouth University Poole, England BH12 5BB

Printed in Great Britain by: Dorset Digital Print Ltd, 16 Glenmore Business Park, Blackhill Road Holton Heath, Poole Acknowledgements

On behalf of the editorial team we would like to recognise the fnancial and moral support of the Centre for Politics and Media Research and the Centre for the Study of Journalism, Culture and Community at Bournemouth University, and our great colleagues and student community. We would like to thank all the contributors for delivering interesting insights in a timely manner, despite many still struggling to comprehend the result and process its implications.

We owe a special debt of gratitude to Mirva Villa who responsible for the production of the publication, ensuring all the text and pictures came together and giving the substance presentational gloss and professionalism.

Finally, a special thanks to our friends and family, in particular Bec, Liz and Teresa. Contents

Introduction 8 Darren Lilleker, Einar Torsen, Daniel Jackson, Anastasia Veneti

Media 1. Te question of objectivity in the 2016 Presidential Election 11 Matt Carlson 2. Afer Objectivity? 12 1 Brian McNair 3. Journalism and the illusion of innocence 13 Jay Rosen 4. Did election results trump frames of newspaper endorsements? 14 Kenneth Campbell 5. Trump and mediatization 15 Geofrey Baym 6. Te 2016 election and the success of fact free politics 16 Peter Van Aelst 7. Trump, truth and the media 17 Denis Muller 8. Rise of : media as a voter-decision accelerator 18 Miloš Gregor 9. Te new normal? campaigns & in the contemporary media environment 20 Michael X. Delli Carpini 10. Did the media create Trump? 21 Gianpietro Mazzoleni 11. Trump, Media, and the ‘oxygen of ’ 22 Sarah Oates Campaign

12. Te #LolNothingMatters election 25 David Karpf 13. Evidence for the powerful roles of polarization and partisanship 26 2 Judd Tornton 14. Te emotional wins 27 Ken Cosgrove 15. Donald Trump’s betrays a renewed political fxation on the past 28 Alexandra Paulin-Booth 16. Dog whistles and dumpster fres 29 Merrill Perlman 17. How Donald Trump bullies with his body language 30 Geofrey Beattie 18. Analysing debate questions: is it time to rethink the town hall? 31 Pete Vernon and Carlett Spike 19. Image bites, voter enthusiasm, and the 2016 Presidential Election 32 Erik P. Bucy 20. Air war? Campaign in the 2016 Presidential Election 34 Matthew Motta 21. US election: what impact do celebrity endorsements really have? 35 Nives Zubcevic-Basic 22. Te backlash of the loose cannon: musicians and the celebrity cleavage 36 Domagoj Bebić and Marijana Grbeša 23. Te curious case of Jill Stein 37 Per Urlaub 24. Te Green Party efect in the US 2016 Election 38 David McQueen 25. US presidential candidate selection 39 Toby Harper Policy 26. Trump-Clinton was expected to be close: the economy said so 41 Andrew Gelman 27. Picking up the pieces: the 2016 US Presidential Election and immigration 42 3 Jamie Winders 28. A bilingual campaign: Clinton’s Latino political 43 Juan S. Larrosa-Fuentes 29. How the wall with Mexico symbolizes the Utopia of Trump’s supporters 44 Marc Hooghe and Sofe Marien 30. Afer the election: Trump’s wall 45 Lise Nelson 31. Trump’s Global War on Terror 46 Stephen D. Reese 32. Will Trump continue Obama’s legacy of drone strikes? 47 Sam Coates 33. Loose cannons: or the silent debate on drones 48 Kevin Howley 34. 49 Guns return to American elections Robert J. Spitzer 35. 50 President Trump and climate change Marc Hudson 36. 51 Dark days ahead for our climate Constantine Boussalis DiversityDiversity and and Division Division 37. ’s evolving gender appeals 53 Lindsey Meeks 38. ‘Madam President’ and the need for a historical contextualization of the 2016 Race 54 4 Liza Tsaliki 39. Te ‘nasty’ politics of risk, gender and the emotional body in the US Presidential election 55 Shelley Tompson and Candida Yates 40. Why Trump’s male chauvinism appeals to some voters more than others 56 Lynn Prince Cooke 41. Trump’s ‘promised land’ of white masculine economic success 57 Omar Al-Ghazzi 42. Attempting to understand Hillary Clinton’s favourability ratings 58 Alistair Middlemiss 43. A very queer Presidential election campaign: personal refections from an LGBT perspective 59 Richard Scullion 44. didn’t trump hate: intolerance in the campaign and beyond 60 Cherian George 45. Te blue-collar billionaire: explaining the Trump phenomenon 61 Richard M. Perlof 46. Belonging, racism and white backlash in the 2016 US Presidential Election 62 Deborah Gabriel 47. Te theology of American exceptionalism 63 Eric McDaniel 48. Organizing in Trump’s America: the perspective of the disability community 64 Filippo Trevisan 49. Why are the German-Americans Trump’s most loyal supporters? 65 David Huenlich and Per Urlaub Overseas 50. Media coverage of the US election in Arabic, Chinese, and Russian media 67 Randolph Kluver 51. US Presidential campaign 2016 in a metaphorical mirror of the Russian media 68 5 Evgeniya Malenova 52. Te Greek perspective 69 Eleni Kioumi 53. Te richest Slovenian son-in-law: the Slovenian perspective 70 Uroš Pinterič 54. 71 Trying to avoid Trump: a Canadian experience Alex Marland Digital Campaign 55. Did Russia just hand Donald Trump the Presidency? 73 Ryan C. Maness 56. Taking Julian Assange seriously: considering WikiLeaks’ role in the US presidential campaign 74 6 Scott A. Eldridge II 57. did not give us Donald Trump and it is not weakening democracy 75 Daniel Kreiss 58. Trump and the triumph of afective news when everyone is the media 76 Alfred Hermida 59. Tweeting the election: political journalists and a new privilege of bias? 77 Svenja Ottovordemgentschenfelde 60. Te dissolution of news: selective exposure, flter bubbles, and the boundaries of journalism 78 Seth C. Lewis and Matt Carlson 61. Fighting the red feed and the blue feed 79 Bente Kalsnes 62. Two tribes go to vote: symbolism on election day 80 Darren G. Lilleker 63. Ideas are for sharing 81 G. R. Boynton 64. In the age of social media, voters still need journalists 82 Jennifer Stromer-Galley 65. Dark magic: the memes that made Donald Trump’s victory 84 Ryan M. Milner and Whitney Phillips

PopPop culture culture and and Populism Populism 66. Donald Trump, reality TV, and the political power of parasocial relationships 87 John H. Parmelee 67. New roles in the presidential campaign: candidates as talk show comedians 88 7 Alexandra Manoliu 68. Farage’s Trump card: constructing political persona and social media campaigning 89 Bethany Usher 69. Does humanize a politician’s campaign? 90 Liam Richards 70. “TrumpDASHIAN” – Te US election as an extension of Te Apprentice? 92 Dawid Pekalski 71. What is Trump? 93 John Street 72. Out of touch, out of ideas? Te American Presidency in flm and 94 Gregory Frame 73. It’s never just a joke: pop culture and the US Presidency 95 Rodney Taveira Result and Beyond 74. Trump and the populist earthquake in American politics 97 Pippa Norris 75. Democracy Trumped 98 8 W. Lance Bennett 76. Te narcissistic capture of American nationalism 99 Barry Richards 77. With a mainstream politics seemingly devoid of answers, many vote for the previously unthinkable 100 Peter Bloom 78. Irrational beliefs matter 101 Panos Koliastasis 79. Te politics of de-legitimacy 102 John Rennie Short 80. Tere are six types of ugly American and Donald Trump is all of them 103 Brendon O’Connor 81. Refections on the 2016 US Election 104 Robert W. McChesney 82. Te Wørd: stupid power 105 Kirk Combe Introduction

On November 8th the of America Whilst there is undoubtedly an eventful presi- voted on who would be the 45th President. In the dential term ahead, in this report we pause to look end the US election, as is always the case, came back at the 2016 contest. Te aim of this publica- down to a binary choice - but the choice this time tion is to capture immediate thoughts, refections was not between two ordinary candidates. While and early research insights of leading scholars in the candidates represented the status quo of the media and politics in the US and around the globe; Democrat and Republican parties, each candidate and in this way contribute to public understand- ofered a unique dimension to the campaign. ing of the contest whilst it is still fresh in the Hillary Clinton ofered the potential to be the memory and help shape the path ahead. Here, we frst woman President, a milestone as signifcant are particularly interested in what ways diferent as the frst black President. It also marked the frst forms of media, journalism and political commu- Dr Darren G. Lilleker time a former First Lady was standing, so creating nication contributed to people’s engagement with Associate Professor of Political a unique form of political dynasty. Her promi- the democratic process during the election – and Communication at Bournemouth nence and experience signifed her as particularly crucially the relationship between media, citizens, University qualifed, yet she was also a fgure mired in scandal and politicians. and lacking in popularity. Published within 10 days of the election, these Donald Trump presented himself as the contributions are short and accessible. Authors ultimate political outsider. Businessman, property provide authoritative analysis of the campaign, magnate and reality TV host fgured on his CV, including research fndings or new theoretical but he had no experience of any form of political insights; to bring readers original ways of under- ofce. Trump was the gauche, crude voice of the standing the election. Contributions also bring a people, or at least the section who equally felt as rich range of disciplinary infuences, from political outsiders from modern American society, culture science to popular culture, journalism studies to and politics. advertising. We hope this makes for a vibrant and It was an election contest that would enthral, engaging read. Dr Einar Torsen bewilder, horrify and polarize in equal measure, Te early analyses explore eight aspects of Associate Professor of Journalism both in the USA and around the world. Beyond the the election which emerged as our contributors and Communication at Americans who threw themselves unequivocally refected. Tere are explorations of the campaign Bournemouth University behind a candidate the choice was seen as difcult: tactics of the candidates, the rhetoric, advertising, “there must be 700 elected into politics in body language and the interjections of celebrities. America. Some of them are really good at their Policy diferences, similarities and silences are jobs. From that pot how the **** did it come down assessed. While not a policy area in itself, diversity to a choice between these two” and social divisions became a key theme of the Tese words of an ordinary American, a contest, therefore we dedicate a section to under- tourist in New York like the lead editor at the time, standing how the election highlighted divisions perhaps sum up the thoughts of many US citizens in US society. Te role of mainstream media is as election day approached. Tis may have been a explored and critiqued, while others assess the factor in causing turnout to decline to an estimated coverage of the election from other nations. Digital 57.9%, down only marginally from 58.6% in 2012 media is deemed of sufcient importance to have a but a marked reduction from the 61.6% who voted unique section, given it functioning as a space for Dr Daniel Jackson in 2008. both candidate campaigning and citizen commen- Associate Professor of Media Of the 130 million who did vote, 47.8% tary. Popular culture also played a key role, both in and at supported Hillary Clinton, 47.3% backed Donald shaping perceptions of what a President should be Bournemouth University Trump. But this narrow win in the popular vote as well as developing the persona of the candidates. means little in the US system. It is electoral college Te fnal section looks at the result, its implications votes that matter, and Trump won 306 to Clinton’s for US and global politics and what we can infer 232, a clear 36 over the threshold. Te bigger the with regards to the state of democracy in the US. states, the greater the number of electors, and most As the US and the world ponders on a future of these are expected to vote on a winner takes with Donald Trump leading the US, our project all basis. Trump may have gained only 68,236 ofers insights into how he came to power and more votes than Clinton of the 6 million votes what this means for us all. cast in Pennsylvania but in doing so he won all 20 electoral college votes making her win by a 3 million vote margin in California meaningless Dr Anastasia Veneti despite gaining all 55 electoral college voters. Senior Lecturer in Te polarizing rhetoric of his campaign, coupled Communications at with the mismatch between actual votes and the Bournemouth University electoral college and the tightness of the race has already led to street and signals greater divisions to emerge in the future. 8 Results

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/ us2016/results 1 Media The question of objectivity in the 2016 Presidential Election

In 1896, during the heyday of the sensational, into three categories, or spheres anchored at one opinionated, and interventionist newspapers of end by the sphere of consensus in which objec- Yellow Journalism, New York Times owner Adolph tivity is not necessary because of shared beliefs, Ochs boldly declared that the paper would report and, at the other end, the sphere of deviance in “impartially, without fear or favor”—a nod toward which objectivity is supplanted by shared loathing. the norms of neutrality and objectivity that would Ordinarily, political contests fall squarely in mark American newspapers in the 20th century. between these sphere, in what Hallin labels the Tese norms became professional values, under- sphere of legitimate controversy. Disagreements girding journalists’ claims for authority. Journal- between candidates occur, and the journalists’ job istic objectivity has long been subject to scholarly is to stand aside and let the campaigns make their critique for either too simply dismissing human case without the intervention of partisan jour- subjectivity or for disarming journalists from being nalists. Tis fts squarely with rationalist models Dr Matt Carlson able to stake positions of advocacy. of democracy that place the as the Yet, 120 years afer Ochs’s statement, the conduits between campaigns and the mass public. Associate Professor of question of objectivity was thrust into public view Te press is there to provide information; news Communication by Times media columnist Jim Rutenberg. His audiences-as-the-voting-public are to make up Saint Louis University, front-page column on 9 August 2016 made waves their minds. It also confers the news media with USA in journalistic circles by questioning whether the tremendous cultural and political power to dictate Republican nominee Donald Trump deserved to the divide between normalcy and deviancy. Email: [email protected] be treated neutrally: Trump struck a nerve that threatened how “If you’re a working journalist and you believe journalists think about what qualifes as legitimate that Donald J. Trump is a demagogue playing to controversy. And it was not only his controversial ’s worst racist and nationalistic tenden- stances and actions that sparked soul-searching cies, that he cozies up to anti-American dictators among journalists. More to the point, his callous and that he would be dangerous with control of the disregard for the unwritten rules of political com- United States nuclear codes, how the heck are you munication coupled with a penchant for perfdy supposed to cover him?” regardless of countervailing information put him at Te question exposes the dilemma of jour- odds with this system. Rutenberg and others took nalists trapped in a system that prides neutrality. this as an afront, and suggested that Trump be cast Trump was positioned as extraordinary and into the sphere of deviancy—that is, as illegitimate. therefore worthy of extraordinary coverage. Jour- But to place the nominee of a major party into the nalist Jorge Ramos argued this point on the website sphere of deviancy requires a clear-eyed argument of Time magazine: and commitment to parting with precedent. It “Just providing both points of view is not asks journalists to break with ingrained ways of enough in the current presidential campaign. If a thinking and acting—a difcult request, even in candidate is making racist and sexist remarks, we the face of Trump’s transgressions. cannot hide in the principle of neutrality. Tat’s a These questions have become only all the false equivalence.” more pressing now that Trump has been elected Meanwhile, the digitally native Hufngton President. His electoral surprise defying con- Post staked out an oppositional stance early on, ventional polling wisdom presages an equally frst by only running stories on Trump in the unorthodox presidency. But journalism does not entertainment section until his emergence as a respond well to unorthodoxy; it is regimented frontrunner for the Republican Party nomination and orthodox, driven by patterns that make forced him back into the news pages. However, the possible the unending crush of news stories. The site continued to treat Trump as an unusual threat next four years will test how journalists actualize not to be normalized by appending the following their normative commitments, and whether this editor’s note to stories on Trump: President is treated as other Presidents have, “Donald Trump regularly incites political or if they come to occupy a new critical space. violence and is a serial liar, rampant xenophobe, Either position is risky and will alienate part racist, misogynist and birther who has repeatedly of the populace at a time when news industry pledged to ban all Muslims — 1.6 billion members economics are already flagging. But the choice of an entire religion — from entering the U.S.” still must be made. As an anchor at the bottom of every Trump story, this statement strived to hold the candidate as contemptuous and unworthy of normal news treatment. One way to make sense of this handwringing over objectivity is through Daniel Hallin’s sphere model, which he laid out in his seminal book Te Uncensored War. For Hallin, journalists sort events 11 After objectivity?

As the results of the 2016 election came in, the politics within conventional paradigms of objectiv- mainstream media in America and around the ity. Lef to them, the slide into fascism will simply world demonstrated their inability to cope with the become another news story, another ‘he said, she challenge of a President Trump within the conven- said’ performance of balance, legitimised by the tional paradigms of journalistic objectivity, balance fact that this is what democracy has delivered. No and fairness; or rather, to cope with it without matter that in the 1930s the same obeisance led to normalising the most conspicuously overt racism, the Holocaust. , and proto-fascism ever seen in a serious Tis tendency is not the fault of the main- candidate for POTUS. stream media, nor of their journalists, who are As street protests broke out in Portland, simply applying the professional codes and in the days afer the election, for example, practices with which they have been raised. For Prof Brian McNair BBC World noted the police defnition of the those in the media who wish to stem a slide into events as a ‘riot’, in response to what it coyly democratically-legitimised fascism in the next Professor of Journalism, described as ‘some racist remarks’ made by Trump four years – and of course, similar processes are Media & Communication during his campaign. A man whose comments now unfolding in Europe, Australia and elsewhere at Queensland University were denounced even by his own party chief Paul – it is time to rethink the appropriate response of of Technology. He is a Ryan as “textbook racism”, and whose references ‘objective’ journalism to the post-factual politics of Chief Investigator within to “grabbing ”, “a nasty woman”, “Miss House extreme subjectivity. Keeping” and other indicators of unabashed QUT’s Digital Media misogyny horrifed millions in the US across the Research Centre. His books party spectrum, was now President. For the BBC, include Communication henceforth, criticism of even the most outland- and Political Crisis (Peter ish and ofensive remarks – when judged by the Lang, 2016), Cultural standards of recent decades - would be severely Chaos (Routledge, 2006) muted, if not excluded. Suddenly, rather than call a and Te Sociology of spade a spade in coverage of Trump’s hate-monger- Journalism (Arnold, ing campaign, his ascendancy to ofce legitimised 1998). those views, and the process of normalisation had begun. Te ‘quality’ media have largely followed suit Email: [email protected] in this approach to Trump’s victory, bestowing a new respectability on what before election day had been generally reported as absurdly ofensive statements and policies. One could without too much imagination foresee Ku Klux Chan chief David Duke becoming an expert commentator on CNN or MSNBC (or at least on ). In News Corp press titles all over the world, which had in any case been predictably ambivalent, if not outrightly supportive of Trump, commentators and pundits were to the fore in constructing legiti- macy around policies such as US protectionism, weakening NATO, embracing Putin and so on. Tis descent into normalisation of the hitherto unacceptable, occasioned by Trump’s democrat- ically-endowed seizure of political power as of November 8, is of course very similar to the rise of Hitler and the Nazis in 1930s . Hitler’s ascent, and all that came from it, was a product of free choices made in ballot boxes, and of free media coverage which moved to the extreme right with the ruling party. Ten, as now, a demagogic populist exploited perceptions of victimhood and ‘anti-elitism’, targeting ethnic minorities as the Enemy. No-one forced national socialism on the German people, or on their media, nor on the many western media such as the Daily Mail in England which spoke out in his favour. Post-November 8 the mainstream media have shown their inability to engage with the enormity of what has happening in western and global 12 Journalism and the Illusion of Innocence

On October 23, two weeks before the US election, the Swif Boat allegation was false… We didn’t a Florida newspaper apologized to its readers for know how to write the paragraph that said, “Tis running too much news that was critical of Donald is just false…” We struggle with that. I think that Trump. It happened at the Daily Commercial, Trump has ended that struggle.” based in Leesburg, Florida, a conservative-lean- You may wonder: in 1990, in 2004, or in 2016 ing area of the state with a lot of afuent retirees. how could it be hard to say in a news report “this Te editors published an open letter to readers in is false” when the reporter and the editor are both which they they said: “Tis is not an endorsement persuaded that it is false? I have an answer for you. of Trump, a candidate whose brutish, sometimes Alongside the production of news, reporters and childish antics are responsible for his sizable defcit editors in the mainstream press have for a long in the polls. Rather, it is a recognition that you, the time been engaged in another manufacture: per- voter, deserve better than we in the media have suading us of their own innocence, especially when Prof Jay Rosen given you. You deserve a more balanced approach.” it comes to a contested election. Reporting the news and serving readers are But as Dean Baquet declared: “Trump has Media critic, writer, and a frst principles in journalism, bedrock for sound ended that struggle.” His point is not that it’s professor of journalism at practice. But protecting against criticism is not like suddenly “okay” to take sides. Trump ended New York University that at all. It has far less legitimacy, especially when the struggle in this sense: by openly trashing the criticism itself has thin legitimacy. Tis is how the norms of American politics, by fooding Email: [email protected] the phrase “working the refs” got started. Political the campaign with wave afer wave of provable actors try to infuence judgment calls by screeching falsehood, by convincing his supporters to despise about bias, whether the charge is warranted or not. and mistrust the press, Trump made it a certainty My favourite description of “protecting that when honest journalism was done about him ourselves against criticism” comes from a former it also worked against him. reporter for the Post, Paul Taylor, in For journalists this destroyed the illusion his 1990 book about election coverage: See How of innocence: just by doing your job you were Tey Run. I have quoted it many times: undoing Trump… unless he could turn his portion “Sometimes I worry that my squeamish- of the electorate against you so decisively that the ness about making sharp judgments, pro or con, very possibility that you may be trying to do an makes me unft for the slam-bang world of daily honest job was rejected out of hand. And then the journalism. Other times I conclude that it makes disaster became complete, for now by doing your me ideally suited for newspapering– certainly for job (applying scrutiny, checking facts) you were the rigors and conventions of modern ‘objective’ actually helping Trump, confrming among his journalism. For I can dispose of my dilemmas by most committed supporters the hateful image of a writing stories straight down the middle. I can media elite trying to rig the election. search for the halfway point between the best and Either way the production of innocence failed. the worst that might be said about someone (or In this vexing situation the Daily Commercial some policy or idea) and write my story in that of Leesburg, Florida published its open letter to fair-minded place. By aiming for the golden mean, readers. Unable to think it through clearly, the I probably land near the best approximation of editors surrendered their right to speak truth to truth more ofen than if I were guided by any other power (in this case audience power) and sold out set of compasses – partisan, ideological, psycho- their colleagues in the American press. logical, whatever… Yes, I am seeking truth. But I’m also seeking refuge. I’m taking a pass on the toughest calls I face.” I am seeking truth. But I’m also seeking refuge. What if it’s not possible to do both? Tis is what the editors of the Daily Commercial failed to ask themselves. And this is what the movement for Trump forced journalists everywhere in the US to realize, even if word never reached Leesburg, Florida. Earlier in the campaign, Dean Baquet, editor of , said Donald Trump had changed journalism. “I was either editor or managing editor of the L.A. Times during the Swif Boat incident. Newspa- pers did not know — we did not quite know how to do it. I remember struggling with the reporter, Jim Rainey, who covers the media now, trying to get him to write the paragraph that laid out why 13 Did election results trump frames of newspaper endorsements?

With the endorsement of only two of the top Trump’s performance when endorsed shows 100 circulation newspapers in the US, Repub- he lost 46% to 48% in despite the endorse- lican Donald J. Trump stunned the country by ment of the Las Vegas Review Journal, a newspaper becoming the 45th president of the United States owned by one of his key wealthy supporters. on November 8, 2016. Never before in the history He won Florida by the thin margin of 49% to of US politics had a presidential candidate received 48%, afer having been endorsed by the Florida so few major newspaper endorsements. Times-Union. In that state, four newspapers, Democrat Hilary Clinton was endorsed by including the largest, endorsed Clinton and one – 57 newspapers while Libertarian candidate Gary the Palm Beach Post – did not endorse anyone. Johnson was endorsed by 4, and 3 newspapers Trump’s performance when not endorsed recommend ‘Not Trump.’ Te other 31 either did shows he won some swing states by comfortable Dr Kenneth Campbell not endorse as a matter of principle or chose none margins: Iowa (52% to 48%) although its largest of the candidates. newspaper, Te Des Moines Register, endorsed Associate professor in the In comparison, in 2012 President Obama was Clinton; North Carolina (51% to 47%) and Ohio School of Journalism and endorsed by 41 of the top 100 circulation newspa- (52% to 44%) despite being repudiated by multiple Mass Communications pers and Republican Mitt Romney 35; the other 24 newspapers in both states which endorsed Clinton at the University of South newspapers did not endorse. or did not make an endorsement. Carolina Was Trump’s victory as stunning as a rebuke Trump’s performance when not endorsed also to the infuence of newspaper endorsements as the shows some razor thin victories in swing states: Email: [email protected] election results were a surprise to most Americans Michigan (48% to 47%) and Wisconsin (48% to – to most American opinion pollsters anyway? 47%). One might wonder whether the endorse- Tat may be determined by how the frames ment of Johnson on the Libertarian ticket by the used by the newspapers are understood. American Detroit News in Michigan and the recommenda- newspapers have been steadily getting out of the tion of anyone but Trump by the -Wis- presidential endorsement business during recent consin Journal Sentinel siphoned votes from elections, framing their exit in terms of question- Clinton. Many editorials framed a vote for Johnson ing the infuence of endorsements. as a vote for Trump. Yet, in an interesting twist to the trend, this Trump won Pennsylvania 49% to 48%. While year some newspapers, such as USA Today, that Clinton won the big prize of the endorsement of previously refrained as a matter of principle from the Inquirer, her reward might have endorsing candidates at presidential elections been urban voters who would support her anyway. jumped into the fray. Also, some that never or Neither she nor Trump earned the endorsement almost never endorsed a Democrat did so this time. of the four other newspapers, two of which did Many endorsements framed Clinton as fawed not endorse and a further two did not endorse as a but acceptable, although many also went out of matter of principle. their way to say she was the best prepared presi- Clinton won easily (50% to 45%) afer dential candidate ever. She was framed as having its typically Republican leaning newspapers did not the character and temperament to be president. endorse Trump, although they did not endorse her Trump was framed ‘dangerous’ and ‘unft’ either: one supported Johnson and the other did because of personal comments and behavior that not endorse. Her vice presidential running mate stoked racism, stirred anti-immigration sentiment, was also from Virginia. and disrespected women. He was framed as not Tis analysis suggests that endorsements may having the character and temperament to be president. still play an important role, and the frames used And so, is it that newspaper endorsements – should be further explored. Perhaps the role of en- despite framing the candidates so drastically difer- dorsements has changed and therefore the framing ently - did not have any infuence in the election? of endorsements should refect that change. Maybe According to preliminary results, Clinton they already do so. Tis may be an invitation to actually won the popular vote total. Trump won other newspapers to come back to the presidential the most Electoral College votes, which determines endorsement business. As some editorialists now who wins the presidency. Each state has a number say, endorsements no longer tell us how to vote, of electoral votes equal to the state’s number of but rather they contribute to the conversation. members in the House of Representatives (which is based on the state’s population) and US Senate (each state has two Senators). Te candidate who wins the most votes in a state wins that state’s electoral votes. An analysis of endorsements of top 100 circulation newspapers and voting results in swing states (whose election outcome typically cannot be predicted) suggests areas for further study. 14 Trump and Mediatization

In 2007, the short-lived Fox News satire program Alaska. Tere, as ’s Dan Balz Te Half-Hour News Hour opened with a fantasy writes, “Trump cultivated an image among mid- skit featuring a President Rush Limbaugh on his dle-class Americans as a straight-shooting billion- frst day in the Oval Ofce. With the “joke” of aire who had the bucks and the brass to stand up the skit being that -wing radio host had to anyone.” Tat perception of “bucks and brass” somehow become President, Limbaugh calls for in turn led to Trump’s starring role on Fox News, his Vice President, and in walks , where he used his weekly call-in segment on the Limbaugh’s fellow provocateur. It was a layered propagandistic morning show Fox and Friends to moment, with Fox News – itself a hybrid blend of aggressively push the Obama “birther” movement. broadcast news, conservative advocacy, and enter- While many would understandably reject tainment spectacle – imagining the fusion of con- Trump’s media trajectory as legitimate qualif- servative attack media and actual political power. cation for the US presidency, the reality is that Prof Geofrey Baym Some eight years later, when Donald Trump in an age of mediatization, standards of all sorts announced his candidacy, he abandoned the are being radically refashioned. Tat point is well Professor and chair of the prepared speech his advisers had crafed for him, understood by Trump’s long-time political adviser Department of Media and instead ofered his ad-lib rant about Mexican Roger Stone, who suggests that Trump’s time on Studies and Production at rapists and the need for a “beautiful” border wall. Te Apprentice was “the greatest single asset to Temple University (USA). Tat, interestingly enough, was a direct invoca- his presidential campaign.” Tere, Stone explains, He is the author of From tion of Coulter’s anti-immigration screed ¡Adios, “He’s perfectly made up. He’s perfectly coifed. He’s Cronkite to Colbert: Te America!, which had been published two weeks perfectly lit. He’s in the high-back chair making Evolution of Broadcast earlier. Coulter herself was a Trump advisor and tough decisions. What does he look like? He looks News, and numerous evangelist, promoting him unequivocally in her like a president.” To those of us who still want to articles and chapters next book: In Trump We Trust. Coulter, of course, envision the presidency as existing independently won’t be vice president, but the lines between of what one “looks like” on television, Stone ofers on the changing face of presidential policy, political-entertainment media, a rebuttal equally provocative and penetrating: television news and US and celebrity spectacle have become as profoundly “Now, I understand the elites say, ‘Oh, that’s reality political discourse. fused as Fox had once imagined. TV.’ Voters don’t see it that way. Television news If we are to understand the phenomenon and television entertainment: it’s all television.” Email: [email protected] of a Trump presidency, then, we have to place it It’s all television, Stone suggests, suggesting within the context of the melding of politics and that in an age of mediatization, television en- entertainment. European scholars might call this tertainment is as viable a path to the height of mediatization – the culture-wide turn in which political power as a record of public service used the organizing logic, institutional imperatives, and to be. It also emphasizes the point that commer- discursive practices of the media come to shape cial television news is structurally incapable of the very workings of the political system itself. providing any pushback. Te US television news Elsewhere, I have described this as “discursive industry, of course, gave Trump an estimated 2 integration” – a deep blending of once-discrete billion dollars in free air time during the campaign ways of talking about, knowing about, and acting in pursuit of their mutual interests. Proclaimed Les within a world where politics, news, entertainment, Moonves, the head of CBS TV (home to Burnett’s commerce, and marketing have become insepara- Survivor), the Trump phenomenon “may not be bly intertwined. good for America, but it’s damn good for CBS. … Trump, as individual and as phenomenon, Sorry,” he continued, “it’s a terrible thing to say, but sits squarely at this point of intersection. His bring it on, Donald. Keep going.” emergence as a public political fgure well predates Moonves, and his frenemies at Fox News, have the 2016 campaign. Some date his decision to run got their wish. Te Donald Trump show will be on for president to the 2011 Corre- nightly, for at least the next four years. spondence dinner, that weird hybrid of national politics, news media, and celebrity culture. Prior to that, though, Trump had long cultivated his public brand. Trough the 1990s, he was the playboy: the swashbuckling negotiator imagined in Art of the Deal (1987) and the gold-plated ladies man constructed across media locales, including Te Howard Stern Show and Playboy magazine. In the Bush years, when a neo-liberal ideology of corporate commerce rose to its global ascendance, Trump morphed into the mogul. For 11 years, he starred on NBC’s Te Apprentice, the popular reality TV show from executive producer Mark Burnett, the man behind Survivor and Sarah Palin’s 15 The 2016 election and the success of fact free politics

Te US 2016 elections campaign will be re- the media even turned into hatred. When Trump membered for many reasons, not the least for talked at his rallies about journalists as “the most its surprising outcome. One of the most striking dishonest people I know”, his supporters booed features of this campaign is the large amount of fercely and turned their anger to the cameras. factually incorrect statements of President-elect Meanwhile more and more people rely on an in- Donald Trump. According to fact checkers about formation diet of conservative talk show radio, and 7 out of 10 statements turned out to be (partly) internet stories that provide ‘the real truth’. false. Trump made false statements about his own past, things he said before, but also about major Trump 4 truth trends in society. Journalists have pointed this Te book ‘’, written by two Wash- out numerous times, and afer every debate the ington Post journalists, describes well how for Dr Peter Van Aelst large number of incorrect statements highlighted Donald Trump the truth has always been subser- by fact-checkers. How come this coverage had vient to his goals and ambitions. Trump believes Associate Professor of no efect on his electoral popularity? I see at least what he says is true, or almost true, or ought to political science at the three reasons. be true. According to Trump the people want University of Antwerp someone who sees it big, and who plays to their (Belgium). He also has a Emo trumps ratio wildest dreams and expectations. Tey know that Te growing relativity of opinions and emotions at he exaggerates, but believe, or want to believe, research position as senior the expense of facts and knowledge is hardly new. that he is right. Tony Schwartz, the ghostwriter of lecturer at the Institute of For over a decade the origins and consequences Trumps’ book Te Art of the Deal came up with Political Science, Leiden of ‘fact free politics’ are studied. It was comedian the term ‘truthful hyperbole’. It is a contradiction, University, funded by the Stephen Colbert who introduced the term ‘truthi- but Trump loved it. Dutch research council ness’ to refer to things that are true according one’s Trump used several truthful hyperboles to NOW own conviction or view, but that are not necessar- promote his core messages, and even adjusted ily supported by factual proof. Te term became the facts to ft his story. For instance, he claimed Email: peter.vanaelst@uantwerpen. be quite popular in the US as it nicely refected the unemployment is eight times higher than ofcial anti-intellectual climate that was on the rise. fgures indicate, and the number of Syrian refugees Policy makers and journalists that rely too much that Obama plans to permit into the US is multi- on fgures and knowledge are getting out of touch plied by 25. It makes his claim stronger, and the with the concerns of ordinary people. attention he gets larger. It is no surprise that in this climate there While these exaggerations and deliberate is ample room for false rumors and conspiracy factual mistakes lead to consternation among theories rooted in strong political and religious his opponents, his followers don’t mind. On the views. Two of the most famous ones are related contrary, they see in Trump someone that fnally to ’s election in 2008. Te wrong tells the truth. Trump tells it like it is and calls conviction that Obama is a Muslim is particularly problems by their name. He is not afraid to tell strong among traditional Christians, while the the public that the US has become a loser and myth that Obama is not born in the US seems their President is the founder of ISIS. According mainly popular among outspoken conservative to his own words, he has to, because he is a ‘truth voters. Both fake stories are related to the fact that teller’. Telling the truth is stronger than himself. Obama is seen as diferent. Te idea that a black His spontaneous outbursts and insults seem to man is running their country is for many hard to strengthen that reputation. And in case there is any accept. Tey have a nostalgia for a familiar white, doubt, Trump uses the phrase ‘believe me’, to stress Christian country. Tat feeling is so strong that that he knows well what he is talking about. they are willing to believe a man that promises ‘to You don’t need to believe me, but I doubt the bring back their country’. latter is true.

Te press is lying During the primaries the US press had no idea how to deal with the phenomena of Trump and were fascinated by this unconventional, enter- taining fgure. Gradually, journalists started to reveal the factual mistakes and blunt lies of Trump. However, this coverage had probably little-to-no efect since the trust of US citizens in traditional media is extremely low. For instance, research shows that many attempts of journalists to debunk the myths about Obama had no efect and potentially even backfred. Where there’s smoke there’s fre. During this campaign the distrust in 16 Trump, truth and the media

Te manner of Donald Trump’s electoral success guaranteed to generate a mighty revenue stream. presents the Western media – not just America’s He is also reported to be on an eight-year $400 – with an urgent and profound question: what is million contract, which has been extended to 2020. the role of truth in contemporary democratic Online entrepreneurs such as Matt Drudge, political discourse? jumped on the outrage bandwagon, adding to In the midst of the US presidential campaign, its momentum. Te Economist newspaper devoted a cover story to Turbo-charging the industry of outrage, the concept of “post-truth” politics, a term coined however, has been Fox News, the creation of by an American blogger, David Roberts, in writing Rupert Murdoch and a former Republican about American climate-change policy. With a operative, Roger Ailes. Under the ludicrously climate-change denier now about to sit in the Oval misleading slogan of “balance”, they conjoined the Ofce, the urgency of the “truth” question becomes dynamics of talkback radio with the visual power Dr Denis Muller starkly obvious. of television and a bank of outspokenly conserv- Denial of climate change is one of Trump’s ative commentators to create the highest-rating Senior Research Fellow in more serious but less fantastical lies. Among cable news channel in the US. the Centre for Advancing innumerable outrageous untruths, he has asserted Factual accuracy has not much to do with Journalism at the that President Obama and Hillary Clinton were what these propagandists publish in the guise of University of Melbourne, co-founders of Islamic State (IS), that Obama was journalism. Drudge has said that only 80% of his and author of Journalism not a US citizen, and that Hillary Clinton had material is verifed. Even accepting that improba- Ethics for the Digital Age laughed at a 12-year-old rape victim. Afer the bly high number, the difculty for everyone else is (Scribe Publications 2014) second presidential debate, Te New York Times in knowing which 80%. enumerated 27 specifc lies that he uttered in the Longer term issues were at work as well. Email: [email protected] course of the debate. Te term “trumped up” has Te 24/7 symbiotic news cyclone in which thus been given a new lease of life. social media and professional journalism are both In the relatively recent past when at least some caught up is destructive of truth. Material appears plausible degree of truth mattered in politics, this on social media, goes viral and becomes news for would have severely weakened his candidacy. no better reason than that it is virulent. Newspa- Not now. Trump simply condemned the media pers, shrunken by the onslaught of the digital rev- as corrupt, as part of a great conspiracy by the olution on their revenues, with fewer journalistic so-called “elites” against the American people. resources and in a constant scramble for “hits” and How did democratic politics become so “eyeballs”, amplify “news” without troubling with detached from reality? time-consuming verifcation. Clearly there are larger forces at work than Resultant fragile levels of public trust in the anything the media alone can generate. A con- media have been exploited by Donald Trump, and ventional but persuasive wisdom is emerging that the media have been in no position to mount a millions of ordinary people, particularly in the credible defence. Anglophone democracies, have been lef behind In the spring 2016 issue of Meanjin Quarterly, by globalisation, and sacrifced on the altar of the political editor of Te Guardian Australia, neoclassical economics. Evidence for this can be Katharine Murphy, faced up to this issue of trust by found in the Brexit vote and by the Occupy Wall asking: What role for journalism if facts no longer Street movement. count? She wrote: “We have to look in the mirror. Voters trapped in these circumstances know Our intemperate excesses have discounted our own only one big truth: their living standards, share moral value. Our own behavior has helped fuel a of the cake, and place in society are imperilled or lack of trust.” reduced. Against this big truth, which they live Tis is a crisis for the media but also for the every day, untruths about who founded IS, about democratic process. Te media has an ethical Obama’s birthplace or Hillary Clinton’s alleged obligation to restore what it can of public trust. Te heartlessness towards a child rape victim, count for starting point is to hew to the truth: verify material nothing in the moral calculus. before publishing, make it more important to be It is in exploiting this sentiment that right than to be frst, and call to account people in elements of the media, particularly in the US, are public ofce who tell lies. seriously culpable. An outrage industry has burgeoned, in which radio shock jocks such as Rush Limbaugh, and right-wing populist copycats such as Bill O’Reilly and Sean Hannity, have made large fortunes and global reputations for themselves as purveyors of outrage. Limbaugh is reported to have 13.25 million regular weekly listeners, an audience size 17 Rise of Donald Trump: media as a voter-Decision accelerator

Te media are key in shaping of the political system – a position shared with a during campaigns and can help voters with their considerable amount of Republican voters. So it decision making. If there were any doubts about happened that Sanders lost the party nomination, the role of the media and their ability to compete and the Republicans had to accept the bitter pill of with the Internet, those doubts were smacked a party nomination for Donald Trump. down by this year’s election. Te frst of three televised presidential debates between Hillary From Conventions to the General Elections Clinton and Donald Trump was watched by 84 In early summer there was a shif in how the media million Americans – and this does not include represented Donald Trump and his campaign. those who viewed it on the Internet and abroad. It – the media began to put Trump’s statements was not just the debates which had an infuence on into context and the critique increased. Trump, Miloš Gregor public opinion. Tere were also subsequent media however, managed to convince his supporters and Internet commentaries and analyses which that the media are biased and that they were Department of Political emerged afer each of the three debates. How the trying to harm his campaign. Several events have Science, Faculty of media represent each of the candidates has the occurred since the July conventions which afected Social Studies at ability to afect people’s voting decisions and thus candidate preferences in the polls. Te most Masaryk University, and the election results. important moment for the Trump campaign was Ironically, Donald Trump, who complained the publication of an eleven year old tape of Trump International Institute of about and accused them of conspir- insulting women and approving of sexually violent Political Science. Fields of ing to rig the election, profted the most from behaviour towards them. A big issue for Clinton interests are campaigns, the media attention. Afer Trump announced his was the possible re-opening of the FBI investiga- political marketing and candidacy for President of the United States in tion into her e-mail. Of course, the three presiden- manipulative mid-June 2015, he was considered by most of the tial TV debates that took place in September and techniques. media to be more of an amusement than a serious October were also important major events. candidate. Tey could not have been more wrong. In terms of mentions of Trump and Clinton Email: [email protected] on the Internet, we can identify each of the three Priming of the Primaries debates as a milestone in a given period (see Even during the autumn and winter, Trump was graphs of positive, neutral and negative sentiment considered to be an anomaly, despite the fact that mentions). However, the last graph is the most he was doing well in the polls. Te situation began interesting as it shows a balance in sentiment. Te to change with the frst caucuses and primaries. It most negative Trump mentions were found in was then that it became obvious that the support articles published during (and immediately afer) for Trump was real and that he was a candidate to the debates and in the days when his tape-scandal be contended with. And, in fact, he received the appeared. However, a huge increase of articles with nomination smoothly. neutral and positive sentiments can be seen just a Te Democratic Party presidential primaries few days before the general election. If we compare brought us a surprise, too. Hillary Clinton, the the evolution of the poll preference with the party favourite, found a capable opponent – semantic balance of the articles and comments that certainly more a robust one than might have have been published on the Internet, we fnd that initially been expected – in Bernie Sanders. the development of the polls is strikingly similar Sanders had more in common with Trump than to the sentiment balance of the candidates. And, mere criticism of the current political elites and as the case of the US Presidential election in 2016 system. Teir popularity was greatly supported shows us, Internet discussions follow the media. with the help of the media. Not that the media were uncritical of Sanders and Trump, quite the contrary. Although the media criticized them more than they praised them, neither of them were afected. Te graphs show the result of real-time and ongoing sentiment Some Democratic Party voters did not intend analysis of over 100 million articles from 275 thousand sources. Tese cover media websites, commentaries, political, to accept the fact the only serious candidate in business and academic analysis, etc. Te graphs 1 – 3 show the primaries was Hillary Clinton. Bernie Sanders number of articles with specifc sentiment published every represented an alternative, not only on a personal day. Graph 4 shows sentiment balance made from average of level, but also for his socialist program and positive and negative sentiments. criticism of the political system. And there were a Source: Semantic Visions. total of 17 candidates running for the Republican Party nomination. Although fve of them withdrew from the race before the frst caucus in Iowa, the biggest challenge for the rest of the candidates was to stand out from the crowd and claim their time in the media spotlight. Trump was the best at this. He also managed to be the most salient critic 18

The new normal? Campaigns & elections in the contemporary media environment

In our 2011 book, Afer Broadcast News: Media short) Bernie Sander’s insurgent campaigns would Regimes, Democracy, and the New Information be unthinkable in the campaign structure of the Environment, Bruce Williams and I argued that late 20th Century. To be sure, the new information political, economic, cultural, and technological environment did not cause their success – there changes in the United States have fundamentally were real issues of race, class, gender, religion, glo- altered the media environment, with signif- balization, culture, and a deep mistrust of both the cant implications for the practice and even the traditional media and Washington politics driving meaning of politics. Tis emerging “media regime” these candidates’ unexpected popularity. But most blurs traditional distinctions between fact and of these fssures have existed since the nation’s opinion, news and entertainment, information founding, and none were unique to this election. producers and consumers, and mass mediated What was unique was the ability of a 75 year old Prof Michael X. Delli and interpersonal communication, creating a socialist and a 70 year old businessman turned Carpini political that is both “multiaxial” (i.e., in reality television celebrity to exploit the contem- which control of the public agenda emerges from porary information environment in ways that were Professor of multiple, shifing, and previously invisible or less unprecedented, and done outside – and against the Communication and the powerful actors) and “hyperreal” (i.e., in which the concerted eforts – of the traditional institutions of mediated representation of reality becomes more national politics. Walter H. Annenberg important than the facts underlying it). Consider the Trump campaign. While disputes Dean of Te Annenberg Te impact of these changes on political over “the facts” are common, Trump took this to School for Communication campaigns could be seen in small but signifcant a new level, demonstrating that a candidate can ways as early as the 1980s, when the Reagan make statements that were verifably false, be called Email: [email protected] campaign used satellite technology and pre-pack- out on these misstatements, and pay no political aged “video news releases” to bypass the national price for them. His campaign shattered the already press and target local (and presumably less aggres- dissolving distinction between news and entertain- sive) journalists and media outlets (Hertsgaard, ment, with primaries resembling nothing so much 1988). Other signs of change included Ross Perot’s as a reality television show, debates that drew huge appearances on the cable talk show, Larry King audiences in large part for the spectacle, and a Live to jump start his third party candidacy, and traditional news media that provided Trump with ’s appearances on Te Arsenio Hall unprecedented coverage because of his celebrity Show (think sunglasses and saxophone) and MTV status. Te presumed importance of both “free” (think boxers or briefs), all in 1992; John McCain’s (i.e., positive news coverage) and “paid” (i.e., unprecedented use internet fundraising in 2000; televised campaign ads) was upended Howard Dean’s insurgency campaign fueled by by his use of Twitter to speak directly to, motivate, his (and Joe Trippi’s) creative use of the internet to and mobilize his followers. And his message was motivate and mobilize young supporters in 2004; amplifed through online social networks, making and the implosion of Senator George Allen’s reelec- his followers both consumers and producers of tion bid (and presidential aspirations) in 2006, the campaign discourse. Combined, these tactics result of a cell phone video that went viral (think exploited both the multiaxiality and hyperreality “macaca moment”). of the current information environment. By 2008 and 2012 the use of digital, social, and Te future is difcult to predict, but one thing non-traditional media and technology to announce seems certain: Donald Trump is not an aberra- ones candidacy, fund-raise, reach and engage sup- tion. Te type of candidates that emerge (in terms porters, and had become frmly en- of ideology and personality), where they emerge trenched as an integral part of campaigning, more from, who they mobilize, and how they exploit the efectively by Democrats than Republicans (Kreiss, radically changed information environment, will 2012). But despite some prominent examples (e.g., depend on the context. But the days of campaigns ’s parodies of Sarah Palin; that are controlled by a stable set of political and Te Daily Show’s election coverage; Te Colbert media elites are over. Report’s satirical civic lessons on campaign fnance; the viral releases of problematic comments by Mitt Romney and Barack Obama; even Obama’s ability to overtake front runner Hilary Clinton), the impact of this reconstituted information environ- ment remained largely channeled within the tradi- tional media and political parties, ofen in informal partnership with tech savvy people “borrowed” from digital media companies (Kreiss, 2016). Te 2016 presidential campaign was a more radical departure from the recent past. Te success of Donald Trump’s and (though ultimately falling 20 Did the media create Trump?

“Trump’s victory is no surprise. He was never a extent this media war helped again, of course joke. Treating him as one only strengthened him. in a quite diferent way, Trump to get elected as He is both a creature and a creation of the media 45th President of the United States remains to and the media will never own that”, claimed be assessed. But some ‘mea culpa’ for failing to flmmaker Michael Moore in his post, predict Trump’s victory are starting to be heard in minutes afer Trump had won the presidential race. the defeated anti-Trump camp, like from the New Indeed, one of the most recurring questions before York Times and the Washington Post. Anna Palmer and afer Trump’s election was whether the media and Jake Sherman in ’s Playbook newsletter were to be blamed for his sweeping successes sum up marvelously the new certitude: “We were during the long campaign and, especially, for the all wrong. Tat seems obvious, right? But we were shocking fnale. Te debate engaged mostly the more than wrong. We were laughably oblivious. liberal media outlets, where infuential pundits, Te entire Washington political-media complex Prof Gianpietro Mazzoleni academics, and bloggers tried to come to grips completely missed the mark. Not by inches or with the widely shared feeling that the media’s feet, but by miles.” Let alone that by bombarding Professor of Political coverage of Trump was actually drawing him more Trump on a daily basis, the media might also have Communication at popular support. fueled an “underdog efect” that prompted many University of Milan Donald Trump, to be true, helped the media undecided voters to support the “hated” candidate. (Italy). He has research to help him. Te candidate was a celebrity on his Did the media then ‘create’ Trump? Tey interests in the intersection own, a famboyant tycoon, a controversial outsider clearly did not create the personage, who was of media and politics. His in the GOP camp. He crisscrossed the country already to some extent a media darling, but most recent publication rallying crowds with intemperate speeches against contributed, unintentionally at frst, and regret- (as editor-in-chief) blacks, muslims, Mexicans; raised hell worldwide fully later, to the build up of his political persona, with outrageous comments on females, tweeted if negative. At the end the media may have been is Te International insults to politicians and stars, he was a newsmaker complicit in the defeat of Hillary Clinton, a Encyclopedia of Political and an agenda-setter all the way through. How candidate who was all but advantaged by a (too) Communication (Wiley, could the media ignore such a bizarre presidential favorable media frenzy. 2016), and he is the hopeful? Tat’s the point. Tey just couldn’t! So, president of the Italian they covered his triumphant march toward the Association of Political nomination, using the horse race frame, the one Communication. that they are long accustomed to. Te coverage willy-nilly ended up in boosting Trump’s public Email: gianpietro.mazzoleni@ image, in donating him billions worth of free unimi.it publicity and, more importantly, in legitimizing his standing as presidential frontrunner, months before the Republican Convention in Cleveland. All not overtly partisan media outlets implemented both the typical journalistic production norms, and the commercial imperatives that scholars identify with the ‘media logic’. It’s the unusual, the sensational that draws the attention of the media, and Trump was both, and sensational stories ‘sell well’, and bring in a lot of money. Tat was honestly acknowledged by CBS CEO Leslie Moonves: “It may not be good for America, but it’s damn good for CBS.” What happened with the media afer Trump won the GOP nomination in July is something that will need further academic investigation. Te news media suddenly realized that they had contribut- ed to the process of ‘king-making’, a traditional power in the hands of the US media, but in this case it turned out to be a frightening burden. All the major (as well as several minor) media, even those traditionally aligned with the conservatives endorsed Hillary Clinton sort of felt remorse- ful, and started to strike a diferent chord. Te liberal media stopped pretending to be unbiased observers of the political fray, and initiated an escalating, overt ‘anti-Trump’ campaign that lasted until the eve of Election Day. To what 21 Trump, media, and the ‘oxygen of publicity’

Media scholars have paid a lot of attention to social highlighting how people found his statements media in recent elections. Yet, there is a compel- outrageous or upsetting. In this sense, they were ling argument to think about the whole political fulflling the role of journalists as those who communication sphere – from how the candidates patrol the boundaries of culture, signaling that frame their messages to how the traditional mass public ofcials should not make false or deni- media covers them to how people comment and grating comments about social groups. But while share on social media. In particular, our research this might have been the message intended, the suggests that the traditional mass media gave message received by much of America was that the ‘oxygen of publicity’ – to borrow the phrase Trump was a political force. Tis amplifed his Margaret Tatcher used to talk about British brand in a crowded primary in a far more powerful terrorism coverage– to the early Trump campaign. way than a carefully constructed policy message Prof Sarah Oates Although the coverage was ofen critical of the or paid advertising. While we have yet to carry out candidate, particularly for his statements about im- the analysis for the general election, observing the Professor and Senior migration, it arguably had the efect of consolidat- news coverage emphasis on scandals and threats Scholar at the Philip ing the Trump political brand at a critical juncture. – such as Trump’s caginess about accepting the Merrill College of In a joint project between the Philip Merrill results – suggests that Trump continued to direct College of Journalism and the Smith School of the narrative. Journalism, University of Business at the University of Maryland, Prof. Tatcher famously claimed that denying those Maryland, College Park, Wendy W. Moe and I analyzed both traditional the British government deemed terrorist groups USA. She is a former newspaper coverage and tweets relating to Hillary the ‘oxygen of publicity’ would help end terrorism journalist who has studied Clinton and Donald Trump in the early primary in Northern . Tat didn’t work out, not elections and news in the period (July 1 to September 24, 2015). Te purpose least because the roots of the confict in Northern United States, Russia, and was to establish how efective the candidates were Ireland are broad, deep, and not dependent on the . at communicating their into both tradi- frames by the British media. However, in the case tional and social media, as well as to examine how of Trump, the mainstream media’s constant barrage Twitter: @media_politics much people on Twitter were relating to either of coverage from the primaries onward – arguably Email: [email protected] campaign messages or the news coverage. We designed as but interpreted as a sign focused on news stories and tweets that mentioned of infuence – may have given critical oxygen to either of the candidates and words linked to four Trump’s campaign. important primary campaign issues (the economy, healthcare, the Iranian nuclear deal, and immigra- tion) as well as personal issues or traits linked to the candidates (such as “Bill Clinton”, “corrupt” or “liar”). We found that the US political communica- tion landscape was overwhelmed by amplifcation of Trump’s statements about immigration (this was soon afer his speech that called Mexican immigrants “rapists” and while he was promising to “build a wall”). Clinton tweeted more about the economy and healthcare and Trump tweeted more about immigration. Tis pattern was refected in public tweets, in which tweets about the economy and healthcare were linked to Clinton and those about immigration were linked to Trump. While they were by no means always positive, the sheer volume of immigration/Trump tweets was the single largest election issue we measured circulat- ing on Twitter from July to September 2015. In 475 newspaper articles linked to the issue or personality keywords, immigration was mentioned in 264 articles (56 percent), while all other issues combined were mentioned in 232 articles (some mentioned more than one issue). And if you look at Chart 1, you’ll see that in this most popular category of immigration, there was a huge focus on Trump. Tis crowded out discussion of other issues or even our personality keywords. Journalists would be quick to point out that this coverage of Trump was generally aimed at 22 Chart 1: Candidates linked with issues or personality keywords in newspaper articles, 1 July to 24 September 2015

Source: Author’s research. Coding of 475 articles from Te New York Times, Te Washington Post, and USA Today. Articles were retrieved by using keywords for the issues and personality factors.

Chart 2: Tweets that mention either Trump or Clinton and contain a key word

Source: Author’s research. Our project collected a total of 955,193 tweets that named Trump and 272,579 tweets that named Clinton. Te chart above shows only those tweets that also mentioned one of our keywords. Te tweets were automatically categorized by keywords. 2 Campaign The #LolNothingMatters election

Te American electoral system was supposed to outmaneuvered his rival, or stumbled upon some be resilient against the siren call of the populist secret formula for campaign success. We should demagogue. Tis is by design. In many electoral resist this urge. Donald Trump ran a godawful systems, a party that can attract 15% of the popu- mess of a campaign. His only strength was his lation will receive (roughly) 15% of the representa- singular, message: that American politics is (a) tion. Te United States is a winner-take-all system. simple, (b) broken, because of (c) corruption and Our lengthy, two-stage, extraordinarily expensive incompetence, and that (d) everything would be electoral process is designed to reward two centrist better once he was put in charge. Tat is the siren parties that each try to appeal to the broad center song of the strongman dictator. It is a rejection of the electorate. of liberal pluralism, which holds that politics and And yet... Here we are. Donald Trump won governance is messy and complicated, and requires the Republican primary over the opposition of a subtle hand to achieve positive change. Dr David Karpf virtually the entire Republican party leadership. America has never had such a pure He ofered a message of xenophobia, a message of demagogue run for President before. Past pres- Assistant Professor in renewed racial dominance, a message that echoed idents, dating back to the founding fathers, all the School of Media fascist, autocratic appeals heard in other countries concurred with the assumption that government and Public Afairs at in decades past and present. Having won the Re- is complicated, and requires deliberate intricacy George Washington publican primary, his party leadership mostly fell to run successfully. American institutions – both University and author in line, and Republican voters committed to voting parties and media organizations – were supposed of Te MoveOn Efect: for him regardless of his history or positions, his to be strong enough to reject such an appeal. Te Unexpected qualifcations or his policy promises. Tat set up an But many white Americans were swayed by the Transformation of inevitably close race in a deeply divided country. siren song of right wing demagoguery. And many American Political And against all expectations (including his own people of color faced difculty when trying to vote Advocacy campaign’s predictions), he emerged as the winner at the polls, due to voter suppression eforts crafed of that race. by the state itself. Te result was that Hillary Emaiil: [email protected] Tis should not have happened. Setting Clinton received a couple of million more votes aside the large-scale diplomatic, regulatory, and than Donald Trump, but they were not the right policy implications of Trump’s victory, it should votes in the right states. (Democrats also received not have happened because Donald Trump ran a several million more votes in the House of Rep- ludicrously poor campaign. He failed to pay his resentatives, and will have 47 fewer seats than the pollster. His feld operation was a series of puf- Republican party.) yourself-up rallies with little call-to-action at the America now lives under one-party Republican end. His data operation was efectively nonexist- rule. It is a party that received fewer votes, a party that ent. His messaging was designed to appeal to the prioritized suppressing votes rather than reaching worst impulses of a shrinking white electorate. out to new voters, a party that has made impossible His communications team was mostly concerned promises that run counter to deeply-held American with keeping their candidate locked out of his norms and values. It is a party now led by an unstable own Twitter account. He lost all three debates, individual who lacks the respect of his own partisan confrming the worst public fears about his awful allies or even a modicum of policy expertise or diplo- temperament. He had a terrible convention, beset matic temperament. by own-goal mistakes practically every night. He We did not reach this state through a sophisti- picked fghts with his own fellow Republicans, cated propaganda operation, or through reasoned and with the families of fallen soldiers, and with policy debate, or through the self-immolation of individual reporters on the campaign trail. the non-authoritarian party. Donald Trump did Hillary Clinton, by comparison, ran the type not hide who he was. His mistakes and limitations of sophisticated, professional campaign that we were plain to see. But a substantial minority of the have come to expect in modern American politics. electorate chose to ignore his faws, to behave as She had better data, better feld operations, better though American policy making and diplomatic fundraising, and better communications. Her leadership no longer mattered. television commercials were marvelous. She was So here we are. Donald Trump is the legiti- weighted down by a faux-scandal about her use mately elected president of the United States. If of a private email server, by interference by the campaigns mattered, if policy details mattered, if director of the FBI, and by interference of Russian endorsements mattered, if competence mattered, hackers and WikiLeaks. But those were challenges then Hillary Clinton would be President. Political that were not created by her own campaign. Tey scientists such as myself entered this election were problems that the campaign tried its best to believing that all of these things mattered, at least respond to. a little bit. We, and our fellow citizens, are now lef It is tempting to reconstruct the history of wondering if anything matters at all. this campaign in order to ft the outcome. Surely, if Donald Trump was the victor, he must have 25 Evidence for the powerful roles of polarization and partisanship

Te 2016 presidential campaign featured two can- in fact see her overall favorability numbers increase didates who were viewed negatively even by many among Democrats. members of their own party. In other words, many Tere was reason to believe throughout the voters may have experienced ambivalence about campaign that this process was not going to work their party’s nominee throughout the campaign. as smoothly for Donald Trump and the Repub- While defnitive data is not yet available, it appears licans. Trump has a habit of both starting and that both candidates were able to overcome, to escalating disagreements with members of his own varying degrees, such ambivalence with many of party. For example, from the very early days of his their partisan supporters. campaign he has had fair ups with recent presi- dential nominee John McCain and Speaker of the An uneasy feeling House Paul Ryan. Dr Judd Tornton A voter is ambivalent when he or she possesses Moreover, several Republican Senators both positive and negative feelings or beliefs about declared they would not be voting for Trump. And, Assistant Professor in the a candidate. For example, coverage of Clinton’s public intellectuals such as Charles Krauthammer Department of Political email scandal may have caused a Democrat who and George Will have also disavowed Trump. Science at Georgia State otherwise would support many of her policies to be Likewise, many newspapers that have historically University. His primary wary of her. Similarly, a potential Trump supporter endorsed Republicans declined to endorse Trump focus is on mass political may have felt positively about his positions on and some even endorsed his opponent — for taxes while being alarmed by his bragging about example, the Dallas Morning News endorsed behaviour. In particular, sexually assaulting women, his racist language, or Clinton, the frst time the paper has endorsed a his interests include his tendency to pick fghts with members of his Democrat since 1940. Indeed, the editorial stated partisanship, beliefs own party. that “Trump is no Republican.” systems and ideology, the Ambivalence has important consequences While Democrats heard members of their interplay between elite for both attitudes and behavior. Most relevant to party consistently praise and defend Clinton, and mass opinion, and our discussion here, ambivalent voters may be, Republicans ofen encountered messages ranging issues of measurement. in some cases, more willing to vote against the from tepid support to open hostility toward party they usually support. Perhaps more likely, Trump. Yet, many Republicans supported their Email: [email protected] ambivalent voters will take longer to make up their party’s candidate — early evidence indicates 90% mind, indicating a lack of enthusiasm for his or her of Republicans who voted cast a ballot for the candidate. Consequently, a candidate and his or Republican nominee. her party will have to spend more efort convincing Tis presents a puzzle: how did such a unique an ambivalent voter to cast a ballot for his or her party. nominee result in such a typical outcome? Te Consistent with this conclusion is research answer may partly lie in the powerful forces of demonstrating that more ofen than not, voters partisanship and polarization. As the parties have who have a history of supporting one party over moved increasingly distant ideologically, voters the other do not defect from their party, even when have sorted into partisan camps. As a result, par- experiencing ambivalence. Ambivalence toward tisanship matters more than it ever has and voters the nominee of one’s preferred party ofen declines are reluctant to abandon their party. Indeed, recent over the course of the campaign. Tat is, individu- elections have tended to be far more competi- als become more favorably disposed to their own tive than we observed in the middle of the 20th party’s candidate. century. Te 2016 election suggests that partisan- Underlying these fndings is a long line of ship remains a powerful force. research indicating one of the major roles of a campaign is to bring home ‘mismatched partisans’. For example, the GOP would attempt to persuade a Republican hesitant to support Trump. In recent elections, including 2016, the vast majority of partisans who voted have ended up supporting their party’s nominee.

Te role of campaigns Conventional wisdom suggests that positive messaging by the party, the candidate and his or her surrogates causes positive feelings about the candidate to become more relevant to a supporter of a party, and negative feelings less so. How might this work? With Clinton, months of advertisements and positive statements from President Obama, Bernie Sanders and others likely led to a sofening of negative attitudes. And, we did 26 The emotional brand wins

Te 2016 US Presidential election proved the could clean up Wall Street and turn the country power of emotional branding, positioning and around. He developed colorful names for his understanding the strategic conditions in which opponents like ‘Lyin’ Ted (Cruz), Little Marco a campaign is run. Emotional brands build deep (Rubio) and Crooked Hillary (Clinton). His brand loyalty, have the power to go viral on social line and its heritage were a positioning statement media and earn media thus reducing the need for that the country needed to be improved again and a campaign to pay for media. Emotional branding, resonated with older voters who remembered the while making its users vulnerable to charges that Carter years and the Reagan Revolution as the they lack detail about their ideas, it fts with the fast corrective to those. Tus, a vote for Trump was moving world in which most voters live their lives. a vote for change back to an America in which Emotional branding can be part of a positioning working class Americans could make good money, program. Both Sanders and Trump positioned everyone spoke English, law and order prevailed, Dr Ken Cosgrove themselves as outsiders and agents of change in a and the country was feared and respected around year in which many voters sought such qualities. the world. Associate Professor While Sanders was the future oriented candidate in the Department of of Revolution and Trump the nostalgic candidate Conclusions Government, Sufolk of Restoration, their emotional branding programs Trump and Sanders built emotional brands that University, . His positioned them well to compete in an unhappy created deep loyalty, inspired customer evangelism research interests include country against a candidate selling stability and the and generated a high level of enthusiasm about status quo: Hillary Clinton. voting for them. Both Trump and Sanders were political marketing, able to use social and earned media to get their American political #feelthebern message out efciently and both staged mass events institutions and social Bernie Sanders sought to pull the Democrat- to bring their brands to life in highly emotive movements and US ic Party lefward and denying the nomination ways. If Sanders was the candidate of the future Foreign Policy and control of the party to the centrist Clintons. and the Revolution then Trump was the candidate Sanders targeted much of the Obama coalition. of nostalgia and the Restoration. Te Revolu- Email: [email protected] He stressed a “rigged” economy and game, bank tionary and the Restorer both faced of against reform, and presented voters with an America a candidate presenting herself as a continuation that was in need of a “political revolution”. Under of the Obama legacy and upholder of the status President Sanders things would be radically quo. Hillary Clinton struggled in both contests. diferent as the bad behavior of the one percent, Her branding failed to motivate key Democratic the big banks and Wall Street and the rich would audiences to vote. While stories were legion about follow the rules and pay their “fair share” of taxes the enthusiasm of the Sanders and Trump voters, and that free trade agreements would end. He Hillary Clinton struggled to build deep brand proposed universal healthcare and free higher loyalty partly because of a lack of emotion that education. Sanders had a great appeal with a few went right down to the hashtag: #imwithher. Tese segments of the electorate but couldn’t expand and failures mattered on election day when Trump did not win. won a huge number of working class whites, split on college educated whites, did well with female #MAGA voters and showed great improvement with Donald Trump had extent corporate and personal Hispanic and African-American voters versus what brands. For this campaign, he used a tag line Mitt Romney had done four years earlier. Hillary frst used by in 1980: “Let’s Make Clinton’s more stability oriented branding failed America Great Again”. Te contents and attitudes do the same. On Election Day, turnout amongst of the Trump campaign were much closer to the key Democratic audiences was down, Trump did silent majority messaging used by . just enough with his target audiences and the rest In the Trump emotional brand the country is is history. Te lesson of the cycle appears to be that under siege by , elites, liberals, terrorists strong emotional branding and how to position and illegal aliens. Like Sanders, Trump argued a such a brand in light of market conditions are the system was “rigged” and ofered himself as more important than clearly thought out policy a corrective to that. He presented in a narrative positions, political experience, more sober values in which Americans were much worse of and like competence or stability or winning debates. in more danger than they had been eight years earlier. Trump’s policies were aimed at making the country safe and economically viable for average people again. Trump ofered highly visual solutions to the nation’s problems: building a wall, tearing up free trade agreements, banning Muslims from entering the country and using signs of his wealth and business experience to show that he alone 27 Donald Trump’s slogan betrays a renewed political fxation on the past

At its most basic, all democratic politics could not only an age of post-truth politics but also an be described as a fght over the future. Diferent age of post-future politics. Tis is an argument that factions, parties or candidates propose competing Davies convincingly applies to Brexit, too. Post- visions for a society which would in some crucial truth and post-future politics feed of one another: way change it; the electorate assesses their ideas they form two sides of a coin whose only currency and decides which is the more desirable or feasible. is fear and despair. But watching Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton And what of Hillary Clinton? Did she ofer an grapple over America’s future, it’s clear that this alternative vision, a future that stands for newness model is breaking down. To diferent extents, both and progress? Not at all. Perhaps this isn’t sur- candidates have retreated into the past rather than prising given the amount of time she has spent facing the future. in politics — it’s unlikely that she would propose Alexandra Paulin-Booth Trump’s famous and ubiquitous slogan a complete break with a past in which she is so is “make America great again”. He gives only thoroughly embedded. Her emphasis on her expe- Lecturer and PhD the sketchiest of outlines as to what this would rience, meticulously detailed in all three debates, candidate in History at entail: jobs and growth, a wall on the Mexican trapped her in a bygone era. Balliol College, Oxford border, defeating Islamic State – all huge, ill-de- Clinton’s willingness to reference a direct return fned, and questionably feasibile. to or continuity of the other Clinton era was on full Email: alexandra.paulin-booth@ Te problems Trump identifes in today’s display in the frst debate: “I think my husband did balliol.ox.ac.uk America greatly outnumber his solutions. During a pretty good job in the 1990s. I think a lot about the debates, Trump tossed out the word “again”, the what worked and how we can make it work again.” crux of his slogan, with compulsive insistence – Sure enough, there’s very little new about her “great again, safe again, wealthy again”. In the third proposed programme. Essentially, she advocates debate in Las Vegas, he declared he wanted to see a return to a carefully delineated recent past of the constitution enacted “the way it was meant to be”. prosperity. It’s a big contrast with Trump’s fantasy Te murky nostalgia of this claim is obvious. of an all-encompassing paradise lost – but Clinton’s Tis is less a matter of moving forwards and is a recreation of the past nonetheless. more recovering something lost. Tat is why Trump doesn’t really need to explain what his Past our prime policies would actually be: the presumption is that Politicians of all stripes have long invoked what Americans will know their former greatness when they see as the glorious aspects of their countries’ they see it. Campaigns like his bypass the arduous histories to bolster visions of the future. But the path of reasoning and set us on the easier but more past is typically inspiration, not prescription. treacherous terrain of instinct and emotion. Te revolutionaries of late-18th century France What we’re seeing is a turn away from might have vaunted classical symbols and archi- optimism, a vivid feeling among vast swathes of tecture, but they didn’t use them to assemble a the electorate that the future no longer implies strict template for a return to a bygone age; they improvement, if indeed it ever did. Tis brand of incorporated the aesthetic into a radical vision politics has a long lineage – and Trump’s national- of the future. That is not the case in this year’s ism is the direct descendant of a much older strand presidential election. of far-right nationalism. What we are witnessing is a profound shif in the Western political landscape, a transforma- Just like old times tion by no means limited to the US. Sections of By the end of the 19th century, nationalist ideology many electorates are losing faith in the idea of the was mutating, shedding its universalist skin and future as we know it – something distinct from the its ofen liberating intentions. In the 1890s it took past and the present alike, and which usually repre- on an inward-looking, essentialist incarnation: ra- sents change for the better. Traditional establish- cialised, fearful, belligerent. Tis change is usually ment politicians have been all but paralysed by this described as a shif from lef to right, but that development, while insurgent populists are eagerly doesn’t entirely grasp what was going on. fuelling it. Such a change required nationalism to All the while, we’re faced with problems of a conceive the future in a fundamentally diferent new urgency and scale: widespread disenchant- way: it stopped representing opportunity and ment, marginalisation, and division; the threat progress and started to connote threat and danger. of jobs lost to automation; antibiotic resistance; Nationalists began to campaign on the promise climate change; displaced populations. It is unlikely they would protect their people from the ravages that looking back to any past, however seductive, of modernity, whether in the form of increasing will help us solve these problems. immigration or exploitation at work. Te resurgence of this scared, suspicious eyeing of the future is at the heart of the Trump campaign. As Will Davies argued, we have entered 28 Dog whistles and dumpster fres

How do politicians appeal to a constituency loud and clear.” Eleven months later, Coyle wrote: over things that must not be mentioned in polite “It would be nice to think the premier was merely company? Tings like racism, sexism, violence, and being thoughtless, rather than calculating, that other forms of hatred? he was not blowing on that that only Tey call in the dogs. Or, to be more precise, racists hear.” they blow dog whistles. As a political Twitter meme, “dog whistle” is Zac Goldsmith was accused of blowing the right up there with “dumpster fre,” referring to a whistle ofen during his unsuccessful campaign spectacular failure, a cockup, a bloody mess. for the London mayoralty against Sadiq Khan. Te A dumpster is a mobile trash container, tactics attributed to him, the Mirror said, “included introduced in the United States in the 1930s by writing to people whose surname was ‘Singh’ in the the Dempster brothers, who coined the term. address book and warning Mr Khan was coming (“Dumpster” was a trademark until 2008.) For Merrill Perlman for their jewellery.” some reason, dumpsters catch on fre a lot. Tough In the United States, Donald Trump, now the those fres usually are contained to the dumpster, Consultant who works President-elect, was accused of blowing it fre- they can be pretty spectacular, sending up lots of with news organizations, quently, as in when he suggested that “the Second smoke and fames. private companies and Amendment people” could do something about Te term “dumpster fre” was added to the journalism organizations, Hillary Clinton’s Supreme Court selections. If you Oxford Dictionaries this year, with the defnition specializing in editing believe in guns, the implication was, you could use “informal A chaotic or disastrously mishandled them against a political opponent. situation: last season was a dumpster fre, and it and the English language. As elections get less civil, it’s interesting to see didn’t get that way overnight.” Adjunct Assistant how popular those “dog whistles” have become. As that defnition seems to indicate, “dumpster Professor at the Columbia Tis seemed to be the year that the “dog whistle” fre” as a metaphor may have had its roots in sports. Graduate School of was heard the loudest. Te Language Log blog says the earliest met- Journalism A real dog whistle, of course, produces an ul- aphorical use was in 2009 by the Washington Post trasonic sound that is too high for human hearing, sports writer Mike Wise, who told the Hufngton Email: [email protected] but can be heard by dogs, cats, and other animals. Post that he’d heard it from a trafc reporter he Tat it was invented in 1876 by Sir Francis Galton used to work with. But “dumpster fres” appear in seems appropriate, given that he also coined the sports reports starting in November 2008, in such term “eugenics,” breeding selectively to produce places as Te Star (“Te season that began preferred human traits. as a dumpster fre…”). But many “dumpster fres” Much human “dog whistling” seems aimed at followed Wise’s use as well, proving again how a people who would be interested in eugenics as well. good idiom (or cliché) can spread like wildfre. Te Oxford English Dictionary says a dog Te frst political reference to a “dumpster whistle is “A statement or expression which in fre” that we can fnd is even earlier, in a July 2008 addition to its ostensible meaning has a further post by Scott Smith on the Scholars and Rogues interpretation or connotation intended to be un- blog: “maybe, satire aside, this whole dumpster fre derstood only by a specifc target audience.” is bad for progressives fghting their way toward Urban Dictionary, entirely user generated November.” Smith says he heard the term on and thus less “formal,” is more direct, in a 2006 sports radio. entry on “dog whistle comment”: “A surreptitious Te term is becoming all-consuming. As the inclusion of code words or phrases that will be Oxford words blog noted: heard by some of those listening, while not dis- “Although we see a fairly steady rise and fall turbing the other listeners, who may not appreciate in frequency through 2013 and 2014, usage runs the hidden message(s).” unusually high between the beginning of last As a political term, “dog whistle” has been summer and the end of 2015. Curiously enough, around for a while, but no one is sure exactly how Donald Trump just happened to announce his long. William Safre wrote about it in 2005, noting campaign for the presidency on June 16th of that Te Economist attributed the expression to a last year.” political consultant in Australia. Safre found “dog whistle” in a March 1997 issue of Te Australian newspaper, which attributed the phrase to, um, Americans. But both the Americans and the Australians may have been late to the party. As the Merri- am-Webster Words at Play blog notes, a columnist for the Ottawa Citizen, Jim Coyle, wrote in October 1995 that the term “special interest” was “an all-purpose dog-whistle that those fed up with feminists, minorities, the undeserving poor hear 29 How Donald Trump bullies with his body language

As Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump ramp up position – which alternates with an L-shaped for their third and fnal televised debate, people gesture. Te danger signal produces an immediate are still trying to make sense of what happened at emotional efect, then he reassures the audience their second one. It was an odd sort of presiden- with his precision gesture. “I’ve got a plan,” he says tial debate, maybe the oddest ever – and it was nonverbally, “a precise plan. It’s time for a change.” certainly the ugliest and most tawdry. Slicing and pointing, that’s what Trump can Mere days afer the release of a video in which do, at least when he’s not forced to hold a micro- Trump bragged about using his celebrity status to phone in one hand as he was at the second debate. grab women by their genitals without consent, he I was surprised he didn’t complain about this, since was already collapsing in the polls. He responded he complained about everything else: the “bias” of by parading a number of women who have accused the moderators, “it’s three against one”, the fact that Prof Geofrey Beattie Bill Clinton of inappropriate sexual behaviour in Clinton got more time – anything, like a child who the past, then bringing them along to the debate thinks that the world isn’t fair. Geof Beattie is Professor in an efort to both embarrass him and unsettle Looking tired, he started quietly rocking on of Psychology at Edge Hillary Clinton. his feet as Clinton spoke, a telltale sign of negative Hill University in the At frst, at least, it seemed to work. You didn’t emotion leaking out nonverbally. Clearly he wasn’t UK and author of need to be a body language expert to see the dis- comfortable with the fallout from the leaked Rethinking Body comfort on Bill Clinton’s face when he was led into tape. He started snifng when he talked, as he did Language the auditorium and seated in the front row. throughout the frst debate. It’s a distraction, and Now Trump is seeing his numbers slide into it noticeably gets more pronounced when he’s on Email: [email protected] the terminal zone, he’s increasingly resorting to the the spot. psychological tricks of the pugilistic. All boxers He started gesturing demonstratively for have little games they like to play to unsettle their the frst time when he talked about his wealth. opponents. Tey don’t see it as cheating; it’s just ‘Batonic’ gestures – stress-timed gestures that part of the game. Tat’s how Trump seems to think. have no iconic content, such as the up-and-down But Trump also has a penchant for name-call- beat of a hand – tend to mark out content that’s ing, something boxers only resort to when they’re highly signifcant for the speaker, but when Trump desperate. He’s called Clinton “Crooked Hillary” begins his personal attacks, the more complex and hundreds of times before on Twitter and in abstract metaphoric gestures start up in earnest. speeches to sympathetic crowds, but at the second Tese are a core part of Trump’s implicit message, debate he went so far as to call her a liar to her and they have an immediate efect. Teir meaning face multiple times. Anything for an advantage. is processed simultaneously with his speech. Anything to rattle your opponent. As he went on the attack in the debate, his use Teir latest encounter was debating as street of beat gestures duly increased. He chopped, he fghting, a metaphor widely used in the run-up to pointed, he sliced. Trump was now fully armed. the debate. Te idea was so pervasive it turned into He heckled, he interrupted, he glowered as Clinton a metaphorical frame that afected what we saw talked, issuing a nonverbal running commentary and what we noticed, and even how we judged the on what she was saying. outcome of this battle. All in all, this was a bully’s performance, a Various commentators summed up Trump’s physical attempt to dominate Clinton and ma- debate performances by speculating that he might nipulate our interpretation of her words. Clinton have “stopped the bleeding” from the Republican quoted Michelle Obama’s “When they go low, we faithful, despite his comments about how he views go high”, but with Trump expressing himself as he and treats women (“locker room talk, folks”). did – stalking her as she talked, prowling behind Trump’s body language went through several her like a big beast of the jungle – the tone of the periods of transition in the debate. Having to encounter remained frmly at the lower end of the scale. hold a microphone interferes with the natural Te American linguist George Lakof has two-handed gestures on which he relies heavily. We commented that Trump “uses your brain against can all recognise them: arms outstretched, arms you”. Much of everyday thought is unconscious, pointing downwards, palms forward, characteris- and it’s that psychological spot that Trump targets, tically signalling his connection with the common much as a boxer or street fghter does. man through the distinctive, demonstrative Te fact that he got us all thinking that only gestures of New York – gestures that work because a ‘knockout’ would constitute success for Hillary they speak straight to the usually unconscious Clinton was therefore a victory of sorts. He was on nonverbal system. the ropes that night, and he knew it; in the end he Trump is quite expert at using some gestures bobbed and weaved to fght another day, despite and sequences of gestures in particular. First comes everything we now know about this most unpres- a barrier signal: arms up, palms out. ‘Beware’, idential of men. Nonetheless, his poll ratings slid it says. ‘Danger’. Ten he uses a precision hand afer each performance. gesture – a distinctive thumb-and-forefnger 30 Analysing debate questions: is it time to rethink the town hall?

Moderators Anderson Cooper of CNN and Martha social issues remained on the sidelines, including Raddatz of ABC News spent the second presi- LGBTQ rights, abortion, and the war on drugs. dential debate wrestling gamely with the candi- Most noticeable in their absence were immigra- dates and a vociferous audience for control of the tion and . Trump and Clinton both evening, leaving the undecided voters on the stage managed to sneak in some talk about their stance largely redundant. A feature of the election cycle on immigration following a question posed by since 1992, the town-hall style was judged by some a woman who identifed herself as a Muslim to be “the biggest loser of last night’s debate.” American. Te core of her question, however, was about feeling safe given the islamophobia in this Fewer questions, fewer good ones country. Both nominees used it as an opportunity Te intention behind the town hall format is to to address their thoughts and policies on immigration. bring candidates into closer contact with voters. As for gun control, the topic was not broached Carlett Spike At times that has proved insightful, as in 1992, throughout the course of the 90-minute debate when Bill Clinton won plaudits for his empa- – despite 55% of Americans favouring stricter CJR Delacorte Fellow and thetic response to a question about the personal gun laws, according to a CNN/ORC poll. In the Staf Writer at Columbia impact of the national debt. In the three cycles that Twittersphere, many people were upset that no Journalism Review followed, audience members peppered candidates questions about policing surfaced during this with at least 15 questions per debate. However, the debate. Email: [email protected] scattershot nature of their queries led to an adjust- ment of the rules in 2008. Personal characteristics again in focus Beginning with the Obama-McCain town Te main topic of the night, as in the frst debate, hall, moderators were granted leeway to follow up was the candidates themselves. Perhaps unavoid- on points raised by the candidates’ responses to ably, the voters wanted to hear the candidates voters, resulting in an average fve fewer audience defend their character, and attack their opponent’s, questions. Te goal was to foster a more sustained following a week that saw revelations about Donald discussion, but with moderators taking a more Trump’s tax holiday, Hillary Clinton’s public versus active role, the audience becomes ancillary to private stances, and—most disturbingly—a newly the proceedings. released recording of Trump asserting he is entitled Te power transfer, from audience to mod- to sexually assault women. erators, was particularly acute during the second Te frst two questions, along with several presidential debate, with Cooper and Raddatz follow-ups from the moderators, focused on Pete Vernon forcefully asserting themselves - and the audience the candidates’ behaviour, past statements, and fading into the background. Tat night, eight of the judgment. It was not until more than 24 minutes CJR Delacorte Fellow, 11 questions came from undecided voters on the into the evening that a question was asked about media reporter and critic stage, with the remaining questions chosen from policy, when an audience member asked about those submitted online. Cooper and Raddatz were healthcare. at Te Washington Post, aggressive with their follow-ups, piggybacking on Overall, fve of the 11 questions posed by the where he writes the Erik every question until the fnal minutes, when they audience in the hall and those culled from the web Wemple blog and Delacorte attempted to ft in as many audience members as touched on aspects of temperament. With more Magazine Fellow at the possible. When the moderators did turn to the than 40 percent of the questions from this year’s Columbia Journalism voters, those questions largely seemed lacking both two debates coming on the topic, 2016 has seen an Review in scope and substance. “Do you believe you can be unprecedented focus on character. a devoted President to all the people in the United States?” isn’t exactly probing, and it allowed both A longer version of this article originally appeared candidates to shif into versions of their stump in Columbia Journalism Review, reproduced with speeches. However, viral sensation Ken Bone did permission. ask insightfully and concisely about energy policy, and Gorbah Hamed forced Donald Trump to directly confront the Islamophobia in which his campaign has trafcked.

Topics missed Te town hall debate normally serves as an oppor- tunity for citizens to address personal issues they are grappling with, but afer two debates this cycle a number of topics remained unaddressed. Equal pay and the minimum wage, for example, were not mentioned in either of the frst two presidential debates. Te issue was last asked during a question once during the 2012 debates. Additionally, many 31 Image bites, voter enthusiasm, and the 2016 Presidential Election

At the outset of this analysis, let’s be clear about struggled to convince because she struggled to one thing: there are dark reasons for Donald efectively emote. Trump’s rise. Among these, a nativist, sexist, patri- Meanwhile, Trump emoted in loud attacks, archal, and ethnocentrist view of the country, and wild accusations, empty promises, and outrageous a campaign based on fanciful promises beyond the nonverbal antics. He energized his base enough to power of any President to make good on—jobs, get out and vote in states that mattered. Key to his walls, trade agreements, repeal of established laws, success: Trump’s expressions were unambiguous. and abandonment of strategic global alliances. His message of defance and threat came across Lack of specifcs and news media complacency blunt and clear, even with the sound of. Whether in pressing Trump about policy, potential cabinet by design or happenstance, Trump’s confrontational appointments, and plans to investigate Clinton also style of campaigning bonded supporters to his cause. Prof Erik P. Bucy worked to his advantage, as his candidacy became Trump’s “go to” expression is an anger/threat an ill-defned canvas onto which disgruntled and display—a menacing expression characterized by Marshall and Sharleen fearful voters could project their hopes and assuage fxed stares and visible anger that signals com- Formby Regents Professor, their anxieties. petitive or hostile intent. Research has shown College of Media and Beyond his campaign promises, which were that threat displays are particularly efective with Communication, Texas among the least defned and coherent in con- supporters but anathema to critics and unde- Tech University and temporary political history, Trump’s nonverbal cideds. We witnessed this frsthand in dial tests co-author of Image communication was quite consistent: angry, conducted during the presidential debates with Bite Politics: News and defant, outraged, and disgusted with the political dozens of Texas voters. Republican Party identifers status quo. Although he was undisciplined in his expressed much more enthusiasm for Trump than the Visual Framing of use of facial displays and gestures, fulminating one Democrats ever did for Clinton. Elections minute and failing the next, Trump managed to Te screen captures opposite illustrate the project ample amounts of outrage in his nonverbal high level of positive sentiment that Trump sup- Email: [email protected] behavior and that clear display of anger gave dis- porters felt while watching their candidate go on contented voters who were not on board with the the attack against Clinton during the frst debate Clinton agenda something to rally around. (see top panel, Figure 1). In this moment, Trump By contrast, Clinton’s expressions were much defects a question about releasing his taxes and more controlled, diplomatic, reassuring, and polite. focuses instead on the thousands of emails that During the debates, which she by all accounts won, Clinton purportedly deleted before handing over Clinton outlasted Trump’s antics by exuding a calm her private server to the FBI. Te blue line, which determination that was buttressed by sharp retorts. peaks over 90 points on a 100-point sentiment It was a diplomatic style with little populist appeal. scale, represents not just Republican support but Except for small glimpses of genuine emotion—the genuine voter enthusiasm. much-heralded “shimmy” towards the end of the By contrast, Democratic voters never frst debate, a delightful rallying cry in the rain surpassed the 70-point mark in response to at the very end of the campaign—her expressive Clinton, and on average felt less positively toward behavior was not a great ally. She strove to project her than Republicans felt towards Trump (see likeability and competence but her high negatives yellow line, bottom panel). Interestingly, Inde- in opinion polls demanded a much more empa- pendent voters responded negatively and critically thetic and still forceful approach. to Trump’s anger/threat displays (see purple line, Clinton did go on the attack at times during top panel), a trend that was refected in polls the campaign, notably during the third presidential following the frst debate that showed weakening debate against Trump, but she did so more in the support among Independents. condescending mode of an attorney cross-examin- But defections among weak partisans were ing a witness than a champion of the people. Tat not in numbers sufcient enough to derail his subtle but discernible contempt, which perhaps campaign, although Trump appeared to be all but serves as a competence cue for supporters, was fnished until the late October surprise of the FBI’s likely read as arrogance by Independents and weak discovery of yet more emails from Clinton’s private partisans and could have hurt her in the end. In an server. Clinton was exonerated a week later, just a election process that rests on turnout, as this one few days before the election, but the FBI director’s so agonizingly did, enthusiasm—which gets people reminder was all the opening Trump needed to to the polls—trumps competence. reanimate his attacks, energize his base for one While Clinton generated sufcient enthu- last push, and infuse his tirades against her alleged siasm for a lower volume election (she did win untrustworthiness with a sense of renewed force. the popular vote, afer all) she had less success holding together the coalition of Black, Hispanic, and younger voters that Obama built in previous elections—even with the president and Michelle Obama campaigning on her behalf. In part, she 32 Figure 1. Peak ratings of Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton during the frst presidential debate. Air war? Campaign advertising in the 2016 Presidential Election

In many respects, the 2016 Presidential Election because candidates typically keep pace with each was unlike any other. One particularly unique others’ advertising spending, these efects usually feature of the campaign was a sizable asymmetry cancel out. in the number of advertisements aired on behalf of Te 2016 election ofers a unique opportunity each of the major party candidates. for scholars to study a campaign in which adver- Despite being vastly outspent on the airwaves, tising was more one-sided, and may prove to turn President-Elect Donald Trump won more than conventional wisdom on its head. Consistent with 300 votes in the Electoral College. However, his conventional wisdom, Donald Trump picked up victory should not imply that political advertise- narrow, and unanticipated, victories in Wisconsin ments are inefective at winning votes. Instead, the and Michigan; states where he held moderate to fnal election tally begs scholars and observers of high advertising advantages in the fnal two weeks Matthew Motta American politics to rethink conventional wisdom of the campaign, in some media markets. Further, about campaigning on television. the candidate with the most advertisements aired Political Science PhD In what follows, I raise (and attempt to on her behalf also won the popular vote. candidate and National answer) several questions about the state of Yet, there is also reason to rethink the con- Science Foundation advertising in 2016 and its implications for what ventional wisdom. In some states where Clinton (NSF) Graduate Research scholars know about their efectiveness. held heavy advertising advantages in the fnal Fellow at the University of weeks of the campaign (e.g., Ohio, Pennsylvania, A War on the Airwaves? and Florida), she ultimately lost. Further, Trump’s Minnesota – Twin Cities. If the 2016 campaign was a battle for control of advertising edges in Virginia and during Matt’s research primarily the airwaves, the fght was one sided (at best). the same timeframe ultimately did not win him focuses on what citizens While both sides saw fewer advertisements aired either state. know about politics; on their behalf than did each respective party including topics like nominee in 2012, data from the Wesleyan Media How will Scholars Make Sense of 2016? how citizens learn about Project (WMP) suggests that pro-Clinton airings We can never truly know what the popular and campaigns, and how that (489,142 from June 8 - October 30, 2016) were state vote totals would have looked like had information shapes the about three times greater than pro-Trump airings political advertising not been present. One way to political decisions they (99,441). Clinton’s dominance on the airwaves ascertain the efectiveness will be to turn to public make. held fairly steady throughout the campaign. In opinion surveys collected after the final vote contrast to the view that Trump might make a late was tallied. Email: [email protected] push to food the airwaves with advertisements Political advertisements create “naturally before the campaign concluded, WMP data show occurring” experiments on a daily basis, because that pro-Clinton advertisements outnumbered media markets ofen cross state boundaries. If pro-Trump ads by nearly 2:1 in the fnal two weeks voters live in markets that receive substantial ad- of the campaign. vertising because they overlap with a battleground Tere were also several important asym- state (where candidates will also have strong metries in the sponsorship of advertisements ground games), but do not actually live in a battle- on both sides. While candidates sponsored the ground state themselves, it is possible to isolate the majority of all ads aired in their favor, Clinton efect of advertising independently of other factors received substantial help from interest groups that might also shape vote choice. (more than ninety thousand airings in her favor), For example, the Erie market in Pennsylvania whereas Donald Trump received absolutely none (a battleground state) overlaps with New York (a (although several interest groups were actively strongly Democratic state). In the fnal two weeks involved in airing anti-Clinton advertisements). of the campaign, Trump held a signifcant adver- Interestingly, Donald Trump aired fewer adver- tising advantage in Erie. If voters in that part of tisements overall than did Bernie Sanders in the New York became more likely to vote for Trump at Democratic Primary, and the overall tone of ads the election’s conclusion, advertisements may have aired were somewhat more positive than those indeed shaped their vote choice. aired in 2012. Advertisements also have the potential to do more than alter citizens’ vote intentions. Exposure Does Campaign Advertising Change Minds? to campaign advertising has been shown to boost In the past, political scientists have found that citizens’ knowledge about ,and interest in, the asymmetries in advertising totals have important presidential campaign, for example. consequences for candidates’ electoral fates. Te 2016 Election will almost certainly Several scholars have demonstrated that ad- challenge conventional wisdom about presiden- vertising advantages can increase support for a tial campaign advertising. Scholars now have candidate, even independently of mobilization an opportunity to empirically which aspects of eforts “on the ground.” Political scientists John conventional wisdom were upheld, and which need Sides and Lynn Vavreck fnd that support tends further attention. to respond to short-term airing advantages. But, 34 US election: what impact do celebrity endorsements really have?

In one of the most astonishing U.S. elections in Quite ofen, celebrities use their high profle modern political history, Donald Trump became to promote causes, like singer Bono’s One the 45th President of the United States. Relying campaign against poverty. largely on opinion polls and over 1,000 celebrity endorsers, including Beyoncé and , Celebrity endorsements in politics makes sense election forecasters put Hilary Clinton’s chance of We know celebrities grab and hold consumer winning at 70% to 99%. Oprah Winfrey’s endorse- attention. Yet, expertise and credibility are ment of Obama in 2008 increased the contri- important elements when wanting to infuence butions received by Obama, and an estimated 1 consumers. Interestingly, people consider celebrities million additional votes. So what role did celebrity to be more credible and trustworthy than politi- endorsement play? cians. Use of Celebrities in Politics Young people believe celebrities have an efect Dr Nives Zubcevic- Historians have traced the role of celebrities in on the way people think – more than politicians, Basic politics back to the 1920 U.S. election, when Lillian scientists or academics. Exit polls of 24,537 re- Russell and other flm stars endorsed Warren spondents in the 2016 U.S. election showed that Senior Lecturer and Harding. In 1960, John F. Kennedy was endorsed the 18-29 year old segment was the smallest (12%) Director, Master of by Rat Pack members Sammy Davis junior and with 55% voting for Clinton, while 53% of 45-64 Marketing in the Dean Martin. More recently, Oprah Winfrey year olds, the largest segment (40%) voted for Faculty of Business and George Clooney supported Barack Obama. Trump. Outside of age, ethnicity and gender afect and Law at Swinburne Actor Clint Eastwood, endorsed Republicans John celebrity endorsement infuence. Of the surveyed University of Technology. McCain in 2008 and Donald Trump this time women, 54% voted for Clinton, and 53% of men around. voted for Trump. Most of the surveyed voters Email: [email protected] were White (70%) and of those, 58% voted for Who endorsed who? Trump, while most of the Black (88%), Latino Both Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump have (65%) and Asian voters (65%) voted for Clinton. been endorsed by an army of celebrity support- On the whole, Clinton received a higher number of ers. Some of Clinton’s high-profle endorsers overall votes (47.8%), however, due to the Electoral were LeBron James, Meryl Streep, Lady Gaga, College system, Trump was elected president. Lena Dunham, and Snoop Dogg. In contrast, Trump’s supporters were less well-known and Efectiveness and audience included Azealia Banks, Tom Brady, Mike Tyson, A key diference in the 2016 U.S. election was Hulk Hogan, and Scott Baio. that Trump was also a celebrity in his own right. Hilary’s celebrity endorsers had a greater People’s experience of his public persona through social media reach and made powerful state- his roles on TV has over time instilled a specifc ments such as Elizabeth Banks’ Fight Song or meaning which was transferred to his political the star-studded Avengers cast’s oblique but campaign. Furthermore, Trump had a clear powerful statement against Trump. message centred on change, with an anti-estab- lishment bent. In contrast, Clinton embodied the Celebrities sell establishment and was considered untrustworthy One in fve ads globally features a celebrity. due to accusations during her time as Secretary of Marketers spend millions on celebrity endorsers to State and her family’s charity the Clinton Foundation. leverage “secondary brand associations” – that is, people transfer their opinions and feelings about So what’s the fnal verdict? a celebrity to the brand (e.g., Beyonce and Pepsi – Having the endorsement of celebrities is not worth US$50 million). enough. Tere has to be a match-up (or compati- In a cluttered world where myriad messages bility) between the celebrity and the brand (or poli- fght for the attention of time-starved consumers, tician). For instance the Hu collection, by Pharrell celebrity endorsers serve as arbiters of public Williams and Adidas Originals, has the necessary opinion. Marketers rely on symbolic and emotional credible context. On the other hand, Scarlett features to generate “sociopsychological associ- Johannson’s endorsement of Sodastream failed to ations”. Some celebrities are so aspirational that solidify the relationship while losing Johannson even a glimpse of them in an ad conveys positive her Oxfam ambassador position. meaning (e.g., Cristiano Ronaldo). With the right celebrity endorsements, In order to transfer positive meaning, the political campaigns can do quite well. However, celebrity, should have the following traits: they need to establish a clear connection between • attractiveness (physique, intellect, athleticism, the politician and celebrity endorsing them. lifestyle); Otherwise, the message comes across as disingenu- • credibility (expertise, trustworthiness); and ous and irrelevant at best. • meaning transfer (compatibility between brand and celebrity). 35 The backlash of the loose cannon: musicians and the celebrity cleavage

Back in February 2016 Te Guardian published Once hailed in the rap songs as a symbol of wealth, an article claiming that if the US were ‘a rockocra- Trump turned into a loathed fgure. Next to YD’s cy’ then the 2016 election would already be over, FDT (F**k Donald Trump), Eminem’s Campaign with Hillary and Bill back in the White House. Speech was probably the strongest anti-Trump rap Tis pretty much sums up the tune of the 2016 song in the campaign: ‘and that’s what you wanted, US presidential election. Musicians overwhelm- a f**kin’ loose cannon who’s blunt with his hand on ingly aligned with Clinton and trumpeted against the button, who doesn’t have to answer to no one – Trump. Yet, with what efect? great idea!’ While the power of in politics is a What then are the key music lessons of the well-established fact, the actual infuence of celeb- 2016 election? rities in election campaigns is not that straight-for- First, the 2016 campaign suggests that Dr Marijana Grbeša ward. Nonetheless, the assumed ability of the stars celebrity musicians’ endorsement has irreversibly to harvest voters’ support ofered reason enough penetrated the political mainstream. Te rise of Assistant Professor at for US politicians to recruit celebrities to their social media accelerated this process by upgrading the Faculty of Political campaigns. While this is historically true for both musicians from potentially prominent points of Science, University of Democrats and Republicans, it was only with Bill infuence into powerful channels of reach. For Zagreb. She was the Head Clinton and especially with Barack Obama that example, on the day preceding the Election Day a celebrity endorsement has become more massive version of the Beyoncé’s video I am with her that of School of Journalism and potentially more infuential. endorsed Clinton had 757 thousand views (and and the Vice-Dean for Obama’s relationship with celebrity musicians 7300 shares) on the ofcial Clinton’s Facebook fan International Relations. has been especially creative, outgrowing the page but 2.3 million views (and 16 700 shares) on Her research interest usual ‘photo ops and rally performances’ mix and the singer’s fan page. Te views and shares were is mainly in political moving into a number of new formats. Songs of gathered in only one day and although Clinton and communication and appreciation for Obama (e.g. Young Jeezy ‘My Beyoncé posted somewhat diferent versions of political marketing. She President’), the Emmy-winning music video ‘Yes the video, the discrepancy is apparent and points is an op-ed contributor We Can’ produced by the will.i.am, the frontman to a challenging conclusion: through musicians’ for the leading Croatian of the Black Eyed Peas and Bruce Springsteen’s epic social media platforms politicians can potentially newspapers. Obama-endorsing tours are most paradigmatic. reach an audience they can only dream of reaching Hilary Clinton continued the trend of celebrity through conventional crowding in 2016. Te names she gathered in her platforms or traditional media. music camp were impressive: Jay-Z, Kanye West, Secondly, no candidate in recent US history Beyoncé, Katie Perry, Christina Aguilera, Cher, Jon has been as successful in mobilising the anti-can- Bon Jovi, Mariah Carey, Ice-T, Elton John, Lady didate campaign as Donald Trump. Musicians Gaga, Jennifer Lopez, Ricky Martin, Madonna, (including the usual ‘ against the machine’ Morrissey, Snoop Dogg, 50 Cent, Sting, Barbra hip hop crew) massively aligned against Trump Streisand, Bruce Springsteen and many others. and consequently, supported Hilary Clinton. However, the musicians’ endorsement for Terefore, musicians’ support for Clinton was Clinton for the most part lacked the devotion and rather a movement against Trump’s aggressive, energy that accompanied their support for Obama. insulting and chauvinist populism than the typical Support for Clinton seemed largely a corollary of candidate endorsement. Te Manichean rif Dr Domagoj Bebić campaigning against Trump - it was the ‘right thing between bearable Clinton and unacceptable Trump to do’, rather than a passionate act of advocacy. Los was the key base of musicians’ mobilisation. Still, Assistant Professor at the Angeles rapper Ty Dolla $ign, probably nailed it by despite massive recruitment against him, Donald Faculty of Political Science, saying that while ‘nobody is excited’ about Clinton, Trump won the election. Te ‘celebrity cleavage’ University of Zagreb. He is she has his vote. that is becoming an ever more prominent variable the general secretary of the Donald Trump, on the other hand, gathered in campaign studies was in this election heavily Institute for New Media a scant group of celebrity supporters, with Clint biased towards Clinton, but did not refect the and E-Democracy. His Eastwood, Hulk Hogan and the country singer actual political cleavages. Moreover, by becoming research interest is mainly Loretta Lynn being the most renowned. However, part of ‘the mainstream’, music was defeated by in cyberdemocracy and Trump was extremely successful in mobilising the enraged populism, clearly the biggest winner of the digital media. ‘don’t let Trump win’ campaign. 2016 election. A number of musicians refused to allow him Email: [email protected] to play their songs in his campaign (Adele, Neil Young, Rolling Stones) or were utterly irritated by Trump asking permission to use their music (REM’s Michael Stipe). Pink Floyd’s Roger Waters held a concert with the ‘Trump is a pig’ sign on the stage while Springsteen called him ‘a moron’. Particularly interesting is the ambiguous rela- tionship between hip hop musicians and Trump. 36 The curious case of Jill Stein

Americans value environmentalism and want 2011 nuclear plant meltdown in Fukushima, Japan, to see more of it. But Jill Stein, the Green Party a center-right German government decided to presidential candidate, drew only 1 percent accelerate the phaseout of nuclear power. To reach of the popular vote, even in an election where this goal, Angela Merkel’s centrist government many voters disliked the major candidates. Stein has implemented a policy bundle known as the certainly diferentiated herself from the two major Energiewende that seeks to transition Germany to party candidates. She asserted that electing Clinton a nonnuclear, low-carbon energy future. would be as bad as electing Trump. Massive governmental support for alternative While Stein makes anti-establishment energy sources has encouraged Germans, espe- statements, her German counterparts have been cially in rural areas, to invest in solar power, wind advancing a green agenda for the past 30 years. turbines and biomass plants. Tese green policies Tere are two reasons why the U.S. Green Party did not harm, and may have buoyed, Merkel’s Dr Per Urlaub remains so marginal. Structurally, the American status as one of the most popular German chancel- electoral system is heavily weighted against lors prior to this year’s controversies over immi- Associate Professor at the small political parties. But U.S. Greens also harm gration. Department of Germanic themselves by failing to understand that governing Tere is no easy way for the U.S. Green Party Studies at the University of requires compromise. to emulate its German counterparts. Because the Texas at Austin, USA Both European and North American Green American political system makes it difcult for Parties evolved from activist movements in the third parties to participate, Green Party candidates Email: [email protected] 1960s that focused on causes including environ- do not have opportunities to learn the trade of mentalism, disarmament, nuclear power, nonvi- politics. Tey have remained activists who are true olence, reproductive rights and gender equality. to their base instead of developing policy positions Te German Green Party’s rise owed much to the that would appeal to a broader audience. By doing country’s electoral system. Proportional rep- so, they weaken their chances of winning major resentation makes it possible for small parties to races even in liberal strongholds. gain a toehold and build a presence in government As a result, green ideas enter American over time. In contrast, U.S. elections award seats on political debates only when Democrats and a winner-takes-all basis. Tird parties ofen have Republicans take up these issues. It is telling that trouble even getting their candidates’ names onto major U.S. environmental groups started endorsing ballots. Clinton even before she had clinched the Dem- U.S. Greens have won only a handful of ocratic presidential nomination over Bernie state-level races, and have never won a congres- Sanders, who took more aggressive positions on sional seat. Teir greatest success came in 2000, some environmental and energy issues during their when Ralph Nader won 2.7 percent of the popular primary contest. And although Sanders identifes vote in the presidential election. Many argued that as an environmentalist, he sought the Democratic Nader’s only real impact was to throw the election Party nomination instead of running as the Green to George W. Bush, but Nader and many of his Party candidate. supporters strongly disagreed, and the question Running on a third-party ticket in the United of whether Stein impacted the election’s outcome States remains a fawed strategy to shaping a green remains controversial today. message aimed at a broad electorate. Instead, In order to graduate from an opposition party climate change, dwindling energy resources and to a ruling party, German Greens had to develop a growing human and economic costs from natural capacity for compromise and form coalitions with disasters will do more to promote ecological center-lef Social Democrats. But coalitions require consciousness and political change in mainstream consensus. Interacting with centrist politicians, America than the radical rhetoric of the U.S. Green unionists, church representatives and the media Party. taught greens to act less like activists and more like politicians. In 1998 the Green Party formed a so-called red-green coalition with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and won a large majority in the . Working through this alliance, former activists implemented an environmentally driven tax code and brokered a deal with the nuclear energy industry to cancel projects for new plants and phase out nuclear power by 2022. Although the Green Party has not regained control of Germany’s federal government since 2005, its positions have become part of the nation’s mainstream political culture. Notably, afer the 37 The Green Party efect in the US 2016 Election

In the long shadow of Donald Trump’s victory – enthusing young voters to come out and defeat in the November 8th election, Jill Stein’s bid as Trump in 2020. However, Green antipathy to the Green Party Presidential candidate is likely to be a Democratic Party means that this is unlikely even forgotten footnote to a momentous turning point with a lef-leaning environmentalist at the head in US history. of the party. Much depends on the direction of Polling at around two percent before the the Democrats – either behind more progressive election the Greens had campaigned hard through fgures such as or back towards social media and alternative news sources to build more ‘establishment’ leaders such as Andrew on the radical, anti-establishment popularity of Cuomo. Either way, the Greens may prove big Bernie Sanders, especially amongst young voters. enough to dent Democrat fortunes again, but not Tey hoped to win fve percent of the vote which big enough to make the break through needed to Dr David McQueen would have unlocked automatic ballot access in challenge America’s two party stranglehold on many states and much needed campaign funding politics. Lecturer in Advertising worth up to $10 million. However, while over a and Media at million people voted Green on November 8th, Bournemouth University, an improvement on the last election, this still where he writes about only represented around one percent of the issues of media and power, popular vote. confict coverage and PR. Yet that one percent may have been decisive. He is a long-standing In the key battleground states of Wisconsin and member of the Green Michigan, Stein’s vote total was more than Trump’s Party margin of victory. Of course, this does not mean Green voters would have turned up to vote for Email: dmcqueen@bournemouth. Clinton had Stein not been on the ballot. As Jessica ac.uk McBride notes in a state by state analysis for Heavy. com the combined third party vote in Florida and Pennsylvania was also more than Trump’s margin of victory, but Gary Johnson’s appeal was more likely with Republicans than Democrats. Second guessing US voters’ intentions retrospectively is impossi- ble, but the perceived threat that Stein might pull enough Democrat voters away from Hillary Clinton – in the way that Ralph Nader did in the 2000 Bush-Gore contest - never really materialised. Tis was not the nail-bitingly close election result of 2000 where the Green vote arguably cost the Al Gore the Presidency. Instead, pollsters watched their predictions of a Clinton win reduced to worthless confetti (yet again). Trump picked up white working-class votes former Democrat strongholds, and beneftted from relatively low enthusiasm and Democrat turnout, especially in the so-called rustbelt states aficted by economic decline and poverty. A poll recently published in Te Independent claimed that Bernie Sanders would have ‘crushed’ Trump by 56-44 had he been the Democrat Pres- idential candidate. While the poll, commissioned by Sanders supporting Democratic Congressman Alan Grayson, is almost certainly over-optimistic, it is certainly the case that Millennial enthusiasm for Bernie’s socialist message – identical in many key respects to that of the Greens – did not easily translate into support for Hillary Clinton. It also did not translate into the kind of mass enthusiasm for Green Party policies that might have trans- formed the Party into a major player. Te next four years could see a progressive alliance of Democrats and Greens fghting Trump on issues of social and environmental justice 38 US presidential candidate selection

Te procedure for selecting a candidate to run for polarises many voters declare their choice is driven president is a convoluted system. Te process of by antipathy or opposition to the alternative than candidate selection is organised through either strong support for the presidential candidate they caucuses or primaries, states choose either one of have chosen. these systems to decide on their nominee. Essen- Now that we have these two candidates, they tially, the nominee is slowly narrowed from a list of will enter a more competitive process of trying to prospective candidates. Afer an extensive process win over states. Certain states have been his- of campaigning, debates and public exposure, the torically set in their ways, always voting for the candidate will have been selected through a series same party, so campaigning is not so intense in of votes. these areas although both candidates appear to Hilary has become the candidate for the be creating new battlegrounds despite historical Democrats because of her electability over Sanders, patterns. Finally, now that Donald Trump has Toby Harper Sanders being too diferent, and radical for many. been elected president, he will be fully in ofce the She has also been a key member of the American following January. Tis is called the presidential Researcher Associate at governing system for many years, taking roles such inauguration which is the specifc start date for Centre for Politics and as senator and secretary of state. On many issues, the elected president’s term. So by the end of the Media Research and a Clinton has shown herself to be the more moderate coming January, the most powerful nation in the BA Politics student at of the two, choosing to take quite a sof line on the world will have to establish a new leader, Donald Bournemouth University legal position of marijuana by reducing its status Trump, in an environment of unstable interna- as an illegal substance, where Sanders believed in tional afairs. Many are feeling disenfranchised Email: s4901846@bournemouth. letting the states decide whether it should be legal by the two presidential candidates, because of the ac.uk or not. Sanders also believed that the death penalty way that the system currently works, bringing should be abolished, where Clinton believed in just into the question whether reform of the electoral a reduction in its use. system should be considered. All in all, the new Donald Trump has become the candidate president has been voted as Donald Trump, so we for the republicans because of his views on the now have four years to see the efect that he will have failings of the American system in the past, and on America. the rhetoric with which he has lead his campaign, feeding the fears of immigration, and basically being in opposition to the past American system. He promises a strong America, one that focuses on the strengths of American people. He has said on many occasions that he wants to build a wall in order to provide more separation between America and Mexico. Furthermore, he claims he will be able to make Mexico pay for it. Cruz, one-time frontrunner, was, among other candidates, fairly uncharismatic, being unable to expand his support base in the way Trump was. Like with Sanders, Cruz was just too far of centre to consider for nomination being too much of a staunch conserva- tive. People also found Cruz to be too boring to be nominee, being unable to relate to voters enough to garner signifcant voting support. Other candidates surpassed by Trump include Marco Rubio and Jeb Bush. Trump proved throughout the contest to be particularly skilful in the way he presented his image and the emotive way he delivered his speeches. His charismatic speaking and public image make him anything but boring, which drew the attention of the media and the public. Unfortunately, neither are particularly at- tractive candidates, many voters are argued to be simplifying the election to being a contest to fnd the lesser of two evils. Tis dissatisfaction with the way the presidential elections are going is refected by the choice of many to opt for a third vote. Tis is mentioned in (2016), which details the names of the Green Party’s Jill Stein and Libertarian’s Gary Johnson. Even as the choice 39 3 Policy Trump-Clinton was expected to be close: the economy said so

Conventional wisdom is that fringe candidates get stunning and did not foretell an electoral landslide, repudiated, à la 1964 and 1972. Te story isn’t so in either direction. Going by economic indica- simple. tors, we were looking at a close election, perhaps While Hillary Clinton is the consensus of slightly favouring the incumbent party’s candidate, most Democrats, from activists on up to the es- depending on how strongly one weights the most tablishment, Donald Trump was the Republican recent economic performance. candidate whom many Republicans wanted to One could jiggle this further by adjusting avoid. From this perspective, Trump’s position for presidential popularity (a slight plus for the resembled that of in 1964 and Democrats), incumbent not running for re-elec- George McGovern in 1972, two ideologically tion (a slight plus for the Republicans), and party extreme candidates—Goldwater on the right and balancing (a slight plus for the Democrats), but I McGovern on the lef—who were handicapped buy the general point of political scientist Doug Prof Andrew Gelman by strong opposition within their parties, limped Hibbs and others, not that the Democrats were through their campaigns, and got destroyed guaranteed to win but that the fundamentals Department of Statistics by over 20 percentage points in the general predicted a close election with a slight edge to and Department election. To add to the analogy, these candi- the Democrats and enough uncertainty to make of Political Science, dates’ opponents—Presidents Lyndon Johnson the campaign interesting. So, yes the campaign Columbia University, New and Richard Nixon—were, like Hillary Clinton, mattered but given what we know about elections York viewed by many voters as cynical, calculating it’s no surprise the election was close. politicians rather than inspiring leaders. Tose In the event, Clinton won the popular vote, Email: [email protected] two years, 1964 and 1972, still stand as cautionary Trump won the electoral vote, and there were lessons about the fate of any fringe candidate who some changes in vote coalitions (most notably, manages to grab the presidential nomination college-educated women moving to Clinton and without having secured the backing of his non-college-educated men moving to Trump) and party’s establishment. a drop in turnout of key Democratic groups, and But Donald Trump defed political gravity. that made all the diference. All from a baseline of How could this be? a close election, as predicted based on economic Te biggest diference between 2016 and conditions and the stability induced by political 1964/1972 has nothing to do with the candidates polarization. or the conventions or ideology or endorsements or the fracturing of political parties. It turns out that, according to many years of research from political scientists, the most important determinants of presidential elections in the past half-century or more have not been the character or political ideology of candidates, or even the strengths of their parties, but rather the state of the economy. To emphasize the key role of the economy in setting the stage for presidential elections is not to be an economic determinist. Regression models predicting the election outcome from the economy have large error terms. But the economics-based forecast is a good starting point. And here’s what was special about 1964 and 1972: Tese were two of the three strongest years for the economy in the postwar era, with per-cap- ita income growth in the 4 percent range, and the candidates running for re-election—Johnson and Nixon—won in landslides, as would be predicted (the other strong election year in terms of economic growth was 1984, when Ronald Reagan reaped the electoral beneft). But 2016 was not like 1964 or 1972. Te economy was slowly recovering, no longer in recession, but it was not booming as in those earlier years. According to the US Bureau of Economic Analysis, per-capita personal income grew at an annual rate of about 2.5 percent during the past year and 1.2 percent averaged over the past four years. Tese numbers are OK but not 41 Picking up the pieces: the 2016 US Presidential Election and immigration

Like many, I watched the US presidential election and highlighted the actions of a few immigrants unfold with a sense of disbelief. In an election that to damn them all. Despite no grounding in reality, most pundits had predicted would be a victory for this linking of immigrants to crime played a Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton, state afer central role in Trump’s campaign. state went to Republican candidate Donald Trump. Trump also repeatedly claimed that undocu- By the next morning, a new political geography mented immigrants “pour” across the US-Mexico was apparent: large blue dots for major US cities border. Again, there is no empirical basis to and smaller red dots throughout the rest of the this claim. Te fow of undocumented Mexican country. What will Trump’s America hold for im- immigrants has been decreasing since 2007, and migration, beyond promises of a wall between the by 2013, more Americans were moving to Mexico US and Mexico and mass deportations? than Mexicans moving to the US Trump’s language Prof Jamie Winders An equally dreary picture. First, the US is about immigrants pouring into the US tapped likely to see the return of state and local anti-im- long-standing xenophobic discourses about a Professor and Chair, migrant legislation. Beginning around 2006, “food” of immigrants overwhelming the country. Geography at the many states and local communities, especially in By ignoring empirical trends and tapping into such Maxwell School, Syracuse the South, began passing laws designed to make stereotypes, Trump created his own truths, which University life for undocumented immigrants unbearable. then took on a life of their own. Te 2012 presidential election and recognition of Perhaps most damningly for those of us inter- Email: [email protected]. the ‘Hispanic vote’ largely stopped this legislative ested in progressive approaches to immigration, edu trend, but Trump’s election will reinvigorate local Trump transformed what immigration means and eforts to make undocumented immigrants – and, is understood to cause, allowing it to proxy for a by extension, their US-born children – unwelcome range of other forces – like neoliberal globaliza- in local communities. Te fact that Jef Sessions, a tion – shaping people’s lives, especially the lives of Republican Senator from Alabama, will play a key white, working-class households. Trump posi- role in Trump’s administration only strengthens tioned immigrants as causing the losses that large this possibility. swaths of the US have experienced and, perhaps Second, the US is likely to (continue to) see most frighteningly, as fxing those feelings of mar- much more vitriolic public discourse around im- ginalization by their absence – making America migration. Again, this will be a change from trends great again by removing immigrants from it. in recent years. Afer 2012, many Republicans Where do we go from here? A key part of who had been ‘tough’ on immigration sofened picking up the pieces from this election is fguring their tones. State-level anti-immigrant laws were out how to change public discourse around immi- dismantled, and executive orders eased the fears gration. Despite what Trump says, immigration is of undocumented immigrants who were brought not going anywhere, no matter what kind of walls to the US as young children or who had US-born you build. It is built into local, national, and global children. Trump’s entry into the election in July economies and into the American social fabric. 2015 bucked that trend with his declaration that Te question before us is how to fnd productive Mexico sent rapists, drug-runners, and criminals ways to talk about and act on the complexity of to the US and that a ‘beautiful’ wall between immigration and its centrality to American life. I Mexico and the US (and paid for by Mexico) was have built my career around studying the politics a necessary solution to the ‘problem of immigra- of immigration. At least in the short term, the tone tion. His subsequent campaign only intensifed of my research will be much darker. xenophobic claims about immigrants, the crime they brought with them, and the need to deport ‘bad hombres’ and end birthright citizenship. For 1 For a summary, see Sampson, Robert J. 2008. Trump, making America great again meant taking “Rethinking Crime and Immigration.” Contexts 7.1: it back to the 1950s era of mass deportations and 28-33. less ethnic and racial diversity. Immigration, for him, was a hurdle to being great. Tird, we are likely to see more misinforma- tion about immigration. Trump’s campaign not only sanctioned racist statements about immi- grants but also legitimated specious claims about immigration itself. Trump, of course, is not the frst politician to make up claims, but he took this practice to a new level. He repeatedly claimed that immigrants commit crimes at greater rates than ‘Americans’, an argument that has been repeatedly refuted by a large body of research.1 Trump, however, ignored that empirical reality 42 A bilingual campaign: clinton’s latino political communication

Troughout the 2016 United States campaigns, country. In these events, the candidate commu- candidates, politicians, journalists and laypersons nicated her policy proposals, her opinions about discussed issues about national identity, class, the , and attacked the plans gender, and race. Among these matters, there was and ideas of the Republican candidate. Clinton an intense conversation about Latinos as a growing rallied several times in states with a strong Latino minority group that is gaining political, economic, presence such as Florida, Nevada, and Arizona. social and cultural power in the United States. In Moreover, Clinton used her running mate, Tim this electoral cycle, 27.3 millions of Latinos were Kaine, to outreach Latinos during the rallies. Tim eligible to vote, and according to the exit polls, Kaine knows how to speak Spanish and he used Latinos cast 11% of the total votes. At the end of this language to deliver public speeches to Latino the election, Hillary Clinton received 62% of the audiences—for example, in Arizona, he gave the Latino vote and Donald Trump 29%. frst Spanish language speech in an American election. Juan S. Larrosa-Fuentes Te Latino issue was part of the national Tird, the campaign had a strong presence on political agenda before the presidential campaigns mass media—especially on television. Troughout Doctoral Candidate, started. Scholars, journalists, and commenta- the Primaries and the General Election, Clinton’s School of Media & tors characterized the Hispanic/Latino voters as campaign produced and broadcasted radio and Communication at Temple a ‘sleeping giant,’ and they tried to predict the TV ads that stressed the importance of the Latino University (Philadelphia). power of this group to shape the United States voters, and that narrated the stories of Latino electoral map. However, the issue became more children, students, millennials, and soldiers in the Email: [email protected] relevant because Trump spent a signifcant part United States. Also, Clinton’s campaign relied on of his campaign attacking and criticizing Latinos. Telemundo and Univision, two Spanish-speaking In June of 2015, when he announced his pres- national television networks. Clinton and Kaine idential candidacy, Trump referred to Latinos were interviewed by journalists of these networks and Mexicans in particular as “criminals and and appeared on entertainment shows such as rapists” and expressed that he had the intention of Buenos Días América and El Gordo y la Flaca. building a wall on the Southern border. In contrast, Fourth, the campaign used digital media Clinton developed a campaign that advocated for spreading political messages to the youngest for defending minorities. She reacted to many of segments of the Latino population. Clinton had Trump’s attacks against Latinos but also built an English and Spanish versions of her web page and enormous political communication machine to Twitter accounts in both languages. Te campaign outreach these communities across America. used emails and newsletters for fundraising and Te Clinton campaign created national and spreading information about local rallies and local teams for Latino outreach. Tese teams events. Additionally, the campaign used text deployed a bilingual campaign in English and messages to inform, organize, and protect the vote Spanish to inform Latinos about Clinton’s policy of Latinos. Finally, digital media platforms were proposals, campaign activities, media appearances, useful communication channels to replicate and and reactions to political junctures. By and large, broadcast the messages and interactions produced the Latino outreach team created a communicative in the other parts of the political communication structure to spread the political messages through machinery (e.g., TV and radio ads, interviews, interpersonal, group, mass, and digital communi- training kits for phone bankers and canvassers, etc.). cation. Some of these political messages were part Te aforementioned paragraphs contain a of the general campaign, and others were crafed description of how Hillary Clinton addressed specifcally for Latinos (i.e., immigration reform, the Latino population. However, this academic education, and employment). endeavor needs to go further. As Te Atlantic Four central mechanisms informed Clinton’s political reporter, Molly Ball suggested, the 2016 Latino political communication machinery. Untied States campaigns were not an electoral cycle First, this campaign created a large ground about policy, but about identity and culture. In this game structure through all the country. Clinton sense, the 2016 Unites States election analysis asks had dozens of ofces that were in charge of two to go beyond a descriptive phase and dig into a communication processes: phone-banking and cultural understanding of political campaigns. . Clinton’s staf recruited volunteers who made millions of phone calls and had bilingual face-to-face conversations with potential voters. Tis strategy had the goal of persuading citizens to register to vote, to explain the basic information about the elections (i.e., voting day and polling locations), and to convince undecided voters to support Clinton. Second, during the campaigns Clinton had rallies in diferent towns and cities across the 43 How the wall with Mexico symbolizes the Utopia of Trump’s supporters

One of the boldest proposals put forward in the Te wall ofers a return to a way of life that has 2016 US presidential electoral campaign was disappeared, because of increasing globalization, Trump’s plan to erect a wall on the US-Mexico economic fows and demographic change. Te wall border to keep out illegal immigrants. Although at symbolizes the promise of happiness in a closed frst sight nonsensical, Trump repeatedly claimed society under threat. One could hardly think of a he indeed wants to build the wall, insisting the better metaphor for a closed society than simply Mexican government would pay for the construc- building a wall around that secluded piece of land, tion of this border protection device. where one can continue to live free from globali- Te proposal, and the way it has been received zation, diversity and other causes of fear. Within by the Trump supporters, poses a challenge for rural, rather homogeneous communities, Trump professional observers of electoral campaigns. Te succeeded in mobilizing most voters. Prof Marc Hooghe broadsheet media quickly pointed out the proposal Any ideal society can be labelled a utopia. was not feasible. Not only would it be cost prohibi- A utopia is the reifcation of a concept that is Professor of Political tive, the US federal government does not even own considered to be ideal. Intellectuals generally like Science at the University the land where the wall would be built. Further- the ‘I have a dream’ rhetoric about white and black of Leuven (Belgium), more no reasonable person actually imagines the children going hand and hand together to school. and he has published Mexican government would be inclined to pay. But there are alternative dreams. mainly on participation, During his visit to Mexico, then candidate Trump Te wall signifes the exact opposite utopian political attitudes and carefully avoided talking about the wall and its project. If Trump had more rhetorical , the democratic linkage fnancing, allowing commentators to assume he might defend his proposal with exactly the these problems efectively killed the entire idea. opposite words of that famous speech of more than between citizens and the However, surprise, surprise: candidate Trump half a century ago. state went on to repeat the proposal, and crowds at his “I have a dream that one day, up in New York rallies cheered. Commentators already fabber- State, with its governor having his lips dripping Email: Marc.Hooghe@soc. kuleuven.be gasted by the proposal were even more surprised with the words of multiculturalism and minority that their serious criticisms had no tangible rights – one day right there in New York, little impact, as they were simply ignored by a vast white boys and girls will be lef alone, with other majority of the Trump supporters. In fact exit polls white boys and white girls as only sisters and suggest concerns about immigration had been an brothers. I have a dream that one day every valley important mobilizing factor for Trump voters, and will be closed, and that on every hill and mountain ‘the wall’ had been very successful in symbolizing there will be a wall, and that we can just live the life fears while ofering a solution. we have lost”. Research ofers clues for why. Firstly, most Some will be appalled at reading this, but we US voters are not well informed about politics. So should realize that for some the appeal of a homo- we cannot assume median Trump voters read or geneous society is just as strong as the appeal of a understood criticisms. Second, partisans tend to society without prejudice is for others. disregard information that runs counter to their own beliefs, so would be inclined to question the Dr Sofe Marien reliability of this information. More importantly we turn to understanding Assistant Professor of populism, which rejects this kind of reality check. Political Science at the Populist proposals typically appeal to emotional University of Amsterdam sentiments, rather than standard institutional and the University of mechanisms. Populism ofers the opportunity Leuven, and a Visiting to escape the incremental muddling through so Professor at the University typical of institutional politics - by defnition it feeds on radical proposals and questions of of Pennsylvania feasibility runs against the basic emotional appeal of populist rhetoric. ‘Te wall’ symbolizes the Email: [email protected] longing for a closed society, as Popper would label it. Has there ever been a more powerful symbol for closure than a wall? Te wall is not meant as a realistic proposal, and may not be judged that way by all Trump supporters. Te wall is a utopian metaphor for an ideal society. For those concerned about crime, drugs, unemployment, the rise of Spanish language rights, and increasing diversity, the wall ofers a perfect metaphor. It keeps dangers out of the perfectly tranquil small town American life. 44 After the election: Trump’s wall

Last week citizens of the United States elected as installed over the last two decades – precursors to President someone who is openly racist, misog- the fantasy of an impenetrable wall. It is telling that ynist, and xenophobic. We elected someone who the steady growth of the undocumented workforce chose a vice presidential running mate who as between the mid-1990s through the mid-2000s governor of sought to enact homophobic happened despite a nearly constant growth of and openly discriminatory state policies. Addi- spending on border patrol, new barriers and sur- tionally, our incoming President has claimed he veillance. Only in the wake of the 2008 economic will retreat from a host of international agreements crash, which dramatically slowed recruitment and relationships, from NAFTA and NATO to processes, did the unauthorized Mexican climate mitigatwion treaties. He does not believe in workforce in the United State start to decline. science, at least when it ofers inconvenient truths. While there is a clear economic logic to the Fear, disbelief, and horror are rippling through presence of millions of undocumented workers in Dr Lise Nelson part of the American public (here I include citizens the United States, a logic that I believe we mis- as well as legal and unauthorized residents), while understand at our peril, the current system does Associate Professor at another part of this public is jubilant and feeling not provide justice nor a decent life for low-wage Penn State University,in entitled to express more openly prejudice and immigrant or non-immigrant workers. Te the Department of hate. Te Southern Poverty Law Center received demand for the undocumented is rooted squarely Women’s, Gender, and 400 incidents of hateful harassment between in their undocumented status. Living in fear of Sexuality Studies and the November 9th and November 14th—including 136 deportation on a daily basis inspire many to tie Department of Geography. anti-immigrant, 89 anti-black, 43 anti-LGBTQ and themselves closely to their employer—becoming 26 anti-woman incidents. As this wave of white na- compliant workaholics who become the ‘ideal Her research investigates tionalism and hate ripple across the country, many worker’ from the employer’s perspective. shifing labor markets and wonder what the incoming President will actually It seems likely that the dream one week ago of social relations in new do on a range of fronts. Policy details do not ft comprehensive immigration reform has been lost destination immigrant into 140-character limits. to the nightmare of a deportation nation surround- communities in the United My commentary here focuses on one specifc ed by a very expensive even if easily breached wall. States. policy Donald Trump has repeated over and over: Comprehensive immigration reform held out the his promise to build a wall between Mexico and potential for undocumented workers to legalize, a Email: [email protected] the United States, which he couples with massive place from which they could demand better wages deportation of undocumented residents. A Pew and working conditions. Teir improved situation Research survey shows his supporters are united would actually have helped level the playing feld by, perhaps more than any other issue, anti-immi- for non-immigrant workers, perhaps easing some grant sentiment. While this extends to Muslim im- of the economic anxieties that contributed to the migrants, a key group in the line of fre are undocu- rise of Trump. mented Mexican and Latin American immigrants. Tis week the future looks bleak—for Te intuitive appeal of a wall on the southern economic growth, for social peace and justice. border stems in part from the idea that the ‘cause’ of this labor migration lies outside of the United States. Build it high enough and the fow will stop. Te appeal of the wall also lies in racist language that frames all Latino immigrants as invading “criminals” who represent a dire threat to the nation. Te wall as a solution presumes the origins of cross-border labor fows lie outside the United States rather than within it, ignoring the funda- mental dynamics of low-wage labor markets in the United States, which have recruited low-wage workers to cross the border. My research, like that of others, sheds light on the day-to-day incentives employers have for recruiting undocumented workers. Te cumulative efect of these recruitment practices, which occur in nearly every geograph- ic region of the country, is to invite large-scale migration across the US-Mexico border. From this perspective, the origins of the current situation, in which 6.4 percent of our workforce lacks doc- umentation, lie north of the border as much as south of it. Te economic power of this process is resistant to border control and physical barriers 45 Trump’s global war on terror

Many things seem obvious in retrospect, including unvarnished, shoot-from-the-hip Republican the US presidential election of Donald Trump, who rhetoric, the multi-factor and contextualized campaigned on the same populist energy driving explanation for extremism risks sounding not political movements in the UK. and elsewhere. ‘authentic’, a deadly sin in current political com- One thing that becomes more clear in light of munication, failing to ft the rapid-fre social media post-election surveys is the role of terrorism as and 24/7 news environment. Tus, the institutional an issue, and how it can be exploited to generate press had a difcult time engaging with a more and direct fear among citizens. Trump was able complex but realistic approach to the problem to efectively incorporate this fear into his “Make of terrorism. America Great” masterframe. In this respect, he I was concerned that perhaps a late-campaign built on a rhetorical foundation established 15 terrorist attack—either in the US or abroad--would Prof Stephen D. Reese years earlier. beneft Trump’s messaging and distort the election, Afer September 11, 2001, the administration but, as it turned out, the fear had been there all Jesse H. Jones Professor of of George Bush announced its Global War on along. For Americans, 9/11 breached their ex- Journalism and Associate Terrorism, a framing that has shown remarkable pectations that the government would keep them Dean for Academic resilience since then in spite of its shortcomings as safe, and that breach has not been fully resolved. Afairs at Moody College a way to organize foreign policy responses (How Ultimately, however, security is not a sustainable does one fght against a tactic?). Since that time the national value, so eventually — as with promises to of Communication in frame has become deeply embedded in political bring back the coal mines, steel mills, and a world the School of Journalism, discourse. An organization called the ‘Global War gone by — voters will soon see that Trump will not University of Texas, Austin on Terror Memorial Foundation’ has even recently be able to deliver. advocated building a suitable monument in Wash- US journalism has been faulted for decades for Email: [email protected]. edu ington, D.C. (Scruggs, 2016). its preoccupation with campaign tactics and lack of Although President Obama avoided the frame policy coverage, but in this election more thought- himself, Trump capitalized on it (even recruiting ful analysis was desperately needed to counteract ‘Mayor of 9/11’ Rudy Giuliani as one of his closest Trump’s xenophobic extension of Bush’s War on advisers). Surveys showed that among voters Terror. We will need it even more during the next listing ‘terrorism’ as an important issue, Trump four years. was the signifcantly preferred candidate. Why was he deemed more efective than Hillary Clinton, in spite of much of the foreign policy establishment supporting her? Trump more efectively appealed to fear, linking fear of terrorism to fear of the Other, specifcally Muslims. His Republican conven- tion acceptance address, already noted by other observers, underscored the dark tone of his appeal. In this respect, his anti-terrorism strategy (“We will destroy ISIS.”) lined up with his nationalist protectionism and related xenophobia. A proposed ban on Muslims entering the US was a natural extension of those policies and served to further diagnose the problem in the minds of the voters. My interviews several years ago with American journalists showed they had a hard time defning the War on Terror frame when Bush was invoking it to justify Afghanistan and later Iraq. Tey said, “We all know what it means.” Moving into that ambiguous space Trump was able to equate it with ‘Radical Islam’, providing reason enough for his supporters to be wary of Muslims. In linking terrorism with a major world religion Obama had declared that phrase to be an unhelpful analysis, and one that even helped confrm the ex- tremists’ ideology. He was attacked accordingly by Trump and Giuliani, who were able to promote a more simple diagnosis—one that regrettably risked playing into the hands of extremist groups. Of course, a simplistic solution to a complex problem is always seductive. In the face of 46 Will Trump continue Obama’s legacy of drone strikes?

A contentious point in President Obama’s legacy, from Congress. As Freeman notes, “Te executive as Kindervater highlights, is the dramatically has long asserted that the President has independ- increased drone activity under his leadership. ent authority to conduct at least some military Interest in drones increased post 9/11 because of operations in the absence of an authorizing act the threat and hysteria surrounding terrorism. of Congress.” More concerning is a ‘history of ac- Te topic of drones has been rarely discussed in quiescence’ within the Congress when it comes to the 2016 presidential election campaign. Trump past President’s more questionable acts of war. Tis has not referred to drones specifcally, but has is not to say that Congress will sit quietly while commented on ISIS who has ofen been the targets Trump carries out his plans, but it is an area of of drone strikes: “I would bomb the Hell out of concern. Trump isn’t under any pressure to restrict them.” More concerning is when Trump suggested drone strikes in the current climate, but this may killing the families of ISIS terrorists. Drones have change if he were to carry out what would amount Sam Coates already killed anywhere from 46 to 116 civilians to war crimes using them. It is unclear what Trump according to the Obama administration. However, will do militarily over the next four years, but if he Research Associate at the Bureau of Investigative Journalism refute these does continue the Obama policy of drone strikes, Centre for Politics and numbers and state that they are only a fraction of it seems unlikely he will use targeting functionality Media Research and a the 380 to 801 civilian casualties as the result of to its fullest to reduce civilian casualties and this fnal year student of BA drones. One important aspect of drones has been may lead to growing public opposition to their use. Politics and Media at the safety of civilian lives. As Kindervater notes, Bournemouth University both Obama and Hillary Clinton have promoted their efectiveness at not only killing terrorist Email: i7961872@bournemouth. leaders, but also providing protection to civilians ac.uk through their targeted use. While the usage of drones has increased under the Obama administration, the concept of drones has been under consideration even as far back as the World War II. Other countries in the past have experimented with this concept such as the UK creating the Larynx and Ram during World War II. Tere was already strong support for building drones during the 2012 US Presidential campaign. Barack Obama, Mitt Romney and the majority of the public supported targeted drone strikes at the time. Te public perceptions and history can give insight into the future of drone strikes. Te public has yet to turn against drones in a signifcant way. A poll by the Pew research centre and published in the Hufngton Post last year indicated that the majority of Americans still supported drone strikes. From Trump’s aggressive rhetoric towards ISIS, it can be expected that he will fully utilise drone strikes. While targeted drone strikes are meant to reduce civilian casualties, Trump doesn’t appear to have much concern for the lives of civilians. In his own words “Te other thing with the terrorists is you have to take out their families.” It is impossible to say at this stage whether Trump will increase or even decrease the use of drones, although they have proven to be an efective method according to the Obama administration. What is clear is that if Trump does use them, he is likely to adopt a more aggressive approach, free of fears for civilian safety. Tis is suggested by his dis- missive attitude towards the current US generals. Mark Tompson quotes him as suggesting that he would replace them with generals more in line with his way of thinking. Trump can act on his own on some levels when it comes to war without direct interference 47 Loose cannons: or the silent debate on drones

In a news story indicative of the anxieties fueling hit squad. And yet, despite President Obama’s a bizarre, vitriolic, and seemingly interminable Executive Order calling for greater transparency campaign season, Fortune magazine reported and improved safeguards against civilian causalities that prior to the third and fnal debate between in America’s drone wars, neither the candidates nor Republican presidential candidate, Donald Trump, the press corps saw ft to address targeted killing in and his Democratic rival, Hillary Clinton, the Las any substantive fashion. Instead, rumor, innuendo Vegas Police Department hired a private security and speculation constituted an otherwise silent frm to set up a drone detection system in the skies debate over the future of the US drone program. above the debate venue. While fear of rogue drone Troughout the campaign Trump was un- operators wreaking havoc at this high-profle event characteristically reticent regarding weaponized compelled local law enforcement to take dramatic drones. Reading between the lines of some of Prof Kevin Howley security measures, questions surrounding the legal, his most egregious statements about fghting the strategic, and ethical implications of the US drone Islamic State, Trump’s declaration that he would Professor of program were conspicuously absent from the “bomb the hell out of them” suggests a prominent at DePauw University. evening’s debate. role for drone aircraf. More ominously, Trump’s His work has appeared Four years earlier, when asked about his views assertions that he would target terrorists and their in Journalism: Teory, on the targeted killing program during their fnal families, presumably using drones, was met with Practice & Criticism, debate, GOP hopeful Mitt Romney unequivo- consternation across the . All cally endorsed President Obama’s drone strategy. told, however, Trump rarely shared his thoughts Social Movement Studies, Republican and Democratic consensus efectively on the drone program. Journalists obliged and and most recently, made drones a non-issue in the 2012 presidential likewise avoided the subject. Interactions: Studies race: a sharp contrast to international condem- Similarly, Clinton scarcely mentioned the in Communication & nation of America’s drone wars. Since that time, drone program. Unlike Trump however, Clinton’s Culture. He is currently journalists rarely questioned presidential candi- service as Secretary of State suggests implicit working on a new book dates about drones: Obama’s ‘weapon of choice' in approval of the expansion of the targeted killing Drones: Media Discourse the decades-long war on terror. What was once an program under President Obama. And given her and the Politics of Culture open, albeit controversial secret has become hawkish views on foreign policy, Clinton likely (Peter Lang, forthcoming). a matter of routine for both the political estab- foresees an even greater role for drones in US lishment and the US press corps. Obama’s lasting military and paramilitary operations. Curiously, Email: [email protected] foreign policy legacy is neither the historic multi- drones did fgure in one of the more sensational Twitter: @thekhowley lateral nuclear deal with , nor the diplomatic accusations leveled at Mrs. Clinton throughout overtures to Cuba, but rather the normalization of the entire, sordid campaign. In late October, True drone warfare. Pundit, a conservative website, reported that when As a result, during the 2016 campaign political pressed to do something about WikiLeaks founder debate focused instead on the wisdom of entrust- Julian Assange in the wake of the anti-secrecy ing Donald Trump – the personifcation of a loose group’s release of a cache of State Department com- cannon – with America’s nuclear arsenal. Trump’s muniqués (what came to be known as Cablegate), bellicose rhetoric and his penchant for unnerving Secretary Clinton asked, “Can’t we just drone this statements about nuclear weapons demanded such guy?” Te unsubstantiated story led to a series of coverage. Not since Richard Nixon’s ‘madman non-denial denials from the Clinton camp, efec- strategy’ has a presidential candidate evoked tively ending any further discussion of the targeted fears of an unstable and irrational leader with his killing program. (or her) fnger on the button. As Hillary Clinton In March 2016, columnist Trevor Timm observed, it would be foolish to underestimate argued the US press corps was letting presidential Donald Trump’s ‘hair-trigger’ temperament in this candidates of the hook on fve vital foreign policy regard. Nevertheless, throughout the campaign, questions. Citing the worldwide proliferation of the focus on Trump’s foreign policy bluster over- drones, Timm suggested robotic warfare consti- shadowed Clinton’s well-documented appetite for tutes a critical challenge to international security, regime change and anti-Russian hysteria. Small and as such demands robust debate. Tat debate wonder, then, that in the fnal days of the 2016 never materialized. Nonetheless, come January election Trump doubled down on the nuclear 20, 2017, Donald Trump, one of the most feared nightmare scenario, telling reporters that Clinton’s and reviled candidates in the history of American sabre rattling against Russia could lead to World politics, will take the reins of the US drone War III. program. By design, fear-based campaigns of this sort generate more heat than light. Still, questions over the next president’s willingness to use nuclear weapons remain a salient issue. So too does the prospect of President-elect Trump commanding the drone program – what is essentially a hi-tech 48 Guns return to american elections

At the start of the 2016 election campaign, recommendations, and took them to Congress Democrat Hillary Clinton did something that no in the Spring of 2013. While Congress ultimate- major presidential candidate had done since 2000: ly failed to act, Obama wouldn’t let the issue go. she brought the issue of gun violence into the Every time a new mass shooting occurred, Obama contest. Touting her support for stronger gun laws, used his bully pulpit to abhor the violence, deplore she used it to criticize her chief opponent, Vermont the lack of even elementary new gun measures like Democratic Socialist Senator Bernie Sanders. Tis universal background checks for all gun purchases, issue proved useful for Clinton partly because it and chastise Congress for its failure to act. Tese was one where she could criticize her ultra-liberal repetitive rhetorical moments didn’t change opponent from the lef, given Sanders’ record of policy, but did help push the issue back into the support against stronger gun laws – an anomaly national debate. explained by the fact that Sanders’ home state is Tird, the Sandy Hook shooting spurred Prof Robert J. Spitzer strongly pro-gun. the formation and growth of new gun safety In the fall race, Clinton hammered her Re- groups bent on breaking the NRA’s stranglehold Distinguished Service publican opponent Donald Trump on the issue, on gun policy. Former Mayor Professor and Chair lending her support for universal gun purchase Michel Bloomberg’s group, Mayors Against Illegal of the political science background checks, reimposition of the assault Guns, was reorganized when it combined with a department at SUNY weapons ban, and better mental health screening recently formed grassroots gun safety group to to flter out those who should not have access to form Everytown for Gun Safety. Bloomberg and Cortland. He is the author guns – all measures supported by most Americans. allies doubled down on their eforts, pouring more of 5 books on gun policy, Trump has returned fre, extolling his embrace money and resources into selected state races and including “Te Politics of of gun rights – a reversal of opinion for him, as referenda, among other actions. Another new Gun Control” and most Trump had previously supported gun regulations. Sandy Hook-inspired group, Americans for Re- recently “Guns across During the campaign, Trump, endorsed by the sponsible Solutions, was formed by former Arizona America. National Rife Association, opposed the assault Congresswoman Gabrielle Gifords, who survived weapons ban and supported civilian gun carrying being shot in the head by a deranged man in 2011, Email: robert.spitzer@cortland. as a way of improving personal self-defence and and her husband, former astronaut Mark Kelly. edu thwarting crime. Tey, too, garnered signifcant national attention But this leaves a larger question: why have and considerable resources to press for improved presidential candidates been silent on guns for the gun safety. (Both are also gun owners.) last 16 years, and what changed? Tese new groups did something never before Flash back to the 2000 elections. Democratic seen: they outspent the NRA. Te watershed presidential candidate Al Gore actively touted moment came when they engineered the passage support for new gun measures, but in losing the of a referendum in Washington State in 2014 to race, Democrats concluded (wrongly, later research provide for universal background checks for all revealed) that the issue hurt them. Tey mostly gun purchases, and defeated a competing measure proceeded to avoid the issue and to appeal more that would have blocked such checks. In the aggressively to moderates and even conserva- 2016 election cycle, four states voted on new gun tives—so-called ‘Blue Dog’ Democrats—which measures, and the issue played a key role in state all but eliminated from the national debate any elections including Missouri, New Hampshire, systematic advocacy for tougher gun laws. In turn, and Pennsylvania. the gun-friendly presidency of George W. Bush Te upsurge in gun politics suggests that, if quietly pressed for and won most of the NRA’s these new gun safety groups stay in the gun policy pro-gun wish list. fght, the issue won’t go away. Tere may even For the next three presidential elections, little come a day when the country’s clear preference was heard on guns. Even liberal president Barack for stronger gun laws may actually come to be Obama avoided the subject despite a past record refected in policy. of support for tougher gun laws. In fact, one gun safety organization gave him a failing grade in his frst term for his failure to advance the issue, and for signing in to law two minor measures making gun carrying easier in national parks and on trains. But then three key events changed everything. First, the December 2012 senseless mass shooting of 26 school children and staf at Sandy Hook elementary school in Connecticut shocked the nation in a way not felt since the 1990s. Second, that event motivated Pres. Obama, fresh of his re-election, to do an about face. He appointed a commission to develop legislative and other policy 49 President Trump and climate change

As scientists become more gloomy about keeping debated the issue. George W. Bush (2000-09) said: global warming below the allegedly ‘safe’ limit of 2 “I think it’s an issue that we need to take very °C, the issue is disappearing from the US presi- seriously. But I don’t think we know the solution to dential debates. Tere was a brief mention in the global warming yet. And I don’t think we’ve got all second Trump/Clinton debate, with climate change the facts before we make decisions”. treated as an ‘aferthought’. Te peak year for climate concern was 2008, Trump has previously (in 2012) suggested with climate rating a mention in all three presiden- climate change “was created by and for the tial debates”. Obama framed climate change as an Chinese”. His original ‘frst 100’ days plan for energy independence issue, arguing that: “we’ve climate and energy got pulled from his website, got to walk the walk and not just talk the talk archived at ‘wayback machine’. It makes for when it comes to energy independence”. Despite a Marc Hudson depressing reading, with promises to “cancel the with 160,000 signatures, the debate mod- Paris Climate Agreement and stop all payments of erators for the 2012 debate did not put the issue PhD candidate at the U.S. tax dollars to U.N. global warming programs” on the agenda, with the Republican nominee, Mitt University of Manchester, accompanied by a bonfre of domestic regulations. Romney, accused of recanting early climate change holds degrees from the How much of that will happen remains to be positions. University of Adelaide, seen. Why the silence? Australia, and the Early days Tere are two reasons. One is simply down to University of Salford and Awareness of the threat of climate change goes the politicisation around the issue. As shown previously worked in the back decades, well before its arrival on public above, as recently as 2008 Republicans admitted National Health Service policy agendas in 1988. While John F. Kennedy climate change was happening. In 2012 only one was aware of environmental problems generally contender, Jon Huntsman, was willing to do so, Email: marc.hudson@postgrad. mbs.ac.uk (he’d read Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring), it was he soon dropped out, with his views dramatical- his successor Lyndon Johnson who made the ly unpopular among Republican voters. What frst presidential statement about climate change, happened? In two words: Tea Party. Te emergence written for him by pioneering climate scientist of the hyper-conservative Tea Party Republican Roger Revelle. Following a warning on the topic faction was the culmination of a longer-term trend from Democratic senator Daniel Moynihan in of “anti-refexivity”. September 1969, Nixon created the US Envi- Te second reason is more gloomy, because ronmental Protection Authority in an age when it is more intractable. Tose who have denied meant conserving things, but climate climate change for so very long will fnd it very change was still very niche. Ronald Reagan’s costly – both politically and psychologically – to hostility to all matters environmental is infamous, reverse their position and admit that they have with attempts to abolish both the Department of been wrong. Climate change denial has become a Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency, cultural position. but with the credibility of atmospheric scientists high thanks to their discovery of the ozone hole, What next? moves towards a climate agreement could not be In the day since Trump won, there has been a completely resisted. furry of commentary. Joe Romm asks’ Will Trump go down in history as the man who pulled the plug 1988 and beyond on a liveable climate?’ A combination of growing scientifc alarm about “Te shocking election of Donald Trump on the growth of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Tuesday night is a turning point in the history of and a long hot summer in 1988 made climate climate action, and therefore the history of homo change an election issue. On the campaign trail, sapiens. Tat’s because whatever warming, sea level then-Vice President George H. W. Bush announced rise, ocean acidifcation, and Dust-Bowlifcation in his presidential campaign: we commit to is irreversible on a timescale of a “Tose who think we’re powerless to do thousand years.” anything about the “greenhouse efect” are for- For David Roberts “Trump’s election marks getting about the “White House efect”… I will the end of any serious hope of limiting climate convene a global conference on the environment change to 2 degrees”, with “widespread sufering at the White House… We will talk about global and misery from climate change now efectively warming… And we will act” inevitable.” He didn’t act, of course, successfully insisting Meanwhile, the carbon dioxide accumulates, targets and timetables for emissions reductions be and the impacts pile up. removed from the proposed climate treaty to be agreed at the Rio Earth Summit, before he would agree to attend. It was 2000 before presidential candidates 50 Dark days ahead for our climate

As the second largest emitter of carbon dioxide A Republican-led Congress along with and historically the largest contributor to observed an outspoken climate denier President is the climate change, the United States has a unique nightmare scenario for our climate. It is beyond responsibility to lead the efort to avoid increased question that we will experience severe backsliding damage caused by rising global temperatures. Te on climate change policy both internationally and political climate in the US, however, has proven domestically once this unifed Republican govern- hostile to signifcant movement towards a com- ment comes to power. prehensive solution. In the previous Congress, President-elect Trump has already sent known climate skeptics and deniers (all of whom credible signals on how he intends to honor his are Republican) made up 38% of the House of promises to radically upend existing environmen- Representatives and 33% of the Senate. Partisan tal policies. Te frst shock was the announcement polarization among voters is also extreme: in 2016, that Myron Ebell, a veteran climate denier, will lead Dr Constantine Boussalis 85% of Democrats agreed that the rise in Earth’s the EPA transition team and may even be tapped as temperature in the last century was mainly due to its Administrator. It is also clear that Trump plans Assistant Professor of human activities, while only 38% of Republicans to rescind the CPP and all other environmental Political Science at Trinity shared this view. executive orders that are against the interests of the College Dublin. Confronted with these political barriers, the fossil fuel industry. Further, the new administra- Obama Administration decided from early on tion is more than likely to re-open oil, gas and coal Email: [email protected] to treat climate change as a legacy issue. Despite production eforts - all in the name of increased initial setbacks such as the blocking of cap-and- income and energy independence. trade legislation in 2010 (including opposition At the international level, the threat seems to from some maximalist Democrats), President be even more severe. Discussions emerging from Obama redoubled eforts to alter the country’s the Trump camp are not focused on whether the course on both domestic and international miti- United States should withdraw from the Paris gation policy. American leadership, for instance, Agreement, but how quickly this can be done. was crucial for the successful signing of the Paris Observers were horrifed to learn that one of the Agreement last December and its entering into tactics that might be used is to withdraw from force earlier this year. On the domestic front, the United Nations Framework Convention on Obama has leveraged his executive powers to Climate Change (UNFCCC) which is the founda- circumvent Congress in order to take action. tion agreement on global climate cooperation and Among other initiatives, the President put in also the parent treaty to the Paris Agreement. Such place the Clean Power Plan (CPP) which is a move would be beyond devastating for global understood as the cornerstone of current Federal cooperation on climate and would also severely emissions reduction policy. Te plan seeks to limit diminish American reputation and standing in greenhouse gas emissions from coal and natural the world. gas power plants, with an overall target of 32% Unfortunately, there is not much room for emissions reductions in the American electricity optimism moving forward. Out of all the campaign sector by 2030. pledges Donald Trump put forth, attacking the Te Presidential and Congressional elections environment ranks as one of the least politically this year were decisive for the future of our global costly promises that he can deliver. Internationally, climate. Although the Paris Agreement was an withdrawal from existing climate agreements or historic moment for international cooperation on even simple non-compliance bear no real conse- climate change, climate scientists have strongly quence to his political survival. Also, we should questioned the notion that current national not forget the overwhelming support that he emissions reduction pledges will see average global received from fossil fuel producing districts. And temperature rise, relative to pre-industrial levels, while major conservative funders such as the Koch below the dreaded 2C threshold by 2100. At the family were surprisingly hostile to Trump in this moment, what is in place is not enough to protect election, a dismemberment of Obama’s climate our climate; much more efort is needed to ensure change policies might help open the money taps as a stable future. American leadership is seen as a reelection time approaches. necessary condition for increased ambition by other major emitters, notably China and India. Similarly, domestic mitigation eforts have also proven to be on shaky ground. Te CPP, for instance, is currently being challenged in Federal court by 28 states and a slew of energy interests on the grounds that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has overstepped its legal authority. While many analysts believe that the court will uphold the CPP, it may not matter at this point. 51 4 Diversity and Division Hillary Clinton’s evolving gender appeals

In 2008, Hillary Clinton made her frst bid for with shots of women of various ages and races. the US presidency and did not overly emphasize Te ‘Quotes’ ad was particularly efective with her gender. Senior adviser Ann Lewis called this women. Afer watching the ad, Trump’s unfavora- decision the “biggest missed opportunity” of the ble ratings among women went up by 19 points primaries and said Clinton “ceded the mantle of relative to those who did not see the ad; for men, barrier-breaker entirely to Barack Obama”. Prior the shif was 1 point. During the third debate to and during the 2016 Democratic primaries, Trump said, “Nobody has more respect for women Clinton sought to reclaim that mantle. In than I do,” and minutes later called Clinton “such December 2015, Clinton released the ‘44 boys is a nasty woman.” Clinton supporters reappropriat- too many!’ ad, featuring little girls reading aspi- ed the label by wearing “Nasty Woman” T-shirts, rational letters written to Clinton. In a September fooding social media, and Clinton surrogate Sen. 2015 interview and again in a primary debate Elizabeth Warren used it as a rallying cry during Dr Lindsey Meeks in February 2016, Clinton pushed back on the her speeches. idea that she was an establishment candidate by Perhaps Trump’s most damaging moment Assistant Professor saying, “I cannot anyone being more of an with women came with the Access Hollywood in the Department of outsider than the frst woman president”. In April recording, in which he described kissing and Communication at the 2016, Donald Trump said, “If Hillary Clinton were grabbing women without their consent because, University of . a man, I don’t think she’d get 5% of the vote. Te “when you’re a star…You can do anything.” During Her work focuses only thing she’s got going is the woman’s card”; in a rally, Michelle Obama delivered the most direct on gender, political response, Clinton sold physical “women cards” and response from the Clinton team to the “Trump communication, and media raised $2.4 million in 3 days. Clinton capitalized Tapes.” Having Obama deliver this attack, instead on her gender. of Clinton, was necessary to some extent. Bill Email: [email protected] Moving into the general election, there was a Clinton was not running for president, but Hillary shif in Clinton’s gendered appeals. Clinton focused is nonetheless his wife and his legacy in this area less on what was new about her, and focused more carries baggage. By having a strong surrogate on what had been there all along: a persistent focus who has no baggage in this domain make the on children, women, and families—issues women attack, Clinton’s campaign could more safely land voters typically place a higher value on than men. an efective blow. In response, Glenn Beck said Her history of work on the Children’s Defense Obama’s speech was “the most efective political Fund and Children’s Health Insurance Program, speech since Ronald Reagan”. a celebration of her proclamation in China of Clinton appealed to women, but only some “human rights are women’s rights and women’s embraced her appeals. According to CNN exit rights are human rights,” and her other endeavors polls, Clinton had a sizeable 12-point gender gap, were echoed in advertisements, rallies, and and she had an advantage over Trump with women numerous DNC speeches, including in running of color, married and unmarried women, and mate Tim Kaine’s speech: “When you want to Democratic and Independent women. However, know something about the character of somebody she did not win over white women and there was in public life, look to see if they have a passion that no surge in women voters. Despite this, Clinton began long before they were in ofce, and that they stayed the course and focused on women in her have consistently held it throughout their career… concession speech, stating: “to all the women… Hillary has a passion for kids and families.” During who put their faith in this campaign and in me: the third presidential debate, Clinton also went I want you to know that nothing has made me arguably further than any presidential candidate prouder than to be your champion.” has in defending women’s reproductive rights. All of this reframed the gendered focus away from Clinton’s personal gender and toward direct appeals to women. When it came to attacking her opponent’s record on his treatment of women, Clinton did not shy away. During the third debate she attacked Trump’s character and sent a clear appeal to women, “Donald thinks belittling women makes him bigger. He goes afer their dignity, their self-worth, and I don’t think there is a woman anywhere that doesn’t know what that feels like.” A key culprit in undermining Trump’s pull with women was Trump himself, and Clinton capitalized on Trump’s words. Her ‘Mirrors’ ad and the super PAC ad ‘Quotes’ featured Trump’s past derogatory comments on women, paired 53 ‘Madam President’ and the need for a historical contextualization of the 2016 race

Empirical research regarding the role of gender asymmetries surrounding female presidency in in positions of leadership (either corporate or America. political) has shown consistently over time the Te question remains though: why is this glass ceiling that many women face, and Hillary happening? Part of the answer may lay in the Clinton’s 2016 Race has stirred the controversy Protestant culture of the US, which is an outlier regarding the gender dynamics of high office especially when compared to Protestant Europe. even further. Jennifer Merolla and colleagues suggest that However, despite the growing success of although the Reformation brought increased women at the highest level of political power in female participation in the sacred across Protes- recent times, gender – and in Hillary’s case, age, tant countries in Europe, aforded through Bible too – continues to impact heavily upon women’s reading and interpretation, and thus prepared Dr Liza Tsaliki opportunities to run for ofce (and win), and it the ground for more tolerant attitudes towards would seem that the US is lagging behind other female leadership in all realms, such practices Associate Professor nations of the developed and the not-so-devel- did not extend to the US where Protestantism at the Faculty of oped world on this. In fact, long before her, there took a socially conservative turn. Tis kind of Communications and have been other American women who paved the socially conservative Protestantism, which sees Media Studies, National way for Hillary 2016. To name but a few, Victoria female submission to male leadership as appro- and Kapodistrian Woodhull was a sufragette who ran for the priate within the political realm, the church and American presidency in 1872, Geraldine Ferraro family, is seen to have had a dampening efect on University of Athens ran for vice president with the Democrats in women’s political engagement in America and Email: [email protected] 1984, Pat Schroeder had a brief time as a Dem- explains low female representation, especially in ocratic nominee in 1988 before her subsequent the highest level of political ofce. Accounts of a ‘emotional’ withdrawal from the race, and Sarah woman president of the United States surfaced in Palin was nominated for the Republican V.P in the early 20th century, along with the rise of the 2008. In short, the US political history is littered sufragette movement and technological futurism. with women who started of to run for national However, the notion of a woman president was leadership but withdrew along the way. Having seen to run counter to technological progress and served as secretary of state, it’s true that Hillary is several headlines warned against the ‘danger of a not being questioned on her toughness – surely woman becoming president of the United States’ . not as Ferraro was challenged about her capacity At a more nuanced level, such thinking challenged to defend the United States from the Soviets and deeply entrenched ideas about women’s place in ‘push the nuclear button’ on account of her gender. American society at a time when the dominant If nothing else, Hillary ofers herself as the more perception of white, middle class ‘appropriate’ fem- measured, but no less tough, candidate and invokes ininity contextualized women in the private sphere Trump’s trigger-happy attitude as a warning of the domesticity. Drawing from Joanne Hollows’ against his candidacy. In one advertisement she work on ‘Domestic Cultures’, I argue that the actually employed Trump’s unsettling image near gendered controversy surrounding Hillary’s 2016 the nuclear red button to press this point. What nomination, and whether or not she is ft to lead, is she is being criticized, and sometimes ridiculed, the culmination of a century-long social con- about is her looks, body shape, attire, being ‘men- struction of white, urban, middle-class American opausal’ and fragile – in essence all those things womanhood in modernity, which assumed that that tap into stereotypical gender characteristics women’s ‘natural’ place in the world was exhausted the presidential candidate Hillary does not have at home, while working class, black and immigrant in abundance: youth, health, stamina, sexiness. femininities reserved a more ‘public’ perception of For her critics, Hilary is a ‘fawed’ candidate for womanhood. Τhe election outcome of 8 November national political leadership not just because the goes to show the latent sexism American society US presidency is perceived as a ‘masculine’ task, to is entrenched with, as well as Hillary’s inability be carried out by a male leader; but also because to engage convincingly with public sentiments of she is seen to betray ‘traditional’ female charac- anger about a rigged economy and government. teristics, while having acquired more ‘masculine’ ones along the way (decisiveness, toughness) – hence we understand why ‘Bitch’ has stuck in the popular imagination. In fact, the way we’ve moved on from the more ‘cool’ context of HBIC (Head Bitch in Charge) as depicted in the ‘Texts from Hillary’ tumblr in 2012, where we saw a busy Hillary texting from an airplane hangar, posing as a real-life Anna Wintour, running the world behind her dark glasses, to ‘Life’s a Bitch—don’t vote for one’ tees, indicates the profound gender 54 The ‘nasty’ politics of risk, gender and the emotional body in the US Presidential election

So, the worst has happened and Hillary Clinton swathes of the American electorate and in certain was defeated by Donald Trump. From a feminist sections of the media, it was Hillary who was perspective, Trump’s much documented misogyny nonetheless represented as the riskier candidate. and its apparent acceptance by some commenta- For decades, Clinton has been described as cold, tors as ‘banter’, represents a real risk to women’s unfeeling and somehow unnatural for failing to rights and to the self-esteem of girls growing up comply with feminine stereotypes. And yet we in the US. In Trump-land, retro-sexism becomes know if she ‘sofened’ her image, she ran the risk normalised, as women and their bodies are defned of appearing too weak. Troughout the campaign, as risky objects of either desire or disgust. Tus, Clinton maintained a cool persona, but what was unpacking the psychosocial dynamics of the rela- emphasised was her health and the potential frailty tionship between risk, gender and the body takes of her aging female body as being somehow inher- on a political urgency in a context where fantasies ently risky, thereby shoring up older discourses of Dr Shelley Tompson of femininity become aligned with notions of risk femininity, emotion and embodiment. within the cultural and political imagination, as we Although many aspects of the news reporting Politics Programme saw in the campaign through representations of – here and in the US – could serve to illustrate Leader and a Senior Clinton’s body. So, whilst Trump represents a risk the implicit and explicit sexism within news and Lecturer in the to women and to US civil rights more broadly, it is societal discourses, the repeated reporting on the Faculty of Media and powerful women such as Clinton (who ironically, two candidates’ relative health uniquely illustrates Communication, are said to be from the political establishment) who the gendered double standard. Te impact of the Bournemouth University are nonetheless ofen presented as the risk, and rigours of campaigning was heightened when who therefore cannot be trusted. Clinton contracted pneumonia in September and Email: shelleyt@bournemouth. Te wider socio-political context of ‘risk reportedly ‘fainted’, according to US and UK front ac.uk society’ has been discussed at length by Ulrich pages, coupled with the coverage of health con- Beck and Giddens, who argue globalisation, spiracy theories related to Clinton and speculation economic crises and social fragmentation are afer the release of her medical records. Te double linked to a heightened fear of risk and a dread of standard around gender, health and risk in relation impending catastrophe. One can apply these ideas to political competency and performance is evident to the psychosocial and political dynamics of the if we look at the reporting around the candidates’ US Presidential Election campaign and its media health records. In contrast to press reports of coverage, where widespread anxiety about risk Clinton’s vulnerability, the self-professed ‘high was dealt with through the defensive mechanisms testosterone’ levels of Trump reported in the news of splitting candidates into ‘good and bad’ and appears to celebrate his potency as a man despite by projecting fears and anxieties onto them. Te the well-publicised sexual assault complaints from election has thrown into sharp relief the diferent women. Despite the unease from within his own ways that men and women are represented in the party and amongst some voters, the critical focus public sphere through the embodied attributes and around trust and risk returned to Clinton, whose Prof Candida Yates emotions ascribed to each candidate. In Clinton’s status as a woman appeared - at least in fantasy - to case, it was as if the fragmented political body (the encapsulate anxieties about the dangers of feminin- Professor of electorate) dealt with their fears by projecting them ity and women as political leaders. Communication and onto the image of a corrupt and abject political As the political rhetoric and its new reporting expert in Psychosocial body that she, as a woman, seemed to represent, would have it, Hillary Clinton’s emotions and Studies in the and her body thus became the focus for their gendered body – and by extension those of all anxiety and sense of risk. women – serve to heighten perceptions of her as Faculty of Media and Tese psychosocial processes are linked to an inevitable risk, therefore making her apparently Communication at gendered divisions of emotion, and perceptions untrustworthy as a leader. Te fear and anxiety Bournemouth University. of the body that are prevalent in contempo- about the possibility of a ‘nasty woman’ president rary politics and society more widely. Against was so great that Clinton lost the election. As Email: [email protected] a backdrop of personality-driven mediated a result, we all lose because women and their politics, the emotional personality has now taken leadership potential continue to be undermined centre-stage in political campaigns (Richards, within everyday settings such as media, politics 2007; Yates, 2015). Tis development is shaped and society. by perceptions of gender, and men and women have a diferent relationship to the public in this respect, refecting the double standards that exist around emotion and gender more widely. As is well known, women on the political stage are ofen en- couraged to look as assertive as men, and yet must also be cautious about appearing too domineering. Although Trump’s antics lef many feeling that he is overly narcissistic and emotionally unstable, for 55 Why Trump’s male chauvinism appeals to some voters more than others

Even afer mounting evidence of Donald Trump’s Low-skilled men’s wages stagnated as the exploitative and demeaning treatment of women, US de-industrialised and the real value of the his standing in the polls still hovers above 40%. minimum wage declined. Collectively-bargained, On the face of it that’s more than a little shocking high-wage manufacturing jobs evaporated; they – but less surprising is the gender split among were replaced by precarious, low-wage service his supporters. sector positions. Te upshot is that a couple or A recent summary of gender diferences in family could not survive for long on a low-skilled the polls compiled by FiveTirtyEight found that husband’s income alone. women favour Trump’s female opponent, Hillary Te men most afected by this transformation Clinton, by 15 percentage points overall; men, are now lining up for Trump like no other segment on the other hand, favour Trump by fve. It’s true of the electorate. As reported by Te Atlantic back Prof Lynn Prince Cooke that many Republican women are standing by in March 2016, white men without a college degree their man, but that’s not enough for Trump to win form the core of Trump’s supporters. Professor of Social Policy women’s vote overall. Without economic advantage, a man’s at the University of Bath No surprise at all to gender researchers, inner chauvinistic pig can break out to reassert though, is that the frst time a woman threatens to dominance over women in another way. One way [email protected] break through what Clinton called the “highest, is to objectify women, as Trump was recorded hardest glass ceiling” of the US presidency, her doing with Billy Bush in 2005. Trump’s coarse nominated opponent is the embodiment of the comments may have scared away some of the Re- “male chauvinist pig” – a man, usually in a position publican mainstream, but plenty of his supporters of power, who publicly expresses the opinion that have dismissed them as typical masculine ‘lock- women are by nature inferior to men and best er-room talk’ (a defence even shock-jock Howard relegated to the kitchen and the bedroom. Stern rejected). Te term male chauvinism frst emerged Male chauvinists also use the state to assert afer World War II as more women entered paid their dominance over women. An example of this employment. Tis threatened the self-esteem many among a fair number of Trump supporters is the men derive from their dominance over women in Twitter feed #repealthe19th – a cry to repeal the the family, the economy, and society at large. amendment that gave women the right to vote. Te use of the term chauvinist pig became But women did not principally cause the more widespread as women in the US demanded economic woes that have lef some voters so not just employment, but the employment equality desperate as to think a chauvinist like Trump can supported by afrmative action and Title VII of save them. Indeed, it’s precisely men like Trump the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Te epithet was in vogue who have used their power and privilege to widen during the late 1960s and early 1970s, at the height the gap between the haves and have nots. of second wave feminism. Trump’s chauvinism will never make America Since then, many American men have adapted greater than it is right now. Instead, his campaign to women’s economic gains. Tey are much more has revealed just how damaging male chauvin- likely to be married to employed women than to ism can be. And now, with his hyper-masculinity women who aren’t in the labour force. Men spend threatened by Clinton’s edge in the polls, Trump is twice as much time doing unpaid housework and attacking the very democratic process a presiden- childcare as they did in the 1960s, and generally tial candidate should passionately defend. report more egalitarian attitudes to survey researchers. Assuming that not even Donald Trump can Yet these gender equality gains are modest and destroy American democracy, the real challenge fragile. Men’s masculine identity is still linked to begins for whoever is sworn in as president on their economic role, and a man’s chauvinist pig can January 20 2017. Americans need more economic resurface if this is threatened. But not all men are security for their enlightened sides to shine equally vulnerable to this threat. through again. Tis means more good jobs at All workers shared in the prosperity of the living wages for men as well as women. Only then post-war era – but things began to change in the can the country begin to close the social chasms late 1970s, when wage inequality among men revealed and fuelled by Trump’s campaign – and rose sharply in ways that afect their economic only then can we banish chauvinism to the past, advantage over women. where it belongs. Wage returns on a university degree steadily increased for both women and men, but the gender gap remains largest at the top of the wage distribu- tion. In other words, the wage gains of high-skilled women are not likely to threaten the masculinity of high-skilled men. In contrast, the gender wage gap has almost disappeared among the least-skilled men and women. 56 Trump’s ‘promised land’ of white masculine economic success

Populist campaign rhetoric is about making men, and women as women. It is an imagined past grandiose and demagogic statements. Te more before the frst Black president and before Black ambitious and adaptive a candidate’s message is, protesters cried out in the streets of US cities about the more it resonates with diferent kinds of voters. how their lives matter. Donald Trump’s successful campaign relied on Tis is not to say that all Trump voters had his famous slogan ‘Make America Great Again’. the same vision of that past that included all these Its power is in the temporal scope of its promises, images. Rather, this is to make the point that the which invited white Americans to access their of what kind of past and future Trump ‘happy place’ in the past, when America was means is appealing to voters whether in relation to great, and promised them that he would make present-day economic stress and/ or racism and/ that imagined past their future. Trump’s past and or misogyny. future, I suggest, summon a promised land of Te poetic invocations implied and enabled Dr Omar Al-Ghazzi white masculine economic productivity. by Trump’s message are a good reminder that While Hillary Clinton was not a ‘big promises’ voter choice is ofen difcult to verbalize. It is not Lecturer in Journalism, candidate and sought to keep the conversation a simple rational choice. Voters respond to what Politics and Public about the present, Donald Trump tapped into inspires them. Trump had a message of change Communication bygone pasts and a future still to come. He told to voters with a scope rooted in an imagined past Department of Journalism Americans how the greatness they yearn for, and and projected onto a new future. His success is Studies they know to have existed in history, was stolen in the populist mirroring of the past and future, University of Shefeld from them by ‘the establishment’— Washington both of which gave a vision of white masculine insiders who do not care about ordinary people. economic productivity. Email: [email protected] Trump fxated on the message that Americans were once great and can be great tomorrow. Tis mirroring of past and future was at the centre of Trump’s populist campaign message. In form, Trump’s strategy seems reminiscent to Barack Obama’s 2008 campaign, which owned the future as a promised site of hope and change. Obama, however, promised only a new and better future and did not continuously link it to the past. Obama himself as a Black man embodied change and did not look or sound like any previous president. However, Trump’s promise was that of a return. It is a ‘return’ to a serene past however one imagines it. Tat promise of a future return to a great America made sense because, without being explicit, it portrayed a white, economically-robust, and socially conservative America. Te power in the use of this temporal and nostalgic trope is that it inspired white people across class lines. Te strategic vagueness of the content of the message, such as ‘Make America Great Again’, was concealed by the intimacy of its nostalgic intonation. Trump’s slogan painted images of a serene past of simpler politics and economics. Trump did not specify what period in history America was great. What exactly should be resurrected? Tis ambiguity was demonstrated in a Daily Show skit , in which Trump supporters were asked: when was America last great? Answers ranged from 1776, 1913, 1950s, to the 1980s. Of course, as the Daily Show pre- senters insinuated, those imagined pasts erase the political struggles of women and people of colour. Te past that Trump invoked is one where the factories hummed. White men made stuf and were content with their day’s work. White family values prevailed. White men could say what they wanted. Tere was no political correctness. No one made a fuss about racism and misogyny. And men acted as 57 Attempting to understand Hillary Clinton’s favourability ratings

In every election since 1992 the candidate with popular; and when she was a Cabinet ofcial who the highest favourability rating has won the US generally stayed out of the day-to-day political election, with Gallop polls showing every victor fghts of Obama’s frst term, she was at her most polling above ffy percent favourability before popular ever (Nelson 2016).” the election. Hillary Clinton has struggled to get However as soon as Hillary starts to step anywhere close to the ffy percent mark since outside those boundaries of accepted behaviour announcing her candidacy in April 2015, a failure and tries to be more politically active her favour- that may have cost her the presidency? ability ratings plummet. Brescoll and Okimoto Her ratings collapse coincided with her support these observations. Teir study found entering the race. Gallop poll data shows that female political candidates face signifcant negative in April 2013 she had a 64% favourability rating perceptions for the act of seeking power, while Alistair Middlemiss among likely voters and 91% among Democrats, male candidates do not. Cultural stereotypes of and she had been consistently sustaining ratings women expect them to be communal, support- Research Assistant at in the mid 60%’s from 2009-2012 while serving as ive and sensitive; when women break outside of the Centre for the Study Secretary of State. She maintained these ratings these stereotypes they are framed as deviant and of Journalism, Culture throughout the initial Senate investigation on power obsessed. When female politicians try to Benghazi in January 2013 and the strong media take a more emotive approach they receive media and Community at personal media criticism that went alongside it. coverage of a consistently diferent tone, being Bournemouth University. However, by 2015 Hillary Clinton’s favourability framed as demonstrating emotional irrationality A progressive liberal ratings had slowly fallen to 50% as focus shifed and a lack of leadership and control. Hillary is europhile who is not sure towards an expected presidential campaign, and aware of this process; Nelson quotes her observation: how 2016 could have gone by June 2015 they had dropped sharply down nine “When I’m actually doing the work, I get worse. points to 41% with a 44% unfavorability rating re-elected with 67 percent of the vote running for just months afer launching her campaign for to re-election in the Senate. When I’m secretary of Email: i7447101@bournemouth. become President of the United States in April. Re- state, I have [a] 66 percent approval rating. And ac.uk alclearPolitics.com’s average favourability polling then I seek a job, I run for a job, and all of the over the last 18 months’ tracks how her personal discredited negativity comes out again”. polling has continued to remain in the 40% range, Psychological accessibility of political judge- but her unfavorability ratings have continued to ments is more important in building favourability climb reaching nearly 55% by November 2016. towards a candidate than the quantity or quality of In the media, this negative favourability those attributes, with the simplest core emotional towards Hillary’s candidacy has been consistently response to a candidacy being more important framed as being self-inficted damage caused by and impactful than more detailed and nuanced both the Benghazi and email scandals that have refections. Tis seems refected in Hillary’s afected her campaign, and others during her personal polling. Likely voters suggest they think husband’s presidency. But this narrative does she is qualifed (55%) and has the temperament not correlate, there is a mismatch between the (53%) to be US President, only 29% of people trust mediation of these events and the impacts on her her, fundamentally undermining her legitimacy favourability poll ratings. For example, the scandal and favourability. In a presidential race that is as about her emails only went public in July 2015 a complex and as divisive as this one there are many month afer her favourability rating had already factors that afect an outcome. Gender and the fallen to a level which has been consistent ever voting publics perceptions of female politicians since, and the same lack of correlation is refected may have played a more important role than is in timelines of the Benghazi investigation and ofen discussed in public and media discourse. polling. Political scandals ofen have short time frames and impacts with the media moving onto new stories with little lasting impact, with intense and sustained media interest required to keep the scandal in the front of people’s minds. While in the media frenzy of a US election these scandals sustained media interest and were perhaps refected in the increases in unfavourability over the election period they might not tell the whole story. An alternative explanation was put forward by Nelson that Hillary’s changing favourability ratings is directly related to how well she is conforming to gender expectations: “When she was a traditional First Lady, she was popular; when she was gracious in defeat, accepting the Secretary of State job, she was 58 A very queer Presidential election campaign: Personal refections from an LGBT perspective

Tis is a ‘feel’ piece that includes some thinking. constitute ‘insider status’. I have deliberately avoided using sources or • Trump talking about how he will protect ‘the checking the facts. Instead I have refected on living gays’ by hating another group. In this case through the campaign and what that has meant to ‘Muslims’ held responsible for the shooting in me. I have generated what might be considered an an Orlando nightclub that led to 29 deaths. ‘approximate analysis’ partly inspired by reading • Trump was keen to show just how ‘red Proxies: Essays in near knowing (2016) and by blooded’ he was referring on several being in close proximity to a hate crime during the occasions to transgender people with feign campaign. In a queer way, I owe a very diferent disappointment; “she’d certainly be attractive form of appreciation to both. as a real woman” and how being a lesbian was “Te gays will be better of under me” so stated “a waste of raw talent”. Trump with the bluster and lack of consideration • In several interviews where LGBT rights were Dr Richard Scullion for words we got used to in this campaign! Was raised Trump retorted to answering with a Hilary much better? Conventionally yes; uttering rhetorical question along the lines of “what Senior Principal Academic consistently supportive noises about LGBT issues, do I know about gay men, I was bought up in the Faculty of Media but crucially, she represented the mainstream in in a family to think diferently about what we and Communication at her approach to issues of gender and sexuality. are supposed to do in our beds”. Bournemouth University. Repeating the mantra “gay rights are human rights” Our ability to put words into play creates what is to the point where one started to ponder, so did possible (see the philosophies of Wittgenstein or Email: RScullion@bournemouth. she once doubt this truism? Barthes). Words associated with LGBT were never ac.uk Whilst there was much queer about this queer, always orthodox. Tese were campaigns of campaign; that hair, her emails, the FBI, a Re- containment, of ‘holding in’. Tis view may seem publican candidate who the last two Republican perverse given this has been labelled the vilest Presidents did not publically support and the frst campaign in history. But just think, what would female candidate for ‘high ofce’… Despite all of Trump have really liked to say about vulnerable this, from an LGBT perspective it was actually groups (we caught a pathetic glimpse with the ‘bus rather conventional. Te most afrmative reading tape’). Clinton too acted with reserve on hot queer of the two main candidates engagement with topics such as fairness of health treatment access LGBT issues was little more than permission to and religious bigotry under the banner of free join the mainstream is partially granted…but on speech. Tis containment was literal in relation to our terms. the candidates’ past lives and misdemeanors and Te notion that is was an electoral liability to was metaphorical in relation to LGBT experiences; be ‘anti-gay’ appeared to take hold in both camps, where ‘what it is to live a secret’ was kept concealed. though this sentiment was clearly not shared How could a presidential candidate ever speak amongst many Trump supporters. Tis position from or for the margins? Obama whitened up, was superfcially welcoming. However, it contrib- Hilary manned up, and any future LGBT candidate uted to a re-presentation of the politics of sexuality will no doubt straighten up. Given this, what that hid ambiguity, denied critique and excluded meaningful contribution might this queering lens challenge to hetronormativity. In efect we had of the 2016 campaign ofer? Firstly, that whilst two versions of shallow inclusivity; queer cultural political calculation defnes candidate’s engage- worldviews remained of limits. ment with LGBT issues it will perpetuate the Specifcally I recall: construction of LGBT subjectivity within neolib- • Trump being ‘accepting’ of an NFL player eral forms of governance. Perform productively, kissing his boyfriend in public but complain- distance yourself from deviance and you too can ing on behalf of ‘rednecks’ about how hard it share our American dream. is for them to express their true thoughts on Secondly, it speaks to a sense of cultural this subject. corrosion. Bringing to mind Norbert Elias’s 1939 • Hilary complaining that gay rights had magnifcently articulated ‘Te Civilising Process’. moved faster than women’s rights in recent Trump’s campaign in particular was shameless, history (of course about half those identifying unrefective and deliberately immodest. Elias as LGBT are indeed women!). explained the process that resulted in widespread • Trump reminding us that he lives in New distaste of dirt, danger, and disregard for others; York and actually knows some gay people, Trump has legitimised bullying, bigotry and referring to them as ‘tremendous lovely ignorance. Narcissistic delight was manifest in people’… how sweet. ‘social cruelty’ directed at anybody in his way. An • Clinton asserting support for transgender almost medieval concept of gender relations and people who should not be held back from sexuality has thus reemerged in the public sphere. participating fully in ‘our great American Even if a Trump presidency difers qualitatively to society’. An act of welcoming them ‘inside’, the campaign, the de-civilising afects will remain. rather than confronting structures that 59 Love didn’t trump hate: Intolerance in the campaign and beyond

Donald Trump’s victory in the 2016 Presidential their country’s cultural centre of gravity toward Election defed more than the polls; it also chal- greater diversity. lenged feel-good assumptions about the inevitable If you are seeking glimmers of hope, you triumph of progressive democratic ideals. In his might argue that Trump’s bigotry did not run campaign for the White House in 2008, Barack deep; that it was just a performance for short-term Obama invoked the saying that “the arc of the electoral gain. Even if this is true of Trump the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice.” man, it overlooks the fact that his campaign— In 2016, Hillary Clinton asserted, “Love trumps hate.” contrary to some media portrayals—was not We now know such lines are more prayer run solo. Te movement included long-running, than prediction. In spite of a steady stream of organised hate groups, none of which are going hateful rhetoric and policy positions against to change their spots now that they are on the Dr Cherian George weaker sections of society—or, more chillingly, winning side. because of it—Trump scored major upsets in key Most of the alarm has focused on the endorse- Associate Professor, School states. How large a role hate played in Trump’s ments he received from David Duke and the Ku of Communication, Hong ascent is disputed. His detractors say it defned his Klux Klan. Tere are lesser-known, but more infu- Kong Baptist University. campaign; his defenders claim that it’s not really ential, merchants of hate that have systematically what he is about. and successfully inserted paranoid intolerance into He is the author of ‘Hate Te truth may lie in between. On the one US political discourse over the years. Anti-Muslim : Te Manufacture hand, the new leader of the free world is not sentiment, for example, was cultivated by a fringe of Religious Ofense and wedded to his positions. He is a lower order chau- group of misinformation experts who claimed its Treat to Democracy’ vinist than, say, Indian Prime Minister Narendra that Barack Obama is a Muslim, that American (MIT Press, 2016). On the Modi, who is committed to a Hindu nationalist Muslims want to introduce Islamic law or sharia, web at cheriangeorge.net. agenda bent on dismantling India’s post-independ- and that their mosques preach violent jihad. ence multicultural order. One of these think tanks was behind a Email: [email protected] On the other hand, Trump’s attacks on debunked study that Trump cited to justify his Mexicans and Muslims did amount to key election proposed ban on Muslims entering the country. promises. Tey were not throwaway remarks like Anti-Muslim ideologues were named as Trump those of former Singapore Prime Minister Lee advisors. Even if Trump the candidate was merely Kuan Yew. Lee never let political correctness curb putting on a show purely for campaign purposes, his indulgence for cultural and gender stereotypes, there is every risk that the bigotry espoused by his but he was also a defender of racial and religious aides and advisors will be institutionalised within equality—and would have eliminated without hes- the Trump Presidency. itation any would-be Modis and Trumps dabbling But if the 2016 campaign was full of warning in incendiary communal politics in Singapore. sirens, it also contained signs of hope. Te Immediate post-election analyses suggest pushback against hateful rhetoric was not insig- that Trump bore into an underground cavern nifcant, and the fact that Trump won the White of seething hostility against the governing class. House does not mean he won the argument or Post-election commentators say voters’ animosity silenced counterviews. toward the establishment is understandable, con- Te mainstream news media, for all their sidering how many Americans justifably feel let failures, regularly factchecked his wild claims and down and lef behind by policymakers. What this called him out on his invective. Civil rights or- does not explain, though, is why minority-bashing ganisations like the Southern Poverty Law Center had to be incorporated into an agenda for change. and the American Civil Liberties Union did their Tis is probably because more rational part. Te military and national security establish- responses were ideologically unpalatable. A social ment hinted at potential resistance against rabid democratic revolution, as championed by Bernie Trumpism engaging in all-out war against Muslims. Sanders and Elizabeth Warren on the lef, was Less noticed, but possibly more impactful anathema to the powerful 1 per cent that it aimed in the long run, is opposition from within the to dethrone, and even too unsettling for many Religious Right. Younger Christian Evangelicals among the 99 per cent that it was meant to help. It who will inherit the movement appear comforta- proved simpler to scapegoat minorities. ble with America’s growing diversity and ready to It is a tactic that has been used by demagogues resist against Trump’s amoral demagoguery. around the world for generations: construct stark Perhaps it is still the case that the arc of history divides between ‘us’ and ‘them’; blame them for will bend toward justice. our problems; and present oneself as the only Just not yet. leader clear-sighted enough to recognise them for what they are, and strong enough to deal with them. In the United States, such messages found a receptive audience among the many white Americans who are uneasy about the shif in 60 The blue-collar billionaire: explaining the Trump phenomenon

So, how did it happen? How did a self-aggrandizing telling people who felt they were at the bottom of the billionaire real estate magnate, reality TV star who heap their needs mattered. He was their blue-collar never held elected ofce capture the White House billionaire. But he also was a canny communicator, in 2016? How did a man who ofered a regular exploiting their anxieties for political gain. spate of verbal aggression while articulating a series Fourth, as cognitive scientifc research of grievances that resonated with disenfranchised indicates, Trump’s focus on how much workers had white voters, emerge as the 45th U.S. President? A lost, as a result (he claimed) of global trade deals, multitude of reasons, derived from social science immigration, and a ‘rigged’ economic system, research, explain the Trump phenomenon. propelled people to take a chance. Although one First, self-interest: the notion that working class might intuitively guess that blue-collar workers voters gravitated to Trump because he promised would be reluctant to risk it all, given all they had to allay their economic misfortune. While there is lost, research suggests individuals can experience Prof Richard M. Perlof evidence that some communities aficted by unem- more pain over losses than pleasure over gains, and ployment trended Trump, self-interest has trouble as a consequence were willing to gamble because Professor of explaining why many sectors not afected adversely Trump ofered the last hope that change could be Communication by economic forces, as well as individuals not wrested from a stagnant status quo. and Political Science touched by trade or immigration, favored Trump. A ffh factor, the most insidious, is racial at Cleveland State Self-interest, as political scientists know, is frequent- prejudice, exemplifed by evidence that voters most University, is author of ly overshadowed by symbolic politics. likely to support Trump in the primaries had a “Te Dynamics of Political Flowing from a symbolic politics framework history of voting for segregationists and seemed Communication.” is a second explanation of Trump’s popularity: his to forgive his morally culpable statements, such as law and order-based message that stirred concerns refusal to disavow support from a white nationalist Email: [email protected] about ‘them’, the generalized other, a thematic leader. We need to be careful in making inferences (harking back to Nixon’s 1968 campaign) that of cause and efect. Tere were many Trump voters seemed to require the stern punitive presence of who voted for Obama. Yet tribal identifcation with “the strict father,” as George Lakof has referred to ‘whiteness’ (augmented by a feeling that class-based it, accessing conservatives’ preference for a morality bias against whites, shown in afrmative action, is dominated by strength and loyalty to the majority insufciently discussed) swelled his ranks. in-group: an America that enforces immigration Sixth, the Trump brand, showcased across the laws and bars Muslims from entering the U.S. country with glitter and panache, linked with the Tird, and more signifcantly, Trump adapted ability to execute economic success, appealed to time-honored populism to ft the present histor- some Americans, who are more willing to forgive ical moment, cleverly, compassionately – some the ethical lapses of private sector executives (“it’s would say exploitatively – calling on time-honored business”) than those committed by political working class concerns with trade and immigra- leaders, from whom more is expected, and whose tion, packing them into a coherent populist frame ethical scrapes (use of a private email server) are (a la Brexit) that emphasized how elites exploited viewed as more metaphysically consequential than workers for their own beneft in foolhardy trade stifng contractors. deals that took jobs away from workers, as well Seventh, he exuded credibility. Although as job-crushing illegal immigration that put fact-checks showed he told more falsehoods than Americans at the mercy of ‘criminal aliens’. Clinton, he was perceived to be more trustworthy His ‘Make America Great Again’ served as because he spoke boisterously and with much a condensational symbol that called to mind confdence (which research has shown enhances recollections of past glories, perceived indignities, ), in contrast to Clinton’s seemingly dis- projected anger at presumed unfairly-achieved at- ingenuous, careful speech, all of which congealed tainments of other groups, and a painful, poignant with the narrative media had woven for years reminder that America was not ‘good’ or ‘great’ about her lack of transparency, some parts rooted anymore, but could be if Trump were elected. Te in her personality, others in gender bias. facts on trade, immigration and crime did not Eighth, the news, hungering for ratings, gave comport with his rhetoric (they were fat-out false), Trump immense press, signifcantly more than but his frame captured an emotional truth. other candidates. Te exposure helped legitimize Trump’s narrative resonated with the white his candidacy when it was perceived as a circus working class because it addressed the powerless- performance, helping to build his campaign. ness and frustration many workers felt in the midst Finally, Clinton, for all her experience, failed of crushing technological and economic change, to develop a believable brand image. She did not experienced tangibly in communities facing forge a connection, nor campaign heavily, with joblessness and attendant social decay, manifest in working class whites ambivalent about Trump, thus drug addiction and marital strife. He tapped into gifing to Trump votes she might have captured. In real fears Americans had, ofering policy alterna- the abyss of her missteps was borne the ultimate tives that Republican elites had conveniently elided, media-age president. 61 Belonging, racism and white backlash in the 2016 US Presidential Election

Donald Trump’s victory in the 2016 presidential through the Tea Party movement with its links to election has been attributed to disafection among the Klu Klux Klan and other far right groups. Teir the American populace and its disengagement mission statement to ‘take our country back’ (from with the US political system, leading to a seismic non-Whites presumably), resonated throughout shif towards populism. However, in common with the Trump campaign. Brexit, dominant discourses in Trump’s campaign Let us not forget Trump’s ‘promise’ to ban centred on issues around belonging and identity Muslims from entry to the US, increase surveil- with clearly marked boundaries of inclusion lance of them and create a national register – nor and exclusion. his reference to Mexican immigrants as ‘rapists’ As Matthew Hughey argued in 2012, a and ‘criminals’. hierarchy of Whiteness determines levels of Bruce Bartlett argues that Trump’s political Dr Deborah Gabriel belonging and citizenship in America, with Whites success can be attributed to his dexterity in feeding enjoying a privileged status. Te othering of non- White perceptions of ‘reverse racism’ – the belief Founder and Chief Whites echoed throughout the Trump campaign – that Whites are more racially disadvantaged than Executive of Black which some argue is the key to his political success. people of colour – who are also perceived as British Academics, and However, Hilary Clinton marginally won a responsible for their ‘discrimination’. Te growth Lecturer in Marketing greater share of votes than Trump – despite his of the non-White population in the US has driven presidential win. According to Pew Research more Whites to the Republican party, to the point Communications at Center (PRC), Clinton received 59.6m votes, where it has become a racial interest group that Bournemouth University compared to Trump’s 59.4m. Trump’s victory was exists to protect and maintain White supremacy, secured through a larger number of Electoral with Trump at its helm. Email: dgabriel@bournemouth. ac.uk College votes. Cyberpsychologist Mary Aiken describes Former Ohio State Senator Nina Turner, Trump as ‘a troll who has jumped of the internet stated in a CNN interview earlier this year, that and into the real world’, leading to a cyber-migra- America was built on racism and sexism where the tion of extreme racism that encourages people to all-White ‘founding fathers’ drafed the US Consti- act on their racist beliefs. Te increase in racial tution that excluded Blacks, since they were legally abuse and violence towards people of colour defned as 3/5ths of a human being, or mere chattel post-election, suggests that America is on a to be owned and enslaved by Whites. dangerous path. Slavery is the reason the Electoral College But there is a glimmer of hope that this path voting system was established under the 12th is a temporary one. First is the reality that while amendment in 1787 - to protect slave states that America is possibly more racially divided than had more slaves than free men who were eligible ever, almost 60 million Americans voted against to vote. Te 12th Amendment permitted the South Trump. Voter turnout was the lowest in 20 years, it to include slaves in its electoral count, giving the is argued, because neither Trump nor Clinton were region an advantage over the north, that would regarded as progressive candidates. Te personal- otherwise outnumber the south in eligible free voters. ised, vitriolic, debates between Trump and Clinton Te Democrat and Republican parties have took American politics to an all-time low. always been racially divided. Troughout the However, mainstream America is already recent history of presidential elections, 90 per looking for a future beyond Trump and the most cent of African Americans have voted for the popular person in politics right now according to a Democrats, while most Whites have voted Repub- WSJ/NBC poll on 9 November is former First Lady lican. In last week’s Presidential Election, 58% of Michelle Obama. Her momentous speech in the Whites voted for Trump, while 65% of Hispanics wake of the sexual abuse revelations about Trump, and 88% of African Americans voted for Clinton (PRC). addressed both raced and gendered inequalities in While people of colour in the US overwhelm- a manner that promotes cultural democracy and ingly voted Democrat, Clinton was unable to unites a divided nation around a common humanity. replicate the spectacular Democrat gains in the Despite the calls for Michelle Obama to run 2012 Presidential campaign. Back then 71% of for president in 2020, as the Guardian reports Hispanics voted for Obama, along with 93% of on 11 November, this is most unlikely. But the African Americans (PRC). But in 2016, notwith- popularity of Michelle Obama is the clearest standing her general unpopularity with American indication that progressive politics can be a reality voters - Clinton had to contend with a forceful again, when the right candidate delivers the right White backlash. message. Te question now is, if not Michelle As Mathew Hughey explained, the recent Obama, then who? White backlash can be traced back to 2008 when Barack Obama became the frst Black president of the US. It found expression through the public questioning of Obama’s American nationality legit- imised through mainstream media coverage, and 62 The theology of American exceptionalism

Every four years America has a national revival, that Trump supporters were fearful of the where candidates traverse the nation preaching nation’s racial and religious diversifcation. Tese about what it means to be American and the Americans saw the dwindling presence of Whites nation’s future. While these candidates’ sermons and Christians as corrupting the nation’s soul. may difer, they agree that the US is exceptional; it Tis phenomenon of national soul cleansing should lead the world. Commonly, they justify this is not limited to the United States. Te United esteemed image of the nation by arguing that its Kingdom’s vote to leave the exalted status is a divine endowment. along with other European nations pushing back Te theology of American exceptionalism against racial and religious diversity demonstrates has its origins in the rhetoric of the New England that citizens in western industrialized nations feel Puritans who viewed their development in threatened by globalization. America as divine will. John Winthrop famously Te American case is unique because of the Dr Eric McDaniel argued that America is a “City upon a hill” that had continued insistence that the nation’s destiny gained God’s favor. However, these divine blessings is divinely inspired. Furthermore, American Associate Professor are not unconditional, America’s moral direction is religious and racial identity are tightly inter- in the Department of under constant judgement. Te nation is always at twined. Te highly segregated nature of America’s Government, University of risk of losing its heavenly grace if it violates God’s churches informs us that religious similarities Texas, Austin specialising will. Tis theology has buttressed our defnition cannot overcome racial dissimilarities. Because in race, religion and of America and dictated its behavior. Recognizing of this, White Americans perceive an assault on politics. He is author of the power of the theology of American exception- the nation’s religious identity as an attack on their Politics in the Pews: Te alism, political leaders create their version of the racial identity. Political Mobilization of American gospel within this framework. Mr. Trump’s tapped into these fears and Black Churches During the 2016 presidential election, Hillary crafed a gospel that converted these citizens from Clinton evangelized that staying course would passive to active. His speeches reassure them that Email: [email protected]. ensure divine blessings. Conversely, Donald Trump they will be led out of the wilderness of racial and edu preached that the nation had lost its divine favor. religious diversity. By advocating stricter immigra- Much like the rhetoric of the “Lost Cause”, a theme tion policies, instilling law and order in minority articulated by former Confederates in response communities, and exorcising incompetent and to their defeat by the Union, Mr. Trump argued corrupt politicians, he calls for returning control of that incompetent and corrupt leadership caused the nation to those truly intended to be American. the nation to lose its glory. Specifcally, Mr. Trump Much like the southern leaders who emerged afer tapped into an American gospel which focused Reconstruction, his gospel promises national and on purity and called for the nation to rid itself global redemption. of infdels and heretics. Political correctness and Even with the success of Mr. Trump’s great diversity had stripped the rightful leaders of the revival, his American gospel is in a struggle nation from their prominence and taken the nation with several others. Just as the gospel of slavery of its divine path. For the nation to re-ascend competed with the gospel of abolition and the in the divine hierarchy, it must reverse its course gospel of segregation competed with the gospel of action, and only he could save the nation’s of racial equality, the gospel of Trump will not go corrupted soul. unchallenged. His combatants will be those who Unlike past presidential candidates, who view diversity and protecting the marginalized as used implicit language, Mr. Trump was overt. In a divine edict. Individuals, such as Rev. William announcing his candidacy, he painted Mexican Barber and his Moral Mondays movement, will immigrants as the infdels who tainted the nation’s be tasked with converting the nation to this soul with their immoral behavior. Later he argued counter gospel. Soon we will see the efects of Mr. that the American Muslim community was Trump’s great revival through policy and citizen actively subverting the nation from its divine path. action. Further, we will see the gospels crafed in While Hillary Clinton sermonized that America’s response. But no matter what gospel is presented, blessings come from religious and racial diversity, it will be articulated in the theology of American he argued diversity brought in heretics that must exceptionalism. be expunged. Only through this purge could the nation return to its divinely dictated path. Many questioned the sincerity of this rhetoric and attempted to advance a counter gospel. One need only look at the rhetoric of religious and political leaders at the Democratic National Convention to see the counter gospel in action. However, the outcome of the election demonstrates that Mr. Trump’s gospel is what resonated with the American public. Numerous studies demonstrate 63 Organizing in Trump’s America: the perspective of the disability community

Te 2016 Presidential election was far from campaigned tirelessly to encourage voter regis- ordinary for minorities in America. Following tration among people with disabilities, including eight years of Obama administration, which placed through a targeted social media outreach. On the a great deal of emphasis of inclusivity and empow- other hand, young disabled activists used Facebook erment for under-represented groups, the 2016 and Twitter to launch the #CripTeVote campaign, campaign was characterized by a series of infam- designed to engage both voters with disabilities matory statements about women, African-Ameri- and candidates in discussions about disability-re- cans, immigrants, refugees, Muslims, and persons lated issues. Tis was an innovative and successful with disabilities by Republican nominee Donald grassroots initiative driven by a new and emerging Trump. In one particularly controversial episode, generation of disabled leaders who are familiar Trump openly mocked a disabled reporter and comfortable with social media technologies, Dr Filippo Trevisan during a campaign rally in South Carolina on 24 which they seem eager to use to further their November 2015. Tis moment was shared instantly advocacy goals. Filippo Trevisan is by thousands of people on social media and later On November 8, Donald Trump won the Assistant Professor in the incorporated in a powerful TV ad by the Hillary presidential election and will lead the US for the School of Communication Clinton campaign. At one point, opinion polls next four years. Tis surprise result has already and Deputy Director of identifed this episode as Trump’s “worst ofense” generated a high level of concern in the American during the course of the entire election campaign. disability community, with prominent advocates the Institute on Disability Given the level of visibility that disability issues pleading with the incoming administration to and Public Policy at achieved in this election, it is useful to review the protect the rights of persons with disabilities. American University in response of the disability community, the role of While it would be premature to speculate about Washington, DC. social media in mobilizing the disabled vote, and what the future may hold for American with ofer some insights into what the future may hold disabilities under a Trump presidency, the con- Email: [email protected] for grassroots disability organizing under a ditions seem right for a new surge in disability Trump presidency. rights supported by social and mobile Te disability community received an media. As the experience of the welfare reform in unprecedented amount of attention in the 2016 the UK between 2010-12 taught us, crisis can be election. Te diference between the two major a powerful catalyst for change and mobilization party campaigns in this area could not have been revival among large and diverse groups such as greater. While the controversial episode cited the disability community. American disability above was the only instance in which the Trump rights advocates are preparing themselves to face a campaign ‘engaged’ with disability issues, Hillary Republican White House and Congress, and soon a Clinton proposed several policy initiatives on conservative-majority Supreme Court. Obamacare issues directly relevant to Americans with disabil- and its provisions for people with pre-existing ities and their families. Clinton’s website included health conditions may be on the line. Medicaid specifc pages dedicated to disability and health- entitlements are likely to be threatened. It seems care issues, assistance programs such as Medicaid that innovative organizing eforts for the disability and the Afordable Care Act (colloquially known as community did not stop on polling day, but instead ‘Obamacare’), mental health, Alzheimer’s disease, will become ever more important once the dust has and disabled veterans. Te democratic convention settled over the election result. in Philadelphia featured several speakers with disabilities. Clinton herself gave a major speech on disability policy on 21 September. Although this was described by some news outlets as an ‘unusual push’ for a presidential candidate, it stood as testimony to the growing infuence of a non-tra- ditional constituency that, according to recent estimates, now includes 35.4 million registered US voters. In a close election such as this one, it was strategic for Clinton to connect with the disability community, which is much more politically diverse and not guaranteed to vote Democratic than many assume. Americans with disabilities were no spectators in the 2016 campaign and instead became involved directly in a wide range of initiatives to mobilize their peers. On the one hand, established disability rights organizations such as the American Associ- ation of People with Disabilities (AAPD) and the National Council on Independent Living (NCIL) 64 Why are the German-Americans Trump’s most loyal supporters?

German-Americans paved Trumps road into few German-Americans resumed afer decades the White House -- right through the rural of hibernating a public articulation of their and deindustrialized landscapes of Wisconsin, heritage. However, those who do connected to Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. When talking their heritage, have developed practices that bear about ethnicity and immigration background, little resemblance with what life looked like during we frequently use labels such as African-Amer- the migration period. Cultural heritage events ican, Asian-American, Italian-American and construct a coarse defnition of Germanness that is Mexican-American. But despite the fact that centered around Beer, Bratwurst, and Lederhosen currently about 46 Million Americans claim and silences the liberal and progressive ideas and German ancestry and therefore constitute the actions of many ancestors. largest national heritage group in the United Te shif from liberal to conservative views States, one hardly ever encounters the term Ger- can also be attributed to occupational patterns Dr Per Urlaub man-American. Who are the German-Americans, typical among German immigrants. Agriculture and why did they support Donald Trump? and entrepreneurial crafsmanship generated Associate Professor at the wealth that sustained families and communities for Department of Germanic Who are the German-Americans? more than a century until globalization under- Studies at the University of Millions of Germans arrived in the United States mined the economic sustainability of family farms Texas at Austin, USA between 1850 and 1890. Many settled in the Great and domestic manufacturing. Tose who could, Lakes Region. As farmers and skilled workers lef their rural communities and deindustrialized Email: [email protected] they transformed the mid-western wilderness and cities. Tose who remained sufered twofold as fueled the industrialization with manpower and economic hardship coincided with the end of entrepreneurial spirit. Many German-Americans the lifestyle many German-Americans shared. were freethinkers, fghting against slavery and for Steady decline, the collapse of communal struc- women’s sufrage. Tey founded newspapers and tures, and the loss of a rich cultural heritage that labor unions. Socialist mayors Emil Seidel and provided a sense of being, made people receptive Frank Zeidler dominated Milwaukee politics in for Trump’s anti-establishment gestures and his the frst half of the 20th century. So, how did a xenophobic messages. mostly progressive immigrant group that shaped the progressive era and set the stage for liberalism German-Americans are not just the ‘White Vote’ turn conservative? Analyzing the electoral patterns in the Great Lakes Region merely in terms of a ‘whitelash’ Te German-American Trump Connection underlines the helplessness of political commen- David Huenlich Afer having initially claimed to be of Swed- tators in the eforts to explain the inaccuracy of ish-American ancestry, Donald Trump later polls, predictions, and probabilities. Despite the acknowledged his paternal grandfather’s birth- fact that political analysts routinely acknowledge PhD candidate in the place as Kallstadt, located in what had been the diversity within the Hispanic vote and diferenti- Department of Germanic Kingdom of Bavaria in the 19th century. However, ate between, for example, Mexican-Americans in Studies at the University of arguing that German-Americans were attracted to Texas, Cuban-American in Florida, and Puerto Texas at Austin, USA the president-elect based on his German-Ameri- Ricans in New York, they treat the ‘white vote’ as can heritage is missing the point. Te pro-Trump one monolithic block. Teir models ignore specifc Email: david.huenlich@ googlemail.com swing vote occurred in states that had been solidly voting behaviors and ideological patterns that are blue for a generation. Tis region, formerly known particular to German-Americans and – for that as the Blue-State Firewall, correlates with a high matter -- any other national heritage group that is concentration of German immigrant settlements in ‘ethnical- the 19th century as the census map shows. ly invisible’ in mainstream America. An undiferentiated perception on the Progressive German Immigrants turned Con- ‘white vote’ ignores the complex histories and the servative German-Americans super-diversity among Caucasian Americans. Today’s descendants of German immigrants in Instead, pollsters and pundits must pay fne- the American Midwest have lost an authentic link grained attention to migration experiences to the cultural heritage of their forefathers. Tis and voting motives of white Americans. Tey may happened through rapid assimilation, partly to realize that their predictions will become avoid stigmatization in the wake of two World more accurate, if they analyze voters of European Wars. German-Americans stopped using their descent with a higher level of nuance. We may be language. Teir newspapers disappeared. Tey in for many surprises - and be less surprised on anglicized their names to become more American election night. more quickly than any other European immigrant population. Assimilation to conservativism was part of this process. Indiferent towards their heritage, 65 5 Overseas Perspectives Media coverage of the US election in Arabic, Chinese, and Russian media

Te US Presidential election typically draws signif- to the agreement. icant interest from overseas, both among allies, like Afer the election, Chinese media focused Germany or the UK, and among geopolitical rivals, on the challenges that Trump would face as a such as Russia and the People’s Republic of China. political novice and in repairing the damage done Tere are multiple reasons for this, including the to his reputation and to the established political outsized impact of US economic, political, and parties. Xinhua, China’s main news agency, ran an cultural strengths. But beyond the obvious interest extensive article detailing the difculties Trump in how presidential policies might impact relations would have in undoing the damage of his language or interests of other countries, there are conse- during the campaign, which helped to lead to quences for how nations view US political values social disintegration and disarray. and processes as well. Russia’s involvement in the election was Given the obvious geopolitical tensions related extraordinary, both from the fears that Russia was Prof Randolph Kluver to China, Russia, and the Arab world during the actively seeking to help Trump win, as well as the campaign, we studied media coverage in each of seeming mutual respect of Trump with Vladimir Professor of Communication those regions to determine the dominant narrative Putin. Russian media during the campaign focused at Texas A&M University, about the election, and initial responses to the on Trump’s business acumen, his strong leadership where oversees a research victory of Donald Trump from each country. We skills, and his willingness to pull away from NATO. group utilizing the Media incorporated analysis of multiple news sources, tri- Trump was portrayed as a ‘reasonable’ candidate, Monitoring System, angulating between ofcial or government-aligned and contrasted sharply with Clinton, which which harvests foreign news sources, oppositional or independent news Russian media tied to the numerous conficts over language media content sites, and other sites without express political Russian engagement in Syria, the Ukraine, and in broadcast, web, and agenda, such as economics or business news sites. elsewhere. During the campaign, Arabic media expressed Afer the election, there was obvious satisfac- social media formats. He concern over both candidates, but especially tion with Trump’s election, with wide reports of the has published widely on Trump. His comments regarding potential bans on membership of the Duma breaking into applause political communication, Muslims entering the United States were especial- once Trump’s victory was announced. An article new media studies, and ly troubling throughout the region. Clinton was in the Moskovskij Komsomolets, a Moscow-based global media. largely covered as a more ‘responsible’ candidate, daily, argued that Trump was like Gorbachev, but her association with Obama-era policies revealing the internal fractures and weaknesses of Email: [email protected] regarding non-intervention in the Syrian civil war what seemed like a strong and prosperous country. and the rise of ISIL was also covered extensively. What was truly surprising about the Russian Afer the election, reporting on the outcome coverage was the number of articles reprinted from largely followed the narratives in major US news Western press outlets, such as the New York Times, outlets that Trump won because of economic the Independent, and other outlets, which argued concerns, although some articles appeared that that a Trump victory meant vindication for Russia. seemed to indicate that a Trump victory would One such piece, which originated in the Daily lesson Jewish infuence on US politics. Qatar’s Al Beast, published by Inopressa, was entitled “Now it Jazeera ran an extensive story on Trump’s victory, is Putin’s world.” focusing especially on the role of the US media. We found that global press coverage of the Te broadcaster cast Trump’s victory as a victory election was widespread and, although it took cues over US media, which had largely conspired to from prominent US outlets, shaped the coverage make sure that Clinton would win the race. to refect local or national concerns. Tese outlets During the campaign period, Chinese media reported on all of the scandals covered in the US also covered the election prominently, focusing press, but with an additional overlay of where US especially on Trump’s business experience and his ties and relationships with the various countries outsider status to the political process. Although would go under the next president. By and large, many Chinese on social media were very support- the coverage also became a way to criticize both ive of Trump, as an outsider and as an opponent US political values and geopolitical strength. Te of corruption, the main media outlets focused scandals of the election were used to illustrate more on Trump’s criticisms of China as a currency the defciencies of US democratic practice, and manipulator, and warned that he might create a the outcome of the election was used to show the trade war with China. A number of Chinese media inherent contradictions and weaknesses of US society. outlets repeated a claim that such a trade war would cost 5 million US jobs. Tese media outlets, however, refrained from showing an outright preference, usually masking criticism by citing the words of US academics or media fgures. As the Trans Pacifc Partnership is largely seen in China as an attempt to ‘contain’ China geopolitically, there was favorable coverage of Trump’s opposition 67 US Presidential Campaign-2016 in a metaphorical mirror of the Russian media

We live by metaphors. Tey help us understand as pig in a poke, a queen of chaos, a former teacher the world around us, form opinions, represent the whom you still hate even being an adult. Her sharp ideas cognized and digested. Many researchers rhetoric was responsible for picturing Hillary as a argue that metaphors have always been the major road roller, which devours everything in its path. way to conceptualize, categorize, and organize She was even compared to a Russian fairy-tale human experience. What is more important, these character of Baba-Yaga, an old witch that steals, metaphors do not only shape our perception of the cooks, and eats her victims, usually children. reality, but they also defne the way we think and However, in many papers the authors were trying act. People behind the media know that very well to explain this kind of behavior and justify Hillary and use metaphors as a powerful tool of persua- by using a metaphor of an honours student, a sion used to manipulate public opinion. Tus, the perfectionist who always struggles to be the frst Evgeniya Malenova media becomes a kind of metaphorical mirror, on in everything. the one hand, refecting public views and experi- As for Donald Trump, his metaphorical Candidate of Philological ences, on the other hand, creating a certain attitude refection was much more vivid and diverse. On Sciences, Associate towards some key problems and events. the one hand, he was pictured as a narcissist who Professor at F.M. Every major development that happens in the loves himself and is afraid to ‘loose face’, a Ko- Dostoyevsky Omsk State world today gets its unique refection in this meta- shei-the Immortal – a famous Russian fairy-tale University, Omsk, Russia phorical mirror. Te US presidential campaign was character, who is extremely rich and spends all his not an exception. Russian media, as well as people time counting his treasures. On the other hand, Email: [email protected] all over Russia, were monitoring the situation many negative metaphors connected with Donald with the United States presidential election of Trump were used in a positive way, for example, he 2016. Tis heightened interest in the results of the was seen as a devil in a good way because he can campaign is totally understandable: the outcome convince anyone of anything. It is interesting, but of the elections would have dramatically infu- the authors use mostly zoomorphic metaphors to enced the relationships between Russia and the describe Donald Trump and his campaign. He was United States. So many people, despite not usually ofen called a notorious and stubborn bull, putting taking a keen interest in politics, were tracking the the heat on his campaign, a rooster, who is loud, news, reading and discussing diferent prognoses, provoking and battailous, a red stallion, who is making assumptions and forecasts. So how was ready to win the American rodeo. Te media also this campaign and the candidates refected in the compared him to a Russian politician Vladimir metaphorical mirror of the Russian media? Zhirinovsky, an outspoken party leader in Russia’s Te whole campaign was referred to as an parliament, who is, in his turn, sometimes adventure TV-series, because everything happened compared to Donald Trump. very quickly, with many sensational revelations, Nevertheless, let us hope that all these images and ended in an unexpected way. People were quite will be perceived merely as refections in the anxious to watch the next episode of this nail-bit- mirror. Are they true or distorted? Can Russians ing sequel, waiting for its denouement. Sometimes really judge a leader upon these metaphorical the campaign was perceived as a circus, where refections? Only time will tell their accuracy. each candidate, as a magician, pulled a new rabbit Tough never forget that actions make the person, out of his or her hat. An interesting metaphor was not his or her refection in the mirror. used by Russian Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Maria Zakharova, who metaphorically called the US presidential election “a tango of three”, because each time the candidates were talking to the elec- torate they couldn’t help but mention Russia and Vladimir Putin. Talking about the Democrat and Republi- can presidential candidates, Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump, their metaphorical portrayals, created by the Russian media, were extremely con- tradictory. On the one hand, Hillary Clinton was referred to as a lady, very stylish and self-assured, a role model for young and ambitious women who know what they want and how they can get it. She was also compared with a brood hen that takes care of her nation, especially children and women. On the other hand, her mixed feelings about Russia and open criticism of Vladimir Putin led to the formation of a negative metaphorical image in the Russian media. Hillary Clinton was portrayed 68 The Greek perspective

For many years, party identifcation was an Te majority of parties also favoured the demo- intrinsic part of the social identity for the majority cratic candidate, while the republican candidate of Greek citizens, which identifed themselves was supported by the extreme-right party, Golden as supporters of the centre-right party New Dawn, and AN.EL.. Panos Kammenos, the leader Democracy or of the centre-lef party, PASOK. of AN.EL. and Greek minister of defence, was one Te last few years, as Greece struggled with the of the frst Greek politicians that congratulated the economic crisis and the country’s own identity, the new President-elect via Twitter. He is, afer all, an citizens turned their backs on the political estab- avid social media user and has been criticised for lishment that has been formed and in January 2015 many of his posts in the past. elected a new prime minister, who has promised Minutes afer the frst results were published them they would soon return to the ‘good old days’ and it was obvious that Donald Trump would of prosperity. be the new President of the US, the Greek Eleni Kioumi Te afermath of that election is well known. public seemed surprised but not shocked. At Te new prime minister and his party, SYRIZA that moment, social media users focused on the PhD Candidate, formed a coalition with a small right-wing party, common characteristics of the President-elect with Department of AN.EL., to ensure the parliamentary majority. the Greek Prime Minister and emphasised their Journalism & Mass Tat was followed by six months of govern- shared tendency for populism and rhetoric about Communication, ment negotiations with the EU, the referendum, the ‘good people’ who need to against the the new bailout programme and new elections governing and corrupt elites. In the following days Aristotle University of in September 2015, with the same two parties the interest focused on the common characteristics Tessaloniki. Her forming a government. of the two men and the efects of the new elected research focuses on Te Greek public has been very vocal US government on the Greek interests. Presi- political communication throughout this period expressing a wide range dent-elect Donald Trump was no longer portrayed and media psychology, of emotions in social media. It has been widely as being that bad, but as a man that values his intergroup recognised, and even former political allies of the Greek-American supporters and advisors. communication and current government have admitted, that social For many Greek social media users, the results media have been an integral part of the promotion of the British E.U. referendum and the US elections of the ruling party’s positions. For the past year, gave them a sense of vindication. In their opinion, Email: [email protected] new political issues arise every day and it seems other nations make the same mistakes and even that new party dynamics are starting to develop worse decisions than them. Political partisanship and everything is shared and commented on in Greece is more fuid than ever and the new online by everyone. Even though the digital divide political identity of the Greek citizens seems to is still high in Greece compared to other E.U. shif the focus from parties to ideologies and countries, social media are an important platform specifcally, to those who are against and those who for information, especially since traditional Greek support populism. media are not considered trustworthy and impartial. In the past few months, Greek social media users were commenting on the primaries and the presidential candidacies but it was the last few weeks before the elections that almost every single Greek Facebook user seemed to make a prediction on their outcome. A few days before the US election, the Greek public’s attention was side-tracked by a government reshufe and the appointment of a very young, well-presented woman as new minister of labour, social security & social solidarity. Despite that, one day before the election’s result, almost all Greek Facebook users had shared a thought, a meme, a photo, an article about the US presidential candidates. It is quite interesting that especially before the elections, the majority of these people both from the centre-right and centre-lef expressed their support for Hillary Clinton; others (that previously supported Bernie Sanders) were sceptical about the democratic candidate but would still consider her as the lesser of two evils; then, there were the Trump enthusi- asts (there is even a Facebook group created by his Greek supporters) who related themselves with his anti-establishment and anti-immigration rhetoric. 69 The richest Slovenian son-in-law: the Slovenian perspective

Presidential elections in United States are always be hazardous due to his lack of predictability in in public eye, even in small and rather distant international relations, where competences of the countries, such as Slovenia. However, in the case US president are highest. In the same time Melania of 2016 US presidential election, Slovenian interest entered the spotlight once again, with the speech is much more personal. Republican candidate in Philadelphia. Which was again proved she could Donald Trump is currently married to a Slovenian not perform appropriately as a frst lady. She was wife; (nee Melanija Knavs and unable to improve her strongly Slavic English in renamed to Melania Knauss). Te interest in the course of 20 years (despite analysis showing Trump in Slovenian media and public exists since her broken English is rather sign of her discomfort the fact that Melania Knavs married what was a than anything else). symbol of an American success story. Slovenian Afer her constant glorifcation of the USA Dr Uroš Pinterič media were following Trump successes as well as as the promised land she became subject of fun, failures due to this marriage. In this manner, the not only in US talk shows, but also among the Associate Professor in the frst reaction to Trump’s announcement he was Slovenian public. Her success became disgrace and Faculty of organization running for the US presidency was concentrated Slovenian media (regardless of political prefer- studies in Novo mesto and on the fact that Slovenia might contribute a frst ences) concentrated on the usual US presiden- was awarded a PhD in lady for the frst time in the American history. tial election reporting. It is possible to gain the With the development of the Republican primaries impression that Slovenia excluded Melania due to political science at Faculty optimism was increasing as well as the interest, not her failure to present herself as a smart, adaptable of Social Sciences at only in the development of the campaign as well and virtuous woman as well as due to her publicly University of Ljubljana as in the reality. Te Slovenian community in the reported rejection of Slovenian roots. Trump USA was strongly supportive towards the idea of descended from richest Slovenian son-in-law to Email: [email protected] a Slovenian frst lady (even when they were more just another Republican presidential candidate, supportive to the Democratic party). who can potentially harm unstable world peace, for With the Republican convention approaching which the USA are predominantly held responsible and attempts of personal discreditation, Melania in critical circles of Slovenian intellectual elite. started to lose popularity in Slovenia. Naked Te election day brought new surprises, photos were rather positively accepted, since it was proving all analytics, certain Clinton’ victory as known that her career was in modelling. However, granted, wrong. Slovenian media reported the the confusion with her education (with no ofcial electoral result with enthusiasm and reset the record publicly available) and her long-term reporting on Melania as the success story of a reported refusal of Slovenia and the Slovenian Slovenian woman who was to become the next frst language raised negative sentiments. Her pla- lady. Despite a certain level of (rather unjustifed) giarized speech at the convention, together with pride, Slovenia will be much more afected by the poor performance in English made her a subject American policies, than by the fact that frst lady of fun, not only in American but also among the has Slovenian roots (which she misused in her Slovenian public, which started to lean towards the political campaign, rejecting her fatherland and position that her performances could be consid- mother tongue). Media now speculate on whether ered harmful for the image of Slovenia in the world. Trump will perform well as President; Slovenia Trump’s sexual scandal, put Melania in the media are equally concerned if Melania is able to spotlight again. Her defence of her husband was leave any meaningful impression as frst lady. reported predominantly as a subject of amusement, due to her language abilities as well as her obviously naive responses. Her story of success in the US became a story of the ‘gold-digger’ who caught a rich man. At the same time, occasional appearances of Ivanka Trump was seen as indi- cating that the actual frst lady will be Ivanka, due to her ability to perform efectively in public. Slovenian analysts declared the political death of Trump, and Melania was considered as irrelevant or even part of the problem, since she was unable to efectively support her man. Hence interest in the US presidential campaign reduced. However, Žižek supported the election of Trump as a way to initiate political change (similar to Brexit, which is considered a demand for a diferent politics and not necessary actual exit from the EU). Slovenian analysts/scientists predominantly agree that Trump’s election would 70 Trying to avoid Trump: A Canadian experience

Unlike other contributors, I tried to avoid media Election Day neared, the Canadian Television exposure to the 2016 US election campaign. My Network’s news channel and website featured a reasoning for this unstructured social experiment? digital countdown. Te St. John’s chapter of Equal I was ineligible to vote, I live in , I study Voice, an organization that seeks to elect Canadian Canadian politics, I am busy. I would loosely women, hosted an election night event. On the simulate the foating voters who pay little attention morning of November 9, St. John’s CBC radio to politics, and who take information shortcuts to uncharacteristically held a local call-in show about form basic impressions about leaders. My non-rep- the results. resentative sample of one constitutes something As with Ford, the tone of Canadian news of a control to illustrate the omnipresence of the and the public sphere was a mixture of perplex- campaign and captivation with the demagoguery ity, anxiety, morbid fascination and, above all, of Donald Trump. classism. Pollsters relayed that Canadians over- Dr Alex Marland I live in North America’s easternmost city, St. whelmingly preferred Hillary Clinton. Americans John’s. I also spend time in a tiny rural community, would want to relocate to Canada in the event of Associate Professor population 110 on Sundays before the church a Trump victory and realtors were on standby. A of Political Science at closed down. My media consumption was a strict website urged citizens to move to Cape Breton, an Memorial University of diet of small portions of Canadian news television, island in Atlantic Canada. Afer the vote was in, Newfoundland and local Newfoundland radio, and Canadian news the Canadian immigration website crashed. Tere author of Brand websites and email listserves. I watched bits of the is both smugness and relief about Canada being Command: Canadian debates, and had some brief exposure to American led by Justin Trudeau, the dashing Liberal prime Politics and Democracy networks ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox and CNN. I did minister. Meanwhile, Conservative Party leader- not use social media or a smartphone, and avoided ship contestant Kellie Leitch is grabbing headlines in the Age of Message conversation with others about the topic. by evoking Trump as she rallies against Canadian Control (UBC Press, 2016) Here are my observations as I tried to avoid Trump. elites and calls for immigrants to be screened for Email: [email protected] During the primaries, Trump’s use of Canadian values. Instagram showed how an inexpensive controlled Why were so many Canadians caught up in mechanism can build a political brand. His posts the American election? Te globalization of news were information subsidies for the global media and communications technology is one expla- – free content that is accessible and easy to reuse. nation. Beat reporters have become multitaskers Provocative remarks and lewd behaviour fed an operating in a digital-frst, mobile-frst environ- appetite for dramatic storytelling. Critics’ ensuing ment. In Newfoundland newsrooms, journalists outrage was delicious theatre of heroes and villains. stare at computer screens and smartphones, Forget public policy: this was a never-ending story chasing whatever is trending on social media. arc involving public personas, with audiences Content comes in from Toronto and digital infor- drawn to part soap opera, part sports contest. mation subsidies constitute clickbait. Canadian As Trump’s celebrity and underdog story grew, coverage of American politics constricted American politics became on an attention that might otherwise have been directed international scale. By the time he accepted the Re- at resolving local issues, or perhaps Hurricane publican nomination, Canadian news had spotted Matthew which in early October caused mass a ratings winner, analogous to the escapades of Rob destruction and deaths in Haiti. Ford, Toronto’s infamous crack-smoking mayor My take-away is that a vote for Trump was (on this, see Duncan Koerber’s 2014 article about likely a vote against elites concentrated in urban crisis communication in the Canadian Journal of centres who are perceived as promoting metro- Communication). It became impossible to avoid politan righteousness and who frown upon rural Trump because everyone wanted to talk about the citizens. Social activists’ moral condemnation of shocking behaviour of a populist who eschews a plain-speaking populist stirred anger against an conventional wisdom. establishment seen to be advancing a politically It was soon a norm to evoke Trump in every correct orthodoxy. More broadly, Canadians and social setting. Posters at Memorial University others should question the implications of a global advertised public talks, ranging from a “Trump media system that displaces coverage of local and Tacos” politics event to an English professor public policy and human disasters in the devel- evoking Trumpian literary analogies. At a talk to oping world in favour of infotainment originating discuss my book about Canadian political com- from major media centres. munication, the frst questions were about Trump. At a staf meeting, an apolitical woman confessed interest in the election, explaining “it makes me feel dirty.” People with no post-secondary education in households that are otherwise inter- ested only in local Newfoundland news became glued to CNN, watching late into the night. As 71 6 Digital Campaign Did Russia just hand Donald Trump the presidency?

Donald J. Trump is now the President-elect of the real change in public opinion until the bombshell United States. Running on a platform of nation- announcement by FBI Director that alist populism and anger at the status quo of the he will reopen investigation into Hillary Clinton’s ‘business as usual’ politics of Washington, DC, use of a private email server during her tenure as the New York billionaire shocked the world by Secretary of State. Her favorability dropped to a defeating Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton. near tie with Donald Trump and never recovered Winning perhaps one of the most divisive elections up until election day. So, although Russian in- in recent memory, Trump will now be leader formation campaigns on the American election of the free world. One question that remains is is extremely troubling, it did not have a major whether Russian cyber and information operations impact on the result. What it did succeed in doing launched during the campaign were a deciding is sowing discontent and mistrust in American factor in the outcome of this election. democratic institutions, an impact that cannot be Dr Ryan C. Maness Te US government has implicated the measured accurately at this time. Russian government in being responsible for the It would also be unfair to blame the Hillary American cybersecurity hacks of the DNC, the DCCC, and the emails of Clinton loss on the actions of FBI director James expert and Visiting Fellow Clinton’s campaign chair . Hacking Comey. It is now apparent that most of the polls in Political Science at groups such as Fancy Bear and Cozy Bear as well were wrong throughout the campaign, and that Northeastern University as individuals such as Guccifer 2.0 were named Donald Trump tapped into a populist sentiment having been awarded a as the culprits, and these groups have known ties that resonated with many rural white voters who PhD from the University to the Kremlin. Te information contained in have been politically sidelined by both parties for of Illinois at Chicago these data breaches was subsequently dumped to decades. Hillary Clinton’s campaign was com- WikiLeaks for public consumption. A retaliatory placent and even cocky, thinking that it could Email: r.maness@northeastern. response to these information campaigns has been win with the Obama coalition that propelled the edu promised by the Obama Administration, but this current president to two terms by winning the has yet to manifest. coasts and the safe states of the upper Midwest. Russian President Vladimir Putin had good But Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin reason to prefer Trump over Clinton as president. were taken for granted and went red. Tis was Trump has entertained the idea of recognizing Clinton’s deathblow. She was a victim of a fawed the Russian annexation of Crimea as legitimate, campaign and the electoral college system, and this of weakening the bonds with NATO allies, and is the second time this has happened to a Demo- cooperating with Russia in Syria by withdraw- cratic candidate in 16 years where the latter wins ing support for US-backed rebels. Clinton is an the popular vote but not the federal system of state ardent supporter of the ousting of Russia-backed to state voting. Syrian President Assad, has been outspoken about Te United States and the world is now continuing economic sanctions against Russia for preparing for a President Trump; a man with its actions in Ukraine, and has not ruled out more no government experience who ran a divisive NATO expansion. From a Russian national interest campaign built on anger. Te efects of Russian perspective, Trump is the preferred candidate cyber and information operations are negligible of Russia. but troubling for future Western elections. Te Returning to the question, did Russia just wave of anti-globalization is consuming the West. help elect their preferred candidate President of For good or bad, this is becoming the new normal. the United States? Such an accusation has huge implications for the integrity of the world’s oldest democracy. But this claim is dubious when one refects on the campaigns and public opinion of the last few months. Beginning with the DNC hacks that were released at the beginning of the Demo- cratic National Convention in July, this informa- tion exposed by WikiLeaks showed that top party brass were biased toward Mrs. Clinton winning the nomination. Yet these leaks did not have an impact on public opinion; in fact, Clinton saw a post-con- vention bounce that lasted for weeks. Te subse- quent DCCC leaks also a demonstrated minimal impact on opinions of the Democratic nominee and her chances for winning the White House. WikiLeaks ‘October Surprise’ came in the form of the hacked emails of the Clinton campaign CEO John Podesta. Tese emails showed the inner workings of the Clinton campaign, with no 73 Taking Julian Assange seriously: considering WikiLeaks’ role in the US presidential campaign

In the fnal months of the US presidential Tis latest episode reminds us as well of the campaign, Julian Assange returned to form, capability of digitally adept actors to be particular- injecting into the election new questions about ly disruptive when donning a journalistic mantle: politics and politicians, and reigniting a discussion an embarrassed Debbie Wasserman-Schultz of WikiLeaks’ particular brand of digital journalism. stepped down from DNC leadership afer emails At a time when attention was on what we showed she favored Clinton over Bernie Sanders, hoped to know about Donald Trump – his tax leaks in the Podesta ‘tranche’ revealed Democratic releases, his income, his suitability for ofce – operative Donna Brazile sharing a debate question WikiLeaks presented us with a series of email with the campaign, prompting her resignation releases about Clinton – from the Democrat- as an analyst for CNN, and long the subject of ic National Committee (DNC) and campaign speculation the Podesta emails also gave the public Dr Scott A. Eldridge II manager John Podesta – that instead posed new its frst glimpse of Clinton’s paid speeches to Wall questions about Clinton in the late stages of a Street (fttingly the focus was on maintaining Assistant Professor of campaign that seemed increasingly heading ‘private’ and ‘public’ positions on policy, something Journalism Studies and for victory. made difcult by new journalistic actors like Media in the University of Te frst reaction was of conspiracy – Julian Assange). Groningen targeting Clinton seemed anathema to the ‘general Finally, for understanding the challenges consensus’, such that it was. Tis risked a liberal WikiLeaks presents to journalism, one has to see Email: [email protected] order, where Trump represented a decline of that the reaction to disregard their approach to Western democracy, and while fallible, Clinton journalism indicates a tendency to valorize certain could such a world. Assange was seen traditions of journalism that dictate what is per- as colluding with Russian hackers (casting doubt missible– a ‘good’ way to do journalism based on on the material), disrupting democratic norms traditional norms. Yet when we look at journal- (leading to a severing of his internet access while ism’s socio-functional roles (news and journalism campaigns concluded), and of going afer the shaping, informing, and challenging our under- wrong target (pining for as revelatory a release standing of society) we can fnd in WikiLeaks’ about Trump). Tis last accusation was made with work at least an embrace of these notions, even if it such strength that WikiLeaks responded with its does so while irritating prominent visions of what vision of journalism: “an open model of jour- journalism is or drifing towards conspiracy. nalism that gatekeepers are uncomfortable with, A week afer the US elections, a photo was but which is perfectly harmonious with the First posted online at Gizmodo.com of a cat, wearing a Amendment.” necktie, parading around in a window of the Ecua- To make sense of WikiLeaks in this context, dorian Embassy. Tis cat is just the sort of clichéd however, requires understanding its dual mission: image we have come to expect traipsing across the As journalism, and as a sharp critic of the same. internet, but for the seriousness of the cat’s owner, Since its emergence, WikiLeaks sought to Julian Assange, a man whose public persona irritate dominant notions of journalism, attacking exudes anything but frivolity, and whose embrace mainstream journalism as complacent, while advo- of digital technologies and media are anything but cating that for the public which journalism should clichéd. serve, WikiLeaks’ approach was in their interest. Dismissed in the headline as “bored and We are also reminded in these disclosures that irrelevant, Julian Assange…”, the tail end of the US Assange’s philosophy (as it can be discerned) has campaign has shown that rather than irrelevant never ft ‘lef’ versus ‘right’ ideologies easily, and (though possibly still bored), Assange and his rather is oriented sharply against the ‘powerful’. As inclination to expose information continues to an editor, Assange expresses this through familiar shape how we are able to view the world, and the journalistic ideals as a watchdog, and a strong way journalism is embraced by an increasingly vast commitment to the public. Hillary Clinton, frst as set of actors working online. Irritating to some, Secretary of State and then as candidate, has been uncomfortable to many, WikiLeaks’ approach a symbol of the way power has been consolidated to sharing news and information has once again within a small circle of actors, and frequent subject placed on center stage provocative questions about of WikiLeaks’ focus. what it is to ‘do’ journalism in the 21st century. Te late David Carr captured this well when he headlined a piece exploring WikiLeaks and compatriots in 2010 as “Journalists, Provoca- teurs, maybe both?”. In its simplicity, this outlines the challenge WikiLeaks presents not only as a prominent voice in the news, but also as an organ- ization that moves ably between journalistic and activist roles, with little consternation of whether that suits dominant of either. 74 Social media did not give us Donald Trump and it is not weakening democracy

During and after the 2016 US presidential election, the expression of these ideas takes various forms. a number of commentators in the media and Decades of conservative movement identity work, scholars of political communication and jour- in our own time through conservative media infra- nalism embraced the notion that the ascent of structure such as FOX news, has helped usher in president-elect Donald Trump as the Republi- the broad anti-institutional movement style of the can nominee was, at least in significant part, the right and the motivated reasoning that has shaped product of social media and media change more conservative views on everything from the denial broadly. Even more broadly, commentators tell us of climate change to the distrust of legacy journal- that Trump was successful because the Internet ism. Meanwhile, the moral narratives of good hard has brought about a “post fact” or “post truth” era, working white Americans who are being taken and point to “filter bubbles” as a significant factor in advantage of by government bureaucrats, illegal his rise. immigrants, and the liberal elite on FOX News and Dr Daniel Kreiss As illuminating as these accounts sometimes in the rhetoric of the Republican Party’s candi- are, they fundamentally ignore larger historical, dates that Arlie Russell Hochschild documents in Associate Professor in cultural, and institutional factors that have created her fieldwork on the Tea Party, and that fuels the the School of Media and the context for Trump’s rise, especially the precipi- resentment Katherine Cramer documents, laid the Journalism, University tous decline in citizen trust in government, profes- groundwork for the white identity politics behind of North Carolina at sional journalism, and scientific expertise and the Trump’s run. Chapel Hill and author of growing political importance of the white nation- The internet did not bring about a ‘post-fact’ Prototype Politics alist right in the United States. Attributing Donald or ‘post truth’ era, nor did it bring about con- Trump’s electoral success exclusively, or even spiracy theories, white nationalism, conservative Email: [email protected] primarily, to media and technological change is to identity and its farcical villains, and the distrust dangerously abstract from the conditions that made of institutionalized ways of producing knowledge, it possible, even as new technologies have undoubt- from journalism to science. Conservative edly proved tactically effective for the candidate. movements since the post World War II era did, It is worth remembering that there have long alongside its institutional vehicle, the Republican been various strains of conservative movements Party, and its media apparatus, from conservative that have embraced an amalgam of paranoid con- radio talk shows to FOX News. The uptake of spiracy theories, denied the existence of basic facts, social media likely has given broader exposure to adopted an anti-institutions posture, distrusted the particular mix of racial resentment, conserv- expertise, and embraced the uncompromising, ative identity, populist rhetoric, and economic anti-pragmatic politics stance that many com- anxiousness that marked the 2016 US presidential mentators and academics see in Trump’s rise. In election and afforded it greater visibility, but it did the 1950s, the historian Richard Hofstadter called not cause them. The emergence of outlets such as this the “paranoid style of American politics,” Brietbart, primarily distributed through Facebook, which was fueled by feelings of victimhood and and Trump’s Twitter rantings might have legitimat- nostalgia, the fear of political breakdown, status ed dispensing with the dog whistle in favor of a insecurity, and a persistent irrational fear of global racial bullhorn, but the underlying idea that white conspiracy. The historian Lisa McGirr traces the Americans are under a unique threat from people history of the New Right since the 1960s among of color, elites, and experts resonates with millions affluent and suburban Sun Belt men and women, who have been told that for decades by members who combined a religious emphasis on Protestant of the Republican Party. And, while social media moral values with themes of anti-communism and might increase the speed of half-truths, rumors, small government, deregulation, and anti-union and outright lies, it did not create the cynical and public employee sentiment, all of which were public that does not understand, or care to, how driven by conspiracy theories propagated in right knowledge producing institutions work. Conserv- wing films, study groups, books, newsletters, and ative movements and the Republican Party did national media outlets. that too. Throughout this history, the Republican Party has been the institutional vehicle for these right wing movements, providing them with the infrastructure to engage in electoral politics and advance their policy aims. Political communication scholars have, ironically, not done a very good job studying ideas, favoring instead studies of their strategic presentation, what we call ‘frames’. But it is precisely ideas of religious purity, small government, and racial difference that lie at the heart of the conservative identity that has defined the Republican Party for four decades, although 75 Trump and the triumph of afective news when everyone is the media

In 1961, the playwright Arthur Miller mused, “a Social media ofers a space for voters to fnd, good newspaper, I suppose, is a nation talking to support and share facts, falsehoods or feelings. Te itself.” Te assertion seems oddly quaint at a time impact of Facebook is staggering given that more when the US elected a president who was continu- than 40 per cent of Americans get their news from ally at odds with the press. Donald Trump inten- the social media behemoth. Facebook doesn’t just tionally positioned himself as an outsider of the bring together audiences for the news. It shapes established institutions of democratic deliberation. the news for audiences, drawn from the choices of He bypassed the media to connect directly with his their social connections and regurgitated by algo- supporters, while simultaneously benefting from rithms to match personal preferences. It is a space the media to spread his message. Supporters and deliberately designed to envelop users in the cosy opponents became the media themselves, spreading embrace of the familiar, not challenge misinformed Dr Alfred Hermida and amplifying subjective and emotional afective views or address unsubstantiated rumours. news designed to provoke passion, not inform. Conspiracy theories about politics fourish Te triumph of Trump signals the contested on social media, where the currency is virality Associate Professor and nature of the media due to tectonic shifs in the not truth. People will share false information if Director of the Graduate mechanisms and pathways for news. Te once it fts their view of the world. Even if some don’t School of Journalism at privileged position of media organisations as the quite believe it, they will share an article with the the University of British primary gatekeepers of news fows to the public aim of entertaining, exciting or enraging friends Columbia, Vancouver and has been undermined by the industry’s economic and acquaintances. spreads so fast that an award-winning author, woes, the emergence of digital information potentially hundreds of thousands of people could online news pioneer and merchants, shifing audience practices and the have seen it by the time it gets debunked. Facebook digital media scholar. spread of social media platforms. Te ability to was already criticised for failing to stem the rise of decide “all the news that’s ft to print” is shared fake news before the election results came in, with Email: [email protected] between traditional and new media outlets, activist even Barack Obama talking about a “dust cloud groups, celebrities, citizens and computer code. of nonsense.” News exists in a contested, chaotic and circular When everyone can be the media, both lef environment where emotion ofen overrides and right sought to be the media. Sometimes it evidence, fuelling the rise of polarised, passionate was through the use of automated propaganda and personalised streams of information. bots on Twitter. One study found bots were behind As newsrooms across Middle America are 50-55 per cent of Clinton’s Twitter activity. Tat’s hollowed out, most new digital media outlets are nothing compared to the 80 per cent for Trump. concentrated along the blue-tinged coasts of east Such frenzied tweeting is intended to create the and west. Te result is a media that only sees a impression of a groundswell of public opinion. At wide swathe of US voters from 35,000 feet. Tese other times, it was engaged publics who took to voters did not see themselves refected in the main- social media to craf their own election narrative. stream media and instead identifed with Trump’s For example, Clinton supporters appropriated the outsider message of defance. Te loss of infuence #nastywoman to show their support for a female is even more apparent given the high number candidate. Trump supporters took to #repeal19, of newspapers that endorsed Hillary Clinton. the amendment that gave women the right to vote. Endorsements do not defne the outcome but can Such a media diet of afective news designed help to build momentum behind a candidate. to stir up passions, feed prejudices and polarise Te waning authority of newspapers is un- publics is a far cry from the practices of insti- surprising given that no more than 3 per cent of tutional journalism. Reporting is kept separate Americans named local and national print outlets from opinion and commentary. Facts are prized, as the most helpful source for election news. News with emotion fnding its place in features, rather websites fared slightly better, cited by 13 per cent. than the news. Looking back, facts never stood a Instead, cable news and social media emerged as chance. Beyond the weaknesses and failings of the the two ‘most helpful’ sources of election news. news industry, in a smackdown between emotion Arguably, they were also the worst. and evidence, emotion always wins. Audiences Cable news is a misnomer. Tese networks are swim in a media blend of tumbling facts, not in the business of evidence-based reporting. comment, experience and emotion, resulting in a Tey are in the emotion business. And emotion news cocktail tailored to individual tastes. sells. Ratcheting up anger and outrage on cable makes business sense. Trump’s fery and obnoxious rhetoric was a ratings bonanza, spurring a growth in viewership for the frst time in three years and, with it, rising revenues. Viewers tune into the channel that mirrors their personal political leanings, as audiences gravitate towards media that refects and reinforces their biases and beliefs. 76 Tweeting the election: Political journalists and a new privilege of bias?

Real-life developments are the lifeblood of jour- as a bully on Twitter. Leading up to election day, nalism. Naturally, journalists are drawn to spaces USA Today reported a ‘massive rise’ in election-re- where news events and stories unfold. Twitter was lated hate speech on Twitter, much of which one of the US election’s most popular social spaces seemed directed at journalists. While Twitter has for public and real-time analysis, commentary, just started to address abuse on its platform, news and deliberation of two notoriously polarizing organizations ofen don’t provide support for jour- candidates (recall, for example, #TrumpTapes, and nalists to manage negative experiences and attacks, the Twitterstorm that followed the Washington as fndings from my research suggest. Post’s release of a 2005 video where Donald Trump Twitter is ofen perceived as a repository of boasts about sexually assaulting women). what’s clever, and its culture as ‘casual’, so some Journalists’ afliation with legacy news media reporters have found it difcult to bite their traditionally warranted their adherence to a set tongue. What came out was ofen emotionally Svenja of institutionally defned values, procedures and charged, opinionated and biased to some degree or Ottovordemgentschenfelde practices, and many news organizations attempt other. As I’ve argued before, this may not neces- to uphold these on social media platforms via in- sarily be to dish out revenge, but to blow of steam PhD Candidate in the stitutional policies that encourage or even regulate or out of a protective instinct for one’s reputation Department of Media engagement. Ahead of the election, digital native and career. and Communications Buzzfeed and legacy media such as Te New York We know of many past examples where at the London School of Times and Washington Post sent out memos to journalists have gotten into trouble for saying Economics and Political their staf, which reminded them to refrain from something on Twitter they shouldn’t have (leading Science, and Research bias on social media when covering the heated to suspensions or even losing their jobs). While Fellow at the Tow Center election. Tis already foreshadowed that some some reporters during this election have trans- for Digital Journalism at journalists’ Twitter engagement during this time gressed what their professional code (and quite Columbia University. might not be as impartial and balanced. possibly an institutional social media policy) Journalists who covered the election had to outlines as acceptable professional behavior, we Email: handle a striking and unprecedented amount of rarely heard of consequences. My research fndings S.Ottovordemgentschenfelde@ sof news topics. For example, an analysis by the support this: the majority of journalists are aware lse.ac.uk Columbia Journalism Review found that this year’s that their engagement on Twitter also waves their frst presidential debate focused more on person- employer’s fag on it. Tus, news organizations ality than any other in US history. For political tend to reap the benefts of journalists pro-active journalism – one of the classic hard news genres Twitter presence and allow the occasional degree with an undisputed focus on fact and analysis – of freedom a journalist may take, and reserve inter- this became uneven territory at times, as personal vention only for when things go wrong. attributes, subjective experiences and character Biased reporters on Twitter seemed to have judgments took center stage and even turned into gotten away with what was once a privilege news stories themselves. reserved for opinion writers. It was precisely these kinds of stories, the ‘sofer’ ones, that encouraged many tweeting journalists to be snarky, witty and funny in their coverage. And tweets of this nature with high en- tertainment value (but low news value) happened to be those that did exceptionally well on the platform in terms of generating audience engage- ment and driving trafc – a very much desired outcome by both individual journalists as well as the news organizations they work for. To compli- cate matters for what we normatively understand as ‘quality journalism’, both of these (i.e. being funny on Twitter and followers liking it) clearly reinforced each other. It was an election that stirred up many political sentiments in all corners of the country, including the news industry, where many candidate endorsements were unexpected or broke long-standing traditions of party support. Donald Trump quickly developed a reputation for picking fghts with media outlets, blacklisted some of them (which was later reversed, but the overall message this sent was loud and clear), he publically attacked countless reporters, and made a name for himself 77 The dissolution of news: selective exposure, flter bubbles, and the boundaries of journalism

In the afermath of Donald Trump’s election as those infuences won the day (for example see the 45th President of the United States, there is this, this or this). Shared notions of “news” did much soul-searching about the state of journal- not. Facebook especially, as Benton puts it, has ism: How could journalists have been so wrong? “become a single point of failure for civic informa- How and why did they misread the electorate? Is tion… Some of it is driven by ideology, but a lot is political journalism fundamentally broken, given driven purely by the economic incentive structure how much of it is built around horse-race polling Facebook has created: Te fake stuf, when it that was shown to be erroneous anyway? Did connects with a Facebook user’s preconceived data journalism, so recently seen as a key part of notions or sense of identity, spreads like wildfre.” journalism’s digital future, fail us? As one exas- Te central problem is that social media, rather perated observer put it: “So all the fact-checking than being a mere source of political information, Dr Seth C. Lewis of Trump’s lies, all the investigative journalism is increasingly the structure for political discussion, about his failures, even the tapes—none of it meant as Phil Howard of the Oxford Internet Institute Shirley Papé Chair in anything.” In short, what happened to news and its describes: “Social media platforms have provided Electronic Media in the normative purpose in the political process? a structure for spreading around fake news, we School of Journalism and Setting aside their relative merits for a users tend to trust our friends and family, and we Communication at the moment, these critiques and others like them carry don’t hold media technology frms accountable for University of Oregon, and an implicit assumption: “news” still means more degrading our public conversations.” Afliated Fellow with or less what we think it means. But is that really What we ended up with was a flter bubble the Information Society a safe assumption, anymore? In much of journal- election. Te decline of shared news, the echo ism studies, and in much of the metajournalistic chambers of partisan media, and the algorithms Project at Yale Law School discourse that occurs as pundits and audiences that serve confrmation biases coalesce in frighten- Email: [email protected] alike critique the press and its performance, the ing ways for the future of the republic. Much of the discussion ofen assumes that when we talk about post mortem criticism now being levelled at the news, we’re all more or less talking about the same news media assumes that basic terms like “news” thing - that there’s some kind of thingy-ness to have some shared understandings attached to recognizing news as news. them, some agreed-upon normative expectations True, there have always been charges of media for journalism in public life. We shouldn’t be so bias and manipulation, and lately no shortage of sure anymore, and scholars need to fgure out why. mistrust in the press much like other professions Tis is also an ongoing issue, not a static one. and institutions. Moreover, as we show in Bound- It is clear that the forces of division in politics and aries of Journalism, determining what counts in the reinforce each other in ways as journalism and who counts as a journalist that portend greater cleavages for future elections. is a perpetual struggle for defnitional control. One way forward is to move beyond an interest Nevertheless, news was assumed to be something in how information circulates across channels to everyone recognized, even if with a certain distaste attend more to what these messages are from a for the product or disdain for its producers. You holistic viewpoint. No single laid-of newspaper didn’t have to like the news, but you recognized it reporter, talk-radio broadcast, or item in a social Dr Matt Carlson when you saw it. media newsfeed can explain the forces that are No single trend explains the dissolution of shaping how we think about journalism. It is only Associate Professor of news. For example, consider what has happened by looking across these outlets and their intercon- Communication to news from the perspective of Trump supporters nections that we can hope to understand the media Saint Louis University, in rural America. As Joshua Benton points out in world that surrounds us. USA Nieman Journalism Lab, newspapers that served as key community institutions have been hollowed Email: [email protected] out, much like the factories and church pews, and the print-to-digital shif has only accelerat- ed the concentration of power to coastal news elites—the same elites who mostly responded to Trump and his ilk with snark and scorn, either explicitly on Twitter or implicitly in their framing of news coverage. Cable news and talk radio provide platforms for challenging the legitimacy of so-called “mainstream news” with incessant claims of liberal media bias while encouraging selective exposure among partisan lines. More recently, social media make possible (cheap-to-make) fake news, the easy spreadability of misinformation, and the social and algorith- mic orientations toward homophily. Together, 78 Fighting the Red Feed and the Blue Feed

Te discussion about flter bubbles has exploded bubble got its digital defnition from Pariser, we afer the 2016 US election. Evidence suggests have had analogue flter bubbles that skews or voters access separate, ideologically homogenous, limits our views, but historically, they have been newsfeeds – the Red Feed and the Blue Feed as related to our news consumption, education, social demonstrated by the Wall Street Journal. Terefore network, or geography, to mention a few of our it is time to ask more questions about how algo- social flter bubbles. Tere has always been too rithmic platforms such as Facebook and Google much information in the world for us to grasp, impact voters’ information environment during comprehend and register, so we have fltered and elections. As we know from numerous Facebook excluded information based on our needs. Before press releases, Facebook strives to select the most the internet, editorial media helped us sort and relevant and engaging content to appear in the prioritize information and news. Afer the internet Newsfeed. But how should society deal with a became mainstream, algorithms became useful Bente Kalsnes ‘relevant’ newsfeed that turns into a flter bubble, tools to sort and present information, either it was ofen based on fake news? related to which book to buy, which movie to see, PhD Candidate, Quality of information is particularly which song to listen to, or which news story to read. Department of Media and important during elections campaigns, when the Facebook’s role in selecting and calculating Communication, electorate should make informed choices about the most “relevant” information has ramifcations University of Oslo candidates and policies. Obviously social media that are also political. Te debate about whether did not give us Donald Trump, as argued by Daniel Facebook is a media or a technology company Email: bente.kalsnes@media. Kreiss - larger historical, cultural factors have given got intensifed earlier this fall. Te Norwegian uio.no ground for Trump’s presidency: such as frustration, newspaper Afenposten protested Facebook’s polarisation and mistrust in elites and institutions. of the Napalm girl picture, arguing that But I will still argue it is worthwhile to discuss the Facebook made editorial decisions interfering with quality of information voters interact with in the the free press. As Facebook increasingly becomes decision-making process and how information is the information source for people around the selected and presented. Tus, fake news and Face- world, the company has a unique responsibility in book’s algorithm is relevant in this context. striving for information diversity and quality. In An increasing number of citizens are using addition to “relevant” and “engaging”, “serendipity” social media to follow the election campaign and should be built into the newsfeed. Te Red Feed inform themselves about the candidates. In 2016, and the Blue Feed reinforces old flter bubbles from 62% of Americans got some news via social media, the party press era. Do we want flter bubbles to up from 49% in 2012 according to a Pew survey. be refections of the party press that we got rid of Facebook is in this context the most used platform, decades ago in liberal democracies? If Facebook is in addition to Reddit and Twitter. 44 percent of US not able to diversify and fact-check the newsfeed, adults and two thirds of Americans aged 18 to 29 the most popular social network might end up claimed to have used social media in an ordinary with an algorithmic driven newsfeed based on fake week in order to learn more about the 2016 presi- party propaganda. dential election. It is still too early to tell how strong the flter bubble has been for voters in this election, but Wall Street Journal’s website Blue Feed and Red Feed gives us a pretty good idea of the sharp contrast between the two information streams. Te most relevant and engaging newsfeed might be wonderful for users and consumers, but concerning for scholars of democracy. If the information environment becomes so polarized and fragmented, it allows voters to live in diferent realities –the so-called balkanization of the public sphere. It gets even more problematic when fake news is added into the flter bubble. Fake news got heavy circulation online during the run-up to the election, and Facebook’s algorithm allowed the misinformation to be amplifed and disseminated widely. Filter bubbles are ofen understood as personal ecosystem of information that has been catered by algorithms, such as Google or Facebook. Tis way, the users are presented with information that confrms and strengthens their own cultural or ideological bubbles. Even though the term flter 79 Two tribes go to vote: symbolism on election day

Typically private thoughts underpinning voter Tribe Clinton choices are hidden within the black boxes of Clinton supporters overtly showed a more middle human psychology. One might assume how class image, those who showed themselves tended choices are arrived at through statistical analysis to be female and this was symbolically invoked of available data. However such analyses cannot as the motivation for voting. A 30 something, capture how emotions and feelings inform well dressed lady with two daughters is pictured specifc choices. saying, ‘We are making history for the women of In the digital age some make feelings public. America’. Tis theme was frequently replicated Tis piece is based on observations of the use of across various states. Even in Alaska, one of the social media, and in particular Instagram, to show safest Republican states, a woman showed herself how symbolism, through the interaction between in the act of voting to say ‘let’s make history, put a Dr Darren G. Lilleker visuals and text ofers meaning to the act of voting woman in the White House’. Few policy initiatives and voter choice making. were invoked; the symbolism refected the shared Associate Professor Tweets and posts to social media accounts gender of candidate and voters. and Head of the Centre from the queues outside the polling stations ofer A more diverse bunch told their followers they for Politics and Media such insights. Te political meet the mundane were voting Clinton to block Trump. One man Research at Bournemouth in the tweet “waiting to vote Trump, hungry for is pictured holding his nose accompanied by the change, hungry for a big mac” one of many similar comment ‘an anti-Trump Clinton voter’. Whether University and author of contributions which show how voting and the her image, gender or scandal-mired campaign Political Communication election impinge on but ft within broader life drove this antipathy is not expressed, rather and Cognition experience. However Instagram ofers a diferent pictures of queues, feet in a line, or voting booths set of afordances. Here we can see how symbolism accompanied the phrases ‘voting’ and ‘anyone but Email: dlilleker@bournemouth. ac.uk is used to show a shared identity about how on 8th Trump’. Tere seemed less positive reasons moti- November in the US two tribes went to vote. vating those that voted Clinton beyond a small but highly motivated group of women who wanted a Tribe Trump female president. Trump supporters’ text refected the very broad and very mundane aspects of their candidate’s Othering campaign. Making America great, some adding Te tribes did not simply use pictures of them- ‘again’ was repeated a lot as a broad call to arms. selves. Images of Ku Klux Klansmen, ‘Bubba’ the Issue politics of the everyday were also referenced; stereotypical redneck, even Wile E. Coyote was protecting jobs… from immigrants, the Chinese, pictured as a typical Trump voter. While some and a variety of outside threats. Taking the country Trump supporters showed pictures of Black back, from bankers, corrupt politicians, Muslims, American and Hispanic voters to suggest the racial immigrants, was also a theme; where politicians signifcance of their vote, others ofered a more an- were mentioned as the ‘other’ the slogan ‘drain the ti-establishment perspective. One queue, featuring swamp’ was invoked. mostly men and women dressed in work clothes, But of more interest was how pictures were including dungarees with one man in a suit in the used to accompany these. Sometimes it was simply middle accompanied the text: ‘spot the Clinton ‘Old Glory’, the fag as the ultimate symbol of voter’. Here we saw the tribes self-identify through nationalism which accompanied an act of pat- the act of othering; defning what they are not in riotism. If voting was motivated by a desire to order to claim a shared identity. make America great, the fag tended to feature. Other contributors used more humorous pictures. Tribal Politics Someone took a picture of a sink plunger and Instagram was used by a range of citizens, all voted, accompanied this with the text ‘of to vote Trump some were fervent supporters, some just wanted to unblock our system’. Others had more sinister to be part of the moment and make a statement. overtones. A picture of a cache of arms, one hopes Te tribes demonstrated points of connection with to have been a stock Google image, accompanied their chosen candidate and made identity refer- the text ‘voting Trump to exterminate immi- ences. Trump’s supporters showed diversity along grants’. Such ideas, with one picture of a queue of issue lines. Some wanted job security, others white black Americans accompanied by ‘why I’m voting supremacy with connections and convergences Trump’ showed that while not every Trump voter along a long continuum. Clinton supporters made was racist, most racists voted Trump. Where the gender the issue, others physically or symbolically voters showed themselves or others as the ‘in tribe’, held their nose to try block Trump. In turning they tended to by white, middle aged or older, their experiences into an image they made voting a casually or very informally dressed and holding or symbolic act, capturing their innermost feelings as wearing symbols of the nation. they took part in this most historic of contests.

80 Ideas are for sharing

Te Twitter technology for sharing is retweeting. the campaign that were heavily about character You fnd a tweet or a url referencing something on -- lying Hillary and misogynist Trump -- as the web that you think is interesting or important, examples. Te retweets were more one-sided than and you tell Twitter to retweet it. Twitter then had been the number of tweets. Tere were 1.4 sends it to all of your followers, to people with times as many tweets mentioning Trump as men- whom you are sharing thoughts. It is important to tioning Clinton. And there were more than two us as observers to know what was being shared and times as many retweets among the top ten favoring how widely it was shared. What is the reach of this Trump compared to retweets favoring Clinton. sharing? Almost universally the retweets were reasons to Tweets were collected from the streaming API oppose the opponent. Te only good news for with the search terms ‘Clinton’ and ‘Trump’. Te a candidate was the many reasons people could number of tweets per day was in the hundreds of think of for opposing the opponent. A large share Prof G. R. Boynton thousands for each candidate. Twitter does not of the negative retweets about Clinton were based share all tweets through the streaming API so this on Wikileaks. Te organization had a very large Professor of New Media analysis is based on a subset of the total tweets collection of hacked emails and tweets, and they and Politics at the about Clinton and Trump. used them to challenge the character of Clinton. University of Iowa. Twitter has given public voice to millions of Four and a half retweets a day challenging Clinton people concerned about politics, and one result is were retweets of Wikileak tweets. Email: [email protected] widespread attention to ideas that fnd the right And then: November 9, and 10, and 11, and place and the right time. In the day before and 12 saw a turnaround. Tere were ten favorable the day of the election one tweet was spread very retweets about Clinton, then 17, and 16, and fnally widely through retweeting. 15 favorable retweets. Te total for Clinton was 58 RT @whytruy: vote hillary clinton idc if she a and the total for Trump was 10. A major shif in liar yall boyfriends lie to yall everyday and yall still the balance. And a major shif in what was being fw them so gone head and vote for her expressed. Almost all of the retweets mentioning According to Twitter It was retweeted more Clinton were about fnding a way to save us from than 40 thousand times. It was posted to Twitter Trump as president. On the tenth a call for signing by whytruy who is a person of color, as the saying a petition was the most frequent retweet. goes, and who goes by the name Not Pinkett Smith. Ask the Electoral College to save us. It was She joined Twitter in 2014, has tweeted 7,413 retweeted 18,593 times, and the call spread widely. times, and has 15 followers. It is written with the Te count of the followers of the unique individ- kind of abbreviations that are frequently used uals posting the tweet numbered 50,703,306. And in tweets to make the 140 character limit. It is a the next day it was repeated 14,817 times, and the reason for voting for Hillary Clinton that obviously next day 20,851 times. made sense to the community to which it was Retweeting is about sharing ideas, and this addressed. Twitter gives the followers of every campaign saw sharing being practiced quite broadly. person who retweeted this message, and their followers equal more than 24 million Twitter users. One young woman was able to reach a very large audience. How much retweeting was going on in the fnal days of the campaign? It was 60% of all messages in this collection. For example, tweets mentioning Trump rose from six hundred thousand to nine hundred thousand, and 60% of those messages were retweets. Not many had the reach of Not Pinkett Smith’s tweet, but the stream of tweets about the campaign was largely sharing ideas. What was being retweeted? Tis analysis is based on looking at the top ten retweets for each candidate each day giving 300 retweets to look at. Almost all could be character- ized as either favoring Clinton or Trump and they could be classifed as about character or what the candidate would do if elected. Te most striking feature of these retweets was the extent to which it was a campaign about character. Eight were about what a candidate would do if elected. Te rest were about character. Tat is consistent with news media reports about 81 In the age of social media, voters still need journalists

The American public got more of their news from matters than the most popular Republican candidates. social media than during any prior presidential This is true if they are posting messages that articulate election, according to a new Pew study. With 75% their own policy positions or attack others’ policy of Americans online, and of those, over 70% on positions. Facebook, the public found news and talk about The style of Trump’s posts on the issues is distinct the 2016 presidential campaign in their Twitter, when compared with Clinton. Where she routinely Facebook, and Instagram accounts. As my research provided reasons and facts for her positions, Trump suggests, political campaigns like social media offered broad generalizations or generic claims with because it allows them to talk directly to the public, little evidence. Take for example, these posts from bypassing journalists, whom they always distrust Clinton on Twitter. By comparison, Trump’s positions and dislike. were declared rather than reasoned. Additionally, he Prof Jennifer Stromer- The question is: what kind of information does often retweeted messages from supporters instead of Galley the public get directly from the campaigns? articulating his personal stance on issues. In an ideal world, the presidential campaigns Professor in the School of would provide the electorate the opportunity to Trump Is Not Consistently Negative Information Studies and reflect on the issues that face the country. They would Political pundits and campaign watchers declared learn the candidate’s policy positions and vision for Trump to be profoundly negative. Some have predicted Director for the Center how to tackle those problems, and evaluate the candi- this was one of the most negative campaigns in history. for Computational and date’s character and attributes as they auditioned to be But when you look in aggregate rather than anecdotal- Data Sciences at Syracuse one of the most powerful leaders in the world. ly at each candidate’s individual social media posts, you University My research team and I analyzed Donald Trump, get a different picture. the Republican nominee, and Hillary Clinton, the During the surfacing stage, when the candidates Email: [email protected] Democratic nominee, and how they used social need to introduce themselves to the public, Trump media during two phases of the campaign season. advocated for himself more frequently than did The first stage ran from October 2015 through Clinton on social media, and he attacked more, but not January 2016, when the candidates began to disproportionately so. When looking at the primaries, introduce themselves and their positions to the though, a noteworthy change occurs. Clinton attacks public. We call this the surfacing stage. We then more than Trump on Twitter, at nearly twice the rate. looked at the primaries stage from February through It’s not until May that Trump goes on the attack – June 2016. We did this analysis as part of the Illumi- primarily against Clinton. This coincides with Trump nating 2016 Project, analyzing all of the presidential becoming the presumptive nominee for the Republi- candidates’ social media messages on Facebook and cans. Once he starts to attack Clinton, he stays on Twitter through the entirety of their campaigns. the attack. We use computational approaches to analyze When you look at the substance of the attacks, the messages. This requires creating categories to there are noteworthy distinctions. Trump’s attacks describe the messages, having people read and tag a are often personal. In February, for example, Trump sample of the messages, and then using software that primarily attacks Bush, but Rubio and Cruz are looks for patterns in the messages that share the same not spared category. The software then generates algorithms for Yet, while Trump provides only thin policy what to look for in the messages so as to assign them claims, he is not constantly on the attack, unlike to the proper category. the public perception of his Twitter stream. Indeed, Our algorithms are generally more accurate than Clinton tends to be more negative than Trump on people. For the categories we focus on, the algorithm social media. is accurate around 75% of the time. Our analysis suggests that the public did not get We Still Need Journalists to Rigorously Cover the information they need to make a good voting Campaigns and the Public to Read Those Accounts decision. We still need journalists to push candidates With the public increasingly getting information to answer the hard questions and provide the public directly from the candidates themselves on social with a deeper understanding of candidate views and media, what they get is of limited breadth and depth character because the candidates won’t necessarily to make effective judgments about who is the best provide that themselves. candidate to lead the country. Our democracy still needs journalists to cover Trump Less Likely to Talk Issues Online campaigns, ask the candidates challenging questions, There are stark differences in the ways Clinton and and hold candidates to account for their claims and Trump used social media to strategically construct actions. And the public needs to take the time to seek their vision for the country. out quality journalism about the campaign. Candi- Clinton produced almost three times as many dates, on their own, tend to focus on their image and messages as Trump about the policy issues. character and provide a rosy portrayal of their policy Indeed, the main Democrat candidates for the positions. But, that’s not enough to make a good were more likely to post messages on policy and issue decision for whom to vote. 82

Dark magic: The memes that made Donald Trump’s victory

Move aside 2012, the 2016 US Presidential election • Crime is rising in “inner cities” full of was the real meme election. Since the primary dangerous, violent people (read “black people” season kicked of, the American people have lent and “poor people”) their time, attention, and Twitter hashtags to • Tere’s unchecked voter fraud (especially in vernacular play with Little Marco, Ted Cruz the those “inner cities,” and so you have to watch, Zodiac Killer (or blobfsh, or sweaty, sad phone and by watch “you know what I’m talking banker), and the disposable camera snapping about, right?”) sweater prodigy known as Ken Bone. Don’t see any • Te federal government is full of corrupt of your favorites? Try this A-Z guide. failures (and Trump will “drain the swamp”) But it wasn’t all fun and games. Alongside • “Career politicians” are untrustworthy (con- more lighthearted play were memes premised on trasted with Trump who “tells it like it is” and Dr Ryan M. Milner broader identity politics. Progressives proudly “says what he thinks”) reclaimed Donald Trump’s accusations that many • “Crooked Hillary” Clinton is a criminal (so we Assistant Professor of undocumented immigrants are “bad hombres” and should “lock her up”) Communication at the Hillary Clinton is a “nasty woman.” Conservatives, • Women are emotional slaves to their biology College of Charleston for their part, proudly reclaimed Clinton’s assertion (especially when a woman has “blood coming and the author of Te that racist, misogynist, and xenophobic Trump out of her...wherever”) World Made Meme: supporters were “deplorables.” • Women who get abortions are waging a war Public Conversations On the furthest end of the conservative against future generations (and therefore and Participatory Media. spectrum, white nationalists operating under “should be punished”) He is co-author of Te the banner of the so-called alt-right were espe- • Women are sexual objects (“grab them by the Ambivalent Internet: cially prolifc. Participants hijacking Pepe the pussy,” the President-Elect suggests) Mischief, Oddity, and Frog, for example, managed to catapult its maybe • America needs to return to its glorious roots ironic, maybe sincere bigotry to mass attention, (i.e. that we can “Make America Great Again” Antagonism Online prompting months of journalistic coverage (and by going back to a time of much narrower Email: [email protected] prompting us to declare the motives behind racist political and social enfranchisement) Pepe memes were irrelevant). Tese ideas are memetic; each resonates independ- Alt-right icon, Breitbart editor, and exiled ent of factual realities, to the point of countering Twitter hate vessel Milo Yiannopoulos has factual realities. Why these memes resonated with called this “meme magic,” arguing the alt-right’s Trump’s supporters is, like the motivations behind “shitpost” machine is so infuential it is able to the alt-right’s “meme magic,” opaque. Maybe they directly infuence the process in favor of their “God agreed (“he says what we’re thinking”). Maybe Emperor” Trump, whose unapologetic bigotry the they cherry-picked the memes that resonated alt-right embraced and helped perpetuate. most, while downplaying others (in order to “drain Despite the alt-right’s gleeful self-congratu- the swamp” you have to deal with a little “locker lation, however, 2016’s “meme magic” conjured room banter”). Maybe they just couldn’t stand very little wholly new. If 2016 was the meme the thought of electing...that woman… (a meme election, it’s not because of alt-right shitposts or itself). Maybe they were willing to burn down the Dr Whitney Phillips even Trump himself. Rather, it’s because Trump house because one leg of the table wobbles (that’ll tapped into prejudices bigger and older than the really “shake things up”). Assistant Professor of internet: hateful racial stereotypes, oppressive What Trump himself thinks about the memes Literary Studies and gender norms, sweeping anti-elitism, and good he propagates is unimportant. What matters is the writing at Mercer old fashioned fear of the other. By tugging at these impact these memes have. Te most fundamental University and the strings, Trump ran a campaign whose platform impact is they normalize hate and denigration author of Tis Is Why We consisted not of policy proposals or thoughtful to the point hate speech is no longer seen as hate argumentation, but almost entirely of memes. speech. It just becomes speech, whatever Trump Can’t Have Nice Tings: Te term meme in this sense, as described by happened to tweet that day was later reported by Mapping the Relationship Milner, doesn’t merely label internet play. Online journalists as an expected part of the news cycle. Between Online Trolling or of, memes emerge when resonant ideas spread Te second, more visceral, impact is the power and Mainstream Culture. within and across social collectives. Factual, of these memes to undermine the basic sense of She is co-author of Te objective truth isn’t a requisite if underlying idea safety, worthiness, and political visibility of those Ambivalent Internet: connects and compels sharing. populations--women, Mexican Americans, Muslim Mischief, Oddity, and Trough savvy appropriation of supporters’ Americans, Black Americans, Americans with dis- Antagonism Online existing anxieties and biases, Trump exploited this abilities, the list goes on--that have been targeted process, invoking the following resonant memes: by the memes Trump and his supporters circulate. Email: [email protected] • Many Mexicans are murderers and rapists, (so And these memes will continue to work their we need to “build the wall”) dark magic, so long as they resonate with enough • Muslims pose a threat to national security and people willing to embrace--or conveniently ignore- should be barred entry (until we can “fgure -their very real, embodied consequences. out what is going on” with them) 84

7 Pop Culture and Populism Donald Trump, reality TV, and the political power of parasocial relationships

Donald Trump is the frst person in American support in terms of parasocial interaction is history to win the presidency without frst serving especially strong because parasocial relationships in government in some capacity. Much has been happen the most among those who also ft the written about how a real estate developer and demographic profle of Trump supporters. reality TV personality could pull of such an Research indicates that parasocial interac- unusual feat. Te accomplishment is especially tion is at its highest among the poorly educated extraordinary given how many controversial state- and those heavily dependent on TV, of which the ments Trump made during the campaign, which elderly make up the largest segment (Levy, 1979; many commentators said would have doomed any Auter & Palmgreen, 2000; Robinson, 1989). Polling other candidate. Te executives and producers data suggest Trump found his greatest support of Trump’s NBC TV show, which ran weekly for among those with a high school diploma or less, more than a decade, argue that “Te Apprentice” as well as those ages 65 and over. In addition, Prof John H. Parmelee made his candidacy possible because it consistently parasocial interaction is most pronounced with TV portrayed Trump as a successful businessman who personalities who are shown as themselves, such as Professor and Chair was tough but fair. newscasters, as opposed to playing fctional roles, of the Department of Tere also is a psychological aspect to Trump’s such as characters in dramas or comedies (Rubin, Communication at the portrayal in “Te Apprentice” that is worth Perse, & Powell, 1985). “Te Apprentice” portrayed University of North exploring: the concept of parasocial interaction, Trump as himself. Finally, parasocial interaction is Florida. His research which is the illusion of intimacy that people high when a TV personality’s portrayal is consist- focuses on how technology sometimes have with celebrities and politicians ent over many years. As mentioned before, “Te impacts political (Giles, 2002; Torson & Rodgers, 2006). Apprentice” spent more than a decade displaying communication. His latest In a parasocial relationship, viewers feel a the most favorable attributes of Trump. book is Politics and the special attachment to TV personalities and other Parasocial interaction, of course, is not the media fgures they watch regularly. Viewers ofen only factor that helped Trump politically. Many Twitter Revolution. see TV personalities as close friends whom they supporters undoubtedly identifed with his E-mail: [email protected] know really well, even though they have never met. positions on key issues. However, it is interesting During its 11-year run with Trump as the star, to note that on most major issues in 2016, such as “Te Apprentice” and spinof “Te Celebrity Ap- building a wall along the Mexican border, surveys prentice” attracted as many as 20 million viewers of self-identifed Trump voters found that they an episode. Tat’s a lot of potential friends. were less likely to support Trump’s political views Te strength of the pseudo-friendship in than self-identifed Hillary Clinton support- a parasocial relationship can cause viewers to ers were to support her positions. As a result, it discount any negative things they hear that con- appears that long-term perceptions of Trump the tradict what they feel they know about the TV man, which were crafed by reality TV, contributed personality. It’s analogous to being friends with a greatly to propelling him to the White House. colleague at work for 11 years and hearing them say only fair-minded things, until one day they make a seemingly bigoted or sexist comment. You may give the colleague the beneft of the doubt because the 11-year relationship created the impression that you know the colleague’s “real” thoughts and feelings, which are diferent from their recent negative comments. A similar phe- nomenon may be at work with Trump supporters who were regular viewers of “Te Apprentice,” which ran from 2004 to 2015. Te reality show’s portrayal of Trump was diferent from his news coverage during the campaign. Trump was not shown on “Te Apprentice” making contro- versial statements. He was depicted as steady and reasonable, whereas news coverage during 2015-16 highlighted his provocative remarks about Mexicans, women, Muslims, and other groups and individuals. Trump supporters with a longstanding parasocial relationship based on years of exposure to “Te Apprentice” may have discounted incen- diary remarks by the candidate because it did not ft with the “real” Trump they thought they knew from reality TV. Te case for explaining much of Trump’s 87 New roles in the presidential campaign: candidates as talk show comedians

A popular instrument in political marketing is the Fallon reads her letters received from kids. attempt of candidates to “humanize themselves”, But that is not her best performance. She in order to appeal to a larger audience. In recent “makes her frst steps” into an acting career in decades talk-shows have been one of the best ways a Saturday Night’s Live sketch, where she plays to make that possible and present politicians in the role of a bartender who mocks Trump whilst a more human, approachable light. Baum (2005) having a funny dialogue and singing with a “fake” even talks about how presidential candidates Hillary, played by Kate McKinnon. are “talking the vote” by “hitting the talk show Trump on the other hand, had fewer appear- circuit”. What started of in a tentative way with ances and was not that “extreme”. He tried to show Bill Clinton playing the saxophone in Te Arsenio his human, cool, friendly and humorous side, Hall Show in 1992 has nowadays become the norm: but not with the same magnitude. He had three Alexandra Manoliu politicians showing of their hidden talents, playful appearances in Te Tonight Show. First was the one and joking side to gain the sympathy (and votes) of in September 2015 where he “interviews himself in PhD candidate in broader segments of the electorate. the mirror” and allows the moderator to imperson- the Political Science But the way presidential candidates “hit the ate and imitate him. In January 2016 he appeared talk show circuit” in 2016 possibly created a new again on the show, taking the “mock interview for Department at the trend for future campaigns: it’s not about talking President” and making jokes about his looks. University of Montreal. the vote, it’s about playing the vote. Trump and In September 2016 he takes another “mock Her thesis is focused Clinton changed the rules of the campaign game interview” to talk about latest campaign events on political TV series and almost became comedians during their talk and answer questions. He does perhaps the gesture and their impact on show appearances, passing from the role of inter- no one expects and allows Fallon to mess his hair audience cynicism. She viewee to one of a performer whose purpose is to (though he does not seem comfortable). is a member of GRCP entertain the audience. Despite that both had fairly equal time and (Groupe de Recherche en Both had a very intense media presence, but number of appearances in Te Tonight Show, there Communication Politique) their attempt to appeal to a broader segment of is an obvious diference between the two candi- and CECD-CSDC population (those seeking entertainment and dates: one (Clinton) does manage to “humanize” (Centre pour l’Etude not political information) by appearing more herself and shape her message and speech in de la Citoyennete human, adopting a “one of us” image and proving accordance with the type of show, while Trump Domocratique- Center for their sense of humor, “forced” them to become tried the same strategy without much success. the Study of Democratic comedians who act in short sketches: attacking or Te evident thing is that both “hit the talk show Citizenship). impersonating the opponent, making fun of his circuit” (both have been present in almost all the statements or physical aspects, talking about their main entertainment shows) as a campaign strategy Email: alexandra.manoliu@ own policies proposals in a simplistic way, and ulti- to present themselves in a whole new light in ymail.com mately being able to make fun of themselves. Let’s front of potential voters who tune in for an hour just consider the presence of the two candidates in of entertainment; and they do that from a new one of the most popular entertainment talkshows: position: the politician who can turn himself into Te Tonight Show. an actor/comedian to win the hearts (aka votes) of Hillary Clinton appears on Te Tonight Show his audience. in September 2015 in a sketch where she “played” herself having a phone conversation with a fake Donald Trump (played by Fallon). As the fake Trump interviews her, she has a chance to talk about issues on her agenda, but also make fun of her opponent’s hair, treat him like a true character, sipping on a glass of wine while pretending to listen to him and rolling her eyes. She’s being more than approachable and funny when she laughs about Trumps’ fake hair and asks Fallon to prove hers is real: “Did he ever let you touch his hair? Go ahead, touch mine!” In January 2016 she appeared again on Fallon’s show and talked about her assets as a future president in a “Mock Job interview for President”. Te host of the talk-show becomes a political commentator and interviewer (Jones 2005). When asked about her opponent, she tells that the campaign is going to be “quite a show-down” (and she guessed it well). On September 2016, she has a humorous moment in the same show under the title of “Kid letters with Hillary Clinton” where 88 Farage’s Trump card: Constructing political persona and social media campaigning

Tree days afer the election, Te Telegraph declared Studying persona is categorized as the exploration of Nigel Farage would be Britain’s “unofcial ambassador” intentional presentation of specific identities with purpose. to the Trump administration, suggesting the former Tis approach ofers insights into how Trump and UKIP leader would have greater political visibility and Farage’s social media campaigns helped them achieve potential power than few could have imagined just two their political aims. Digital and personalised storytell- years ago. ing techniques and representational media construc- Te Sun’s former editor Stig Abell describes tion patterns are re-shaped, ofering ever-new models Farage as the most successful British politician of the of persona construction for strategic gain. last 30 years (Twitter, November 9, 2016). His focused Farage and Trump are the frst in British and US approach - particularly in terms of using social media politics to have fully harnessed the power of persona to further his core message - has helped achieve some creation on SNS as a deliberate political communica- of the greatest political upsets of the 21st Century. tion tool. Tey use both SNS and mainstream media Bethany Usher Farage and UKIP’s infuence on Trump’s social to build a persona created specifcally to public media campaign should not be overlooked. Trump, of consumption of their political message. Using individ- Principal Lecturer in course, had a long established self-brand as a celebrity ualism and self-promotion, they generate what Alison Journalism and Digital entrepreneur. However, his social media campaign also Hearn (2013: 27) in relation to reality TV stars, has Communication at built on Farage’s methods during the 2015 election to described as “rhetorically persuasive packaging” and a Teesside University and develop a new, political persona. “promotional skin” through which they can embody a journalist, having UKIP’s campaign used the increased visibility both the discontent of members of the electorate and primarily worked for of the short campaign period as a frst step towards ideas of alternative. national newspapers. achieving Brexit the following year, centred on Farage Trump and Farage’s personas colonize the lived Her research focuses on as the voice of the “UK” or “Britain”, ofen directly experience of their followers and encourage them in opposition to the “EU” and “immigration”. Tis to actively display their mutuality of stance on SNS the relationships between self-narrative had at its core a distrust of establishment in order to perpetuate message. It is a new kind news media, celebrity, institutions – particularly political parties and the BBC of political labour; highly stylized and mediatized persona construction – viewed as the enemy of him, an “everyday British self-construction, aimed at drawing the audience and identity. Recent bloke”, longing to escape globalised multi-cultural around a central bonfre and then directing them to journalistic practice society. Tis narrative went on to underpin the “Vote specifc action - frst online and then in the voting booth. includes comment pieces Leave” campaign approach for the EU Referendum the In this world, the is of decreasing on Brexit for national following year. signifcance and success can be far better judged by newspapers and digital Te connections between this and Trump’s “self- clicks, shares and likes than by opinion polls. Analytics campaigning, crowd- brand” during the presidential campaign are, of course, mean successful messages are repeated and while sourcing to support child easily identifable. Tey both harnessed the power this new electioneering is still of course ofen group refugees in Lesbos. of digital communication within the contemporary activity –also performed by campaign managers and Her twitter is @bethanyusher cultural conditions of promotionalism. Tey used social media teams - at its core it is a personalised “Me” techniques of “digital dog-whistling”, nationalistic and “You” and “Us” conversation. Tis approach enables Email: [email protected] anti-immigrant discourse linked to a central pledge campaign teams to produce content that allows instant that they will “Make Britain/America Great Again”. identifcation rather than prolonged thought, commu- For Farage, this approach resonated with nicating easily within the scroll of a social media timeline. Facebook audiences particularly. His page ‘likes’ during Farage and Trump’s approaches to political the 2015 short campaign were almost triple those of persona construction refect its increased signif- David Cameron and the number of people talking cance across both digital and mainstream media and about him on the site was ofen more than all of other particularly how it has reshaped celebrity culture. But smaller party leaders combined. that’s not to say we should see this as an entirely new Similarly, throughout the American Presidential phenomena without any historical basis. Campaign, success in terms of reach, share, likes and Considering how the far-right have successfully follows was evident on Donald Trump’s Facebook and used developing media forms, nationalistic rhetoric Twitter pages. He regularly achieved 40 times as many and celebrity promotionalism in the past, means we retweets and shares than Hillary Clinton for social may better understand the signifcance of mediatised media posts on the same day. persona construction to political communication. Te way public fgures use social media to Trough this we can begin to conceptualise this latest construct personas for a strategic aim is a growing area surge in populist politics, its societal implications of academic study and its implications for political and how its techniques may be channelled towards a communication and culture are signifcant. diferent course. P. David Marshall, who recently launched the Persona Studies journal, argues that a new cultural Bethany Usher’s article ‘You, Me and Us: Constructing Political politics has emerged through presentational media Persona During the 2015 UK General Election Short Campaign’ is published in a special ‘Political Persona’ edition of Persona Studies –presentation of the self in digital space –which is quite diferent to that supported by traditional rep- later this month. resentational media, such as journalism, TV and flm. 89 Does Twitter humanize a politician’s campaign?

Twitter has become one of the leading social media staged or robotic which is not what social media is platforms and has become a key way for politicians supposed to be about, it should be about individ- to communicate with journalists and the public. uality. Tis can be seen by Hilary’s poor comeback President Obama joined Twitter fairly late (2015) that we can see in the fgure and Trump points out compared to other key political fgures, David how it is obvious Hillary is not the one posting Cameron joined in 2012, Hillary joined in 2012 most of the tweets on her page, making her appear and unsurprisingly Trump has the oldest Twitter even less like one of the people whose votes she account out of these as he joined in 2009 which is is seeking. due to his long term fame as a celebrity with his Te more human a politician is seen the better business ventures as well as his show Te Apprentice. as you feel like they will say what they mean and Tis presidential campaign has seen a rise in not just what their PR team tell them to say. When Liam Richards the importance of social media for campaigns, a politician makes a speech, personal experience in particular allowing the campaign to commu- adds another dimension to it making it more Researcher Associate at nicate with supporters, both in a ‘good’ way and human and relatable. Kruikemeier’s research Centre for Politics and a ‘negative’ way. Trump has always been con- shows that a more personalized style can be a vote Media Research and a troversial and his Twitter communication is no winner, whereas self-promoting in the third person BA Politics student at exception. In a way it can be argued this style of can turn voters away. Bournemouth University. communication humanizes the political campaign It seems that social media has become another as we all laugh at things about people we dislike. area for spin doctors and PR teams to communica- Email: liamrichards1975@ Sharing jokes (see opposite) with friends is a tion on behalf of politicians. Professional commu- googlemail.com popular use of social media, and this is exactly nication consultants thus become a middleman what Trump did except he shared the joke with for the politician, interacting between them and the public and all his supporters which makes him their supporters and the public. It almost feels like feel slightly more grounded (even though his ego another barrier between citizen and politician, as is as close to the ground as the moon). However, politicians embrace new forms of media they run the tweet can also be viewed as a negative for the the risk of becoming less human and more like campaign as this came from not just a politician puppets controlled by their PR teams. but someone who could be President. Terefore Te other side of the question asked is whether while the tweet is grounded and humanizing, a politician’s use of social media could be seen as it can also be judged as highly unprofessional. too human, with the politician commenting on Tis behaviour has caused concerns as what every small issue and trying to become keyboard Trump might tweet or retweet jokes about foreign warriors which is not what we expect from our countries which as a person is acceptable but leaders. Our perception of leaders is that they need not when that person is the representative of the to be human but not too ‘ordinary’ as they should United States. In this context jokes can cause be intelligent communicators. Too much emphasis conficts, damage trade for the US or worse. on using social media could be seen as immature Another way that the Twitter use can when they should be focusing their time studying humanize a politician’s campaign is how they can the key issues and making informed decisions respond to both scandals about themselves and instead of reposting on social media or about their opponent in real time as well as being making jokes about those who they disagree with. able to have debates on Twitter that we might not Tus ‘correct’ use of such platforms is tricky, and otherwise see. Opposite is one example of a feud politicians have to be careful when deciding when Clinton and Trump had on Twitter which showed or when not to tweet. how politicians (especially in this campaign) can appear to act like children in a playground arguing about whose dad is bigger or who should get to play with a toy frst. In this instance it showed how not having the best responses can lead to you getting humiliated by your rival as Hillary sufered at the hands of Trump. A further issue that can arise from politician’s Twitter pages are that tweets are ofen seen as scripted by a PR team which is unsurprising, we see it with most celebrities when they post tweets which lack a human dimension and appear as purely promotional or . Tis is further demonstrated by Hilary’s opening tweet which refers to her in the third person, not usually the way someone would talk about themselves on twitter. Tis can make a politician’s Twitter feel 90

“TrumpDASHIAN” – the US election as an extension of The Apprentice?

Te US election has been dubbed the nastiest and of course all things beautiful. Te presidential election in recent US history with both candidates’ candidate never misses an opportunity to remind attacking each other at any opportunity. But this us how much he achieved in the business world does not seems too diferent to other elections of and how he can use this knowledge and experience the past, mud slinging has always been a big part to make America great again! He is reorienting the of the US debates. However, you would be forgiven qualifcations required for US President. It is much in thinking you are watching another amusing easier for the American people to relate to business boardroom fring session, as Trump’s behaviour success than political success, such as Hilary can be likened to that of an Apprentice contestant, achievements as Sectary of State, as ofen most not a US presidential candidate. things go on behind closed doors. So it may seem Donald Trump, host of “Apprentice“, his brash, plausible that a successful business man could Dawid Pekalski masculine and dominant persona suits the reality make America great again! TV show genre. We’ve grown to accept these larger Unlike other candidates who use these shows Researcher Associate at than life characters that are “just being honest” to improve their rapport with the general public Centre for Politics and and “real”. Reality TV shows are great to watch, a and repair or improve a damaged image, Trump Media Research and guilty pleasure perhaps, but the outcomes are of uses these to appear more human. However, a MA International no consequence to us as citizens. But this is the US Trump seems to do the opposite, reinforcing his Political Communication presidential election, the contest to become leader reality TV like character an extreme version of a of the free world with an unsurmountable level of human with extreme views! For instance, when student at Bournemouth responsibility. Tis surely should not be performed asked about ISIS Donald states that “we should go University. ina similar way to a reality TV show format, but a afer their families, wives and children, mothers and Email: s4926150@bournemouth. decision based on well thought through policies sisters”. He doesn’t seem to care that he is publicly ac.uk and political experience. suggesting committing war crimes leaving CNN Trump says he prides himself on being anchor speechless on live TV. It may have appeal, “honest, real, the anti-politician” – sound familiar. but it lacks the measured approach one might Donald Trump’s style seems more akin to Kim expect of a president. Kardashian, than the qualities required for a world However, he still has supporters and people leader. He doesn’t have the qualifcations or expe- seem to relate to him. Is this the power of the all rience for a higher ofce, his plan and proposed too familiar genre of reality TV style helping to policies are lacking in substance and most likely secure the vote of voters that have never voted? won’t see the light of the day. Instead, he is ofering He seems familiar, real and honest which is to American people an “Apprentice” style show, juxtaposed against the secretive and in Trump’s this special brand of positives (everything Donald words “corrupt” politician Hilary Clinton. But Trump) against all of the negatives that he sees simultaneously, he is actually alienating large in both the current president,the Obama-care groups of people, inciting fear and spreading hate. policy and the “weak economy” and his immediate But this behaviour is so familiar to us on reality opponent Hilary Clinton. TV, that maybe the audience are desensitised to In the Apprentice we see candidates it, but if this were to become normalised it could competing with each other to demonstrate they be dangerous for democracy. Whether you’re a possess the qualities required to be a great busi- Democrat, Republican, or a fan of reality TV you nessman or woman or the best business leadership surely couldn’t believe Trump is qualifed for this skills, although this can come across as excessive monumental responsibility? or childlike. Candidates regularly bicker and attack each other’s personal and professional persona in the board room. We see this channelled through- out the primaries with him shooting down other candidates one by one. Now using the same tactics in the election, we see him try to dominate and intimidate his opponent with his very aggressive approach, with humiliation added to the mix. He seems to have forgotten that he has a duty to ofer the American people facts and well thought out policies. Rather Trump seems happy to ofend almost everyone, African- Americans, Mexicans (with his big great Trump wall), woman, Muslims- calling for a complete Muslim ban , Latinos, President Obama, and soldiers. Recent interviews with Jimmy Kimmel and then Jimmy Fallon contain Donald Trumps’ monolog about his successful businesses, himself 92 What is Trump?

We have been deluged with coverage of Donald a ruthless drive to conquer and devour the Trump and his campaign. Tere are the seemingly world’s attention.” endless articles on his pronouncements and his For other commentators, the rock star com- behaviour; each story expressing barely suppressed parison is swapped for the more traditional ideas disbelief that such a person is running for the ofce of showbusiness. Te New Yorker compares the of President. And then there are the other pieces, democratic contest to “a long-running Broadway in which reporters earnestly pursue Trump’s voters musical” and Freedland talks of Trump rallies as – the lef-behinds of the mid-West and elsewhere, ‘sheer showbiz’. James Poniewozik of the New York who, despairing of a political system that has failed Times sees Trump in terms of TV formats: “his tale them, turn to ‘the Donald’ as a saviour who ‘speaks has remained a kind of ‘80s prime-time soap of as- their language’. piration and ego. …. [H]e cited his TV ratings the But hidden within this coverage is another way another candidate might boast of balancing Prof John Street theme, one that has received less attention, but a state budget. Mr Trump’s primary win was like which runs through both types of story. Tis is having a niche hit on cable. …. In programming Professor of Politics at not about who Trump is and who his supporters terms, his campaign is nostalgia based content – the University of East are, but what he is. It is a truth almost universal- that thing you used to like, I’m gonna bring it back Anglia. His most recent ly recognised that he is not a ‘politician’, either again! He’s a classic TV show rebooted for Netfix: book (with Sanna Inthorn because he fails to meet the standards expected of a that old stuff from back in the day, but edgier and Martin Scott) is democratic representative or because he expresses and uncensored.” From Entertainment no desire to be such a fgure. But if he is not a poli- And, of course, Donald Trump is a reality to Citizenship: politics tician what is he? What role is he playing? television star. His role on Te Apprentice is key and popular culture, Tis question stems, in part, from the notion to understanding his ability to play the role of Manchester University that the contest for the presidency is not an presidential candidate. As David Von Drehle wrote Press, 2013 exercise in straightforward political competi- in Time: “the crafier characters of reality TV ex- tion. As the writer George Saunders observed: perience a diferent kind of stardom from the TV Email: [email protected] “American Presidential campaigns are not about and movie idols of the past. Fans are encouraged ideas; they are about the selection of a hero to to feel that they know these people, not as fctional embody the prevailing national ethos.” characters but as fesh and blood.” But this begs a further question, if the aim is to In research that colleagues and I conducted we be a ‘hero’, what kind of hero are we talking about? found that young people in the UK saw fgures like Mark Singer, in his book Trump & Me, twice Alan Sugar and Simon Cowell as credible political quotes a Trump associate as saying: “Deep down, leaders. Tey were seen as tough and decisive, he [Trump] wants to be Madonna”. Quite what of attributes that were seen necessary to efective Madonna’s many incarnations they have in mind is political leadership. And other political scientists unclear, but Trump as rock or pop star is a theme have noted the rise of ‘superstar political celebri- taken up by other writers. Jonathan Freedland in ties’ in the era of ‘anti-politics’. the Guardian described fnding himself at a Trump It might be said that the analogies on which rally, in the “standing area directly in front of the commentators draw are just that – analogies; stage, a kind of Trumpian moshpit …” no more than a literary device. But equally it Bob Lefsetz took the analogy one step further might be that the role of the politician is indeed in a piece entitled “Trump is a Heavy Metal Band”: becoming that of the rock star. And the answer to “Yes, Donald Trump is a rock star, if you go back the question ‘what is Trump’ is that he is indeed ‘a to what that once upon a time meant, someone politician’ afer all. who adhered to his own vision living a rich and famous lifestyle who cared not a whit what A version of this piece was also published by Te others said.” And for Lefsetz, it is the genre that Conversation holds the key to Trump’s ability to command an audience: “Metal… Sold out arenas when no one was watching. Ain’t that America, where despite garnering dollars the establishment shies away from that which it believes is unseemly. And the reason metal triumphed was because it was the other, it channelled the audience’s anger, it was for all those closed out of the mainstream, and it turns out there’s plenty of them.” Te music writer Simon Reynolds also sees Trump in the guise of a rock star. Not, though, that of heavy metal, but of glam rock: “Trump surrounds himself with glitz. Trump and the glam rockers share an obsession with fame and 93 Out of touch, out of ideas? The American presidency in flm and television

Te election of Donald Trump as the President of embarrassed, it seems, when he discovers that the United States has been interpreted as evidence his secret service codename before becoming of a backlash against globalisation and the unfair President was ‘Glasses’). He responds calmly to distribution of its fruits, and an indulgence of the chaos, he enforces the rule of law and refuses perception that the metropolitan elite (in collusion to allow the country to become consumed by with big business) have stolen the American fear, intolerance and hatred. In reality, America’s Dream and rigged the political system and the Electoral College system has delivered a President economy in their favour. Te establishment are who has been swept to the White House by inciting viewed as ‘out-of-touch’ with the concerns of these unpleasant emotions. Te equation has been ordinary people. I have been researching and fipped on its head: in my book, I argued that writing about the fctional presidency in flm and presidents in flm and television tend to indulge Dr Gregory Frame television since Barack Obama took ofce in 2009. the populist fantasies that we know (or, rather, I have observed its development and evolution knew) could not be enacted in reality. Films from Lecturer in Film Studies since the early 1990s, from a desire for a return Mr Smith Goes to Washington to Dave give us the at Bangor University. of the Reaganite, militaristic strongman during idealised image of the non-politician wielding His research focuses Clinton’s presidency, to the hope for an intelligent political power; Independence Day and Air Force on the politics and and sober leader to replace George W. Bush in the One posit the notion that the great President is 2000s. one who rides into battle himself to face down the ideologies of mainstream Te most recent examples in flm and televi- nation’s enemies. Until now, it always seemed to flm and television. His sion have positioned the President within arche- me that the fctional presidency provided a release book, Te American types previously unimaginable in this particular valve to our dissatisfaction with the real candidates President in Film and cultural repository: in Olympus Has Fallen (2013) for President, and a safe revolt against the bargain- Television: Myth, Politics and White House Down (2013), the President ing and compromises necessary when in power. and Representation, is is recast as the ‘damsel-in-distress’, requiring So while contemporary flm and television available from Peter Lang rescue from dastardly terrorists by the heroic, have explored the notion that the presidency Oxford. musclebound white male. In Scandal and House cannot have it all its own way in a more difuse of Cards, the institution is shown as rather weak; and complex global environment, it seems the Email: [email protected] unable to bend the world to its will any longer, electorate have rejected such hard truths. Trump’s it is dependent upon underhand tactics, corrup- promise to ‘Make America Great Again’ was tion and criminal behaviour in order to achieve seductive enough for the groups of people to anything. In House of Cards, President Frank whom he appealed that he was able to win the Underwood (Kevin Spacey), assailed from all sides White House on the basis that the President can by his opponents, resorts to grotesque levels of change the way America, and the world, is run. manipulation and corruption to keep his place in He was elected on a fction. While the President the White House. In Scandal, President Tomas in flm and television now might appear ‘out-of- Fitzgerald Grant III ponders abandoning his touch’ with contemporary politics, we should position for love; he only ever pursued the position continue to monitor its development as a critique to best his father. Popular television appears to be of the institution. If Donald Trump wants a primer suggesting that the presidency is a feeble and irrel- of what is expected of him now he is President, he evant institution, incapable of standing on its own. could do worse to look to the sobriety and modera- Designated Survivor, which premiered this tion of Designated Survivor for guidance. Tat said, autumn, appears to represent something of a I’m not holding my breath. resurgence for the notion of the President as ‘strongman’. President Tomas Kirkman (Kiefer Sutherland) is installed to the nation’s highest ofce afer the Capitol Building is blown up during the State of the Union Address. Previously the Secretary for Housing and Development, he is entirely inexperienced and unprepared for the role. Kirkman proceeds cautiously, and refuses to bow to the more aggressive forces within the military. Unlike Sutherland’s iconic character Jack Bauer 24, Kirkman is reasonable, measured and careful in his execution of power. He will protect the nation, but he will not do so at the expense of liberal values. If all this sounds hilariously out-of-step with what the United States has just inficted upon itself and the world, that’s because it is. Kirkman is a ‘normal’ leader; safe, stable, even boring. He is an intellectual (something of which he is slightly 94 It’s never just a joke: Pop culture and the US presidency

As an icebreaker, I ask students taking my course spun and blustered and obfuscated, so that the on American comedy and humour, “Who is the reports are just part of the scene, like drinks being funniest person in the United States?” In July last served in a comedy club – they only fuel the year, the droll frst response was “Donald Trump.” response and spread the punchlines. He was not the answer in July this year. Clinton was reduced to an insistent heckler. What changed? Obviously, the stakes were Hecklers never look good. Tey ruin the act. Tey diferent. He was a few swing states away from the bum everybody out: “Sit down and shut up and let US presidency, something impossible to conceive him get on with the show.” of last year, something impossible to countenance Clinton cannot “win” at pop culture. She up until Election Day, and the reality for at least admitted as much at her Democratic National the next four years. Convention speech: “I get it that some people just Te polling and the predictions did not don’t know what to make of me.” Uncertainty is Dr Rodney Taveira bear out. “When you realize,” wrote the cultural disturbing, and it allowed Trump and his support- historian, Robert Darnton, in Te Great Cat ers to make something of her for themselves. Lecturer in American Massacre, “that you are not getting something—a Her contrived attempts to reach young Studies at the United joke, a proverb, a ceremony—that is particularly people (“More like Chillary, Am I right?”) were States Studies Centre at meaningful to the natives, you can see where to instantly lampooned for their inauthenticity. the University of Sydney grasp a foreign system of meaning in order to According to a Gallup Poll tracking July 11-Sept unravel it.” Perhaps we must look beyond big data 18, the words Americans mentioned hearing most Email: rodney.taveira@sydney. and a STEM-oriented production of knowledge in relation to Clinton were “email” followed by edu.au to understand Trump’s win. A proposition: the US “lie,” “health,” “speech,” “scandal” and “foundation.” presidential campaign is pop culture. For Trump, “the top substantive words Americans It defnitely has a culture. Anything that lasts use when reporting on Trump include ‘speech,’ for so long must, especially if so many are watching ‘president,’ ‘immigration,’ ‘Mexico,’ ‘convention,’ – even more so if those watching include a con- ‘campaign’ and ‘Obama.’” Tese were Trump’s tinuous news cycle that increasingly incorporates punchlines, and they prevailed. netizen journalism and social media. Further, Clinton is a staple target of pop culture: Trump used this culture more successfully a woman. Her length of time in public life notwith- than Clinton because he forced the campaign standing, no male political candidate has been given to become, almost wholly, pop culture: that is, the scrutiny over dress, demeanour, health, intimate the domain of mass entertainment consumed, relations, and age that Clinton receives. distributed, and created according to shifing and And even when Trump received acute entrenched tastes. scrutiny, it worked for his outsiderness and Cultural theorist Stuart Hall wrote that authenticity. Te tape of Trump bragging about popular culture “is the arena of consent and groping women revealed nothing new other than resistance. It is partly where hegemony arises, and the existence of the tape. Everyone, including the where it is secured.” For example, “Build the Wall!” people that voted for him, knows that he is like is the barest immigration policy. It is, however, this. Many men, both inside and outside locker when coupled with a demonization of out-groups rooms, are also like this, especially men in power (Mexicans, Muslims), a provocative cold open (such as disgraced Fox News heavyweight and to an outrageous act that catches on, spread by Trump adviser Roger Ailes). It’s part of the arena of word of actual and virtual mouth, a slogan that consent and resistance of pop culture. It is power, can stand for everything from hateful xenophobia and the election of Trump suggests that his perfor- to evidence of Washington’s failure to economic mance of this kind of power is aspirational. anxiety under global capitalism. Like old-school comedians, Trump takes control of the room by physically dominating the stage and hectoring the audience into submission. Much like many male, establishment comedians in the wake of the furore around Daniel Tosh’s rape joke, supporters defended his right to say whatever he wants to get a laugh (that is, a vote), praising his outsider fearlessness in a political- ly correct and politically corrupt America. His chauvinistic and racist comments reek of many things—including the authenticity so prized, contemporarily, of tell-it-like-it-is comics (Jon Stewart, Amy Schumer, Louis CK). Te media reported Trump’s act, and mildly held it to account. But his supporters and proxies 95 8 Result and Beyond Trump and the populist earthquake in American politics

Election night in America has been stunning. by UKIP’s role in catalyzing the British exit from Te outcome may be catastrophic and transform- the European Union, with massive consequences. ative for America and the world. Te pundits Te electoral fortunes of populist parties and pollsters consistently reported throughout are open to multiple explanations which can the long, long US campaign that Hillary Clinton be grouped into accounts focused upon (1) the was consistently in the lead in the popular vote demand-side of public opinion, (2) the supply-side estimated across the average of most national polls. of party strategies, and (3) constitutional arrange- Te projection of a Clinton victory had seemed ments governing the rules of the electoral game. widely plausible. By all accounts the Democrats Applying these explanations to the Trump had a unifed convention, a well-funded campaign, phenomenon, the demand side concerns the an experienced, well qualifed and knowledgea- cultural backlash concentrated among older white ble candidate, the overwhelming endorsement of men who want to ‘Make America Great Again’, Prof Pippa Norris the mainstream press, the support of a team of meaning a vision of an older small-town America, heavy-hitters including POTUS and FLOTUS, a refecting traditional values common decades ago Paul McGuire Lecturer popular President, a low economic misery index, a over more progressive, cosmopolitan and multicul- in Comparative Politics well-organized get out the vote ground game, and a tural values. Te supply-side concerns how parties at Harvard University, consistently winning debate performance. compete and the way that the Tea Party wing of the Professor of Government By contrast, the Republican leadership has Republican party advocated and laid the founda- and International been deeply divided with lukewarm support for tion for many of the populist themes which Trump Relations at Sydney their own standard-bearer. Donald Trump ofered subsequently echoed, including anti-establishment University, and founding himself as a candidate emphasizing a toxic brew of and anti-government, birtherism, climate change Director of the Electoral racist, ill-informed, misogynist, nationalistic and denial, and know-nothingness. Te institutional Integrity Project. vulgar rhetoric, ofending women, Hispanics, and context concerns the weakness of party control many minorities, with only a loose association with over the selection process and the path that Email: Pippa_Norris@Harvard. the truth, no substantive detailed policy platform, provides for an outsider candidacy. edu no experience of government or the military, less But the explanation of the populist revolu- funds than his opponent, and minimal advertising tion is less important than the consequences of and polling. And yet, still the Republicans ended a President Trump. Tis is not just the choice up holding both ends of Pennsylvania Avenue. of another leader like any other, where there What explains the populist earthquake in are genuine party diferences on public policies American politics? and debate about alternative ways to manage Some factors are clearly specifc to this election the country. Te authoritarian tendencies of campaign. Te way that the Republican primaries his leadership, his attack on basic democratic turned into a circular fring squad for the moderate principles, and the isolationist withdrawal of candidates. Te lack of efective new blood America from the world, are likely to be deeply competing in the Democratic contests, allowing damaging, to human rights at home and abroad. all the bag and baggage of the Clinton haters to be Brexit was a disaster for Britain – and Europe. But reignited. Events such as the Russian-hacking of it was just a seismic tremor presaging a far bigger the DNC and the Wikileaks endless recycling of the tsunami. President Trump will be a catastrophe Clinton email story. And so on. for America and the world. But the populist earthquake is also part of a far broader picture. Like Donald Trump, leaders such as , Norbert Hofer, Nigel Farage, and Geert Wilders are prominent today in many countries, altering established patterns of party competition in contemporary Western societies. Tese parties have gained votes and seats in many countries, and entered government coalitions in eleven Western democracies, including in Austria, Italy and Switzerland. Across Europe, their average share of the vote in national and European parliamentary elections has more than doubled since the 1960s, from around 5.1% to 13.2%, at the expense of center parties. During the same era, their share of seats has tripled, from 3.8% to 12.8%. Even in countries without many elected populist repre- sentatives, these parties can still exert tremendous ‘blackmail’ pressure on mainstream parties, public discourse, and the policy agenda, as is illustrated 97 Democracy Trumped

How did brand magnate reality TV star with a right parties on the rise, or already in power and vindictive style and no political experience become threatening basic democratic values. Even though President of the United States? A few years back I the radical lef is as numerous and angry as the asked a colleague in Italy to explain Berlusconi. He right, it is burdened with identity politics and the pointed to a corrupted and dysfunctional political romance of deliberative democracy, which under- system that angered voters enough to throw a mines conventional party organization, leadership, bomb into government. Never mind that Trump, and the capacity to generate appealing ideas that like Berlusconi, oozes a special corruption all his travel via simple emotional messages. own. Most of the press and party elites missed the Te spectre haunting democracy today is the scale of angry emotion aimed at them by white legacy of centrist neoliberal elites, and the press working and middle class Americans. Indeed, the organizations that cover them. Te core democrat- Prof W. Lance Bennett cosmopolitan press had long rendered these folk ic institutions of press and politics have failed to nearly invisible, brushing of the early warning engage white working class populations that have Professor of political signs of the Tea Party as a minor disturbance. And been economic casualties of globalization. Perhaps science and Ruddick so, most media experts and party insiders engaged even more troubling is the failure of the center C. Lawrence Professor in knowing discussions of how impossible it would lef and right to engage white middle classes who be for anyone to be elected with Trump’s combi- are more the symbolic casualties of globalization. of Communication at nation of inexperience, shady business dealings, Tese are the god fearing Christians for whom University of Washington, and inability to manage his emotions and stay on racial and patriarchal privilege once ofered social Seattle USA. His most script. identity and status, and who now feel threatened recent book is News: Te Meanwhile, Trump found and fed the white by multiculturalism, immigration and Islam. Yet, Politics of Illusion (10th anger with simple, emotional messages, such as neoliberal politicians from Tony Blair to Barack Edition, University of the promise to “drain the swamp” in Washington. Obama have told them that globalization is irre- Chicago Press) He branded “Crooked Hillary” as the ultimate versible, so get over it. insider, with close ties to the banks, a trail of Clinton’s message of “stronger together” surely Email: [email protected]. (largely manufactured) scandals, and argued it was felt wrong to those who lived in Trump’s America edu difcult drawing a line between ofcial business, and wanted to make their nation great again - in the Clinton Foundation, and her ties to Wall Street. their own image. Beyond the ‘lying’ mainstream Despite the baggage that Clinton carried through press, which Trump helped his followers de- the campaign, she did win the popular vote, and construct every day, Trump’s coded messages of might have won the election had the (Republican) resurgent white nationalism circulated through the FBI director not renewed an investigation of her alternative or “Alt” right media system in the US. handling of ofcial emails as Secretary of State. Among hundreds of Alt right websites is Breitbart, Tis was the “October surprise” that sent many with19 million unique monthly visitors. Late in undecided voters, including a majority of white the summer, when struggling with self-inficted women, to Trump. damage in the establishment press, Trump picked Clinton tried in vain to get policy messages Breitbart publisher Steve Bannon to head his into the news, but Trump dominated the daily campaign. Te campaign media team was soon media spectacle with tirades against immigrants, joined by Roger Ailes, who began his political government corruption, establishment politi- career reinventing Richard Nixon for the televi- cians from both parties, the press, and the global sion age, and later headed Rupert Murdoch’s Fox economy. When he mentioned Clinton, the crowds News channel until he was driven out by a sexual ritualistically chanted “lock her up,” which he harassment scandal. Bannon and Ailes have visions promised to do. Reporters were herded like cattle of consolidating their victory by forging a Trump into fenced pens at rallies, and crowds shook their media network that will serve as a surrogate party fsts and chanted at them when Trump denounced organization, and bypass the mainstream press in the lying, biased media. Reporters needed Secret keeping Trump propaganda fowing to supporters. Service protection at these events. Trough his def In light of these trends, it is time to ask: What use of social and conventional media and relentless is the future of democracy given the imbalance appearances at rallies, Trump created a movement between lef and right, and the disdain shown by that revealed, like Bernie Sanders in the Democrat- many victorious right politicians for civil liberties, ic primaries that selected Clinton, the emptiness of moral tolerance, racial, sexual, and religious the US party system. diversity, press freedom, and basic civility? Tose Te Trump revolt echoes the rise of the radical of us who beneft from cosmopolitan societies and right sweeping European democracies. Traditional global economies have failed to notice that the parties have become “hollowed out,” in Peter Mair’s democratic institutions of press and parties have term, uninterested in engaging voters beyond withered, while a new and more ominous political crude marketing campaigns at election time. Te and communication order has emerged in our British felt this shock with the Brexit vote, and no midst. fewer than 28 countries in Europe have radical 98 The narcissistic capture of American nationalism

A striking feature of the 2016 Presidential election defence is so plausible and welcome across the was the strength of the simplistic delusionality American electorate. which the successful candidate ofered, and which American nationalism has probably always appeared to be so warming for so many people. had a strong element of narcissistic grandiosity, ‘Donald will put the mines back.’ ‘Donald will build even when American power in the world meant a wall.’ ‘Donald will make America great again.’ that its citizens could feel safe at home and had Of course, the call of simplistic and delusional less need to fantasize invulnerability. But part of rhetoric is hardly a new phenomenon. Even in the legacy of 9/11 has been a narcissistic wound, a his serious pursuit of conspiracy theories, Trump gash in the fantasy of American invincibility. Such stands in a long political tradition, that of the an experience will stimulate some people to face ‘paranoid style’, as the historian Richard Hofstadter the complexities of the world, while others – those called it in 1964. But there is a case for seeing in with more anxiety and fewer emotional resources Prof Barry Richards 2016 a new level of obliviousness to both moral to manage their anxiety - will cling more tightly to principle and to reality-testing. images of the supremacy which Trump promised Professor of Political At one level, Trump’s appeal is because he to recover immediately. Psychology at is a populist and nationalist. Populism is usually Te moral strengths and creative richness Bournemouth University. a divisive force, but is not always as toxic as of American society have created visions of His current research Trumpism threatens to be. Nationalism is an empty the American nation not based on narcissistic interests are in extremist container, which can be flled with many diferent defences. But the scale of Trumpist nationalism ideologies, freedom of kinds of politics, and diferent kinds of emotion. suggests that Lasch’s diagnosis was more accurate speech, and the psychology To understand the surge of Trumpist nationalism, than we might have thought when Obama was of nationalism. His book we need to analyse it psychologically as well elected. When deployed in the feld of political ide- as politically. ologies, narcissism can rapidly conjure up a volatile Emotional Governance An American historian who wrote with nationalism, a huge shield which ofers massive (Palgrave, 2007) was scholarly eloquence about American politics was reassurance against many kinds of anxiety - social, about the emotional Christopher Lasch, author in 1979 of Te Culture economic, and cultural, and also existential. public sphere, and the of Narcissism. While a lot of hostile commentary Trumpism ofers a magical healing of the forthcoming What Holds on Trumpism has used the term ‘narcissist’ to refer narcissistic wound festering since 9/11, a complete Us Together (Karnac, to the man himself, there has been less examina- restoration of the narcissistic defence. Tis is a psy- 2017) links popular tion of how the basis of his appeal to American chically turbo-charged nationalistic populism, in culture to the crisis voters lies in his reflection of their own which hatred of the ‘elite’ can reach hallucinogenic of politics and to national ideological narcissism. levels of intensity. It does not matter that Trump identity. To be clear, narcissism in the technical sense himself belongs to a global elite, one which has led is not a spontaneous arrogance or selfshness, a the assault on national cultures. Te strategic trick Email: [email protected] self-love which some people just happen to have of the populist is always to appear from outside and others don’t. As Lasch described, it takes power, to be the virgin politician. Whether the nar- many behavioural forms, some of which are very cissism which Trump embodies can be contained diferent from the popular image of the preening when he is in the White House, or whether it narcissist. Essentially it is an internal state of will have calamitous consequences, may depend mind, a delusional infation of the self which is on how strong and malignant are his needs for a defence against anxiety, against unconscious control and domination, as well as on how much fears of weakness and abandonment. Believe in the complex realities of politics may restrain him. your own invulnerability, and you will be fne. And realities aside, whether 47.5% of the American Given the vulnerability and dependency of the public continue to support him depends on how human infant, the tendency to fall into narcissistic much the narcissistic defence which he ofers fantasy is something we all have to work through continues to work for them. in emotional development, and which situations of insecurity in adult life may re-evoke. In a world that seems dangerous, a narcissistically-based belief in your own powers to transcend reality can smother anxiety. Te defensive narcissism of Trump the person is clearly on view, in a form consistent with the popular view of how a narcissist behaves. Te absurd braggadocio would be hard to sustain, even as a deliberate performance, by someone not bunkered in an experience of their own majesty. Precisely what fear and insecurity lies beneath, we can only guess. More pressing, and more do-able, is the task of understanding why this toxic 99 With mainstream politics seemingly devoid of answers, many vote for the previously unthinkable

Peter Bloom In a country divided by race, class and the growing out the hope that it was still possible for everyday chasm of ideology, 2016 seemed to ofer very little citizens to mobilize and shape history rather than Senior Lecturer and common ground between Clinton and Trump simply being shaped by it. supporters. Tey appeared to represent not just Te elite Liberal dismissal of such eforts refected Head of the Department competing political desires or interests but two just how deeply the cynicism from the Centre ran of People and fundamentally opposed worldviews. On one side and how scared it was of radical change, regard- Organisations at the stood a tried and true vision of tolerance and in- less of which political direction it came from. Open University cremental progress. On the other misdirected hate Conversely, Trump tapped into a populist outrage and an impassioned cry for the complete sweeping with the “establishment”, dragging it down to the Email: [email protected] away of the status quo. lowest common denominator of racism, sexism First appearances, though, can be deceiving. and discrimination. Without any alternative, most Amidst these profound diferences was a shared Americans chose to stay home discontent with sense of alarmism tinged with optimism. having to choose between (to quote one popular Democrats were terrorised by Trump and his meme) “An incredibly shitty status quo” and a supporters’ fascist overtones and excited that this “dystopian nightmare future”. would most likely spell the end of the Conservative Te cultural theorist Fredric Jameson extremism that had taken hold of the Republican famously declared “Someone once said that it is Party since Obama’s inauguration. For those on easier to imagine the end of the world than to the Right, they feared a Clinton monarchy and imagine the end of capitalism”. On November 8th the continuation of an economy and society that many Americans voted for the unthinkable afer seemed content to leave them behind. years of being told that their longing for a truly Even more fundamentally, both camps better future was little more than a naïve dream. passionately embraced candidates who ofered Te rest of the country now must wake up and them little more than false solutions in a country confront our worst political nightmare. that had seemed to run out of answers to its most pressing economic, social and political problems. Trump is the most obvious target for such a critique. Te now president elect showed himself throughout the campaign to be a emotionally resonant con ma extraordinaire - promising to make American Great Again even while insulting a growing portion of its population. Clinton, however, was by no means free of such political sins. She ofered high minded platitudes and piece meal reforms in place of a genuine record or vision of bold progressive change. Emerging was a more chronic and serious disease aficting American democracy. If the 21st century had thus far shown the American public anything – it was not just that government was inefectual but that it was completely unimagina- tive. Amidst its sound bites and carefully staged debates, it spoke little to the real concerns and ex- periences of those they ostensibly represented. Tis was especially deplorable in a time when inequality was on the rise while economic and political power frmly rested in the hands of elites. International- ly, America seemed stuck in a vicious and costly cycle of militarism and terrorism. Te country was further torn apart over issues of police brutality, mass incarceration and the looming threat of climate change. Te insurgent progressive candidacy of Bernie Sanders was to a new generation a potential antidote to this cultural paralysis. His rejection of corporate money and call for a “political revo- lution” showed glimmers of jumpstarting the sputtering nation from its ideological malaise and entrenched partisan battles. It was a call to take back the government for the people. Yet it also held 100 Irrational beliefs matter

Populism is surging across the western world. voters tend, among others, to appear pessimistic Lately the surge spiked due to the prevalence of about the course of the economy believing that Donald Trump in the US presidential election. it is going from bad to worse as well as to under- Although he lost the popular vote marginally, he value the economic benefts of interaction with won the majority of the electoral college votes. He foreigners. In the case of the US election, there are was backed by a coalition of traditional Republican already some indications highlighting such beliefs. supporters and white blue-collar, low- and middle- For example, although the economy has exited income voters without a college degree residing recession and returned to rapid growth rates, seven mainly in rural areas and smaller cities. in ten Trump voters consider, according to a Pew It seems that the economy shaped the election. Research Center survey, that the economy has Te majority of the electorate (52%), according to gotten worse since 2008. Moreover, most Trump the exit poll, prioritized the economy as the most voters believe that the free trade agreements have Dr Panos Koliastasis important issue facing the country. In this context, been a ‘bad thing’ for the US hurting families’ despite the good condition of the American fnancial situation, while mean income and mean PhD in Political Science economy including positive growth rates, record wealth have risen substantially since the 1980s. from Queen Mary low unemployment, rising wages and falling Furthermore, despite the fact the unemployment University of London poverty; most voters considered otherwise. As rate in the country has fallen below 5%, most (QMUL). Currently, the exit poll suggests, the public majority (62%) Trump voters, according to the exit poll, share the he acts as a Visiting evaluated the condition of the national economy view that international trade takes away US jobs Research Fellow in Politics as ‘not good’ or ‘poor’. From this 62%, more than rather than creates them. at the University of six out of ten voted for Trump. Furthermore, it Certainly public frustration with the in- Peloponnese in Greece. seems that income inequality afected signifcant- equality issue (and the falling manufacturing His research focuses on ly the Trump vote. According to a post-election employment) is valid. Yet, the perception of most Bruegel analysis, Trump’s electoral performance of Trump’s voters about the root causes of these political communication, was stronger in the states displaying the highest in- negative developments and the respective policy voting behaviour and equality gap. As a result, the majority of the public remedies is mainly erroneous. Globalisation comparative politics. (49%), according to the exit poll, considered him, appears to afect only partially these issues, which rather than Clinton (46%), as the most capable to are actually multi-causal and are attributed more to Email: [email protected] handle the economy. other factors such as technological advancement, It should be noted that the President-elect declining productivity, weakened labour unions, has attributed the responsibility for US economic an ageing population, low public investment and woes mainly to globalization, including global insufcient welfare state provisions to compensate competition, free trade and immigration. Against those who ‘got lef behind’. this backdrop, Trump has suggested as a remedy Given the above, it could be said that irration- an economic plan consisted of protectionist al beliefs proved to be more powerful than reality, policies along with large tax-cuts for the rich and allowing Trump to capitalise on them, present deregulation to boost growth, wages and manu- ‘globalisation’ as the main enemy and himself and facturing employment. his program as the sole antidote for that. However, his policy proposals have largely been criticized as unrealistic and damaging by the overwhelming majority of prominent econ- omists including Nobel laureates. In particular, opposing voices point out that if Trump’s policy is actually implemented, it is expected to worsen the condition of the economy undermining growth prospects, increasing unemployment, lowering wages, leading to deteriorating public fnances which will likely hurt the low and middle income classes most. So the question that naturally emerges, given that the electorate has been informed about the implications of Trump’s economic policy, is why so many voters and especially those coming from the working class, accepted his narrative? Why did they vote against their own interests? In other words, why did they act irrationally? It is possible to argue that voters hold sys- tematically erroneous and biased beliefs about economics which can, to a great extent, explain their irrational political decisions. Specifcally, 101 The politics of de-legitimacy

It’s a shock. He beat the polls, overturned estab- policies and outright misogyny. lished political knowledge about how to run a Shamelessly used by the Republicans and modern campaign and suspended the laws of shabbily treated by the Democrats, many turned to political gravity that always pull down deep- Trump. His outsider status and maverick campaign ly-fawed and gafe-prone politicians. resonated with a substantial mass of Americans But Trump’s victory is a symbol of a lack of harboring a sense of alienation from the main- confdence in government, a legitimation crisis in stream political parties. the USA. Te ending of the long post-war boom Te cozy relationship between the main and the declining confdence in the economic parties and the money of Wall Street was also globalization project has raised a structural rather a matter of public scorn. Both Democrats and than just a temporal crisis of confdence. Republicans worked to undercut the regulations Prof John Rennie Short His success in Pennsylvania, Michigan and in place since the New Deal that limited power Wisconsin was based on the discontent of white of fnance. And as the shackles were loosened the Professor in the School blue-collar workers whose wages have been concentration of power continued and even more of Public Policy at the declining since at least 1970 and accelerating since money fowed from the bankers to the politicians. University of Maryland 2000. Many factors are at work but one of the most Tere was a revolving door between Wall Street Baltimore County. Recent visible is deindustrialization. Manufacturing jobs and the political establishment. It was a totally books include Urban provided the platform into the middle class for non-partisan afair as Hank Paulson, Robert Rubin, non-college educated workers. But manufactur- Timothy Geithner and Larry Summers moved Teory (2014, 2nd ed) ing jobs have declined dramatically. Tere were from key government posts to a lucrative gig with and Stress Testing Te more than 18 million manufacturing jobs in the banks and hedge funds and sometimes back into USA (2013). His essays USA in 1984. By 2012 it was little over 12 million. politics again. Later, in an act of political deafness have appeared in Te A dramatic decline in good paying jobs that or perhaps donor demand, the Obama Adminis- Conversation, Newsweek, depressed regional and urban economies outside of tration appointed Geithner, directly involved in Salon, Slate, Time, US the two coasts. the deal, to become Treasury Secretary. Te 2008 News and World Report In the global shif in manufacturing from the bailout to a corrupt fnancial system signaled the and Te Washington Post. developed world to the developing world, a new extent of the Wall Street hijacking of government. middle class was created in South Korea and China Public discontent, exemplifed in the rise of the Email: [email protected] while a middle class was undermined in the USA Tea Party, soon hardened to a cynicism that is with low wage growth for non-college educated now baked into the present legitimation crisis. Te workers and a decline in industrial cities and Clinton candidacy was undermined by her Wall regions across the country. Street connections, Tis discontent was not given political articu- Trump’s stunning electoral win demonstrates lation by the two mainstream parties. Te Republic not so much the strength of his candidacy but Party used its working class base as electoral the depth of despair felt by about the country’s cannon fodder to promote an agenda that aided direction. His win is the equivalent of a scream its big donors. Te base was fed rhetoric while the of resentment, an articulation of alienation and a business wing received all the benefts from free symbol of a deep crisis of legitimation. trade and the disciplining unions. Meanwhile, the Democratic Administrations of Clinton and Obama pursued an economic agenda that promoted globalization. If the Republicans had a trickle down theory that believed, despite evidence to the contrary, making the rich richer benefts everyone, the Democratic equivalent was that the benefts of globalization would eventually raise all boats. Many of the blue-collar workers felt ignored by Democrats who promoted economic globaliza- tion that undercut their jobs and a cultural relativ- ism that undermined their values. Hilary Clinton’s 2016 strategy was built on getting out the vote of blacks, Latinos and the millennials. She rarely addressed the concerns of white workers in rural and small town USA. White working class workers were ignored. Her Presidency promised a rerun of Obama but without the charisma and the sense of profound social optimism. Te palpable animus against her was visceral, a mixture of Clinton-Oba- ma fatigue, distrust of insider government-eco- nomic elites, resistance to social progressive 102 There are six types of ugly American and Donald Trump is all of them

If non-Americans could vote for what is ofen called and their fndings, makes him top of the class of “leader of the free world”, Hillary Clinton would easily loud-mouthed American bloviators for many. be the next US president. WIN/Gallup surveyed world In an earlier American generation, such rhetoric opinion and Donald Trump’s support is extremely was associated with the Know-Nothing anti-im- weak (apart from in Russia). Trump polled at 15% in migration movement. Australia, 8% in Germany, 5% in Mexico, 4% in Spain, 3. Bland lives: Te third stereotype – that and 3% in Jordan, Japan and South Korea. Americans are sameish and live bland lives – Some of this has to do with Trump’s possible would seem at frst glance to miss the mark with foreign policies: the Japanese and South Koreans Trump. Tis view of Americans is that their are key allies one day, and on their own the next lives, to quote de Tocqueville, are particularly day with encouragement to nuke up. Mexicans “unpoetic” and they live by cliches and hollow have been told they are going to pay for that “tre- catchphrases like “have a nice day”. If one takes Dr Brendon O’Connor mendous wall” along their roughly 3200-kilometre a deeper look at Trump and his enterprises, he border with the US, which would cost approx- has a remarkable talent for making glamour Associate Professor in imately US$12 billion to build. Tis boast was bland and soulless. Behind all the bluster, Trump’s American Politics at the unlikely to win Mexicans over to Trump. vocabulary is repetitive and dull as he repeats the United States Studies However, while there is widespread disapproval of same platitudes and self-praise over and over. Centre at the University of Trump’s nationalist, protectionist and racist policies, it And for all of his money, the Trump diet consists Sydney is his persona that most repels non-Americans. Trump of lots of McDonald’s meals, extremely well-done is strongly disliked across the world because he is the crispy steak, diet cola, and no alcohol. In a world Email: brendon.oconnor@sydney. archetypal “ugly American”: obnoxious, uncouth, where eating a variety of food has become com- edu.au boastful, materialistic, and duplicitous. monplace, Trump’s diet lacks sophistication and I am writing a book on negative stereotypes imagination. Not only unhealthy, but for many about Americans, and Trump is the gif that keeps trashy. on giving. He is one of those Americans that 4. Trump the patriot: When it comes to boasting, foreigners have instantly strong opinions about. Trump is constantly self-congratulatory and When George W. Bush ran for the presidency, and arguably the biggest self-promoter in living when Sarah Palin was chosen by Senator John memory. His patriotism is wrapped up in his McCain as his presidential running-mate, there claim that America will get so used to “winning” was a mountain of criticism around the globe everything under a Trump presidency it will get about their ignorance and parochialism. sick of winning. He vaingloriously promotes his People everywhere seemed to be saying – based poll numbers, primary victories and the dismissal on very little information – “I know this kind of of his opponents as “so easy to beat”. American and I do not like them”. Tis reaction occurs 5. Money, money, money: His claim to have “made because there is a long-standing stock of stereotypes it” fnancially is central to Trump’s appeal to about Americans that go back to the early 19th century, many Americans. However, outside of America, instantly available to animate one’s feelings. boasting about wealth and fame is largely seen as My research, based on reading more than 100 gauche. travel books written by Europeans from the early 19th 6. Hypocrisy: Lastly, the saying that “those in glass- century, argues six dominant stereotypes were con- houses should not throw stones” is something structed in the 1820s and 1830s. Tey have persisted that never occurs to Trump. Being a hypocrite ever since. Tese were: that American manners were clearly does not concern him and this is one extremely defcient; that Americans were ofen anti-in- of those infuriating traits that makes him so tellectual, uncultured, and ignorant; that Americans strongly disliked from Norway to Chile. lived ultimately bland lives; that Americans were par- It is tempting to proclaim Trump is very familiar ticularly prone to boasting and annoying patriotism; to us because he embodies the worst things about that Americans were money obsessed and fnancially Americans. However, these traits are apparent across untrustworthy; and fnally that Americans were hyp- the world. Trump therefore is not merely an “ugly ocrites. Trump, for many, is the embodiment of these American” but amplifes commonplace cultural trends, negative national stereotypes. such as narcissism, self-centredness, gnat-like attention 1. Trump’s manners: In terms of manners, Trump spans, obsessive self-regard, preoccupation with the is the schoolyard bully as CEO. Trump’s bad number of followers one has and a lack of interest manners could generously be viewed as anti-elit- in listening to others. Tese trends can be passed of ist populism challenging the failing status quo. “American”, but if we are honest, this behaviour is all 2. Anti-intellectualism: Forget Trump’s Wharton around us. To prevent the next Trump – and there will School MBA – and his boast that “I know be more – requires challenging the sources of selfsh- words, I have the best words”. When it comes to ness in modern culture that are on the rise everywhere. uncouth anti-intellectualism, Trump’s simplistic solutions, lowest common denominator attacks A version of this article was originally published on Te on opponents, and constant disregard for experts Conversation. 103 Refections on the 2016 US Election

Te most important takeaway of the US 2016 pres- parties, but the Republicans got a landslide 46 seat idential election is that we are entering transitional majority, largely due to , whereby times, with unusual levels of political turbulence politicians rig election districts to favor the the order of the day. Tis is true not just in the dominant party at the state level. United States, but, to varying degrees, worldwide. Moreover, millions of Americans were unable At its core, the cause is a stagnant capitalist to vote because they failed to meet strict identifca- economy, with growing inequality, unemployment tion policies put in place universally by Republican and underemployment, poverty and precarious- state governments with the clear intent of lowering ness the emerging features. Upon this is layered a the number of poor and minority voters. growing sense of corruption in governance, and Te US system makes “lesser-of-two evils” the inability of governing institutions in ostensible voting highly rational behavior, thereby locking in Prof Robert W. McChesney democracies to represent the interests of the bulk the two-party duopoly and allowing them to serve of the population to address and solve problems corporate interests and not worry about losing Teaches communication in an efcient, just and humane manner. And their voters to the one permissible hated alternative. at the University of Illinois foremost among those problems are inequality, And, to top it of, the total cost of the 2016 at Urbana-Champaign. militarism and the climate crisis. campaigns has yet to be tabulated, but it stands He is the co-author of Tis is certainly the case in the United States, to be much like 2012, when US candidates spent People Get Ready: Te where the mainstreams of both major political 30-40 times more per voter than did candidates in parties were signifcantly abandoned by their Germany or Britain in their most recent national Fight Against a Jobless voters in 2016. In stagnant and corrupt times the elections, mostly for generally asinine TV political Economy and a Citizenless mainstream is increasingly dismissed as inefectual advertisements. Much of that cash comes from Democracy (Nation and corrupt. As we learned in the 1930s, when wealthy individuals and corporations and is unac- Books, 2016). the world was in a similar political economic countable “dark money.” crisis, the dominant growing alternatives are an So is it any surprise that the United States has Email: [email protected] authoritarian anti-democratic pseudo-populism the lowest voter turnout of any major democracy on the right, generally known as fascism, and in the world, with barely 50 percent of the vot- democratic socialism on the lef. In the United ing-age population participating in 2016? States, the campaigns of Donald Trump and Bernie Tere has been much grumbling about how Sanders refected elements of these two traditions the mainstream media has been dreadful and su- respectively, and both did dramatically better than perfcial in its election coverage, and it is justifed. anyone would have thought possible for generations. But there was a far greater problem in 2016 that Indeed, had the Democratic Party not rigged got almost no mention: there is very little coverage the primary process in close collaboration with of political races by journalists any longer. Te US Hillary Clinton and the news media to guarantee model of commercial journalism has collapsed and she got the nomination over Sanders—indeed, to when people go to the polls they have almost no prevent any efective competition for the nomi- idea who the candidates are and what they stand nation—she may well have been defeated in the for aside from what they might have seen in the spring. Tere is reason to believe that Sanders, TV ads. Unless there are clear public policies to who is hugely popular among independent voters, establish a competitive independent news media, would have crushed Trump in a general election. it is difcult to see how the governing system can Te turnout and enthusiasm among young people be corralled to serve the interests of the people. would have been markedly higher—Sanders is Whatever their faws, that was something the arguably the most popular politician with voters framers of the constitution understood in their under 30 in modern American history—and bone marrow. In a genuine democracy, this would early analysis of the election results suggest such be an issue of the highest magnitude. a higher turnout would have provided victory margins in several of the states Hillary lost. Te election also drew attention to a number of issues that undermine the notion that the United States can be termed a democracy, unless one uses scare quotes. Hillary Clinton actually won the election, if one simply looks at the popular vote. She lost de- cisively in the “electoral college,” an absurd device put in the constitution primarily so slave-owning states could get credit for the slave population— each slave counted as 3/5 of a person—without letting them vote. Te total vote for all the House of Repre- sentative races split fairly evenly between the two 104 The Wørd: Stupid Power

My fellow Americans. [Well, a little less than half of powerful. Just look at His selfes. [Visual: Michel- you.] From the fery forge of the 2016 presidential angelo’s “Creation of Adam” with Trump’s head elections has emerged our Great Leader. [Trump replacing Adam’s.] Yeah, that’s right. Tat’s strictly Hates Love.] And this Great Leader has promised man-on-man action there, folks. Tat’s proof. to Make America Great ... Again. [Backwards Tat’s Providence. (Aside: Oh my, Adam sure does and Upwards!] I know that I, for one, am looking have small hands.) Anyway, my point is, Liberals, forward to living in the swanky hotel that will be what have you got to lose? You can never get your Trump America. [Until it goes bankrupt.] But I also act together anyway. [Feel the Berned.] You just know that many of you [a little over half] are asking put up the most qualifed candidate ever to run for yourselves, hey, just how the hell is this guy even president [except for the naughty bits] and she was going to make things mediocre? Many of you are soundly defeated by the minority of voters. thinking [more of an internal shriek], hey, this guy Te American people have spoken [all 538 Prof Kirk Combe has never met a fact that he didn’t ignore. What’s of them in the Electoral College], and the outcome so great about that? [You get to wear your hair any is clear. Our Great Leader has lead a populist Professor of English at way you want.] revolution in America propelled by congressional Denison University, USA. Well, I’m here to tell you what’s so great gridlock, the sky-high ratings of for-proft news He teaches and researches about that. I’m here to let you in on the great outlets, systematic voter suppression, a public in the areas of satire, secret of our Great Leader’s great strength. [Oh addicted to reality TV, and an anti-elitism personi- literary and cultural ... great.] And that secret is: Stupid Power. [Ditto. fed by a trust-fund brat. [Yep. What he said.] Tat’s theory, and popular Te phrase works meta, too.] Let me repeat that: right, folks. Only in America. Only in America. So, culture. Along with his Stupid Power. Now, some may call it the Power of Liberals, put an end to your fruitless street protests scholarly publications, Stupid. [Opposite to the Power of Love. Huey Lewis [#notYOURpresidentanywaysucka]. Cross over to shout-out!] But that’s too many words for me. Tat the Drumpf side [audio: Darth Vader breathing] he also writes fction and sounds too smart. Too accurate. And where did and surrender to the delicious certainty of Stupid screenplays. smart and accurate ever get us anyway? [Most Power. It’s a belief you can get behind, that leaves Email: [email protected] recently, out of the Bush Great Recession.] No, I’m no doubt in your mind. [Because your mind isn’t here to tell you about the pure and simple bullet involved in the transaction.] It’s a glorious reaf- train of Stupid Power. I’m here to invite you to frmation of the inspiring vision for America as climb aboard [the Soulless Train!] for a thrilling set out by the Founding Fathers. [Let Caucasian ride straight of the rails. [Meeeeeeeeeeeee!] You boys be Caucasian boys!] It leads inevitably to the see, folks, with Stupid Power, you don’t need no Greatest Good. [For the Greatest Few. Obfuscate science. [Is it hot in here to you?] You don’t need that pyramidal order!] Yes, the blessings of Stupid no education. [Unless you can teach “leadership” Power have brought us to this historic moment. with a straight face.] You just need your deeply So what do you say we just shut that whole held beliefs [eventually to be pried from your dead, history thing down right now. We’re there. We’re cold hands] founded on the down-to-earth creed fnished. We’re done. We’ve arrived. [Te Neoliberal of a gun to love, a bible to misconstrue, several key Jerusalem!] Remember: Stupid is as Stupid doesn’t demographic groups to hate [Let Freedom Sting!], do. And that’s Te Wørd. and plenty of salt and sugar in your diet. [Mmm, [Note: a huge tip of Uncle Sam’s top hat to that nice cushy lining of brain-fat.] Afer all, these Stephen Colbert, who Made Satire Great Again, for principles are what made America Great in the his device of satiric argumentation, Te Wørd.] frst place. [White supremacist capitalist patriarchy.] And these core values, under the guidance of our new Great Leader, surely will transport us back to that great future. [Kicking and screaming in a DeLorean.] Now, I acknowledge that Liberals are pro- foundly disappointed with the election results. [A woman just can’t win for winning.] I realize they feel like all the hope and change of the past eight years [hereafer to be known ofcially as “the obamanation”] will be wiped out in our Great Leader’s frst one hundred days. [Hey, I can do it in ffy. Believe you me.] But you Liberals need to stop your progressive bellyaching. You need to man-up [literally] and get with the Greatness program. [Translated: you pussies are about to be grabbed.] Manifestly, this is Destiny. Tis is God’s Will. His Great Plan at work. Because, let’s face it, God obviously wants old white men to be rich and 105 Back cover image: Picture by Dmitri Lovetsky AP/Press Association Images Front cover image 1: Picture by Ringo H.W. Chiu AP/Press Association Images Image 2: Picture by Mindaugas Kulbis AP/Press Association Images Image 3: Picture by Stacie Scott AP/Press Association Images Image 4: Picture by John Locher AP/Press Association Images Image 5: Picture by Markus Schreiber AP/Press Association Images Image 6: Picture by Backbone Campaign, CC-BY 2.0 Image 7: Picture by John Minchillo AP/Press Association Images Image 8: Picture by John Locher AP/Press Association Images