JANUARY-MARCH 2008 • VOLUME 62 NUMBER 1 California Agriculture

Better wines, more vines: California and the world wine revolution

University of California | Peer-reviewed Research and News in Agricultural, Natural and Human Resources Editorial

UC know-how can boost California wine economy

California, grape cultivation and its value-added agricultural product, wine, are major factors in the INstate’s economy. California wine is valued at $16.6 billion retail (see page 12), and total economic activity from the wine industry is estimated at over $45 billion. This economic activity has now reached a critical juncture when it is time to Andrew L. Waterhouse Neal Van Alfen evaluate our research investment. Interim Chair, Dean, College of Department of Viticulture Agricultural and The United States will soon be the largest global wine and Enology, Environmental Sciences, market. Total consumption has increased by 40% over the UC Davis UC Davis last 10 years, and per capita consumption has grown 23%. However, with per capita consumption at about 2.4 gallons cate the skilled workforce necessary to keep the California there should be room for additional growth, since most wine industry competitive. other Western countries consume more. For instance, per Research in California has been funded at lower levels than capita wine consumption is 5 gallons per year in the United that of overseas competitors for many years, particularly in Kingdom and 6.5 gallons in Australia. contrast to Australia. For the 2007–2008 cycle, for example, less With such significant growth potential, U.S. producers than $1 million in competitive funds went to California public are being challenged by wine imports for market share. U.S. institutions for enology research, while the Australian Grape wine drinkers have been consuming more imported wine, and Wine Research and Development Corporation reported with imports growing to 27% of the market in 2005, doubling an expenditure of $20.7 million, including market analysis. since 1990. The largest growth in the import market is due With its strong historical record in education, research, ex- to a phenomenal explosion in the importation of Australian tension and ongoing education, the University of California wine, which rose by 1500% over the last 10 years. Australia is can help address these areas of need. A recent study of wine poised to become our number one import country in 2007. and grape research showed that the United States (largely The tremendous success of the Australian wine industry UC) has a dominant but threatened position, with Australian is based on a visionary investment partnership between research output rapidly growing. U.S. research is also recog- the Australian industry, government and academia. This nized as authoritative to others in the field, as it has a very comprehensive effort includes new and updated vineyard high citation rate. This is a strong research foundation on plantings, new production facilities, major marketing cam- which to build in the future. paigns, investments in the education of skilled professionals, Graduates from UC Davis in the fields of enology and viti- and scientific research targeted at matching the qualities of culture have been dominant players in the profession for more Australian wine to market preferences at affordable prices. than 50 years. Graduates are in high demand by vineyard and To maintain a competitive and sustainable business posi- wine businesses in California, and the wines they produce tion, the U.S. grape and wine industry must strategically regularly receive state and national awards. The education invest in the future in these same areas. There have been delivered offers scientific depth — with an emphasis on criti- significant investments in new plantings, for instance in the cal thinking, problem-solving and life-long learning — and is Central Coast region (see page 11), and some new facilities essential to addressing competitive challenges to California are being built in those areas to accommodate production. grape and wine businesses. And, Ph.D. graduates become the But the investments in education and research have not been faculty at other wine and grape programs across the United comparable to other major wine-producing countries. To ad- States, a necessary stimulus to the expansion of a wine culture dress this, there have been calls for increased research fund- nationwide. It is important to note that the output of research- ing through various means, and concern has been expressed trained viticulture and/or enology graduates, M.S. winemak- over the shortage of trained viticulture and enology profes- ers and Ph.D. graduates, is constrained by the availability of sionals. Clearly, more can be done in these latter areas. funded grape and wine research projects. The recent growth in new winery businesses has far ex- Investments in education and research are essential to ceeded the capacity of existing educational programs; the maintain the vitality of the industry. UC can help plan and situation has become serious enough to stimulate a session build a bold future with research on sustainable practices on the workforce at the nationwide Unified Wine and Grape and a new understanding of wine flavor, giving California Symposium in 2006. Due to a shortage of locally trained in- winegrowers an edge in the market. We stand ready to help dividuals, many new hires are from overseas or lack training the industry strengthen a competitive, capable and flexible in viticulture or enology. To address this, we need hard data workforce, and develop the future educators necessary to on market demand, and then we must create a plan to edu- sustain this momentum.

2 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 TABLE OFTABLE CONTENTS OF CONTENTS

Research and review articles

12 California wine industry evolving to compete in 21st century Goodhue et al. A revolution in global wine production is under way; larger California wineries are consolidating and small ones sell directly to consumers.

Cover: California’s $45 billion wine 19 Post-emergence herbicides are industry continues to grow and cost effective for vineyard fl oor change (see p. 12). In Sonoma management on the Central Coast County’s Alexander Valley (shown), vineyards continue to expand, as do Tourte et al. premium wine-growing areas along While many growers use both pre- and post- the coast (see p. 11). Photo: ©2008 emergence herbicides, the latter are cheaper, less Herb Lingl/aerialarchives.com. risky and effective on their own. 24 Minimum tillage could benefi t News departments California rice farmers Linquist et al. 4 About California Agriculture A 3-year study suggests that foregoing spring tillage and using a stale seedbed can help control herbicide-resistant weeds while producing high 5 Letters yields. 24 6 To our readers 30 Postharvest survival of navel orange- worm assessed in pistachios 6 Outreach news Siegel et al. 6 Service grants allow 4h-ers to build Burying nuts left on the ground may kill larvae healthier communities during the winter and keep adults from laying eggs on them during the spring. 7 Oiled birds cleaned up and sent home; research studies launched 36 Bait formulations and longevity of navel orangeworm egg traps tested 8 UC Cooperative Extension help people cope with wildfi res Kuenen et al. Egg traps baited with almond meal plus 3% or 30 9 Outreach aids Spanish-speaking 10% crude almond oil received similar numbers of fi restorm victims navel orangeworm eggs; these traps were effective for 10 weeks. 10 Research news 10 Trained ovines chomp weeds, 40 Public work projects cultivate youth avoid vines in workforce development programs Campbell et al. 11 Mapping shows continued vineyard Case studies show that this approach teaches expansion skills, instills good work habits and a sense of pride, and helps generate program funding. 47 2007 Index 40

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4 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Letters

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

The editorial staff of Ag info network needs funds California Agriculture welcomes your letters, The topic of water research, as reported in California National Academy of comments and sugges- Agriculture (October-December 2007), points out Sciences (NAS) and tions. Please write to us at a persistent theme of land-grant university scien- the National Academy 6701 San Pablo Ave., 2nd tists: Once initial studies of a subject have been of Engineering (NAE). floor, Oakland, CA 94608 undertaken, there is a need for extended research, An NRC committee or [email protected]. Include your full name including fieldwork, to solve important questions. spent almost 2 years and address. Letters may For instance, harmless E. coli is used as an indica- reviewing agency be edited for space and tor of pathogens in water supplies — but the critical decisions surround- clarity. questions concerning the load and concentration ing the Klamath of actual pathogens in water bodies, and their re- water situation sponse to management practices and wetlands, are (see Endangered and unanswered (page 159). A separate article on juniper Threatened Fishes in the October–December 2007 removal also refers to “substantial data and research California Agriculture Klamath River Basin: gaps in our knowledge” of the influence of western Causes of Decline and juniper on hydrology (page 166). Strategies for Recovery, National Academies Press, The resolution of such issues as the long-term 2004). William Lewis of the University of Colorado health of our citizens and the continuation of testified before the U.S. House of Representatives problems in the environment depends on well- Subcommittee on Water and Power on July 31, integrated agricultural and environmental research. 2007. Excerpts of his testimony follow: However, federal support for such research has been “Between 2002 and 2004, I was chair of the steadily decreasing, at the same time that funding Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes for health research, development and dissemination in the Klamath River Basin. An important ques- has increased exponentially. tion considered by the committee . . . is whether It is critical for scientists, educators, extension management of water by the Klamath Project was agents and agribusiness leaders to build a coher- responsible for withholding the pulse of flow that ent and responsive system serving all commu- would have allowed the salmon to migrate. The nities. They need resources for research in the NRC committee concluded that this is very unlikely. public interest, and that research must be avail- The Klamath Project is located over 150 miles up- able. Increasingly that means “discoverable” on the stream from the mouth, and water flowing through Internet. the Klamath Project accounts for only 10% of the The National Agricultural Library, land-grant total flow at the mouth; large tributaries entering universities and related organizations are design- the river below the Klamath Project contribute most ing a digital library that will support dynamic, of the flow at the mouth. Furthermore, the Klamath collaborative and fully integrated electronic agri- Project releases water that is warm because it comes cultural information systems. However, planning from storage lakes rather than reaching the stream for the Digital Library for Agriculture has been through groundwater or surface runoff. The com- hampered due to the lack of funds, which have ba- mittee concluded that a relatively small amount of sically been static since 1985. warm water propagated over a distance of 150 miles USAIN, the United States Agricultural Inform- would not have made a critical difference to the ation Network, (representing 40 states and five salmon that were staging for migration at the mouth countries) has recently advocated for adequate of the river.” funding through the Farm Bill, which is still pend- Michael Byrne ing approval in Congress (www.usain.org). Klamath Falls, Ore. Norma Kobzina, President, USAIN 2007-2008 head, Information Services UC Berkeley Bioscience and Natural Resources Library Cal Ag research helps improve water quality Editor’s note: California’s Proposition 50 was passed in 2002 with $3.44 billion in bond funding for water qual- Cause of Klamath fish die-offs disputed ity improvements. An incorrect statement was made concerning the cause of fish die-offs (attributed to Levy [2003]) in We had between 65 and 70 people at our Prop 50 the juniper removal article in California Agriculture Upper Feather River Watershed Irrigated Lands (October-December 2007). The National Research Stakeholder Meeting in Quincy on Nov. 15, 2007. Council (NRC) is the operating arm of the Members of the Prop 50 Project Team along with

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 5 Letters Outreach news

Service grants allow 4H-ers

H

representatives from state and regional agencies toH build healthier communities H gave presentations and participated in discussions. H In addition to results of season-long water-

quality monitoring from across the watershed, the morning of a school holiday in mid-

H H H

most participants received a copy of the October- ON November,H 12-year-old Sean Boerger H H December 2007 California Agriculture with the ex- gotH a ride across town and presented his ideas for cellent article by Knox et al., “Management reduces installing benches in a wetland to offi cials of the E. coli in irrigated pasture runoff.” Siskiyou Land Trust. Boerger is junior leader of the Co-author Ken Tate, a member of the Project Strawberry18 USC Valley 707 4-H woodworking group, and he Team, discussed management practices that lo- knows about making and installing public benches. cal agricultural owners who irrigate for forage and Last year, his group won a 4-H service-learning livestock could implement on their ranches, based grant to provide benches at Siskiyou Lake. This upon work conducted at the UC Sierra Foothill year, a new grant of $1,100 will allow the group to Research and Extension Center and summarized in make benches for the Sisson Meadow Wetlands, California Agriculture. Based on the article and Ken’s which the land trust has recently restored in down- comments, members of the Upper Feather River town Mt. Shasta. Watershed Group felt that greater efforts could be “I think it’s going to be fun for the group,” undertaken to reduce E. coli levels in local streams Boerger says. “The benches will give people a place by having tailwater go through grassed waterways to sit and make the area look nicer, and we get to or mini-wetlands before returning to the main learn more woodworking skills.” channel. Ranchers also felt that they could improve That’s exactly the concept of service learning — their grazing practices to minimize the time cattle serving the community and, in the process, gain- are in actively irrigated fi elds. We will continue to ing educational opportunities. Last year, the monitor E. coli levels on behalf of ranchers next year community of Lake Siskiyou received beautiful, and hopefully see some improvements. sturdily built benches, and Boerger and his group holly George learned many things, including how a cedar snag Livestock and Natural Resources Advisor is felled and turned into lumber at the town mill. UC Cooperative Extension, Plumas-Sierra counties On the new project, Boerger is looking forward to the trickiest aspect: “I’m not quite sure how we’re going to do the foundation, because it’s kind of To our readers swampy out there,” he says. The service-learning grants are part of the California 4-H Youth Development Program spon- Laue leads Cal Ag into digital future sored by the University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (the 4 H’s stand Andrea Laue joined California Agriculture journal for “Head, Heart, Hands and Health,” and mem- as Web Editor on Aug. 1, 2007. Laue is leading bers pledge their hands to “larger service”). a new digital publishing initiative to digitize “The goal,” says Pat English, California 4-H copies of the journal dating back to 1946, and program representative, “is to expand mem- to redesign the information architecture of bers’ skills in citizenship, leadership and life.” the journal’s Web site. She will also work on increasing the journal’s exposure in research databases and popular search engines such as Google. “California Agriculture content should be more fi ndable, retrievable and usable online

very soon,” Laue says. In concert with California 4-H Club Valley Strawberry Andrea Laue Agriculture and Communication Services staff, Laue is implementing a comprehensive proposal that integrates the ideas and skill sets of collaborating staff. Laue earned her Ph.D. in English and Digital Humanities from the University of Virginia in 2006. She has worked on sev- eral scholarly digital publishing projects, including the Mark Twain Project Online at UC Berkeley. Laue can be reached at With support from a 4-H service-learning grant, (510) 642-2431, ext. 16, or [email protected]. the Strawberry Valley 4-H woodworking group built and installed benches at Siskiyou Lake.

6 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Outreach news

Citizenship has three definitions: who or what we are, what we believe, and what we do, English ex- plains: “The service-learning projects provide teach- able moments, opportunities for reflection and the means to gain experience in community building.’” This is the fifth year California 4-H service- learning grants have been awarded; distributions have ranged from $5,500 to $14,900 per year and are a gift from the Thomas and Dorothy Leavey Foundation. Proposed projects must contain as- pects of community service and education; address Jose Luis Villegas/UC Davis Villegas/UC Jose Luis significant environmental, economic and/or social issues affecting California’s youth, families and communities; and involve collaboration with other Oiled birds cleaned up and sent home; community-based organizations. Grants for four other service-learning projects research studies launched were awarded in 2007. Another Siskiyou County 4-H group received $1,000 to organize a “senior prom” he 58,000-gallon oil spill in San Francisco Bay on ▲ After the November for elderly residents. In Sacramento County, a 4-H Nov. 7, 2007, was the worst in a decade, and weeks 2007 oil spill in the T San Francisco Bay, club has $2,000 to provide environmental education later rescuers were still collecting coated birds from staff and volunteers and outdoor living experience to 1,000 elementary beaches. The oiled birds — primarily grebes, scaups with the Oiled Wildlife students from economically disadvantaged neigh- and surf scoters — were brought to the Cordelia facil- Care Network washed about 800 oiled birds borhoods. In San Mateo County, members of the ity of the Oiled Wildlife Care Network, which com- at their Cordelia Belmont 4–H Clothing Project were awarded $233 prises 25 organizations and a dozen facilities from facility. to create dyed-silk scarves for a local hospital. Also, Crescent City to San Diego, and is directed by UC $500 of seed money was awarded for surely the most Davis wildlife veterinarian Michael Ziccardi. ambitious youth service-learning idea ever, the 4-H Saving oiled birds is far from a sure thing. Million Trees project. “They arrive cold and weak because oil coats their The Pacifica 4–H club is developing plans to feathers, forcing them to come out of the water to plant a million trees across the United States to survive,” Ziccardi says. Many die before they can combat global warming; their estimated budget even be cleaned, and more die in the rehabilitation for the project is $1 million. High-school freshman pools prior to release. By the end of November, Laura Webber saw Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth more than a thousand birds had been collected, with her father last winter and was galvanized to nearly 800 had been washed, and more than 340 do something; she and the other club members had been rehabilitated and released in Tomales and worked out the details. Half Moon bays, which lie beyond the reach of the Although the Pacifica group will plant some oil spill. Nearly 1,750 birds were collected dead, trees, the aim of the project is to enlist the help of and about 600 died or were euthanized in captivity. the 90,000 other 4-H clubs in the country, a total of The Cordelia center — called the San Francisco 7 million youth. Each club has to plant only 12 trees Bay Oiled Wildlife Care and Education Center — is to achieve the goal (www.4hmilliontrees.org). a 12,000-square-foot, $2.7 million facility capable Engaging in public projects that serve the com- of caring for between 1,000 and 1,500 sick birds, munity, or the whole world, in tangible, recogniz- and is co-managed by the International Bird able and important ways motivates young people Rescue Center. The Oiled Wildlife Care Network (see page 40). The projects inspire their adult leaders is funded by the California Department of Fish also. Todd Ellorin, the Siskiyou Woodworking proj- and Game, with interest on the $50 million ect leader says, “These kids want to know where the California Oil Spill Response Trust Fund built lumber is coming from and how the project affects from assessments on the oil industry. the environment. I really learn from them.” Studies aimed at survival of oiled birds The Siskiyou Land Trust listened to Boerger’s new bench ideas “and made some changes,” Little is known about what happens to the rela- Boerger says. Ellorin says he will discuss with the tively few birds lucky enough to make it back to the group a way to respect the client’s wishes and also wild, but Ziccardi and his colleagues are trying to try something new. That’s another skill that’s defi- find out. The veterinarians are implanting about 25 nitely useful for the adult world. — Hazel White oiled and rehabilitated birds and an equal number of

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 7 Outreach news

workers’ health, tests will be done for the pres- ence of zoonotics — disease-causing organisms that can travel from animals to humans — such as Salmonella and Campylobacter. The studies will be led by Ziccardi and UC Jose Luis Villegas/UC Davis Villegas/UC Jose Luis Greg Massey/UC Davis Davis spill response veterinarian Greg Massey. Above left, an The research teams will include veterinary and oiled bird. Above control birds with tiny backpack-style radio transmit- postgraduate students at the UC Davis School of right, UC Davis researchers will test ters so their whereabouts and survival can be tracked. Veterinary Medicine, as well as scientists from the use of infrared The team is also launching several new studies the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife thermography aimed at increasing the survival of oiled birds. These Service, California Department of Fish and Game’s to take the include using infrared thermography to determine Office of Oil Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR), temperature of oiled birds. Bird on whether cleaned birds are still losing body heat, and and Humboldt State University. right is cold (blue identifying the causes of anemia, which is common in “We want to take advantage of this tragic spill to neck and head); bird birds that ingest oil. A related project will determine gather as much information as possible so that we on left is warm (red neck). whether various blood tests can predict survival. can improve our effectiveness and save more birds “The oiled birds’ blood will be analyzed for hemo- in the future,” Ziccardi says. globin, which might be a better indicator for anemia — Robin Meadows and Editors in dehydrated birds, as well as fibrinogen, a protein indicative of inflammation,” Ziccardi explains. FOR MORE INFORMATION International Bird Rescue Research Center: To better protect the birds’ health, tests will http://ibrrc.org/index.html be conducted on the air, water, hard surfaces and Oiled Wildlife Care Network: feeding tubes in the rescue center for a mold www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/owcn called Aspergillus. To better protect the rescue

UC Cooperative Extension helps people cope with Southern California wildfires

he wildfires that devastated Southern Califor- Fortuitously, the Wildfire Zone was finished nia in October 2007 came only 4 short years just in time for the 2007 fires. “It hadn’t even been afterT the region’s previous catastrophic burn, which advertised, and it got 300,000 hits the day after the was in October 2003. These two firestorms had first fire,” says Salmon, adding that the Web site many similarities, with both being fanned by hot, was also useful to the county Office of Emergency dry Santa Ana winds, and both ultimately burning Services. San Diego got the worst of the fires, which hundreds of thousands of acres. But there was also burned 380,000 acres there in a week, forcing the a key difference: UC Cooperative Extension made evacuation of half a million people and destroying it easier for people to cope with wildfire the second well over a thousand homes. time around. People accessing the new Web site got immediate “After the 2003 fires, we realized that we didn’t practical information. For example, before evacuat- have a way to help people during and after a fire,” ing, they should help firefighters by filling garbage says Terry Salmon, director of San Diego County cans with water, propping a ladder against the roof, Cooperative Extension. “There was lots of informa- and turning on all the lights to make the house tion but it wasn’t centralized.” easier to find in the smoke. In addition, people could enter their ZIP code to find out which emergency Wildfire Web site number to call. “It’s confusing because there are so To fix this problem, Salmon and his colleagues many fire departments in the county,” Salmon says. developed a comprehensive wildfire Web site called Fire-safe homes the Wildfire Zone. The site has three main sections explaining what to do before, during and after a The Wildfire Zone’s initial focus was on how to fire, and was adapted from a University of Nevada prepare for fires. “You can do a lot to protect your Cooperative Extension Web site. The project was house from a wildfire,” says Stephen Quarles, a in collaboration with the County of San Diego, and wood durability advisor at Contra Costa County received funding from the County as well as the Cooperative Extension. The Web site has step-by- Federal Emergency Management Agency. step advice on retrofitting houses to reduce their

8 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 fire risk, from using noncombustible building ma- terials such as concrete roof tiles to establishing 100 feet of “defensible space” around homes to hinder the spread of fire. Ways to create defensible space include landscaping with fire-resistant plants, ir- rigating regularly and using rocks instead of wood mulch right next to a house. The Web site also has links to demonstration fire-

safe gardens, and plans are under way for demonstra- Schultz CAL FIRE/Wes tion retrofitted buildings. “We don’t want to just tell Above, firefighters people what to do, we want to show them,” Salmon attempt to protect a says. For example, many houses burn because a wood home from the Harris Fire in San Diego fence catches on fire. This can be avoided by adopting County, October the current code for new buildings, which stipulates 2007. Left, San Diego that wood fences can’t touch a house. County Cooperative Extension developed New building codes a Web site to help prepare residents Now, the Wildfire Zone’s post-fire section is be- for wildfires (www. ing expanded. One important update for people wildfirezone.org). who lost their homes is that there is a new state building code for the wildland-urban interface, where the risk of fire is most severe. While current law requires that materials be fire-resistant, the new law will go even further and require that ma- terials be ignition-resistant. The goal is to protect buildings from embers, which can fly up to a mile from a wildfire. “Vents -of fer an easy entry point for burning embers,” Quarles Outreach aids Spanish-speaking firestorm victims says. “Embers that slip through attic vents can ignite debris and items stored there, and subsequently During the recent wildfires, the University of California’s News and construction materials, setting the home ablaze from Information Outreach in Spanish (NOS) (http://espanol.ucanr.org) within.” The new building codes are effective Jan. focused on working with UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) staff 1, 2008, in areas under state jurisdiction, and July 1, in the affected areas to quickly provide information to Spanish- speaking firestorm victims. Their efforts included: 2008, in areas under local jurisdiction. • Providing translations of fire-related materials for fire Web sites in More outreach San Diego and Los Angeles. Because fire is a fact of life throughout the • With staff from the UC Division of Agriculture and Natural Western states, UC Cooperative Extension orga- Resources’ Consumer Economics program in Riverside, developing nized a regional workshop for wildfire specialists “Don’t Get Burned Twice,” a bilingual brochure with information to pool their resources. The first Western Region on how to avoid being victimized in the aftermath of a firestorm. Cooperative Extension Wildfire Workshop was The brochure includes warnings about home repair fraud, charity held in June 2007 in San Diego, and the second is fraud, phony “officials,” advance fee loans and other schemes. planned for 2008 in Lake Tahoe. • Producing a special edition of Radio Noticias, the monthly CD To help get information to more people in San distributed to more than 100 Spanish-language radio stations in Diego, Salmon’s team has prepared 12 tip cards California. The CD included 30 news and public-service messages based on the Wildfire Zone Web site. The plan on recovering after a firestorm, and tips to prepare for future is to make these cards available in touch-screen natural disasters. information kiosks in places such as libraries and • Promoting AsisTel — the statewide toll-free service [(800) building supply stores. “We want to make it easy 514-4494] that provided assistance and critical information to the for them to get what they need,” he says. “We victims of the Cedar fire in October 2003 — to UCCE county of- don’t want to overwhelm people with a 500-page fices, media and relief agencies. The message-on-demand service book of information.” features information on recovering after a fire, completing insur- “As we get more houses in the wildland-urban ance claims, food safety during a power outage, dealing with ex- interface, the impact of these wildfires will con- posure to smoke and ashes, and other fire-related topics. tinue to grow,” Salmon says. “They’re never going to go away.” — Robin Meadows

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 9 Research news

Far left, one dose of lithium chloride gives sheep a mild stomach ache and trains them to avoid grapevines and focus on the weeds below. Top left, a vine grazed by trained sheep; bottom left, the same vine grazed by untrained (control)

Photos: Morgan P. Doran/UCCE Solano County Morgan P. Photos: sheep.

Trained ovines chomp on weeds, avoid vines

most vineyard managers, any plants growing directly under alfalfa pellets, and a single dose of lithium chloride grapevines are nasty weeds that can rob the crop of water and was enough to make the lambs steer clear of grape TOnutrients. But to sheep, these weeds are tasty and nutritious forage. leaves. Next, the team moved on to a fi eld study of 40 This would make sheep (ovines) ideal for controlling vineyard weeds range-raised lambs at the UC Hopland Research and except for one thing — these herbivores like grape leaves just as much. Extension Center. These lambs were used to eating Some managers get around this problem by us- a variety of plants, and getting them to avoid grape ing miniature “babydoll” sheep that are too short leaves required an additional, slightly higher dose of to reach grape leaves. However, while effective, lithium chloride (still well below toxic levels). these sheep are also expensive. Other managers The sheep aversion training has been remark- use sheep only when the grapevines are dormant, ably effective. Nine months after their lithium but this means switching to other weed control chloride doses, the 40 Hopland sheep still ignored methods that have their own drawbacks during vigorous growth on grapevines right in front of the growing season. For example, mowing entails their faces, preferring to munch on the weeds increased fuel costs and soil compaction, and herbi- growing beneath the vines. “They were comparable cides can contaminate surface waters (see page 19). to normal fl oor management,” Doran says. To fi nd a better alternative, UCCE research- However, the possibility remains that even ers are training sheep not to eat grape shoots and trained sheep will eventually balk at eating some leaves. “We got the idea from a workshop on ma- vineyard fl oor plants and try grape leaves again. nipulating what animals eat,” says project leader “It depends on the grazing management,“ Doran Morgan Doran, a Solano County livestock advisor. says. “ If they don’t have enough feed or enough The workshop was by Fred Provenza of the Utah palatable feed, they will transition from fl oor veg- State University program BEHAVE, which stands etation to grape leaves.” for Behavioral Education for Human, Animal, So far the researchers haven’t found any weeds Vegetation and Ecosystem Management (www. that the trained sheep don’t like. But there are cover behave.net). This program focuses on how animals crops that sheep don’t enjoy. “Some clovers, such decide what to eat, and includes fi nding ways to as balansa, are bitter in the spring, which made the encourage herbivores to eat invasive weeds and dis- sheep start nibbling on grape leaves,” Doran says. courage them from eating desirable plants. He recommends subterranean clover and ryegrass To train sheep, Provenza recommended letting as good cover crops for trained sheep. them eat as many grape leaves as they wanted and Besides benefi ting vineyard managers, using then giving them a small dose of lithium chloride, sheep to control weeds could also help sheep pro- which is harmless but causes a mild stomach ache. He ducers. Weed-eating sheep would reduce forage also recommended training young sheep rather than costs and give producers the new market of renting adults. “You need to mold them at an early age, before out their fl ocks’ services. “The lamb market oscil- they’ve had much dietary experience,” Doran says. lates up and down quite a bit, and this could give First, the UCCE team did a pilot project on ewe sheep producers a more secure source of income,” lambs at UC Davis. These lambs had been raised on Doran says. — Robin Meadows

10 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Research news

Mapping shows continued vineyard expansion in premium wine-growing areas Adina Merenlender Courtesy of Photos:

erial photography and mapping show that the Russian River and west increased demand for premium wines is re- of Monte Rio, vine- flectedA on the ground in Sonoma County (see page yard acreage increased 12). There, as in other coastal counties, vineyard by 351 acres during acreage increased dramatically during the 1990s 2000–2006 to a total of and into the early 2000s. 1,028 acres, a 51.6% in- “While expansion rates have decreased in crease. In addition, the Sonoma County in recent years, mapping of clearing of forestland vineyards from aerial photos and analysis of data for additional vine- published by the county agricultural commis- yards is evident in 2006 sioner show that new vineyards continue to be imagery, Heaton says. planted,” says Emily Heaton, doctoral student in “Historically, the the UC Berkeley Department of Environmental Sonoma Coast was not Science, Policy and Management. Heaton has an important wine-grape region — only about 200 been mapping Sonoma County vineyards from acres existed in the analysis area in 1993,” Heaton aerial photos as part of her work in the lab of says. “But a small number of vintners and winer- Adina Merenlender, Associate Cooperative ies have proven that high-quality pinot can be Extension Specialist. grown successfully on the coast.” Their research, which is affiliated with the Merenlender adds, “The business environment UC Integrated Hardwood Range Management for timber production has become a lot more dif- Program, focuses on the environmental impacts ficult due to historic overharvesting, volatile wood of habitat conversion. “Knowing the location of markets and stricter environmental rules. A lot of vineyards and other land cover types helps us coastal forest land is going up for sale, cheaply.” research the impacts of land use on the environ- Coastal watersheds provide habitat for salmon, ment,” Merenlender says. and vineyard conversions can alter natural water To obtain the most accurate estimates of vine- flows that are needed to support spawning and yard acreage, the researchers use digital, orthorec- fish growth, Merenlender says. Vineyards often tified aerial photos from 1993, 2000, 2002, 2004 and pump water from the ground during the dry sea- 2005, as well as oblique aerial photos from 2006. son, potentially limiting survival of juvenile fish. Aerial photographs are used The photographs are matched on-screen with Recent vineyard expansion has also occurred by UC researchers to evaluate land-use changes, such as the mapped landmarks such as roads and hilltops, in other coastal counties that produce premium conversion of forest lands to which ensures that the boundaries of mapped wine-grapes. Based primarily on agriculture com- vineyards. Top, the Sonoma vineyards are spatially accurate. missioner reports (not aerial mapping), Central Coast (no vineyards shown); middle, the mainstem of the The ongoing mapping effort shows that at Coast vineyard acreage expanded from an esti- Russian River surrounded least 5,160 acres of vineyards have been planted mated 26,800 acres in San Luis Obispo County in by vineyards; bottom, a in Sonoma County since 2000. This represents 2000 to 36,493 acres in 2006, a 32% increase. Santa small reservoir among newly 8.7% of the 59,000 vineyard acres that have been Barbara County’s vineyard acreage increased planted vines in Sonoma County. mapped so far. “While many new projects oc- from 9,542 acres in 1990 to an estimated 21,000+ curred in the more established premium-wine- acres in 2007. grape areas such as Alexander Valley and Sonoma On the North Coast, Napa County’s vine- Valley, there has also been a significant increase yard acreage increased from 32,715 acres in 1990 in areas that were not historically important, to 45,136 in 2006. Lake County’s acreage went such as the Sonoma Coast and land surrounding from 7,335 in 2002 to 8,529 in 2005. Finally, in Petaluma,” Heaton says. Mendocino County, acreage increased from 12,608 Coastal areas with cool conditions favorable in 1991 to 16,446 in 2001 and 16,783 in 2006. for pinot noir seem to be particularly attractive. “We use this data on the rate and extent of Some observers call it the “Sideways” effect, due land-use change to quantify environmental im- to the popular 2004 movie that touted California pacts and to forecast future land-use patterns, pinot noir. For example, for the portion of the in an effort to improve conservation planning,” Sonoma Coast appellation that lies north of the Merenlender says. — Editors

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 11 Research Article t California wine industry evolving to compete in 21st century

by Rachael Goodhue, Richard Green, Dale Heien and Philip Martin

The California wine industry is grow- ing and changing amidst a global revolution in grape growing, wine production, wine marketing and consumer tastes. California accounted for roughly 90% of the value of U.S. wine production in 2006. U.S. per capita wine consumption and the quality of wine consumed continue Winegrape Growers/www.cawg.org Association of California to rise. The largest California wineries have long accounted for most Califor- nia wine shipments and continue to expand with respect to volume and number of labels. While small winer- ies sell most of their wine directly to end-users, many midsized wineries face challenges in an increasingly crowded marketplace.

2006, almost 3.1 million tons of California grapes were INcrushed to make wine (CDFA 2007), enough to make more than 2.3 billion bottles. (A ton of grapes makes 150 gal- lons, or 750 bottles of wine; California California’s wine industry continues to grow and change. The state’s 17 crush districts processed 3.5 million tons of wine grapes in 2006. The California Associate of Winegrape Growers is wine grape yields were on average promoting viticulture statewide with its new “One Nation Under Vines” campaign. 6.5 tons an acre in 2006.) For wine grape purposes, California has 17 crush dis- tricts (fig. 1). Napa County (district 4), for average price per ton is generally lower growth of small wineries that sell example, accounted for 4% of the 2006 in districts with the largest share of the directly to consumers and (3) the re- crush but received grower prices that crush. Few other commodities have sultant squeeze on midsized wineries. were 5.5 times higher than the state aver- 10-to-1 differences in grower prices and Economies of scale in marketing seem age. Fresno, Madera and Tulare counties even wider retail price differences. to explain the tendency of multiwinery (district 13) accounted for one-third of The California wine industry is corporations, including liquor produc- the state’s crush, while growers there growing and changing amidst a global ers and luxury-brand conglomerates, to were paid prices that were just over one- revolution in grape growing, wine pro- buy midsized wineries and offer a va- third of the state’s average price (table 1). duction, wine marketing and consumer riety of labels; meanwhile, wine-based The average price received by grow- tastes (Sumner et al. 2004; Anderson tourism and direct sales via the Internet ers for grapes was $548 a ton in 2006, 2004). This article focuses on the mar- help explain the growth of small winer- making the value of the grapes in an keting and taste factors that are pro- ies. The future is uncertain for winer- average bottle of California wine $0.75 ducing a layered or tiered industry in ies producing too little wine to have (CDFA 2007). The range in prices was which middle-sized producers are be- extensive distribution and marketing wide, from less than $300 a ton in ing pushed to get larger or smaller. activities, but too much to sell directly the San Joaquin Valley, where half of Three important trends are influenc- to consumers. California wine grapes are grown (mak- ing the California wine industry: (1) Wine consumption: More and better ing the grapes in a typical bottle from increased production by multiwinery this region worth $0.40), to over $3,000 a corporations with many labels that California accounted for roughly ton in the Napa Valley ($4 a bottle). The cover different price points, (2) the 90% of the value of U.S. wine produc-

12 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Del Many consumers visit small wineries, Norte Siskiyou Modoc Fig. 1. California crush districts, 2006. See table 1 for each district’s share of taste the wine and purchase it on the crush and revenue. Source: CDFA 2007.

Lassen spot, which eliminates the need for Shasta Trinity distributor markups and shipping costs. Humboldt 9 Tehama Plumas Mendo- cino Glenn Butte Sierra ba Colusa Yu Nevada 1 2 Sutter tion in 2006, down from about 94% in Americans Lake Placer 2000. About 80% of U.S.-produced wine increasingly El Dorado Sonoma Yolo Sacra– Napa mento Alpine is consumed domestically, so trends in prefer the 5 Amador 3 4 Solano 17 Marin American wine consumption are an consistent taste 11 Calaveras 10 Contra San Tuolumne San Costa Joaquin important determinant of the success of of fruity wines Francisco Mono Mate Alam Stanislaus Mariposa the California wine industry. produced in “New San eda Santa o 12 Merced Inyo 6 Clar The average annual consumption World” California, Santa a per U.S. adult increased from 2.1 gal- Argentina, Australia, Cruz Madera 13 Fresno lons (10 bottles) in 1995 to 2.5 gallons Chile and New Zealand to San 7 Benito Tulare in 2000, and to an estimated 2.9 gallons the wines from “Old World” Kings Monterey Tulare (15 bottles) in 2006 (Wine Market Europe, which can vary sig- Kings 14 Council 2007). In spite of this growth in nificantly from year to year. Kern San Luis per capita consumption, Americans still The industry uses four retail Obispo San Bernardino drink relatively little wine compared price categories to classify wine 8 Santa to countries such as France or Italy, (Gomberg-Fredrikson). The fastest Barbara Los Angeles where adults drink six to seven times growth in the volume of wine sold Ventura 15 as much wine as Americans (Wine has been in the super-premium cat- Orange Institute 2007). Furthermore, U.S. wine egory, which now accounts for one- Riverside consumption is concentrated among quarter of U.S. wine sales, followed by 16 Imperial regular wine drinkers. The 30 million the ultra-premium category (table 2). San Diego Americans who consume wine regu- The only decline has been in jug wine, larly drink 90% of the wine consumed in the United States, an average of 12 gallons, or 60 bottles a year on average TABLE 1. Grape crush and average price per ton, California districts, 2006 (Wine Market Council 2007). There have been three important Key Grapes Average Share Share of Price vs. changes in U.S. wine consumption over (fig.1) District crushed price of crush revenue avg. price District details tons $/ton ...... % ...... the past 2 decades. First, consumers Details about districts that do everywhere have come to appreciate the 1 70,948 1,237 2 4 225 not include whole counties quality of California wine, and more 2 35,153 1,236 1 2 225 are shown below: Americans are drinking red wine for 3 216,250 1,991 6 20 363 * District 9 includes Yolo County north of I-80 to junction of I-80 health reasons. In November 1991, the 4 152,777 3,043 4 21 555 and U.S. 50, and north of U.S. 50; and Sacramento County north of TV program “60 Minutes” explored 5 13,925 750 0 1 137 the so-called “French paradox,” the U.S. 50. 6 20,589 1,014 1 1 185 fact that there appears to be less heart † District 11 includes San Joaquin 7 223,590 1,085 6 11 198 County north of State Highway 4; disease in France than the United States and Sacramento County south of despite the high-fat French diet. The 8 199,607 1,111 6 10 203 U.S. 50 and east of I-5. 9* 47,451 393 1 9 72 ‡ District 12 includes San Joaquin explanation that moderate consumption County south of State Highway 4. 10 19,049 1,083 1 1 197 of red wine may prevent heart disease § District 13 includes Kings and helped to interest more Americans in 11† 568,558 417 16 11 76 Tulare counties north of Nevada Avenue (Avenue 192). wine for health reasons. 12‡ 271,904 288 8 4 53 ¶ District 14 includes Kings and Second, Americans upgraded their 13§ 1,132,229 203 32 9 37 Tulare counties south of Nevada Avenue (Avenue 192). palates, with many moving from inex- 14¶ 416,326 224 12 3 41 pensive jug wines with retail prices of # District 17 includes Yolo County 15 1,080 916 0 0 167 south of I-80 from Solano County less than $3 a bottle to better quality line to junction of I-80 and 16 3,656 1,111 0 0 203 wines costing more, including popu- U.S. 50, and south of U.S. 50; 17# 95,896 550 3 2 100 and Sacramento County south lar-premium wines costing $3 to $7 of U.S. 50 and west of I-5. Total (tons) 3,488,988 100 a bottle, super-premium wines costing Source: CDFA 2007, tables 2, 6. Volume-weighted $7 to $14 a bottle, and ultra-premium average ($/ton) 548 100 wines costing over $14 a bottle. Third,

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 13 6 A (revenues) TABLE 2. U.S. wine consumption by retail price (750 ml bottle), 1995–2006 5

4 Cases sold Retail Wine category price 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 3 ...... millions (% total volume) $ billions 2 Ultra-premium Over $14 3 6 10 14 15 16 17 19 21 22 1 (3) (4) (7) (10) (10) (11) (11) (12) (12) (13) Super-premium $7 to $14 10 21 25 25 26 29 30 33 38 42 0 Ultra-premium (9) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (19) (20) (23) (25) Super-premium B (revenue shares) Pop.-premium Pop.-premium $3 to $7 35 48 50 53 51 53 53 53 55 57 40 Jug wine (29) (34) (33) (36) (36) (35) (34) (33) (33) (33) 35 Jug wine Below $3 69 68 66 55 53 53 56 56 53 50 (59) (47) (44) (36) (38) (35) (36) (35) (32) (29) 30 Total 117 143 150 147 145 150 156 160 165 171 25 20 Source: Gomberg-Fredrikson Report. % 15 whose sales dropped to less than one- in 1995 cost $9.26 in 2006 (moving it into 10 third of the total. the super-premium category), and 5 Only the volume of wine sold is re- a $14 bottle in 1995 cost $18.52 in 2006. 0 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 ported, not the revenue. We used the If wine prices were uniformly average retail price of a bottle of wine distributed within categories, the Year in each of the categories (assuming $18 inflation-adjusted share of super- and Fig. 2. U.S. wine (A) revenues and (B) revenue for ultra-premium, $2 for jug wine and ultra-premium wines in 2006 (bottles shares by price categories, 1995–2006. the midpoints for the other categories) selling for over $9.26 in 2006 rather than to estimate nominal revenue: $5.6 bil- over $7) would be reduced from 38% to lion in 1995, $10.7 billion in 2000 and 30% of total wine sales. In other words, vineyard-winery in California, pro- $14.6 billion in 2007, as well as revenue taking inflation into account only ex- duces Charles Shaw wine (sold only at shares (figs. 2 and 3). plains 8% of the increase in sales of su- Trader Joe’s, a specialty food retailer) Although prices rose over this pe- per- and ultra-premium wines, so there for $1.99 to $2.99 a bottle, as well as riod, some of the increase in wine rev- is a substantial real increase in these other labels such as Fox Hollow and enue in the higher-price sales classes categories compared to their 1995 share Montpellier (Franson 2004). reflects inflation. The Economic Report of 12%. The declining real price of wine In Old World Europe, most grape of the President (2007) specifies that the likely contributed to the perception of growers are small and most wine is consumer price index (CPI) rose from wine as an “affordable luxury.” made by cooperatives that crush lo- 152 in 1995 to 202 in 2006, an increase of cally grown grapes. Several varieties of New World, Old World 32%. In order to assess changes in the grapes are usually combined to make volume of wine reported in the various While France, Italy and Spain still wine, and the wine is labeled with the price categories (table 2), we corrected accounted for 51% of world wine pro- region in which the grapes were grown, for inflation by calculating the Paasche duction in 2004 (fig. 4), wine production such as Burgundy. A long list of rules and Laspeyres price indices since 1995. has grown considerably in New World governs how grapes are grown and The Paasche price index weights prices countries such as the United States, wine is made, including irrigation re- using the most recent quantity of wine Australia, Chile, New Zealand and strictions that limit yields. purchased (2006) in each category, South Africa (IOWV 2005). The complex rules that govern while the Laspeyres price index weights Americans seem to prefer the New grape growing and winemaking must prices using the oldest quantity of wine World style of winemaking, which be followed to receive some of the purchased (1995) in each category. strives for a consistent taste from €1.2 billion ($1.6 billion) a year in sub- Using these indices, we found that vintage to vintage, alcohol levels of sidies that the European Union pro- wine prices declined 7.5% (Paasche) 13% to 14% instead of 11% to 12%, and vides to its wine sector. The European and 6.3% (Laspeyres) between 1995 a fresh, fruity taste. New World win- Union’s overproduction of low-quality and 2006. However, wine volumes and eries often grow their own grapes or table wine, which is regularly dis- revenues are only reported by price have considerable control over vine- tilled into industrial alcohol, has category, so the Paasche and Laspeyres yards, where grape vines are often spawned plans to remove up to a mil- price indices do not fully reflect infla- planted close together, mechanical lion of the European Union’s 8 million tion. The price categories are constant pruning and harvesting are common, acres of wine grapes by providing up in nominal dollars, not real dollars, and wineries bristle with technology. to €2.4 billion in payments to grape so that a $3 bottle of wine in 1995 cost Yields are much higher in the New growers who remove their vineyards the same in real terms as a $3.97 bottle World. For example, Bronco Wine (Bounds 2007). The E.U. Commission of wine in 2006 (moving it into the Company, whose 35,000 acres of vine- has also proposed simplifying wine popular-premium category), a $7 bottle yards make it the largest integrated labels and allowing wineries to use

14 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 1995

Ultra-premium (11%) Jug wine (29%) Super-premium (23%) Pop.-premium (37%) Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation Australian

Total: $5.6 billion

2006

Ultra-premium (32%) Jug wine (8%) Pop.-premium (23%) Super-premium (37%)

Total: $10.7 billion

Australia is one of the world’s top-10 wine-producing countries; its Yellow Tail brand Fig. 3. U.S. wine revenue shares by price is the leading U.S. wine import, with 12 million cases sold in 2007. Above, a harvest at category in 1995 and 2006. Tyrell’s Wines in Hunter Valley, north of Sydney in New South Wales.

New World winemaking techniques U.S. wine exports have also in- 45 countries produce wine commer- (EU 2007). Some growers in areas that creased, up 177% between 1995 and cially. Does the prospect of more coun- historically produced lower-quality 2006 (table 5). The United Kingdom and tries consuming more wine, and more wines, such as Languedoc-Roussillon Canada have long been the leading im- wine being produced and traded, bode in southern France, are switching to porters of U.S. wine, but Italy was the well for California producers? On the single-varietal wines in an effort to third largest in 2006, up from negligible one hand, more locally produced wine attract consumers accustomed to New imports in 1995. Germany moved up may increase interest in wine, opening World labels, a strategy also spread- slightly, from the sixth largest importer new markets for California wine. On ing in Italy and Spain. in 1995 to the fifth largest in 2006, the other hand, new countries could be- Rising U.S. consumption of wine has and Switzerland and the Netherlands come major producers and competitors. been accompanied by increased wine dropped out of the top five. While the China is an example of the opportu- imports, which were up 186% between relative rankings altered, it is important nity and threat. More grapes are being 1995 and 2006. Twenty-seven percent of to note that all of these countries except planted and more wine is being made, the wine consumed in the United States for Switzerland increased their imports but it is not yet clear whether China is imported (table 3), including a rising of U.S. wine in absolute terms. will emerge as a major market for im- share from Australia and Chile. These Some wine is consumed in every ported wine or a major exporter of wine countries, with combined populations country in the world, and at least (Thach 2007). of less than 40 million, well under 1% of the world’s population, produce over 6% of the world’s wine, guaranteeing more New World wine exports. In 1995, some 72.7% of U.S. wine im- Other (19%) Portugal (3%) ports were from France, Italy and Spain, the three largest Old World producers; France (19%) South Africa (3%) by 2006, the world’s three leading wine Spain (14%) Germany (3%) producers accounted for only 49.7% of China (4%) U.S. wine imports (table 4). Imported wine accounts for 40% of the wine sold Italy (18%) Australia (5%) under $10 a bottle, in part because of United States (7%) Argentina (5%) the success of Australia’s Yellow Tail, the leading import, which is on track to sell 12 million cases in 2007, almost 4% of the 300 million cases expected to be Fig. 4. Top 10 wine-producing countries by volume, 2004. sold in the United States. Source: IOWV 2005.

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 15 TABLE 4. Top five sellers for U.S. wine imports, 1995 and 2006

TABLE 3. Share of wine entering U.S. distribution 1995 2006 channels by source Country Volume Total imports Rank Volume Total imports Rank 1,000 liters % 1,000 liters % Year California Other U.S. Imports Italy 113,517 40.4 1 236,160 29.3 1 ...... % France 71,089 25.3 2 119,461 14.8 3 1970 73 16 11 Chile 23,660 8.4 3 52,966 6.6 4 1980 69 10 21 Spain 19,675 7.0 4 45,409 5.6 5 1990 73 14 13 Australia 13,904 4.9 5 214,660 26.7 2 2000 69 10 21 Total (top five) 241,845 86 668,656 83 2005 63 10 27 Total (all countries) 281,119 100 805,215 100 Source: Gomberg-Fredrikson Report. Source: FAS 2007.

In the past decade, the number of the four largest for 60% to 65%, and Consolidation, diversification California wine-grape growers has the eight largest for about 75% of wine In general, the farm and food in- increased slightly to almost 5,000, and shipments. Total wine shipments have dustries are consolidating so that the number of wineries in the state, increased by almost 60% since 1990, fewer and larger firms account for 2,900, has doubled in the past decade meaning that the largest firms ex- an increased share of total sales. The (the United States had 5,900 wineries in panded significantly even though their number of U.S. farms, including wine 2006, including 430 in Washington, 290 market share was stable. grape producers, has been stable at in Oregon and 220 in New York [Tinney At the national level, concentra- about 2 million, but the largest 5% 2007b]). However, growth in the num- tion is slightly higher than at the state of U.S. farms account for an ever- ber of grape growers and wineries can level, as the top three U.S. wineries ac- increasing share of production and obscure more important changes within counted for about 60% of the 270 million 60% of total farm sales in 2003. the California wine industry. U.S. cases shipped in 2006. E.&J. Gallo Similarly, the number of proces- The largest California wineries have has been the largest U.S. (and California) sors of farm commodities has been long accounted for most California winery for most of the past 75 years, decreasing, so that the largest four wine shipments. The two largest win- producing an estimated 62 million meatpackers account for over 80% of eries have accounted for about 45% of (U.S.) cases in 2006. Constellation U.S. meat production. wine shipments over the past 15 years, Brands is second, with about 57 million cases, and The Wine Group third, with 42 million cases (table 6). The top 15 wineries, each selling a million cases or more, accounted for about 85% of U.S. production. The composition of some wine firms

ANR Communication Services has changed as a result of acquisitions. Several of the wine producers that were among the 10 largest have been ab- sorbed by larger firms, including Robert Mondavi and Vincor USA, top 10 wine producers bought by Constellation. Most recently, in November 2007, Constellation purchased the wine portfolio of Fortune Brands, which was the 11th largest producer. The smallest wine producers among the top 30, such as Wente and Sebastiani, each produce 300,000 to 350,000 cases a year. There are some economies of scale in pro- duction, because larger producers can get bottles and other materials more cheaply. But the major benefit of large size appears be in marketing, as large distributors and retailers can deal with The number of wineries (currently about 2,900) in California has doubled in the past decade, providing diverse new choices for consumers. But industry consolidation one supplier for a wide range of wines. continues apace, with the top three wineries now accounting for 60% of California The largest wineries offer a range wine shipments. Midsize wineries appear to be at greatest risk. of labels, from premium Gallo Family

16 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 TABLE 5. Top five destinations for U.S. wine exports, 1995 and 2006

Percent Volume of total

Country 1995 2006 1995 2006 ANR Communication Services . . . 1,000 liters ...... % . . . United 32,573 119,547 23 30 Kingdom Canada 29,622 71,496 21 18 Japan 19,347 27,803 14 7 Switzerland 8,268 5,343 6 1 Netherlands 4,796 15,815 4 4 Top five 94,606 240,004 66 60 All countries 143,831 398,076 100 100 Source: FAS 2007.

Vineyards estate and Louis Martini wines to fighting varietals (bottles that use one grape variety and sell for $3 to $7 a bottle) such as Turning Leaf, to jug wines such as Carlo Rossi “New World” winemaking techniques — employed by countries such as the United States, Australia and Chile — emphasize consistency between vintages, economies of scale and Peter Vella. Gallo also distributes and modern technology (California winery shown). By contrast, “Old World” European imported wines, such as Black Swan winemaking is smaller scale and governed by complex rules. from Australia. Constellation, which bought Napa’s Robert Mondavi win- were available in supermarkets at the joining the winery’s club, consumers can ery in 2004, is the largest U.S. winery end of 2006, including almost two-thirds continue to purchase their favorite wines by revenue, since its wines include that were introduced after 1999. The top directly from the winery, and their loy- premium labels such as Opus One, brands in grocery stores for the year alty can be cemented by inviting them Ravenswood, Estancia and Simi ending July 1, 2006, were Yellow Tail, to special events such as winemaker as well as the jug wines Almaden, Sutter Home, Franzia, Woodbridge and dinners. The U.S. Supreme Court in 2005 Inglenook and Paul Masson. The Wine Beringer California Collection. The pro- struck down laws that allowed in-state Group is the leading U.S. supplier of liferation of wine labels has reduced the wineries to ship wine directly to con- boxed wine (Franzia) and popular average number of cases sold per label sumers but barred out-of-state wineries premium wines such as Glen Ellen, by about 20,000 a year. from shipping to consumers within the and is a leading supplier of bulk wine Small wineries, those producing less state. As a result, states that allow ship- to other wineries. than 5,000 to 10,000 cases a year, sell ments of wine to state residents from The number of wine labels is rising most of their wine directly to consum- wineries within that state must now faster than winery sales, that is, the ers. Many consumers visit small winer- also allow shipments to consumers from percentage increase in labels is greater ies, taste the wine and purchase it on the out-of-state wineries. As states come into than the percentage increase in sales spot, which eliminates the need for dis- compliance with this ruling, direct sales (Tinney 2007a). Almost 3,500 wine labels tributor markups and shipping costs. By to consumers are expected to expand.

TABLE 6. U.S. wine shipments, 2006

Share of total Rank U.S. wine producer Case shipments shipments Selected U.S. brands millions* % 1 E.&J. Gallo 62 22.9 Barefoot Cellars, Gallo, Gallo Family Vineyards, Louis M. Martini, Turning Leaf 2 Constellation Brands 57 21.1 Almaden, Blackstone, Ravenswood, Rex Goliath, Robert Mondavi 3 The Wine Group 42 15.6 Cardinal Zin, Corbett Canyon, Foxhorn, Franzia, Glen Ellen 4 Bronco Wine Company 22 8.1 Charles Shaw, ForestVille, FoxHollow, Napa Ridge, Salmon Creek 5 Foster’s Wine Estates 16 5.9 Beringer, Chateau Souverain, Meridian, St. Clement, Stags’ Leap 6 Trinchero Family Estates 10 3.7 Folie à Deux, Montevina, Sutter Home, Terra d’Oro, Trinchero 7 Brown-Forman Wines 6 2.2 Bel Arbor, Bonterra, Fetzer, Jekel, Sonoma-Cutter 8 Diageo Chateau and Estate Wines 5.5 2.0 Beaulieu, Blossom Hill, Echelon, Monterey Vineyards, Sterling 9 Jackson Family Wines 5 1.9 Arrowood, Byron, Freemark Abbey, Kendall-Jackson, La Crema 10 Ste. Michelle Wine Estates 4.2 1.6 Chateau Ste. Michelle, Columbia Crest, Domaine Ste. Michelle, Erath, Snoqualmie * A case of twelve 750 ml bottles = 2.4 gallons. Source: Penn 2007.

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 17 Midsize wineries do not have the large brand portfolios at different price points that allow large multiwinery corporations to negotiate with distribu-

tors and wholesalers. Thus they do not UC Davis Clark, Kelly Jack benefit from economies of scale in certain aspects of production as do the large corporations. However, they have substantially more wine to market than small wineries do, increasing the dif- ficulty of attempting to market their en- tire production directly to final buyers, such as consumers and restaurants. The number of grape growers and wineries is increasing faster outside than inside California, although most non-California operations are small. The effects of the growing number of non-California wines on the state’s The quality and reputation of California wine have improved in recent years, as has wine business are as ambiguous as consumer interest in fresh, local food and wine. The expansion of premium wine increased consumption and produc- production is likely to continue in California. Above, chardonnay grapes. tion around the world. The spread of wine trails and tasting rooms in other or to achieve sufficient efficiencies in the smallest 90% of producers account states, such as Iowa and Virginia, may distribution to remain independent. for a small share of total production. raise consumer appreciation of wine, Some may remain small and sell their increasing the number of regular wine wine directly to consumers or to local drinkers and stimulating demand for stores and restaurants. In this sense, R. Goodhue is Associate Professor, R. Green is all types of wine, including California the wine industry is likely to experi- Professor, D. Heien is Professor, and P. Martin is wine. Or, wine tasting may stimulate a ence the kind of structural change Professor, all with the Department of Agricultural demand among occasional wine drink- that has occurred in farm production, and Resource Economics, UC Davis. The authors ers only for local wines. where most farm commodities are pro- are members of the Giannini Foundation of Agri- duced by fewer than 5% of farms, and cultural Economics. Whither California wine?

California wine has enhanced its References quality and reputation with U.S. and Anderson K (ed.). 2004. The World’s Wine Mar- Vine. 2005. Situation Report for the World Vitivini- global consumers. At the dawn of the kets: Globalization at Work. Cheltenham, UK: Edward culture Sector in 2004. http://news.reseau-concept. 21st century, the interest of aging baby Elgar. 335 p. net/images/oiv_uk/Client/Stat_2004_definitif_EN.pdf. 61 p. boomers in the lifestyle associated with Bounds A. 2007. EU to pull plug on wine lake as it steps up battle with New World. Financial Times, Penn C. 2007. The top 30 U.S. wine companies wine and food, especially the inter- July 5. of 2006. Wine Business Monthly. Feb. 15. www.wine- est of women and those convinced of [CDFA] California Department of Food and business.com/html/MonthlyArticle.cfm?dataid=46697. wine’s health benefits, augurs well for Agriculture. 2007. Final Grape Crush Report 2006. Sumner DA, Bombrun H, Alston JM, Heien D. www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/California/ 2004. North America. In: Anderson K (ed.). The continued growth in an industry that Publications/Grape_Crush/indexgcb.asp (accessed World’s Wine Markets: Globalization at Work. Chel- is expanding premium wine produc- Nov. 8, 2007). tenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Ch. 10. tion and direct sales to consumers. The Economic Report of the President. 2007. Table Thach L. 2007. Chinese wine marketing confer- B-60. http://origin.www.gpoaccess.gov/eop (accessed ence highlights advantages & issues in China’s wine University of California is contributing Nov. 8, 2007). industry. Aug. 24. www.winebusiness.com/news/ to the industry’s competitiveness; most [EU] European Union. 2007. Reform of the DailyNewsArticle.cfm?dataid=49959. grape growers and wineries use root- wine sector: Commission proposal. April 7. http:// Tinney MC. 2007a. New brands dominate wine ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/wine/index_ aisles, yet established brands account for most wine stocks and technologies developed by en.htm (accessed Nov. 8, 2007). sales. July 15. www.winebusiness.com/html/Monthly University researchers. [FAS] Foreign Agricultural Service. 2007. USTR- Article.cfm?dataid=49285. Many midsized wineries face chal- SCRIPTS database. http://fas.usda.gov (accessed Nov. Tinney MC. 2007b. Number of U.S. wineries tops lenges in an increasingly crowded mar- 8, 2007). 5,900. Wine Business Monthly. Feb. 15. www.wine- Franson P. 2004. Fred Franzia warms at 30th an- business.com/html/MonthlyArticle.cfm?dataid=46698. ketplace where the demise of midsized niversary of Bronco Wine Company. Wine Business Wine Institute. 2007. Industry Background & wholesalers makes it hard to keep their Monthly. June 15. http://winebusiness.com/html/ Statistics. www.wineinstitute.org/communications/ MonthlyArticle.cfm?dataId=32376 (accessed Nov. 8, statistics/#econ_industry. wine before consumers. These winer- 2007). ies, some with storied labels, may be Wine Market Council. 2007. U.S. Adult Per Gomberg-Fredrikson Report. Monthly. www Capita Wine Consumption v. Population Growth. in a race against time, hoping to be .wineryexchange.com. www.winemarketcouncil.com/research_slideview. successful enough to be noticed and [IOWV] International Organization of Wine and asp?position=3. bought by a multiwinery corporation,

18 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Research Article t Post-emergence herbicides are cost effective for vineyard floor management on the Central Coast

by Laura Tourte, Richard Smith, Larry Bettiga, Tiffany Bensen, Jason Smith and Daryl Salm

Central Coast growers are under in- creasing scrutiny and regulatory pres- sure to manage herbicide use because of their farmland’s proximity to the Monterey Bay and National Marine Sanctuary. Vineyard floor manage- ment practices typically consist of a combination of weed control strate- gies, including herbicide use and cover crops. We evaluated nine combina- tions of vineyard floor management practices for their impacts on fruit yield, quality and costs. We found that compared to the grower stan- Vineyard floors are managed dard, post-emergence herbicide to prevent competition from vegetation that can inhibit treatments generally used smaller grape yields and quality. amounts of chemicals and were less Top, cultivated bare ground in the row middle; bottom, costly, with similar yields and quality. a cover crop.

rowers along California’s Central herbicide use, mechanical weed control Cover crops may be either planted, Coast are under increasing pres- and cover-cropping (Elmore et al. 1997; or resident, vegetation in vineyard row Gsure to keep herbicides from contami- Ingels et al. 1998). These practices, middles. In vineyards, cover crops: nating groundwater, and in turn, the used alone or in combination, must benefit vine growth and productivity Monterey Bay and National Marine be considered carefully because they (Costello and Daane 1997; Hirschfelt et Sanctuary. In vineyards, weed control have both direct and indirect costs as al. 1993); reduce nutrient loss and cycle generally consists of both pre- and well as production implications for nitrogen for crop growth (Christensen post-emergence herbicide applications. wine grapes. A grower’s selection of 1971; Hirschfelt et al. 1993; Bettiga et The common pre-emergence herbicide vineyard floor management practices al. 2006); and improve soil structure simazine has been identified as a con- is based on numerous factors includ- and prevent erosion (Gaffney and van tamination risk for groundwater. This ing production philosophy, terrain, soil der Grinten 1991; Bettiga et al. 2006). project was initiated to compare the type, irrigation system, economics, risk Because growers recognize the im- long-term effects of floor management management, and environmental and portance of cover crops for producing practices and alternative weed-control regulatory pressures. grapes, reducing erosion and improving strategies on vineyard productivity Weeds compete with grapevines for water quality, more than 90% of Central over five growing seasons (2001 to water, soil nutrients and sometimes Coast vineyards are cover-cropped. 2005). In addition, we evaluated the as- sunlight. Weed competition is most However, due to the low rainfall in this sociated economics over four growing severe during the first 3 years of vine area, cover crops are typically planted seasons (2002 to 2005). establishment, when root growth is in narrower bands than in other parts limited. However, dense weed popu- of the state to reduce competition with Vineyard floor management lations can also reduce growth and the vines for soil water and nutrients. Vineyard floors are managed to yields in well-established vineyards Economics of grape production facilitate cultural practices and reduce (Hembree et al. 2006). In addition, competitive effects from noncrop veg- vineyards with high weed populations The economic aspects of wine grape etation. In California, key strategies may require additional water and fer- production add another layer of com- for managing vineyard floors and suc- tilizer to maintain production (Lanini plexity to selecting floor management cessfully producing wine grapes are and Bendixen 1992). strategies. This includes evaluating:

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 19 TABLE 1. Number of annual floor management operations and average costs, 2002–2005 (1) the cost and ease of implementing a practice, (2) the resulting weed popula- Radius Hand- Side tion dynamics and their effect on crop Practice/treatments Weeder Herbicide Plant cover Disk weed disk Mow yields and quality and (3) the level of Cultivation risk or uncertainty associated with a Bare ground 5–8* —† — 2–5 1–2 0–2 — ‘Merced’ rye 5–8 — 1 — 1–2 0–2 2–3 technique, especially if it is a new or ‘Trios 102’ triticale 5–8 — 1 — 1–2 0–2 2–3 unknown technology (Bosch and Pease Average number/year‡ 6.5 — 1 3.5 1.5 1 2.5 2000). Growers use herbicides to manage Average cost/operation ($)§ 8 — 33 6 96 6 7 risk because they reduce variability in Average cost/year ($)¶ 52 — 33 21 144 6 18 management costs and yield, and there- Pre-emergence fore income, even though herbicide use Bare ground — 2–4 — 2–5 — — — may result in added costs in some situ- ‘Merced’ rye — 2–4 1 — — — 2–3 ‘Trios 102’ triticale — 2–4 1 — — — 2–3 ations (Olson and Eidman 1992). When Average number/year — 3 1 3.5 2.5 multiple options for weed control exist, Average cost/operation ($) — 38 33 6 — — 7 growers often consider trade-offs, or Average cost/year ($) — 113 33 21 — — 18 conflicting objectives that include direct Post-emergence financial costs and benefits along with Bare ground — 4–5 — 2–5 — — — indirect environmental and social costs ‘Merced’ rye — 4–5 1 — — — 2–3 and benefits, such as soil erosion and ‘Trios 102’ triticale — 4–5 1 — — — 2–3 Average number/year — 4.5 1 3.5 — — 2.5 water quality (Wiles 2004). Average cost/operation ($) — 22 33 6 — — 7 This article examines how three weed Average cost/year ($) — 100 33 21 — — 18 management and three cover crop sys- * Range for low and high number of annual operations. tems affect the costs of weed control in † Operation not used. Central Coast wine grape production. ‡ Average number of operations per year. § Cash costs rounded to nearest dollar. Management practices ¶ Based on number of operations and cumulative cash costs. Research site. The research was ini- tiated in fall 2000, in a drip-irrigated the tractor movement, and inserted seedbed. Bare-ground middles were vineyard near Greenfield in Monterey slightly below the soil surface to sever kept free of weeds by periodic disking County. Greenfield has a Mediterranean weed shoots from their roots. Pre- during the year (table 1). climate, with annual rainfall ranging emergence herbicides were applied with Weed control (in-row main plot) from 4 to 8 inches. The vineyard was es- a standard spray rig in fall or winter. and cover crop (row-middle subplot) tablished in 1996 with Vitis vinifera L. cv. Post-emergence herbicides were applied treatments were arranged in a three- Chardonnay on Teleki 5C (V. berlandieri in spring, summer or fall as needed by-three split-block design with three Planch. × V. riparia Michx.) rootstock. with a Patchen Weedseeker light- replicate blocks covering a total of 23 Vine spacing was 8 feet between rows activated sprayer (NTech Industries, vineyard rows, or 7 acres. Each block and 6 feet within rows. The soil was el- Ukiah, Calif.); spray volume varied on a contained six vine rows and six adja- der loam with gravelly substratum. per-acre basis depending on weed cover. cent middles. Weed control treatments Experimental design. The in-row Row-middle cover crop treatments were applied along the entire length of weed control treatments were: were: (1) no cover crop (bare ground), each vine row, which each had roughly (1) cultivation, (2) post-emergence (2) ‘Merced’ rye (Secale cereale L.) and 300 grapevines. Cover crop treatments weed control only (glyphosate at 2.0% (3) ‘Trios 102’ triticale (× Triticolsecale were established along one-third of plus oxyfluorfen at 1.0%) and (3) pre- Wittm. Ex A. Camus). Cover crops were each middle and were continuous emergence and post-emergence weed planted with a vineyard seed drill in across the main plot treatments in each control (simazine at 1.8 pounds active the 32-inch centers of the 8-foot-wide block. Each replicate main plot–by- ingredient per acre plus oxyfluorfen at rows just before the start of the rainy subplot treatment combination included 1.0 pound active ingredient per acre; season in November of each year, from roughly 100 grapevines. Weed control and glyphosate at 2.0% plus oxyfluor- 2000 to 2005. Cover crops were mowed data was collected under the vine rows fen at 1.0%, respectively). Cultivations in spring to provide frost protection (main plots) four to five times from and herbicide applications were timed for the vines, and senesced in sum- spring through fall. Percentage vegeta- in accordance with grower practices mer. Prior to planting cover crops each tive cover and plant diversity were and label rates. Cultivations were per- November, row middles were disked estimated using a line-intercept tech- formed as needed during the growing to incorporate the previous year’s cover nique. Plant species intersecting points season (March through October) using crop and stubble, and to prepare the at 12-inch intervals along a 100-foot a Radius Weeder cultivator (Clemens and Company, Wittlich, Germany). The post-emergence treatment achieved adequate Cultivation consisted of a metal knife held perpendicular to the direction of weed control without the high-risk herbicide simazine.

20 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 25 TABLE 2. Mean percentage cover of three selected weeds a in each weed control treatment, summer and fall 2001–2005* 20 ba

15 Weed control treatments Common purslane Horseweed Yellow nutsedge

10 bc Cultivation 11.5a 0.2a 4.3a

Cover (%) c Pre-emergence 0.7b 3.2a 7.3a 5 Post-emergence 0.1b 4.0a 4.9a c 0 * Values within a column followed by the same letter are not different (Fisher’s protected LSD test, α = 0.05). 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Year

Fig. 1. Mean percentage cover of common Yellow nutsedge purslane by year in the vine row in summer and fall weed evaluations. Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (Fisher’s protected LSD test, α = 0.05). transect were recorded in each plot, or in 18% of each plot. Statistics. Yield data and quality were analyzed using ANOVA with mean separation by Duncan’s multiple range test. Multiple year analyses were performed by utilizing a split-plot de- sign, with weed control as the main plots and cover crops as subplots. Analysis of variance was used to make across-treatment comparisons for the Horseweed cover of key weeds. Economics. Partial budget analyses were performed using Budget Planner Software for the four growing seasons from 2002 to 2005 for each of nine vine- yard floor management practice treat- ments. Data was collected by main plot and subplot, transformed and reported on a per-acre basis for the timing of each operation, equipment type and use (including fuel, lubrication and re- pairs), material inputs (herbicides and seed), labor hours (machine and field) and interest on operating capital. Data Common purslane was entered into Budget Planner, which generated tables estimating annual cash costs per acre for each treatment’s op- erations and inputs. We also calculated the average cost per operation and per year, and annual and cumulative cash costs per acre by treatment. Weed control Because the grower had used the same weed control strategy since es- tablishing the vineyard 4 years before our experiment began, the initial weed population was assumed to be uniform across the experimental site. However, over the course of the 5-year trial, the To assess the effectiveness of various vineyard floor management strategies, the authors compared pre- and post-emergence herbicide treatments with three weed control strategies developed cultivation in the rows, and several different cover crops in the middle. The distinct weed communities. In each primary weeds in the Monterey County vineyard were yellow nutsedge, case, weeds that were less susceptible horseweed and common purslane.

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 21 to that particular weed control strat- Annual cash costs. The three weed Crop growth, yield and quality egy increased, most notably common control treatments had similar annual purslane (Portulaca oleracea), horseweed The weed control treatments that cash costs per acre in the second and (Conyza canadensis) and yellow nutsedge we studied had no effect on vine third years of the trial (fig. 2A). However, (Cyperus esculentus). growth. While cover crop treatments in the fourth and fifth years, costs for Purslane. The cover of common also had no significant effect on vine the cultivation treatment dramatically purslane was significantly greater growth overall, the ‘Trios 102’ triticale increased by $160 and $210 per acre. in the cultivation treatment than the treatment significantly reduced prun- This result is explained by the steady post-emergence and pre-emergence ing weights in 2001 and 2005. Pruning increase in percentage cover of common treatments (table 2). In the cultivation weights are a measurement of sea- purslane, which peaked in 2004, and treatment, this weed increased dra- sonal growth. The lowered pruning the concomitant need for supplemental matically during the first 4 years of the weights that we found may be due to labor to hand-weed around the vines trial (fig. 1). Purslane was likely able to the fact that the ‘Trios 102’ triticale (figs. 1 and 2A). produce large amounts of seed since it grows later and so uses more soil wa- In general, the post-emergence treat- can set seed in as little as 3 weeks, and ter than the rye. ment was the least costly of the three the weeds were only cultivated roughly No differences in crop yields or fruit weed control treatments. The exception once a month (Haar and Fennimore composition were measured from 2000 was in the fifth year of the study, when 2003). During the fourth and fifth years to 2005 that could be attributed to the the cost of the pre-emergence treat- of the trial, increased field labor for weed control treatments. Cover crop ment was slightly lower (fig. 2A). This hand-weeding was required to bring treatments, when averaged over the is because by the 2005 growing season, this weed under control and minimize 5 years, also had no significant effect on persistent horseweed populations pre- its potential to compete with grape- yield or fruit composition, although in sented particular control challenges, vines for water and nutrients. 2001 and 2004 there was a reduction in and resulted in the need for higher ap- Horseweed. The overall percentage berry size with the triticale treatment. plication rates of the more costly herbi- cover of horseweed was not signifi- Cover crops may compete with cide glufosinate. cantly different in any treatment during grapevines for water and nutrients, Cumulative cash costs. The cultiva- the 5 years of this trial (table 2). Both and this competition may be benefi- tion treatment had by far the highest cultivation and pre-emergence appli- cial or detrimental to cations of simazine and oxyfluorfen vine productivity and provided good control of this weed A (annual) fruit quality depend- 450 throughout the trial. However, by the ing on the amount of 400 second growing season, horseweed soil moisture available populations had increased in the during the growing 350 post-emergence treatment (data not season. In this study, it 300 shown) due to inadequate control with appears that irrigation 250 glyphosate and oxyfluorfen. To bring management practices 200 this weed under control in the post- were able to overcome 150 emergence treatment, it was necessary the impact of water use 100 to include an application of glufosinate by the cover crop, and Cash costs per acre ($) (at 3% v/v) in early summer 2002, and in fruit production losses 50 Cultivation late spring or early summer in all sub- were avoided. Higher 0 Bare sequent years. water costs may be asso- Rye Trios Yellow nutsedge. The most trouble- ciated with this result, B (cumulative) Pre-emergence some weed in the pre-emergence however, and irrigation 1,100 Bare 1,000 Rye treatment was yellow nutsedge, which practices were not part Trios was not controlled at all by the pre- of the economic analysis 900 Post-emergence 800 Bare emergence application of simazine for this experiment. Rye and oxyfluorfen. Additional summer 700 Trios Economic impacts herbicide applications were used to 600 manage this weed, which resulted in The effectiveness of 500 higher overall costs when compared in-row weed control or 400 to the post-emergence treatments. lack thereof affected the Cash costs per acre ($ ) 300 Because additional herbicide applica- economics of each strat- 200 tions were made, the percentage cover egy. Costs varied by year 100 of yellow nutsedge over the 5 years in response to differing 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 of the trial did not significantly differ levels of weed pressure Year from the other weed control treat- and the timing of weed ments (table 2). control practices. Fig. 2. (A) Annual and (B) cumulative cash costs per acre, by treatment.

22 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 There were no differences in vine growth, crop yields or fruit composition among all the weed control treatments in the 5-year study, demonstrating that vineyard floors can be managed effectively without high-risk herbicides. For the cultivation treatment, above, the Radius Weeder inserts a knife into the soil to sever weed shoots from their roots.

cumulative cash costs, ranging from ers in selecting practices and strate- References $899 to $1,032 per acre over the 4-year gies for vineyard floor management. Baumgartner K, Smith R, Bettiga L. 2005. Weed control practices and cover crop management affect study period (fig. 2B). The pre- Weed control and cover crops have mycorrhizal colonization of grapevine roots and arbuscu- emergence treatment had the next direct short-term financial costs and lar mycorrhizal fungal spore populations in a California vineyard. Mycorrhiza 15:111–9. highest cumulative cash costs, ranging production implications; they have Bettiga L, Smith R, Cahn M, Tourte L. 2006. Evalua- from $555 to $690 per acre. The post- also been shown to have indirect and tion of the long-term impact of vineyard floor manage- emergence treatment was least expen- longer-term benefits for crop produc- ment practices on crop production and quality, weed control, soil and water parameters, and the economics sive, at $498 to $633 per acre. tivity, soil management, water quality of wine grape production. Viticulture Consortium Final In total, the post-emergence treat- and economic profitability. Affiliated Research Report. UCCE Monterey County. 44 p. ments generally maintained good research has shown beneficial impacts Bosch DJ, Pease JW. 2000. Economic risk and water quality protection in agriculture. Rev Agri Econ weed control and used smaller on nutrient cycling and soil microbiol- 22(2):438–63. amounts of chemicals than the pre- ogy (Baumgartner et al. 2005; Bettiga Christensen P. 1971. Modified sod cover cropping in emergence treatment. In addition, the et al. 2006). This study has shown that vineyards. Blue Anchor 48(3):20–2. post-emergence treatment achieved weed control strategies without the Costello MJ, Daane KM. 1997. Cover crops affect vine growth and vineyard microclimate. Grape Grower adequate weed control without the inclusion of high-risk herbicides can 29(8):22–5. high-risk herbicide simazine used in be used effectively and economically Elmore CL, Roncoroni R, Wade L, Verdegaal P. 1997. the pre-emergence treatment. to manage vineyard floors. Mulch plus herbicides effectively control vineyard weeds. Cover crop costs. Annual costs for Cal Ag 51(2):14–8. Gaffney FB, van der Grinten M. 1991. Permanent preparing the ground and planting cover crop for vineyards. In: Hargrove WL (ed.). Cover row-middle cover crops averaged Crops for Clean Water. Soil and Water Conservation So- L. Tourte, R. Smith and L. Bettiga are Farm $33 per acre per year in this trial (table ciety, Ankeny, IA. p 32. Advisors, UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE), Haar MJ, Fennimore SA. 2003. Evaluation of inte- 1). In years with low weed densities, Santa Cruz, Monterey and San Benito coun- grated practices for common purslane (Portulaca olera- cover crop costs ranged from between ties; T. Bensen is former Staff Research As- cea) management in lettuce. Weed Tech 17:229–33. 20% and 30% of total floor-management sociate, UCCE Monterey County; and J. Smith Hembree KJ, Ingels CA, Lanini WT. 2006. Weed and D. Salm are growers and managers, Val- management. UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines. costs; the cost range was lower in years www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r302700111.html. with higher weed densities. The cost ley Farm Management, Soledad, Calif. The Viticulture Consortium Program Hirschfelt D, Peacock W, Christensen P, Bianchi M. of planting and maintaining a cover 1993. Vineyard floor management, nitrogen uptake. and the California Department of Pesticide crop in vineyards does not appear to Grape Grower 25(8):18–20. Regulation (DPR) Reduced Risk Pest Manage- Ingels CA, Bugg RL, McGourty GT, Christensen LP dampen grower interest. In this pro- ment Grant Program funded this research. (eds.). 1998. Cover Cropping in Vineyards: A Grower’s duction system, the cost of a cover crop Thank you to Dave Miltz, Pat Headley and Handbook. ANR Pub 3338. 162 p. may not be an annual expense because Adelia Barber, Research Assistants, UCCE Lanini T, Bendixen W. 1992. Characteristics of im- growers often manage cover crops to Monterey County, for their contributions and portant vineyard weeds. In: Flaherty DL, Christensen LP, assistance. Thanks also to Steve Fennimore, Lanini WT, et al. (eds.). Grape Pest Management (2nd set seed, thus reducing the need to re- ed.). ANR Pub 3343. 412 p. Extension Specialist, UC Davis Department seed each year. Olson KD, Eidman VR. 1992. A farmer’s choice of of Plant Sciences, for his editing advice, and weed control method and the impacts of policy and risk. Choosing effective strategies Karen Klonsky, Extension Specialist, UC Davis Rev Agri Econ 14(1):125–37. Department of Agricultural and Resource Wiles LJ. 2004. Economics of weed management: This production, weed control and Economics, for her suggestions and assistance Principles and practices. Weed Tech 18:1403–7. economic information can assist grow- with the tables and graphs.

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 23 Research Article t Minimum tillage could benefit California rice farmers

by Bruce Linquist, Albert Fischer, Larry Godfrey, Chris Greer, James Hill, Kaden Koffler, Michael Moeching, Randal Mutters and Chris van Kessel

Field research and grower interviews were used to evaluate the potential of minimum tillage for California rice systems. We found that by tilling only in the fall (instead of both the fall and spring), rice farmers can con- trol herbicide-resistant weeds when combined with a stale rice seedbed, which entails spring flooding to germinate weeds followed by a gly- phosate application to kill them. Our results indicated that yield potentials are comparable between water- seeded minimum- and conventional- till systems. We also found that rice growers can reduce fuel costs and plant early. However, minimum till- age may require more nitrogen fertil- Butte County extension advisor Randal Mutters explains the differences in rice establishment izer to achieve these yields. systems to farmers at a field day at the California Rice Experiment Station.

ice is produced on about 500,000 southern United States (Watkins et al. bicides having the same mode of action, acres in the Sacramento Valley an- 2004) and Asia (Lal et al. 2004). In these or herbicides detoxified by a common Rnually, making it the region’s major crop. areas, rice is grown in rotation with mechanism in plants and weeds. Rice is a cereal crop that has been grown other crops such as soybean and wheat, Minimum tillage with a stale seed- in California since the early 1900s. It is respectively. In contrast, most California bed offers new opportunities to control grown in flooded soils, so it is ideally rice systems do not involve crop rota- herbicide-resistant weeds in California suited to the poorly drained soils com- tions due to the heavy soils on which rice fields. The approach entails prepar- mon to much of the Sacramento Valley. they are grown. Nevertheless, there is ing a stale seedbed before planting by Most rice growers till both in the increasing interest in growing rice in flushing or flooding the field with water fall to incorporate rice straw and in California with no spring tillage due to induce weed-seed germination, and the spring to prepare the seedbed. to the potential for reduced fuel costs, then killing the weeds, usually with Typical spring tillage involves six to earlier planting (which allows an earlier glyphosate. The choice between flush- eight tractor passes that include chisel harvest, in turn helping ensure that fall ing or flooding depends on whether or plowing, disking and planing before rains do not interrupt operations), better not the field is infested with weeds that applying fertilizer, and rolling the field control of herbicide-resistant weeds, and require water saturation to germinate. in preparation for planting. No-till rice potential air-quality improvements due The soil is then left untilled to ensure systems are not likely to be success- to reduced dust. that buried weed seeds are not brought ful in California because harvesting Herbicide-resistant weeds are one to the surface to germinate. This combi- equipment can leave deep tracks in the of the main problems threatening the nation of a stale seedbed and no spring field that results in poor rice establish- long-term sustainability of California’s tillage can currently control all types of ment and weed problems. Fall tillage rice-based systems. In fact, California herbicide-resistant weeds in California is necessary to level the field and in- rice has seven herbicide-resistant weed rice systems, because they are not resis- corporate rice straw, but minimum-till species, more than any other crop or tant to glyphosate. rice systems with no spring tillage may geographic area in the United States Minimum versus conventional till be an option. (Heap 2007). Herbicide resistance has Minimum-till systems are not new evolved in rice weed populations due to An experiment was initiated in to rice and are being evaluated in the repeated use of the same herbicide, her- 2004 at the California Rice Experiment

24 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 In the absence of herbicides or a stale seedbed treatment, A stale seedbed treatment followed by a glyphosate application weeds such as smallflower umbrella sedge were a problem effectively controlled weeds in the minimum-till treatment; no other in the conventional system studied. herbicides were necessary here in 2004.

Station (RES) near Biggs in Butte County, weeds in both tillage treatments were the leaf-eating adults. Adult weevil feed- to evaluate crop establishment methods managed similarly during the growing ing was monitored from the three-to-five and their effects on rice yield, weed season with the objective of obtaining rice leaf stage. Larvae were counted and pest populations, and nitrogen full control. This was accomplished us- twice (2 weeks apart) in 10 soil samples cycling. The experiment was set up as ing propanil (6 pounds active ingredient in all plots in July. a randomized complete block design per acre) and penoxsulam (1.2 ounces Fertilizer management. Fertilizer with four replications on 0.5-acre plots. active ingredient per acre) applied at the management varied between the two In this paper we discuss two treat- four- to five-leaf stage of rice. This mix- study treatments due to differences ments: water-seeded conventional till ture of broad-spectrum herbicides with in water management and tillage. and water-seeded minimum till with a different modes of action is the currently Phosphorus and potassium fertilizer stale seedbed. Water-seeding refers to recommended practice for managing were applied on all plots prior to per- broadcasting rice seed into a flooded herbicide-resistant weeds. manent flooding. In the conventional field, a practice used by more than 90% A 3,000-square-foot portion of each tillage plots the phosphorus and potas- of California rice growers. plot was left untreated to monitor sium were tilled into the soil with the In both treatments, the plots were weed recruitment and evaluate the tillage operations, but in the minimum- tilled in the fall to incorporate rice effectiveness of the stale seedbed. In till system it remained on the surface. straw and then flooded to encour- the minimum-till treatment, this area Nitrogen fertilizer (as urea) was ap- age straw decomposition. The con- received glyphosate prior to planting plied at a rate of 150 pounds per acre, ventional-till treatment replicated but not the other herbicides used in the within the recommended range for the practice of most California rice rice (UCCE 2006). In growers, and entailed spring till- California rice has seven herbicide-resistant the conventional- age (chisel, disk, roll), flooding and weed species, more than any other crop or till system, the field planting. The minimum-till treatment remained perma- had no spring tillage but the plots geographic area in the United States. nently flooded and were flushed with water to prepare a anaerobic, and all stale seedbed prior to planting. Both rest of the plot. In the conventional-till of the nitrogen was applied in a single the conventional- and minimum- treatment, this area did not receive dose incorporated 3 to 4 inches below till plots were flooded and planted any herbicides. The number of weeds the soil surface prior to planting. In the (broadcasting 150 pounds of rice seed per square foot in these areas was minimum-till system, since the soil was per acre into the flood water) on the determined from 10 randomly placed, left undisturbed following the stale same day. The plots remained flooded square-foot quadrats in each plot at seedbed treatment, nitrogen fertilizer until a few weeks before harvest. approximately the time of rice canopy was applied on the soil surface instead Weed control. In the minimum-till closure (20 to 30 days after planting). of below it. Two-thirds of the nitrogen treatment a stale seedbed was prepared, Pests. Rice water weevil is the most was broadcast on the surface just before which entailed flushing the plots with important invertebrate pest of California flooding for planting, and the remain- water in April and then draining. After rice. The larvae feed on rice plant roots ing third was broadcast between 40 and the weeds germinated, glyphosate was and cause crop damage, but the severity 50 days after planting. applied at a rate of 1.2 pounds acid of weevil infestations can be monitored Nitrogen fertility trial. To determine equivalent per acre. Other than this, based on the degree of leaf scarring by the most efficient nitrogen manage-

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 25 TABLE 1. Nitrogen rates, timing and yields (adjusted to 14% moisture) for conventional- and minimum-till treatments at Rice Experiment Station, 2004 and 2006

2004 2006 Tillage system* Total nitrogen applied Preflush† Preplant Top-dress PI‡ Yield Total nitrogen applied Preplant Top-dress PI† Yield ...... lb N/ac ...... lb/ac ...... lb N/ac ...... lb/ac Conventional 0 NA§ 0 0 6,295b 0 0 0 4,057b 50 NA 50 0 8,308a 100 100 0 9,081a 100 NA 100 0 8,269a 100 50 50 8,678a 150 NA 150 0 8,097a 150 150 0 8,960a 200 NA 200 0 8,673a 200 200 0 9,405a Minimum 0 0 0 0 3,539c 0 0 0 3,556c 100 0 50 50 7,085b 100 100 0 8,663ab 150 0 100 50 8,432ab 100 50 50 7,306b 150 50 50 50 9,178a 150 100 50 9,728a 150 50 100 0 8,305ab 200 200 0 10,110a * In conventional till, all nitrogen fertilizer was incorporated; in minimum till, preplant nitrogen was applied on the surface. Yield means within the same system and year, followed by the same letter, are not significantly different (LSD 0.05). † Nitrogen fertilizer applied before flush for stale seedbed treatment. ‡ PI = nitrogen fertilizer top-dressed between mid-tillering and panicle initiation. § NA = not applicable.

TABLE 2. Rice yields under different establishment Grower interviews. In 2006, late glyphosate application. In fact, no addi- practices with treatment rate of 150 lb N/ac rains prevented many growers from tional herbicides were needed in 2004. normal spring tillage operations and The most important rice weed in Tillage a few growers were faced with the op- these systems during the study pe- system 2004 2005 2006 Mean tion of no spring tillage, and planting riod was smallflower umbrella sedge ...... lb/ac (14% moisture) late or not planting at all. In winter (Cyperus difformis). On average for the Conventional 9,511 7,295 7,923 8,243 2007, we did phone interviews with 3 years, the minimum-till treatment Minimum 9,303 7,299 7,457 8,020 three growers who did not use spring suppressed smallflower umbrella sedge ANOVA ns ns ns ns tillage in 2006 — as many as we could populations by 94%. Infestations by the find. The purpose was to compare re- aquatic ricefield bulrush Schoenoplectus( ment practices for each tillage system, sults from our relatively small experi- mucronatus) also became relevant (P < a nitrogen fertility trial was conducted mental plots with what growers found 0.05) in 2006, and were 91% suppressed in 2004 and 2006. This trial included at the field scale. Growers were asked under the minimum-till treatment five 400-square-foot subplots within to compare their minimum-till field (table 3). Water-seeding rice strongly each plot (minimum and conventional with an adjacent conventional field, suppressed both barnyardgrass tillage) to which no nitrogen fertilizer and to answer questions about produc- (Echinochloa crus-galli), the main had previously been applied. The loca- tivity, tillage practices, and weed and Echinochloa species in this field (there tion of these subplots within the main fertilizer management. Growers were was also some early watergrass), and plots changed each year to avoid the also asked how they would improve sprangletop (Leptochloa fascicularis) compounding effects of the nitrogen the minimum-till system and if they (data not shown). However, Echinochloa fertility treatments. Nitrogen fertil- thought it was economical. spp. populations became somewhat izer rates ranged from 0 to 200 pounds Minimum tillage compares well higher in the last year of the experi- per acre in the subplots (table 1). In the ment, and the minimum-till treatment conventional-till treatment, nitrogen Similar rice yields. Yields in the also exhibited potential for suppress- was always applied as a single dose minimum-till treatment were similar to ing this weed. (with the exception of one treatment in the conventional-till treatment in all years. Success with the stale seedbed tech- 2006) and incorporated below the soil The highest yield was more than 9,300 nique depends on keeping the seedbed surface before flooding for planting. In pounds per acre in 2004, and the lowest moist or highly saturated, depending the minimum-till treatment, nitrogen was about 7,300 pounds per acre in 2005 on if aquatic weeds are present, and was applied either as a single dose or (table 2). These annual yield fluctuations allowing sufficient time for weeds to split between two doses. are in line with countywide fluctuations in emerge prior to the glyphosate appli- Data analysis. All data were ana- California and reflect climate variation. cation. In 2006, there was neither suf- lyzed using Statistical Analysis System Better weed control. The minimum- ficient seedbed moisture nor sufficient (SAS version 9.1) software. Main plot till treatment was extremely effective in time for substantial weed emergence. yields, weed data and water weevil depleting weed populations from the Consequently, few weeds were pres- data were analyzed using a random- upper soil layer and markedly dimin- ent when the glyphosate was applied. ized complete block design. The nitro- ishing weed emergence with the crop Even so, the minimum-till treatment gen fertility trial was analyzed using a (table 3). When this practice was used, was successful in controlling weeds, split-plot design. little weed control was needed after the suggesting that leaving the soil undis-

26 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 sample in 2006, did not differ between the two treatments in any given year. Nitrogen management differs When no nitrogen fertilizer was ap- plied, the minimum-till treatment had smaller yields than conventional tillage (table 1). This is probably because mini- mum tillage had two flooding events while conventional tillage had only one. When soil is flooded and then drained, nitrate accumulates during the aerobic period but may be subsequently lost through denitrification during the fol- lowing anaerobic period (Patrick and Wyatt 1964; Linquist et al. 2006). In response to added fertilizer, the results varied between years but suggested Top left, complete no-till is unlikely to succeed due to heavy rutting during the rice harvest and that minimum tillage requires more ni- the need to decompose rice straw. Top right, nitrogen fertilizer is applied to the main plot in the trogen than conventional tillage to reach conventional water-seeded system. Bottom right, water moves across the minimum-till treatment similar yields. In 2004, the minimum-till prior to planting; the soil surface is firm, with grooves made by a roller. Notice the difference in soil conditions between minimum tillage and, bottom left, conventionally managed rice fields. treatment required three times as much nitrogen as the conventional-till treat- ment to achieve optimal yields (150 turbed in the spring helped discourage Similar rice water weevil levels. There versus 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre, weed emergence. were no differences in rice water weevil respectively). In contrast, in 2006 simi- While the stale seedbed technique levels between the conventional- and lar nitrogen rates in the two till systems worked well when enough weeds had the minimum-till treatments in a given resulted in similar yields. emerged prior to the glyphosate ap- year, although there was a trend toward Splitting the nitrogen fertilizer plication, the late-emerging aquatic more weevils with minimum tillage. dose has previously been shown to in- weeds ducksalad (Heteranthera limosa) The weevils were present at low levels crease its use efficiency (Broadbent and and redstem/redberry (Ammannia spp.) in all plots in 2005 and 2006. The inci- Mikkelsen 1968; Linquist and Sengxua were not well suppressed (table 3); in dence of adult feeding scars was higher 2003). However, that was not the case fact, ducksalad became an increasing in 2005 than 2006, with 15% and 7% of in the nitrogen fertility trial portion of problem over time in the minimum-till plants scarred, respectively. Likewise, this study. Splitting the 150 pounds of treatment. larval densities, which peaked at 0.2 per nitrogen per acre in 2004 did not affect yields. This may be because this nitro- gen rate exceeded that required for op-

TABLE 3. Weed recruitment in conventional till with no herbicide and in minimum till* timal yields, masking any increases in use efficiency. Splitting the 100 pounds 2004 2005 2006 of nitrogen per acre equally in 2006 Conventional Minimum Conventional Minimum Conventional Minimum actually resulted in lower yields than a single application of this rate at plant- ...... plants/sq ft ...... ing. However, it is possible that higher Echinochloa 0.0 ± 0.0 00.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 1.0 ± 1.7 0.1 ± 0.2 yields would have resulted from an un- Smallflower 18.4 ± 10.4 0.2 ± 0.1* 137 ± 45.0 6.6 ± 2.7* 25.5 ± 18.1 4.6 ± 2.1* equal split, such as 75 pounds of nitro- umbrellasedge gen per acre at planting and 25 pounds Ricefield 0.1 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.2 ± 0.1 18.7 ± 11.9 1.6 ± 1.5* bulrush per acre 40 to 50 days after planting. Ducksalad 1.7 ± 0.8 1.7 ± 0.8 4.1 ± 1.3 3.4 ± 1.6 5.8 ± 4.0 19.4 ± 10.6* The nitrogen fertility experiments Redstem/ were not conclusive, and further re- 3.0 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.20* 6.5 ± 1.5 6.5 ± 1.1 12.1 ± 7.7 5.10 ± 3.2 redberry search is warranted. However, some P < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 general conclusions can be drawn based * For a given year and weed species, asterisks (*) indicate significant P( < 0.05) differences on our results. First, the additional flush between conventional- and minimum-till weed densities. Values correspond to specific plot sections of water in the minimum-till system (weed recruitment areas) where glyphosate was applied (but no other herbicide was used). will likely result in the loss of native

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 27 TABLE 4. Summary of three growers using no spring tillage and water-seeded rice systems

Operation Grower 1 Grower 2 Grower 3 rice seed predation by ducks. While County Colusa Glenn Colusa two of the three growers used slightly Straw and winter Baled/tilled/unflooded Chopped/flooded/ Incorporated/flooded higher seeding rates than the recom- flood stomped mended 150 pounds per acre, data from Stale seedbed Yes Yes No the on-station experiment suggests that Planting date April 26 May 3 May 2 this may not be necessary. Two of the Variety M401 M401 M202 three growers reported that yields from Seeding rate 20 lb/ac more Same 25 lb/ac more their minimum-till fields were compa- Yield 7,100 lb/ac 9,000 lb/ac 7,600 lb/ac rable to or better than their other fields. Yield relative to Similar Similar or better Less by 600 lb/ac other fields However, grower 3 reported that yields Main weed species Sprangletop/redberry/ Watergrass/SFU Watergrass/sprangletop/ were about 600 pounds less per acre. watergrass/SFU* SFU/redberry These lower yields may have been due Weed species Same Same Same to phosphorus deficiency since none Weed severity Less Same Less had been applied, although this grower Herbicide use Lower rates Different program 1 less herbicide application typically did apply phosphorus fertil- Fertilizer 4 top-dress 3 top-dress 3 top-dress izer. A second possibility for this lower Total nitrogen applied 153 lb N/ac 140 lb N/ac 210 lb N/ac yield is that rather than draining the Tractor passes 6 less 8 less 7 less field following the winter flood, grower Air passes 3 more 4 more 3 more Main problem Fertility Algae and ducks Ducks 3 retained winter flood water until after What would the More fall land Incorporate straw More fall land preparation planting, which may have lowered soil grower do differently? preparation; improved in fall and do more and put in field ditches for oxygen levels and resulted in poor crop fertility management tillage better water management establishment. Grower’s economic Better Better Same The predominant weed species assessment found in the minimum-till fields were * SFU = smallflower umbrella sedge. similar to those typically found by these growers (Echinochloa spp., spran- soil nitrogen. Second, nitrogen fertilizer 1 and 2 used a modified stale seedbed gletop, smallflower umbrella sedge and in the minimum-till system is applied in which late spring rains germinated redstem/redberry), and the severity of to the soil surface, where it is used less weed seeds (as opposed to flushing the weed problem was similar to or less efficiently (Mikkelsen and Finfrock with irrigation water) and glyphosate than normal. The two growers using a 1957; Broadbent and Mikkelsen 1968). was used to kill the weeds before flood- stale seedbed reported that the rains Both of these factors suggest that the ing the field to plant. Grower 3 aerially germinated weeds, which they were minimum-till system will require a broadcast rice seed into water from the able to kill with glyphosate. All growers higher nitrogen rate to maintain yield winter flood period and drained the reported that either lower rates of herbi- levels. While we can not determine a field shortly after planting. In all cases, cides, fewer applications or a different precise rate from our data, it appears nitrogen was applied aerially in three program was used on their minimum- that minimum tillage requires approxi- to four applications. Total nitrogen was till fields. On-station research showed mately 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre comparable to what each grower nor- that the stale seedbed system was able more than conventional tillage. This mally applied and ranged from 140 to to control much of the weed problem is based on the 2004 response and the 210 pounds per acre. (table 3). However, research is needed fact that in both years the zero nitrogen One issue raised by the growers to better understand how long soils yields were lower in the minimum-till was fertilizer management, specifically should remain moist or flooded and treatment, which suggests a loss of na- how and when to apply nitrogen and what temperatures are required to ger- tive soil nitrogen. phosphorus. Results from the on-station minate specific weed seeds. (RES) study suggest that only one or Grower experiences Benefits and drawbacks two nitrogen fertilizer applications are Three growers were interviewed necessary. Also, phosphorus should be All three growers interviewed re- who established rice using water- applied in the fall and incorporated be- ported that the economic benefits of seeded practices (aerially broadcasting cause surface phosphorus applications minimum tillage were similar to or seed into flood water) in 2006 onto fields may result in an algae problem, which better than their conventional-tillage where there had been no spring tillage grower 2 experienced. practice, and some said they might (table 4). In all cases, the growers incor- Despite the late spring rains, all try it again. The main reason was that porated rice straw or stubble in fall 2005 three growers were able to plant early, minimum tillage resulted in six to eight either by disking or wet rolling. Winter before May 3 (most rice is planted from fewer tractor passes, which amounts to flooding varied between the fields but May 1 to June 15). These were the first a fuel and labor savings of $120 per acre due to a wet winter, all were flooded for planted fields in their respective areas, (Williams et al. 2001). However, some at least a portion of the winter. Growers and as a result, growers reported some of these savings were offset by the ad-

28 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Left, within each of the main plots, nitrogen fertility plots were established to determine appropriate nitrogen rates and management strategies. Middle, a stale seedbed following a flush, with weeds beginning to emerge. Right, once the weeds have completely germinated they will be killed with a broad-spectrum herbicide. ditional air passes required to apply subsequently killing them with glyphosate and fertilizer. Based on re- glyphosate, an herbicide to which B. Linquist is Project Scientist, and A. Fischer is As- search from the on-station experiment, California’s rice weeds are not yet sociate Professor, Department of Plant Sciences, growers could apply fertilizer once or resistant. Soil moisture must be UC Davis; L. Godfrey is Extension Specialist, De- twice instead of the three to four times carefully monitored and controlled partment of Entomology, UC Davis; C. Greer is that they reported. Growers also in- because weed species require vary- UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) Farm Advisor, dicated that if they were planning on ing wet periods and temperatures Sutter County; J. Hill is Rice Specialist, UC Davis; no spring tillage, they would do more for germination; this is an area of K. Koffler is Ph.D. Student, Department of Plant tillage in the fall, which would further ongoing research. While glyphosate Sciences, UC Davis; M. Moeching was Postdoc- toral Researcher, UC Davis, and currently is Exten- offset the economic benefits. In addition can currently control all types of sion Specialist, University South Dakota; to possible economic benefits, one major California rice weeds that are resis- R. Mutters is UCCE Farm Advisor, Butte County; benefit was that growers were able to tant to other herbicides, glyphosate- and C. van Kessel is Chair, Department of Plant plant early despite late rains. resistant weed biotypes have evolved Sciences, UC Davis. CalFed, the California Rice One drawback of the minimum-till in areas of California where this her- Research Board, the U.S. Department of Agricul- system is the increased amount of nitro- bicide has been used for many years ture and the UC Statewide IPM program funded this research. The Rice Experiment Station pro- gen required to maintain yields. Since (Simarmata et al. 2003). Therefore, vided land, access to facilities and equipment, nitrogen must be applied on the surface, glyphosate should be alternated with and technical assistance and support. We greatly it is more susceptible to denitrification other herbicides, such as paraquat and appreciate the equipment loaned by grower John losses. This can have the effect of reduc- glufosinate-ammonium, that are also Thompson. Steve Bickley, Jim Eckert and Ray Wen- ing the economy of these systems (urea lethal to herbicide-resistant rice weeds nig were responsible for much of the day-to-day nitrogen costs between 40 and 50 cents (Fischer 2002). management of the on-station research. per pound) and increasing emissions of nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas.

Potential for minimum tillage Linquist BA, Sengxua P. 2003. Efficient and flexible References management of nitrogen for rainfed lowland rice. Nutr In both on-station research and Cycl Agroecosys 67:107–15. Broadbent FE, Mikkelsen DS. 1968. Influence of grower fields, the minimum-tillage placement on uptake and tagged nitrogen by rice. Mikkelsen DS, Finfrock DC. 1957. Availability of Agron J 60:674–7. ammoniacal nitrogen to lowland rice as influenced by system maintained rice yields in the fertilizer placement. Agron J 49:296–300. absence of spring tillage. Where does Fischer AJ. 2002. Managing watergrass (Echinochloa spp.) resistance to rice herbicides in an Patrick WMH Jr, Wyatt R. 1964. Soil nitrogen loss minimum tillage fit in to a grower’s aquatic environment: Research and demonstration as a result of alternate submergence and drying. Soil overall farm-management strategy? in affected farms. California Department of Pes- Sci Soc Proc 29:647–53. ticide Regulation, Final Report. Pest Management Simarmata M, Kaufmann JE, Penner D. 2003. Po- First, minimum tillage can be useful Grants–Applied Research Agreement #00-0216S, tential basis of glyphosate resistance in California rigid when late spring rains prevent early March 1, 2002. www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pmap/ ryegrass (Lolium rigidum). Weed Sci 51:678–82. planting under conventional tillage grants/00-01/finlrpts/00-0216S.pdf. [UCCE] University of California Cooperative Exten- Heap I. 2007. The International Survey of Herbi- sion and Rice Research Board. 2006. Rice Production practices, as in 2006. Second, growers cide Resistant Weeds. www.weedscience.org/in.asp Workshop 2006. could employ minimum tillage to plant (accessed March 13, 2007). Watkins KB, Anders MM, Windham TE. 2004. An fields early. In such cases, additional Lal R, Hobbs PR, Uphoff N, Hansen DO (eds.). economic comparison of alternative rice production tillage and phosphorus and potassium 2004. Sustainable Agriculture and the International systems in Arkansas. J Sust Ag 24(4):57–78. Rice-Wheat System. New York: M Dekker. 532 p. Williams JF, Mutters RG, Klonsky KM, De Moura RL. applications would be recommended Linquist BA, Brouder SM, Hill JE. 2006. Winter 2001. Sample costs to produce rice. UC Cooperative in the fall. straw and water management effects on soil nitro- Extension and Department of Agricultural and Resource gen dynamics in California rice systems. Agron J Economics, RI-SV-01. www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/ Finally, minimum tillage can be 98:1050–9. uccerice/STATS/2001Rice.pdf. used to control herbicide-resistant weeds by germinating weeds and

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 29 Research Article t Postharvest survival of navel orangeworm assessed in pistachios

by Joel P. Siegel, L.P.S. (Bas) Kuenen, Bradley S. Higbee, Patricia Noble, Richard Gill, Glen Y. Yokota, Rodrigo Krugner and Kent M. Daane

Controlling navel orangeworm, a key pistachio pest, is problematic because the moth overwinters in “mummy” nuts. After harvest, there may be more than 30,000 pistachio nuts (mummies) left behind per acre. To provide better information for winter sanitation decisions, we investigated the number of available mummies and their levels of navel orangeworm Navel orangeworm is a primary pest of pistachios and infestation from winter through almonds in California. Eggs are laid on the exterior. When they hatch the larvae find cracks in the hull and burrow early summer in California pistachio into the kernel. orchards. Navel orangeworm mortal- ity was highest from late December tree and then collecting them in a feeding on pistachio kernels, and indi- through mid-February, and was also catch apron. But unfortunately for the rect damage by increasing processing grower, the entire crop does not make costs, reducing nut quality and facili- higher on the ground than in trees. it to market. Some of the nuts remain tating aflatoxin contamination of nuts Mortality on the ground was high- in the trees after shaking, and some (Doster and Michailides 1994). est when mummies were tilled or harvested crop is lost due to spillage In both pistachios and almonds, (Siegel et al. 2004). Our research fo- mowed with the groundcover than there are multiple generations of na- cused on the nuts that remain on the vel orangeworm, and the population when nuts were left on the raised ground and in the trees after harvest, increases throughout the summer and berm. Our data indicates that, in con- known as “mummies.” They are costly early fall; consequently there are more trast to almonds, it is more produc- not only because of their lost market moths in September than in July. The potential but also because they are a larvae and pupae that do not emerge tive to focus on clearing pistachios resource for a key insect pest of pista- from nuts spend the winter inside from the ground than on removing chios: the navel orangeworm (Amyelois unharvested nuts, called “overwinter- them from trees. However, winter transitella [Walker]), a moth first de- ing” (Caltagirone et al. 1968). Navel sanitation procedures also should be scribed from specimens collected in orangeworm develop intermittently in Mexico (Wade 1961). these mummies when the temperature augmented in order to destroy more Despite its name, the navel orange- exceeds 55°F (Engle and Barnes 1983), overwintering navel orangeworm. worm (NOW) is not a pest of navel and oviposition can begin as early as oranges but rather a primary pest of mid-January on mummy almonds in ore than 95% of U.S. pistachio California pistachios and almonds, as Kern County. Although eggs laid this production occurs in California, well as a serious pest of walnuts. Eggs early are unlikely to develop success- primarilyM in the central and south- are laid on the exterior of the nut or fully, those laid at the beginning of ern San Joaquin Valley (CPC 2007). where the nuts attach to the stem. In February can (Joel Siegel, unpublished California pistachio acreage has almost some cases, if the hull has split and the data), and in most years emergence of doubled over the past decade to more kernel is exposed, eggs may be laid adult moths to start the next genera- than 152,000 acres, and pistachios were directly on the kernel. When the eggs tion is well under way throughout the the second-most valuable California nut hatch, the larvae crawl on the outside San Joaquin Valley by mid-March. The crop in 2004 at $438 million, trailing of the nut searching for a breach in the later navel orangeworm generations, only almonds (Boriss 2005). hull in order to gain entry and then which emerge from August through Pistachios are harvested mechani- burrow into the kernel. Navel orange- September, are the most damaging to cally, first by shaking nuts from the worm larvae cause direct damage by pistachios because pistachios become

30 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 At harvest time, top, pistachios are removed During the pistachio harvest, nuts that are not collected either fall on the from the tree by mechanical shakers. Bottom, a ground or are left in the trees. These leftover “mummy” nuts can harbor tree collar captures the nuts. navel orangeworm over the winter. infested after the hull breaks down, ex- Even though unharvested pista- mummies from the berms in an 80-acre posing the shell and/or kernel (Beede et chios provide the only available food block, as described. In the final study, al. 1984; Bentley et al. 2005). and shelter for overwintering navel conducted between January and March Because insecticides do not control orangeworm populations, the fate of 2007, navel orangeworm population the overwintering navel orangeworm these mummy nuts and the overwin- density was assessed in a 160-acre pista- population, it is suppressed by sanitation, tering navel orangeworm has not been chio block, and 359,087 mummies were a laborious process consisting of blowing extensively studied. We studied pista- collected from the berm, as described. fallen mummies from the berm (the area chio mummy and navel orangeworm Findings from all three studies are ag- immediately surrounding the trunk, con- prevalence from winter through early gregated in the results presented here. taining the irrigation lines) into the drive summer, using both normal sanitation To calculate the prevalence of navel rows (the area between the tree rows), and experimental ground-management orangeworm, the mummies collected and then tilling these nuts into the soil. practices. during all three studies were placed in Growers may also shake mummies from Prevalence of mummies and worms the trees and then rake or blow the nuts into the drive rows to be tilled (UC IPM We conducted a series of three stud- Definitions: Online 2007). ies at S&J Ranch in Madera County from Processed pistachio nuts While orchard sanitation success- 2004 to 2007. During winter 2004–2005, fully controls navel orangeworm in a 40-acre pistachio block was selected Upon arrival at the processor, pista- almonds (Zalom et al. 1984), its effec- after harvest and four rows were chosen chios fall into two broad categories. tiveness in pistachios is variable. This at random. Within each row, samples The first is nuts containing kernels, is partly because pistachios cannot be of nuts were collected from the berm “filled nuts,” which in turn can be readily shredded by tillage and may every three to four trees in December, subdivided into split and unsplit stick to the berm, and as a result cannot February, April and June. In addi- nuts. About 75% of harvested nuts be blown into the drive rows for disk- tion, two other rows were selected at are filled nuts with split shells, ing. As many as half of the nuts remain random (0.25 miles per row) and all based on data provided by Para- on the berm after blowing because mummies were collected from the trees mount Farming Company for 1998 moisture “glues” them to the soil (Siegel in December and February. A total of to 2004 (> 1.7 billion pounds field et al. 2004). Even when pistachios are 175,350 nuts were collected in 2004–2005 weight). The second category is un- successfully tilled into the soil, navel from the ground and canopy. In the filled nuts or “blanks,” which lack orangeworm larvae can emerge from next study, conducted between April kernels. These nuts are removed nuts buried as deep as 6 inches (Bradley and June 2006, we assessed the preva- during processing. Higbee, unpublished data). lence of split nuts and collected 227,286

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 31 Tens of thousands of pistachios are spilled per Top, spilled nuts may end up around tree The authors evaluated methods for acre after a typical September harvest. trunks. Bottom, by the following June, the managing spilled nuts, top, on the berm, nuts have deteriorated substantially. and, bottom, in the rows.

5-gallon buckets covered with netting, of California Kearney Agricultural Split mummies decrease each containing about 550 mummies. Research and Education Center in The buckets were held at 80°F and Fresno County. Immediately after harvest, nuts checked periodically for adult emer- Ground management in this block remain on the ground due to spill- gence, which could be seen through consisted of a pre-emergent herbicide age. In 2003 — in a separate study not the netting. All adults were removed, application on the berm to keep this described here — we dissected 9,300 their numbers recorded, and the days section weed-free, but vegetation re- spilled nuts immediately after harvest elapsed from collection determined. For mained in the drive row. Four treat- and determined that the prevalence each sample date, about 10% to 30% of ments were investigated: (1) placing of splits was 65.1% (Siegel et al. 2004). the nuts were removed from the buck- mummies on the berm; ets and sorted by hand to determine the (2) placing mummies in In most circumstances it is more percentage of split nuts and blanks. The the middle of the drive economical to concentrate on removing total number of nuts collected was mul- rows and not mowing or destroying mummies on the ground tiplied by the percentage of split nuts them; (3) placing mum- in order to determine the true number mies in the middle of than shaking them from pistachio trees. of nuts available to navel orangeworm. the drive rows and then This is more accurate than calculat- mowing them; and (4) placing mum- The percentage of split nuts observed ing infestation by simply dividing the mies in the middle of the drive rows on the berm in our three studies, 71% adults by the total number of nuts col- and then tilling them. (table 1), was consistent with our pre- lected, because closed-shell and blank Treatments were set in a random- vious work and also comparable to pistachios cannot be infested. ized block design with six replica- the average prevalence of split nuts in tions. Each treatment plot was a loads received by Paramount Farming Ground management practices 10.76-square-foot section of the berm Company between 1998 and 2004. For our ground management study, or drive row that was isolated by cages The recovery of split nuts decreases pistachio mummies were collected (wooden frames 10.76 square feet at over time as more nuts fall from the tree, on Feb. 19, 2002, from an orchard in the base and 3.9 inches high) that were and by midwinter/early spring only Madera County. Four lots of 100 mum- covered on top by organdy cloth im- 30.6% of the mummies collected in our mies each were dissected to determine mediately after treatment and left open three studies were split nuts. This occurs navel orangeworm prevalence, which underneath. Two hundred mummies because more of the nuts remaining on averaged 35.5 ± 2.5% per lot, and the (an estimated 71 navel orangeworm per the trees after harvest are blanks, which remaining mummies (4,800) were used plot based on the prior dissection) were weigh less than filled nuts and are less in an experiment conducted in a pis- placed in each plot, and the cages were likely to be shaken from the tree. This tachio research block at the University checked weekly for adult emergence. was confirmed in a previous study —

32 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 TABLE 1. Percentage split, unsplit and blank mummies, Madera County, 2005 and 2006

Sample period Split Unsplit Blank Nuts sampled Harvest spillage, October 71.0 22.2 6.8 8,624 Mummy nuts, winter and spring 30.6 3.2 66.2 14,872

TABLE 2. Infestation based on adult emergence of navel orangeworm (NOW) from mummies collected in Madera County, December 2004–June 2005

NOW infestation Collection period Total nuts Split nuts Total nuts Split nuts no. no. (%) ...... % ...... Berm mummies* December 30,000 11,460 (38.2a) 7.60 20.0a February 29,500 9,300 (31.5b) 1.50 4.6b April 15,000 3,056 (20.4c) 0.10 0.5c June 85,500 11,050 (13.0d) 0.04 0.3c Tree mummies† December 9,250 3,352 (36.2a) 3.70 10.1b February 6,100 1,000 (16.4b) 1.60 9.5b * Data analyzed using multiple regression with orthogonal polynomial coefficients; means followed by a different letter are significantly different at P < 0.0001. † Data analyzed using 2 × 2 contingency chi square; means followed by the same letter are not different at P ≤ 0.05. not described here — conducted in Kern ing, which means that there is an “on” County in 2003, when 20 trees were year of high nut production followed selected at random after the first shake by an “off” year where production may and the remaining 280,500 nuts were drop as much as 60%. Goldhamer and removed, sorted and dissected by hand Beede (2004) reported that mature trees to determine the percentage of split nuts in an “on” year produced an average (38.1%). This is roughly comparable to of 12,000 nuts (74% filled, 26% blank) the 30.6% split nuts recovered from the in Kings County during the 1991–1992 berm in our three studies between mid- growing season. Today, a mature tree winter/early spring. produces approximately 15,000 nuts in The prevalence of split nuts contin- an “on” year, due to improved manage- ued to decline, and by mid-June 2005, ment practices. Based on the industry Top, navel orangeworm larvae feed on the kernels and increase aflatoxin contamination. only 13% of the mummies in our stud- average of 135 trees per acre, during Above, mummy nuts on the tree. ies were split (table 2). In contrast, split an “on” year an acre contains almost nuts accounted for almost 43% of the 2 million pistachios before harvest, of mummies collected in the same orchard which approximately 1.44 million are in June 2006, following a dry January filled (split and unsplit nuts). Assuming and February 2005, while there was no and February (data not shown). The 90% harvest efficiency, the number of decline in navel orangeworm infesta- seasonal decline in split-nut recovery filled nuts left behind per acre after tion of tree mummies during this same from the berm is due to a host of factors one shake is 144,000 per acre, most of period (table 2). Because adult emer- including germination, rotting, animal which are split. If we assume that the gence is minimal during this period, we feeding and the continuous fall of blank maximum seasonal reduction in split attribute the decline in navel orange- nuts to the ground. Undoubtedly, dif- nuts occurred in June 2005, an average worm density on the ground to mor- ferences in rainfall timing affect the orchard would contain 18,720 split nuts tality. After February, however, adult rate of nut decomposition as well. per acre (139 per tree) after harvest. If emergence is a factor. Distinguishing We could not assess seasonal the prevalence observed in June 2006 between mortality and emigration in changes in split nuts in the trees after was the minimum reduction, an aver- the field is a common problem in all in- February because by April there were age orchard would contain 54,000 split sect mortality studies because the cause few mummies remaining on the trees nuts per acre (401 per tree) after harvest of the disappearance in the population during the years studied. We obtained was concluded. is unknown, except for instances when a rough estimate of the number of split adult emergence is minimal or cadavers Worm survival in mummies mummies per acre by combining our are recovered (Siegel et al. 1987). data with previously published data Navel orangeworm infestation in In our 2005–2006 study, which on the average number of pistachios split nuts collected from the berm de- focused on ground mummies, the per tree. Pistachios are alternate bear- clined by 77% between December 2004 decline in navel orangeworm preva-

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 33 80 TABLE 3. Estimate of density of split nuts and navel orangeworm (NOW) infestation per acre, December 2004–June 2005, Madera County* 2 70 )⁄m Split nuts Navel orangeworm Stage Cumulative Stage Cumulative Month Number decline decline Number decline decline 20 ...... % ...... % ...... a December 38,586 – – 7,717 – – a February 31,818 17.5 17.5 1,464 81.0 81.0 10 NOW adults (± SEM April† 20,606 35.4 46.7 103 92.9 98.7 b June‡ 13,131 36.3 66.0 39 62.0 99.5 c * Tree density is 95 per acre; initial input was 101,010 split nuts remaining after harvest. 0 Control Berm Drive Mowed Disked † Decline in NOW was a combination of mortality and emigration due to adult emergence. row drive drive ‡ Decline in NOW was a combination of mortality and emigration, but also with an input from oviposition. row row lence between Jan. 9 and Feb. 6, 2006, we estimated the April population to Fig. 1. Numbers of adult navel orangeworm emerging with four pistachio groundcover was 60%, roughly comparable to our be 103 adults per acre, only 44 of these treatments. Treatment impact was deter- previous finding. Daane et al. (2001) adults are female. If we assume that mined using analysis of variance (P < 0.0001, conducted a study in Madera County a female lays an average of 85 eggs in df = 3,20, F = 21.761). Treatment separation, in which 39,933 mummies were col- her lifetime (Wade 1961), there are 3,765 indicated by different letters above each bar, was determined using Fisher’s least square lected between late January and mid- navel orangeworm eggs per acre to be- difference test (P < 0.05). April, and also in early June. Navel gin the first generation of the new crop orangeworm infestation declined 22% year. This first generation of the new between January and February, and crop year is laid between February and 74.6% between February and March. We early June, with peak oviposition occur- soil drastically reduced navel orange- noted declines of the same magnitude ring from late April into mid-May. The worm emergence (fig. 1), although the in our study during that same period population will increase if more than extent of mortality arising from these in 2006 and 2007. However, mortality is 2.7% of these eggs develop into adults, or practices may also be dependent on confounded with emigration: We know if mortality is less than 97.3%. The navel rainfall and temperature, which we did that the numbers of navel orangeworm orangeworm population will increase not measure. Additionally, disks that decreased in the samples based on further if survival in the succeeding gen- work the soil to greater depths will our recovery of adults, but we do not erations — which are laid on new crop bury mummies further underground, know if this decrease was due to adults nuts — exceeds 2.0%, because the sex increasing navel orangeworm mortality emerging before nuts were collected in ratio of adults emerging from new crop (Bradley Higbee, unpublished data). February and April or whether navel pistachios is 50:50. To our surprise, however, there was orangeworm died inside the nuts and Navel orangeworm larvae are more no difference in emergence between therefore did not emerge. likely to survive in mummies than pupae. mummies placed on the berm and in Combining our data on navel orange- In a 2005 Kern County experiment — not the undisturbed drive row (ground worm prevalence for 2004–2005 with described here — researchers at the vegetation) where the ground vegeta- information on seasonal changes in the Paramount Farming Company dis- tion was left intact. We hypothesize that density of available mummies, we es- sected 176,625 pistachio mummies col- moisture in the groundcovers increased timated changes in navel orangeworm lected in February and 66,802 mummies mummy rotting, which in turn in- density within an acre of pistachios collected in March (Bradley Higbee, creased navel orangeworm mortality in (table 3). This analysis assumed that all unpublished data). In February, 10,692 undisturbed drive rows. This may not filled nuts are split nuts, and ignored larvae were collected and 84.3% of these have occurred in this study, however, infested tree mummies and emigration larvae were still alive, but only 14.7% because our observation interval was of adults. Assuming a 95 tree-per-acre of the 835 pupae collected were alive. too short or because the study year was planting containing 91 female trees, we In March, larval survival decreased relatively dry. begin with an estimated 101,010 split slightly to 81.8% (2,445 total) while pu- Controlling NOW in pistachios nuts after harvest. This analysis also pal survival significantly increased to included the sex ratio of navel orange- 67.6% (587 total) (2 × 2 contingency chi We found that ground mummies are worm as a factor, in order to determine square, P < 0.0001, in both cases). The an important source of navel orange- if the population would increase in the higher larval than pupal survival indi- worm, and that mowing and disking next generation. cates that pupae are more susceptible to both the groundcover and nuts in row We cannot assume a 50:50 sex ratio in unidentified mortality factors between middles reduced navel orangeworm adults emerging from pistachio mum- February and March. adult emergence. Moreover, burying mies because the actual male-to-female the mummies kept females from lay- Ground management reduces NOW ratio was 57:43 in both field-collected ing eggs in them in the spring or early samples and laboratory studies (3,844 In our ground management study summer. In our experience, it is more adults examined, chi-square analysis, active management such as mowing economical to concentrate on removing P < 0.0001). Consequently, although groundcover and disking nuts into the or destroying mummies on the ground

34 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 To evaluate ground management practices, several Strategies for managing ground mummies include hundred pistachio mummies were placed in each plot blowing them off the berm, and mowing and/or prior to treatment, and then covered with a wood frame disking them into the soil to inhibit navel orangeworm to monitor the emergence of adult navel orangeworm. egg-laying. than to shake them from pistachio Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Policy and Management, UC Berkeley (currently, trees, given the limited resources avail- Service (USDA ARS), San Joaquin Valley Agricul- R. Krugner is Research Entomologist, USDA ARS, tural Sciences Center, Commodity Protection and San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center). able to most growers for winter sanita- Quarantine Research Unit, Parlier; B.S. Higbee is The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of tion. However, consistently removing Research Entomologist, Paramount Farming Com- James Bettiga of S&J Ranch and Mike Braga of mummies from the berm remains a pany, Bakersfield; G.Y. Yokota is Staff Research Nichols Farm for providing field sites, and thank problem, and in these studies navel Associate, R. Krugner was Laboratory Assistant, anonymous reviewers for comments on the orangeworm–infested mummies had and K.M. Daane is UC Cooperative Extension manuscript. This research was funded in part by higher survival on the berm than those Specialist, Department of Environmental Science, the California Pistachio Commission. in the row middles. Our emphasis on removing mum- mies from the ground for sanitation in References required for egg hatch of navel orangeworm (Lepi- pistachios is in sharp contrast to cur- Agudelo-Silva F, Zalom FG, Hom A, Hendricks L. doptera, Pyralidae). Environ Entomol 12:1215–7. 1995. Dormant season application of Steinernema rent recommendations for sanitation in Goldhamer DA, Beede RH. 2004. Regulated deficit carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) and Het- irrigation effects on yield, nut quality and water-use almonds, where it is considered criti- erorhabditis sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) on al- efficiency of mature pistachio trees. J Hort Sci Biotech mond for control of overwintering Amyelois transitella 79:538–45. cally important to remove mummies and Anarsia lineatella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Fl from the trees (Zalom et al. 1984; UC Entomol 78:516–23. Siegel JP, Higbee BS, Lacey LA, et al. 2004. Use of nematodes for postharvest control of navel orange- IPM Online 2007). Undoubtedly, the Beede RH, Bentley W, Rice RE, et al. 1984. Navel worm (Amyelois transitella) in fallen pistachios and importance of pistachio mummies re- orangeworm management in pistachio. California assessment of current post harvest cultural control Pistachio Industry Annual Report, Crop Year 1983–84. methods. California Pistachio Commission 2004 maining in the trees will continue to be www.acpistachios.org/research.php. p 61–8. Production Research Reports. www.acpistachios.org/ debated, and further research is needed Bentley W, Holtz B, Daane K. 2005. Navel orange- research.php. p 179–86. to resolve this issue. Research is also worm (Amyelois transitella) (Walker) and oblique- Siegel JP, Higbee BS, Lacey LA, et al. 2006. Use of banded leafroller (Choristoneura rosaceana) (Harris) as nematodes for post harvest control of navel orange- needed to identify the mortality factors pests of pistachio. Pistachio Production Manual (4th worm (Amyelois transitella) in fallen pistachios and responsible for the decline in winter ed.). http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/crops/pistachio_ assessment of current post harvest cultural control index_2005.shtml UC ANR Pub. p 197–203. methods. California Pistachio Commission 2005 navel orangeworm populations on the Boriss H. 2005. Commodity Profile: Pistachios. Production Research Reports. www.acpistachios.org/ ground. It may be possible to augment UC Agricultural Issues Center, Davis, CA. www.aic research.php. p 177–84. pistachio sanitation with insecticide use .ucdavis.edu/profiles/Pistachios-2005.pdf (accessed Siegel JP, Lacey LA, Higbee BS, et al. 2006. Effect Dec. 2006). in the fall (Siegel, Higbee, et al. 2006) as of application rates and abiotic factors on Steinernema Caltagirone LE, Meals DW, Shea KP. 1968. Al- carpocapsae for control of overwintering navel orange- well as with entomopathogenic nema- mond sticktights contribute to navel orangeworm worm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae, Amyelois transitella) in todes (Siegel, Lacey, et al. 2006), which infestations. Cal Ag 22(3):2–3. pistachios. Biol Control 36:324–30. have been previously tested in almonds [CPC] California Pistachio Commission. 2007. Siegel JP, Maddox JV, Ruesink WG. 1987. Survivor- California Pistachio Industry Annual Report, Crop ship of the European corn, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Agudelo-Silva et al. 1995). Ultimately, na- Year 2006–2007. www.acpistachios.org/research (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) borer in Central Illinois. Environ vel orangeworm control will be improved .php. p 68. Entomol 16:1071–5. by increasing our understanding of the Daane KM, Krugner R, Yokota GY, Malakar- UC IPM Online. 2007. UC Pest Management Guide- Kuenen R. 2001. Population dynamics of two moth lines; Pistachio, Navel Orangeworm. www.ipm.ucdavis population dynamics of this pest and by pests, the oblique banded leafroller and the navel or- .edu/PMG/r605300111.html (accessed May 2007). integrating preharvest management prac- angeworm, and their parasitoids in pistachio orchards. Wade WH. 1961. Biology of the navel orange- Pistachio Commission Interim Annual Report. tices with postharvest sanitation. worm, Paramyelois transitella (Walker), on almonds www.acpistachios.org/research.php. p 260–75. and walnuts in northern California. Hilgardia Doster MA, Michailides TJ. 1994. Aspergillus 31:129–71. molds and aflatoxins in pistachio nuts in California. Zalom FG, Barnett WW, Weakley CV. 1984. Ef- Phytopathol 84:583–90. ficacy of winter sanitation for managing the navel J.P. Siegel is Research Entomologist, L.P.S. (Bas) Engle CE, Barnes MM. 1983. Developmental orangeworm, Paramyelois transitella (Walker) in Cali- Kuenen is Research Entomologist, and P. Noble threshold temperature and heat unit accumulation fornia almond orchards. Prot Ecol 7:37–41. and R. Gill are Biological Science Technicians, U.S.

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 35 RESEARCH ARTICLE t Bait formulations and longevity of navel orangeworm egg traps tested

by L.P.S. (Bas) Kuenen, Walt Bentley, Heather C. Rowe and Brian Ribeiro

Standardization of pest monitoring practices and materials to maximize sensitivity to pest populations in the fi eld is a foundation of effective integrated pest management (IPM). In response to changes in the avail- ability of commercial bait material for navel orangeworm (NOW) egg traps, we evaluated potential alternative bait materials for use in monitoring this key pest of almonds, pistachios, walnuts and fi gs. Navel orangeworm egg traps baited with uninfested nutmeats were as effective as almond meal plus 10% crude almond oil, whereas traps baited with freeze- killed, navel orangeworm–infested nutmeats were less effective. The use Top, a pistachio orchard in Kings County. Above left, an adult navel orangeworm pair mating on a pistachio; center, naval orangeworm lay their eggs on mummy nuts in the spring; right, egg of nut mummies (culled during win- traps are used in orchards to monitor navel orangeworm for integrated pest management. ter orchard sanitation) as trap bait may not produce consistent results trance wounds in walnuts); they also egg traps (Rice et al. 1976). Trapping since the level of navel orangeworm enter after hull-splitting and drying of data is used to time the early harvest infestation of these nuts is typically almonds, pistachios and walnuts, which of almonds prior to egg-laying by the unknown. Three seasons of fi eld tests occurs normally as these nuts mature. third generation of navel orangeworm It is believed that navel orangeworm lay and for timing insecticide sprays for the showed that egg traps baited with eggs on susceptible hosts in response to third generation in pistachios (Bentley almond meal plus 3% or 10% crude changes in odors — associated with the and Surber 1986). The more accurately almond oil received similar numbers physical maturity changes — emitted navel orangeworm populations can be of navel orangeworm eggs, and these from the nuts and fi gs, and possibly in tracked, the better they can be man- response to altered tactile cues associ- aged, particularly with newer, reduced- traps were equally effective for at ated with these physical changes. The risk insecticides that have shorter least 10 weeks. host odors are attractive to female navel residual times or require more precise orangeworm, which then lay eggs on application timing to maximize their hen navel orangeworm (NOW) the host; mated navel orangeworm fe- effect on navel orangeworm numbers. infests nuts and fi gs, they will males are known to fl y upwind to odors Although the sex pheromone for this containW larvae or pupae and fecal mate- from crude almond oil (CAO) (Phelan insect has been reported (Coffelt et al. rial of the pest. Likewise, navel orange- and Baker 1987). 1979; Leal et al. 2005; Millar and Kuenen worm infestation is highly correlated The ability to monitor pests is a 2005), it is ineffective in sticky traps with the infection of nuts by Aspergillus key component of any integrated pest compared to traps baited with unmated spp., which produce carcinogenic afl a- management (IPM) program. The na- females (Kuenen et al. 2001; Millar and toxins. Both result in losses for growers. vel orangeworm is a primary pest of Kuenen 2006). Therefore, egg traps will Navel orangeworm (Amyelois tran- about 1.1 million acres of nuts and fi gs remain important for years to come in sitella) larvae enter fi gs or nuts through in California, and currently it is moni- the IPM of navel orangeworm. open ostia (fi gs) or holes in damaged tored by direct counts of eggs or larvae Current commercial egg traps con- nut hulls (especially codling moth en- on the host and by navel orangeworm sist of plastic vials (3.375 inches by

36 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 The more accurately navel orangeworm can be monitored, the better it can be managed.

1.625 inches, with three 1.125-inch, and at least 65 feet between replicate Nutmeats vs. almond meal plus oil screened, round holes in the lower half blocks (actual spacing was determined of the vial) containing a bait attractive by tree spacings within and between Since some growers and pest con- to navel orangeworm females, which rows). The first trap in each row was trol advisors use nutmeats collected elicits egg-laying on the surface of at least 165 feet in from the nearest from orchard sanitizing procedures the traps. When first introduced, the orchard road. All test blocks consisted in their egg traps, our first test in 2001 traps were baited with a mixture of of areas with no orchard drive rows or compared traps baited with (1) almond wheat bran, honey, glycerol and water. any other open spaces within larger pieces, (2) pistachio pieces, (3) navel The traps’ efficiency has since been orchard blocks. orangeworm–infested almond pieces, improved by adding ridges around Typically, egg counts were taken (4) navel orangeworm–infested pista- the traps, painting them black and at weekly intervals. After each count, chio pieces, (5) almond meal plus 10% changing the bait from a wheat-bran- traps were re-randomized by moving (by weight) crude almond oil or (6) left based material to almond press cake them one tree forward within the rep- empty as control traps. For the infested (an almond-oil processing byproduct) licate, and then the last trap in the row nut pieces, navel orangeworm larvae (Van Steenwyk et al. 1986). These black was moved to the first trap position in had been freeze-killed (as they would traps, baited with almond press cake the same row. Trap baits were always be by users of culled mummy nuts). plus crude almond oil (10% by weight), formulated in the Kuenen lab, but plot There were no differences in trap have become a de facto standard for specifics and the choice of orchards catch among uninfested almond, un- navel orangeworm monitoring. were conducted independently by our infested pistachio or traps baited with However, in 1997 Liberty Vegetable labs to ensure adequate orchard repre- crude almond oil (P > 0.05) (fig. 1), Co. (Santa Fe Springs, Calif.), the pro- sentation. whereas traps baited with infested vider of almond press cake, altered its Data were analyzed graphically almond or infested pistachio pieces almond-oil processing and now sells and by ANOVA. No data transforma- were significantly lower P( < 0.05) than almond meal instead of almond press tions were necessary as indicated uninfested almond pieces. The control cake as a byproduct. In 2001, we initi- by Bartlett’s test for homogeneity of traps received few eggs. Commercial ated field tests to find the optimum variances (Sokal and Rohlf 1981). Egg bait is easier to handle and more eas- blend of almond meal plus crude al- counts (eggs/trap/week) were analyzed ily standardized. Further, since the mond oil to attract navel orangeworm by 2-way ANOVA using PROC GLM in almond meal containing 10% crude females, and used red wheat bran as a SAS, and mean separation tests (alpha = almond oil was as effective a trap bait crude almond oil carrier for compari- 0.05) were conducted with Tukey’s HSD as the uninfested nutmeats, and since son. We also investigated the relative test (SAS 2001). No significant block ef- the components are easily manipulated, attractiveness of infested versus unin- fects were found in any of our studies our subsequent tests focused on assess- fested almond and pistachio nutmeats, (P > 0.05). ing the influence of varying amounts of because infested almonds are report- edly better attractants for navel orange- worm than uninfested nuts (Andrews 180 a and Barnes 1982). 150 Egg trap tests ab abc Tests were conducted in almond, 120 fig and pistachio orchards in Madera County during the 2001 to 2003 grow- 90 bc ing seasons. Navel orangeworm egg (± 1 SE) c traps were purchased from Trécé, Inc. 60

(Adair, Okla.) and were filled at least Mean eggs/trap/week

75% with baits to ensure that the traps’ 30 windows remained covered with bait d throughout the test periods (see also 0 Almond Infested Pistachio Infested Almond Control Van Steenwyk et al. 1986). Traps were meats almond meats pistachio meal/CAO suspended on branches about 5 feet Bait above the ground in the outer half of the canopy, and treatments were Fig. 1. Mean navel orangeworm (NOW) egg counts from traps containing NOW-infested placed in randomized complete block almond or pistachio nutmeats, uninfested almond or pistachio nutmeats, almond meal plus 10% crude almond oil (CAO) by weight of almond meal, or unbaited controls. Traps were designs with five or more replicates per hung in a Madera County fig orchard March 26–April 30, 2001, with one trap per bait type in test. Each replicate block was laid out each of five blocks for a total of 30 traps. Traps were checked weekly. Bars represent ± one along tree rows with at least 65 feet be- standard error. Columns having no letters in common are significantly different; P < 0.05, tween traps within the replicate blocks Tukey’s HSD test.

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 37 2001 10 A

5

0 Wheat Almond

(± 1 SE) 10 B

Mean eggs/trap/wee k 5

0 0 1 3 10 2002 3 C a 2

ab a 1 ab ab ab b b 0 Wheat Monitoring with egg traps allows growers to better time harvests and more 2 Almond

(± 1 SE ) effectively apply lower-risk insecticides. Left, a midseason pistachio cluster a D a and, right, nuts mummifying after harvest. a Mean eggs/trap/wee k 1 almond oil whether mixed with almond crude almond oil (figs. 2C, D). ab b b b meal or the less-dense wheat bran. In 2003, we conducted two further b 0 0 Our first test with almond meal and tests of almond meal plus crude almond 0 1 3 10 wheat bran plus crude almond oil in- oil only, since the wheat bran plus crude % CAO by weight dicated that traps baited with almond almond oil baits typically captured meal plus 0% or 1% crude almond oil fewer eggs. Trap capture data were Fig. 2. Mean navel orangeworm (NOW) egg received more eggs than traps baited combined for the two tests and showed counts from egg traps containing almond meal with almond meal plus 3% or 10% crude nearly equal trap catch at all doses of or wheat bran plus crude almond oil (CAO). In 2001, traps were hung in a Madera County (A) almond oil, and more than all wheat- crude almond oil tested (P > 0.05) (fig. 3). almond orchard May 17–23 and checked daily, baited traps (P < 0.05) (fig. 2A). In this In this last study and our first with and (B) pistachio orchard July 11–Aug. 1 and first test, however, traps were checked almond meal plus crude almond oil, checked weekly. In both orchards, one trap per daily, whereas in all subsequent tests bait type was hung in each of five blocks for the treatment without crude almond a total of 40 traps. In 2002, traps were hung eggs were counted weekly, which is typ- oil was as good as or better than those in a Madera County (C) pistachio orchard Aug. ical for navel orangeworm monitoring. with crude almond oil. This is perplex- 8–Sept. 5, and (D) almond orchard Oct. 8–Nov. A subsequent test in 2001 indicated ing, since all the almond meal and 5. In both orchards, one trap per bait type was hung in each of seven blocks for a total of 56 that traps baited with almond meal plus crude almond oil came from single traps, and checked weekly. In 2001, there were 1% or 3% crude almond oil received batches, respectively, from the vendor. no significant differences in egg counts within more eggs compared to traps without It is also important to note that in all bait types. In 2002, columns having no letters crude almond oil or traps baited with our tests, trap capture variability was in common are significantly different within bait types; P < 0.05, Tukey’s HSD test. All bars wheat bran (P < 0.05) (fig. 2B). Overall, high and mean trap catch in relation to represent ± one standard error. traps baited with almond meal plus the dosage of crude almond oil shifted crude almond oil received significantly continuously. Even with replicated and more eggs than traps baited with wheat repeated tests, consistent significant dif- bran plus crude almond oil (P < 0.05). In ferences were rare. Nevertheless, over crude almond oil plus almond meal on 2002, we tested the same treatments but the course of all tests, treatments with trap capture. at different times during the growing almond meal plus 3% crude almond season and in different orchards (which Standardizing trap baits oil typically performed well, so we are likely accounts for the lower numbers compelled to recommend it as the best Comparisons were made between of eggs per trap compared to 2001). treatment in this monitoring technique. traps baited with almond meal or red There was a clear trend for higher egg Trap bait longevity wheat bran mixed with 0%, 1%, 3% or 10% counts on traps with higher amounts crude almond oil by weight, based on of almond meal plus crude almond In summer 2003, we also examined the weight of almond meal. Thus, traps oil, whereas traps with crude almond the longevity of trap baits. Fifteen traps with a given percentage of crude almond oil on wheat bran showed no trend in were baited with 3% crude almond oil oil contained the same amount of crude trap capture in relation to the dosage of and 15 with 10% crude almond oil on

38 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 50 80 3% CAO 70 10% CAO 40 60

50

30 40

30 (± 1 SE)

(± 1 SE) 20 20

Mean eggs/trap/wee k 10 Mean eggs/trap/week 10 0 0 2 4 6 0 Weeks aged prior to test 0 1 3 10 % CAO by weight Fig. 4. Mean navel orangeworm (NOW) egg counts from egg traps containing almond meal Fig. 3. Mean navel orangeworm (NOW) egg plus 3% or 10% crude almond oil (CAO) by counts from egg traps containing almond meal weight of almond meal; traps with baits had plus crude almond oil (CAO). Traps were hung been aged 0, 2, 4 or 6 weeks in a laboratory concurrently in a fig and pistachio orchard in incubator. Traps were hung in a Madera County Madera County May 20–June 26, 2003. In each pistachio orchard May 2–29, 2003. One trap per orchard, one trap per bait type was hung in bait type was hung in each of five blocks for each of five blocks for a total of 80 traps, and a total of 40 traps, and checked weekly. Bars A new formulation of almond meal mixed checked weekly. Bars represent ± one standard represent ± one standard error; within bait with crude almond oil was an effective trap error; there were no significant differences in types there were no significant differences in for navel orangeworm eggs. Above, female egg counts. egg counts. pistachio flowers.

almond meal, and aged (held) in a labo- traps was always high, with the stan- ratory incubator at 90oF. Every 2 weeks, dard errors typically exceeding the L.P.S. (Bas) Kuenen is Research Entomologist, five traps of each dosage were removed means. Although significant differences U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural o and held at −4 F until we had traps that in trap counts were rare among the Research Service, San Joaquin Valley Agricul- o were aged at 90 F for 0, 2, 4 and 6 weeks almond meal/crude almond oil baits, tural Sciences Center, Parlier; W. Bentley is (−4oF is a standard laboratory freezer traps with almond meal plus 3% or IPM Entomologist, UC Statewide IPM Project, temperature, at which little or no evap- 10% crude almond oil tended to capture UC Kearney Agricultural Center, Parlier; oration of odor compounds occurs). For the greatest number of eggs, and both H.C. Rowe is Graduate Student, Department this test, traps of all age categories were traps were equally effective over 10 of Plant Sciences, UC Davis; and B. Ribeiro is Staff Research Assistant, UC Statewide IPM placed in a fig orchard when day-time weeks. We conclude that almond meal Project. This research was supported in part o o highs were regularly 90 F to 95 F. Traps plus 3% crude almond oil will be effec- by grants from the California Pistachio Com- were positioned in a randomized com- tive in the field, with little or no loss of mission. We thank all our cooperating grow- plete block design and egg counts were efficiency for at least 10 weeks. ers for access to their orchards. taken weekly for 4 weeks. There were no differences in the capture efficiency of these aged egg traps (P > 0.05) (fig. 4) References even after aging in the lab for 6 weeks Andrews KL, Barnes MM. 1982. Differential orangeworm: Novel sex attractants and a behavioral and use in the field for 4 weeks. attractiveness of infested and uninfested mummy antagonist. Naturwissenschaften 92:139–46. almonds to navel orangeworm moths. Environ Ento- Millar JG, Kuenen LPS. 2005. Field and laboratory Practical implications mol 11:280–2. studies to improve pheromone of navel orangeworm. Bentley WJ, Surber E. 1986. Chemical control Proceedings/Annual Report of California Pistachio Tests over three field seasons and studies on navel orangeworm in pistachio. California Commission. www.acpistachios.org/research.php. in several orchards demonstrated that Pistachio Commission Production Research Reports, p 127–40. Crop Year 1985–1986. www.acpistachios.org/ almond meal mixed with crude al- Millar JG, Kuenen LPS. 2006. Field and laboratory research.php. p 75–6. studies to improve pheromone of navel orangeworm. mond oil is an effective trap bait, and Coffelt JA, Vick KW, Sonnet PE, Doolittle RE. Proceedings/Annual Report of California Pistachio traps baited with a near-neutral carrier 1979. Isolation, identification, and synthesis of a Commission. www.acpistachios.org/research.php. female sex pheromone of the navel orangeworm, Phelan PL, Baker TC. 1987. An attracticide for con- (wheat bran) plus crude almond oil Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). J Chem trol of Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Ecol 5:955–66. were not as effective (P < 0.05). In ad- almonds. J Econ Entomol 80:779–83. Kuenen, LPS, Rowe HC, Steffan K, et al. 2001. dition, traps baited with pistachio or Rice RE, Sadler LL, Hoffman ML, Jones RA. 1976. Incomplete female sex pheromone of the navel Egg traps for the navel orangeworm, Paramyelois tran- almond nutmeats were as effective as orangeworm, Amyelois transitella. California Pis- sitella (Walker). Environ Entomol 5:697–700. almond meal plus crude almond oil; tachio Commission Production Research Reports, 2001–2002. www.acpistachios.org/research.php. Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ. 1981. Biometry (2nd ed.). New however, freeze-killed, navel orange- 96 p. York: WH Freeman. 776 p. worm larvae–infested nuts captured Leal WS, Parra-Pedrazzoli AL, Kaissling KE, et al. Van Steenwyk RA, Barnett WW, Bentley WJ, et al. significantly fewer eggs P( < 0.05). 2005. Unusual pheromone chemistry in the navel 1986. Improved NOW egg traps. Cal Ag 40(1):24–5. The variability in egg counts on the

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 39 Research Article t Public work projects cultivate youth in workforce development programs

By David Campbell, Jean Lamming, Cathy Lemp, Ann Brosnahan, Carole Paterson and John Pusey

Using comparative case studies, we Corps Orange County Conservation evaluated youth workforce develop- ment programs in California that are funded by the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) and implemented by local Youth Councils and Workforce Invest- ment Boards. First, we identified a promising practice: skill- and pride- generating public work projects. Next, we identified three characteristics of these successful youth public work initiatives: (1) combining employment Members of the Orange County Conservation Corps help remove nonnative plants and debris from coastal sand dunes on the Bolsa Chica Ecological Reserve in Huntington Beach, and restore preparation with social services and the area with native plants. Federal funding for workforce development programs has declined personal support; (2) grouping youth from $24 billion in 1978 to about $6 billion in 2000. in cohorts that work and learn to- economy . . . It is not what we own These federal cuts have hit California gether; and (3) providing caring adult that counts, it is what we do.” Given hard. Between 2001 and 2005, WIA al- supervision that combines discipline the changing nature of jobs in the new locations declined an average of 26% information economy, Reich argues for and support. Proactive investments for 40 of the state’s 50 local workforce rethinking how we invest in public edu- areas (Lemp and Campbell 2005). These in high-quality programs with these cation and worker training. For exam- workforce areas are local administra- characteristics can reduce the grow- ple, today’s workers often need to learn tive bodies that receive federal and state ing number of out-of-school, out-of- quickly on the job, think outside of the funding to implement workforce devel- box, and understand other people’s opment programs. A 2006 survey found work youth in California, save future needs (Reich 2002), skills not measured that two-thirds of the local workforce public costs for the criminal justice and by typical standardized tests. areas in California had experienced social service systems, and provide Reich’s vision for our nation’s work- reductions in their allocations for youth youth with meaningful employment force provides a fitting vantage point programs over a 3-year period from for examining the findings of the re- 2003 to 2006 (Campbell et al. 2006). opportunities. cent UC Davis evaluation of workforce These cutbacks exacerbate a growing development programs for California youth workforce development crisis in or more than 2 decades, former Sec- youth, funded under the 1998 federal California. A 2003 study reported that retary of Labor Robert Reich (now Workforce Investment Act (WIA) (see 638,000 California young people aged Fa University of California, Berkeley, box, page 41). This evaluation found 16 to 24 years were out of school and professor) has championed the idea that the WIA’s emphasis on com- out of work (Sum 2003). Too many of that our national security depends on prehensive youth services results in these youth end up in the prison system increasing public investment in educa- higher quality programs, but that un- or, at best, in low-wage work that does tion and workforce training (Reich 1983, fortunately these programs are reach- not lift them or their families out of 1991, 2002). In his 1991 book The Work ing fewer and fewer youth due to a poverty. Existing youth workforce de- of Nations, Reich wrote that rather than decline in federal funding (Lamming velopment programs reach a very small enhancing the profitability of its corpo- et al. 2006). Total public expenditures fraction of those in need. For example, rations or the worldwide holdings of its for training and retraining low-skilled a 2004 study reported that there were citizens, the nation’s primary economic workers diminished from a peak of approximately 93,000 out-of-school, role is to “improve its citizens’ stan- $24 billion in 1978 to $7 billion in 1998 out-of-work youth in Los Angeles (Fogg dard of living by enhancing the value and a little over $6 billion in 2000, a and Harrington 2004). However, WIA- of what they contribute to the world 75% cut (Giloth 2004). funded workforce programs enrolled

40 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 Youth programs emphasize comprehensive services NoRTEC (Northern Rural Training and Employment Youth workforce development programs are designed Humboldt Consortium) for young people 14 to 21 years old who face substan- tial obstacles to employment. These programs depend Mendocino Study areas NCC (North Central primarily on funding received under the 1998 federal Counties Consortium) Golden Sierra Workforce Investment Act (WIA). Since 2000, state and Consortium Sonoma Yolo local Youth Councils and Workforce Investment Boards Napa Sacra– mento Solano have implemented such programs in California. Services Marin Mother San Contra Lode Joaquin Consortium are provided through contractors, including nonprofit San Francisco Costa Alameda Stanislaus organizations, city school districts, county offices of edu- San Jose/ Silicon Merced cation, faith-related organizations and private firms. Valley Madera Reflecting the belief of Congress that the “trend of San Fresno Benito Kern, Inyo, providing short-term programs for youth is unaccept- Mono Tulare Consortium able” (Brustein and Knight 1998), WIA-funded youth Monterey Kings programs have 10 required program elements: (1) tutor- San Luis ing, study-skills training and instruction leading to Obispo San Bernardino Verdugo secondary school completion; (2) alternative secondary Consortium Santa City of (Glendale, Barbara Los Angeles Burbank) school offerings; (3) summer employment opportunities Los Ventura Verdugo Angeles San Bernardino City directly linked to academic and occupational learning; Riverside (4) paid and unpaid work experiences including intern- City of Los Angeles Oran ge ships and job shadowing; (5) occupational skills train- San Diego Imperial Orange County City of Santa Ana ing; (6) leadership development opportunities; (7) supportive services; (8) adult mentoring; (9) follow- up services; and (10) comprehensive guidance. Fig. 1. Local workforce areas selected for case study sample.

only 2,232 youth during the 2005–2006 Extension (UCCE) researchers part- discretion to tailor programs to local program year due to insufficient funds nered with the California Workforce needs and circumstances, state offi- (personal communication, California Investment Board and the Employment cials were interested in learning more Employment Development Department Development Department between about how local discretion was being administrative data). March 2005 and September 2006. The exercised. Consistent with the “field A key goal of the UC Davis evalua- research team included three UCCE network approach” used in many tion was to identify strategies that local 4-H youth development advisors as studies of public policy implementa- workforce officials have developed to well as UC Davis faculty and research- tion (Nathan 2000), the final product meet the broader WIA service mandate, ers with expertise in community devel- was a detailed cross-case analysis despite decreased federal funding. We opment and public policy. comparing implementation across lo- focus on one promising strategy worthy The purpose of this research was cal workforce areas and identifying of replication, in which youth engage in to investigate how WIA provisions for policy and programmatic recommen- skill- and pride-generating public work youth programs are being implemented dations (Lamming et al. 2006). projects. Boyte and Kari (1996) defined in local workforce areas, to gain an The findings reported here represent public work as “work with public pur- understanding of what is working and just one component of this larger youth poses, work by a public, [and] work in what is not, and to make this informa- workforce evaluation, which in turn public settings.” While Boyte and Kari tion available to decision-makers, pri- was part of an even broader evaluation were primarily interested in using pub- marily at the state level. The research of the workforce development system in lic work to introduce youth to the craft design, approved by state officials California based on more than 400 in- of citizenship, local workforce officials and an evaluation advisory commit- terviews, observations, review of docu- in California are also finding that it is tee of state agency representatives, ments and analysis of administrative a powerful tool to teach occupational emphasized case studies of local imple- data (Campbell et al. 2006). skills, as well as work readiness atti- mentation using qualitative analysis Sample selection. California is di- tudes such as teamwork, customer ser- techniques and methods. vided into 50 local workforce areas, vice and reliability. A key goal was to identify patterns which comprise cities, counties or and trends in the service delivery mo- consortia of cities or counties (fig. 1). Youth workforce programs tifs that local areas were employing, We selected 10 of these areas to maxi- To study the implementation of particularly those that local stake- mize variation in location, economic WIA-funded youth workforce develop- holders viewed as successful or prom- conditions, size, administrative struc- ment programs in California, a team ising. Since WIA legislation grants ture and conditions for youth (table 1). of UC Davis and UC Cooperative local workforce areas considerable The 10 study areas were: (1) NoRTEC

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 41 Photos: Private Industry Council of Butte County/Checkers Private Photos:

Checkers, a popular Italian restaurant in Oroville, is Butte County’s primary training program for out-of-school youth who are eligible for Workforce Investment Act assistance. Left, instructor Tim Yarbrough shows Monica Rodriguez how to prepare BBQ Italian ribs on an outdoor grill; center, the restaurant interior; right, Kristy Saechao prepares shrimp for seafood crespelle.

(Northern Rural Training and Employ- cal workforce area, including: the lead Questions covered a wide range of ment Consortium, comprised of Del Workforce Investment Board staff per- topics, including the Youth Council’s Norte, Lassen, Modoc, Plumas, Shasta, son for youth; the chair of the Youth composition and scope of responsibili- Siskiyou, Sutter, Tehama and Trinity Council; up to three members of the ties, the nature of funded contractors counties); the counties of (2) Merced, Youth Council, including at least one and their services, the mechanisms (3) Orange, (4) San Joaquin, (5) Solano, youth when possible; and representa- in place to encourage collaboration (6) Sonoma and (7) Tulare; and the tives of at least two youth services pro- among local youth-serving organiza- cities of (8) Los Angeles, (9) Santa viders that receive subcontracts from tions, and the respondents’ views on Ana and (10) Glendale and Burbank local Workforce Investment Boards. what had and had not worked well (Verdugo Consortium). Collectively, Across the 10 local workforce areas during local implementation of WIA these areas serve about one-third of studied, the research team conducted youth provisions. the state’s population and receive al- 104 confidential interviews between Qualitative analysis. All interviews most 30% of California’s WIA alloca- March 2005 and May 2006. Research were tape-recorded and transcribed. tions. team members followed a common Making use of qualitative analysis soft- Case studies. Research team mem- interview protocol to ensure the com- ware (QSR N6), we then performed a bers prepared case studies of local WIA parability of responses, but were en- content analysis on the transcripts and youth programs and the Youth Councils couraged to adapt questions to learn field notes, looking for common themes, appointed to provide direction for these as much as possible about unique in- patterns and issues both within and programs. Youth council members in- dividuals, situations and perspectives. across the 10 local workforce areas. clude representatives of youth-serving agencies, public housing authorities, TABLE 1. Demographics of youth in case study areas parents of WIA-eligible youth, and oth- ers with interest or expertise in youth policy. Members are appointed by the Total Youth up Child Out-of-school, Youth meeting UC/CSU population to age 17 poverty out-of-work youth entrance requirements local Workforce Investment Board in County/area (1/1/2005) (2005) rate (2002) ages 16–19 (2000) (2002–2004) cooperation with local elected officials...... no...... % ...... We observed at least one Youth Council Los Angeles* 10,166,417 2,779,941 25.3 10.7 36.3 meeting in nine of the 10 workforce ar- Merced 241,464 77,825 26.2 12.0 22.0 eas studied, reviewed documents such NoRTEC† 606,555 110,818 20.0 9.2 27.9 as Youth Council minutes and agendas, Orange‡ 3,047,054 800,650 14.2 7.6 36.0 explored Youth Council and youth pro- San Joaquin 655,319 195,328 19.6 11.7 30.4 Solano 420,307 111,382 10.2 7.9 27.8 gram Web sites, and developed profiles Sonoma 477,697 109,966 9.7 7.9 35.6 of each workforce area using data from Tulare 411,701 131,883 32.1 12.4 23.8 local informants and official sources * Includes Los Angeles and Verdugo Consortium (cities of Glendale and Burbank) local workforce areas. (such as U.S. Census data, city and † Figures represent totals or averages across nine NoRTEC counties: Del Norte, Lassen, Modoc, Plumas, Shasta, Siskiyou, Sutter, county government statistics). Tehama and Trinity. ‡ Includes Orange County local workforce area and City of Santa Ana. In addition, we typically interviewed Source: Total population figures from California Department of Finance (2006); remaining figures from Children Now (2005). eight to 12 key informants in each lo-

42 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 ▼ In Tehama County, Workforce One members learn job skills in basic construction, home maintenance and landscaping. Earning minimum wage, they have done community-service jobs such as restoring parks and planting trees. Top, Corvin Johnston repairs

a pipe. Bottom, Charlotte McNamara operates a drill press. Will Geoff Photos:

Given the funding cuts and mandate ployees based on the expectations of to provide more holistic services, we the local business community. Despite were particularly interested in whether the state-level attention this approach local areas were finding ways to lever- was receiving as a promising means of age their limited resources through partnering with local businesses, we innovative programs or partnerships. found that none of the case study areas All interviewees were asked to identify with these certificates had managed to local programs, collaborations or initia- roll out a viable program. Impediments tives that they considered highly suc- included the practical difficulty of in- cessful. As our fieldwork progressed, forming and enlisting a sufficient num- we identified programs that had been ber of employers and youth, as well as nominated by multiple respondents. philosophical differences, such as how We then created program profiles by academic the standards should be, and interviewing key staff and gathering whether the focus should be on WIA- perspectives from local observers not eligible youth or all youth. directly connected with the program. By contrast, in four of the 10 local In some local workforce areas, we workforce areas, we encountered lead were able to directly observe youth youth program staff who were excited program activities and conduct fo- about public work projects. These pro- cus groups with participating youths grams evolved through local innovation (table 2). We conducted eight focus rather than as a result of federal man- groups with a total of 53 youth be- dates, so not all local areas have tried tween October 2005 and April 2006. them. The workforce areas that had We questioned these youth about their launched such public work initiatives aspirations for future employment, ex- found that they provide youth with perience with WIA programs, exposure valuable work experience and consis- to vocational information in school, tent adult support, and have been able and sources of information about jobs. to extend the reach of limited workforce We then analyzed the notes and tran- development dollars by leveraging scripts from the focus groups, finding funds from local public agencies or that many youth had positive or even “life changing” experiences with WIA TABLE 2. Focus group interview participants programs. Location* Number Gender Race Age (years) What works, and doesn’t work Los Angeles/Watts 7 6 female 6 black 18–22 As we reviewed the data, it became 1 male 1 Latino clear that certain WIA-related innova- Los Angeles/Culver City 9 2 female 4 black 18–20 7 male 1 Latino tions were relatively ineffective, while 4 Asian programs that engaged youth in public Merced County 11 10 female 8 Latino 18–23 work were particularly promising. For 1 male 2 Asian example, while local Youth Councils 1 white NoRTEC (Butte County) 9 8 female 1 black 18–20 serve as valuable networking bodies, in 1 male 3 white most local areas they have not lived up 3 Latino to the hope that they would spur new 2 Asian/Pacific Islander efficiencies by serving as a focal point San Joaquin County 4 2 female 3 black 18–21 2 male 1 white for the integration of youth services. Solano County 4 3 female 3 black 18 In fact, only slightly more than half of 1 male 1 Latino local area executive directors surveyed Sonoma County 2 1 female 2 white 18 & 20 in 2006 indicated that they would even 1 male Tulare County 7 4 female 5 Latino/Hispanic 18–21 retain their Youth Council if WIA 3 male 1 Asian reauthorization no longer required it 1 white (Campbell et al. 2006). Totals 53 36 female 19 Latino 18–23 Another disappointment concerning 17 male 17 black 9 Asian/Pacific Islander local implementation involved work 8 white readiness certificates, which are a way * No focus groups were held in Orange County, Santa Ana or Verdugo Consortium. of credentialing youth as potential em-

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 43 TABLE 3. Youth public work programs studied

Local Workforce Lead service Type of Investment Area Program Type of work experience provider organization Orange County Conservation Corps Work crews perform Orange County Nonprofit recycling and community Conservation Corps improvement projects

NoRTEC Checkers Team runs restaurant Butte County Nonprofit businesses. In addition, some of these Private Industry Council public work initiatives have fee-for- Workforce One Teams do community Tehama County Job Nonprofit service arrangements that can funnel improvement projects Training Center income back into the program. Santa Ana Taller San Jose Apprenticeships in Sisters of St. Joseph Faith-related The particular foci or profiles of the construction, medical and nonprofit public work projects that we studied IT fields varied (table 3), but nonetheless our Verdugo Summer Brush Crews clean hillside brush Glendale Youth Nonprofit analysis identified three key program Consortium Clearance Program for wildfire prevention Alliance elements: (1) a holistic approach that combines employment preparation with fire prevention efforts. The alliance Holistic, developmental approach social services and personal support; has since developed programs that (2) structures that group youth in co- Successful public work programs give youth increasing experience and horts where they work/learn together, typically featured a holistic, develop- responsibility working in local govern- combining paid work with the chance mental approach, working with youth ment offices, nonprofits, hospitals and to build self-confidence and learn what in age-appropriate ways and develop- businesses. The alliance pays the youth’s it takes to be a good employee; and (3) ing their skill sets patiently over time. wages except in the most-skilled jobs, caring adult supervision of significant Specific program elements included where their employers pay. As an addi- duration that combines discipline and mentoring and employment-related tional incentive for businesses to partici- support in appropriate measures. counseling, but also services to help pate, the City of Glendale underwrites These program features, which go youth overcome barriers to success such the cost of workers’ compensation. well beyond what was typically present as drug addiction, low self-esteem, un- The lure of employment is the initial in summer jobs programs offered under healthy relationships, criminal histories draw for most youth, but in order to the Job Training Partnership Act (the and mental health problems. Most local work they must be in school and main- federal predecessor to the WIA), are service providers applauded the fact tain an acceptable grade point average, consistent with Mangum’s (2000) litera- that the WIA’s required elements gave or be enrolled in a certificated program ture review, which identified features them greater flexibility to use workforce or vocational school. Each participant associated with successful youth work- funds to provide vital social services. has a counselor/mentor that works with force programs: enrollment duration of “I don’t think we would have ever him or her on a personal basis. Glendale at least 1 year; integrated combinations funded something like drug counsel- Youth Alliance staff see mentoring as of basic education, skills training and ing services before . . . [Now] we’re not a key component. “We don’t just attack on-the-job training; a visible connection just resumes and applications; it’s your the work part. We attack the whole per- to jobs of promise; mentoring by re- mental health, and all that other stuff son because in any work environment, spected adults; opportunities for high- that’s going along with it,” said a Los the whole person comes to work,” a profile community service; possibilities Angeles area provider. Likewise an- staff member said. for further educational advancement other south-state provider emphasized The holistic approach also is evident upon demonstrated success; and youth why it is essential to first overcome bar- in Glendale Youth Alliance’s Summer sharing in program decision-making riers before reaching other goals: “How Brush Clearance Program for 14- and responsibilities, allowing a sense of in the heck am I going to send a kid 15-year-olds. Before working in the hills empowerment that is greater than that that’s all screwed up on methamphet- clearing brush, these youth get 3 weeks available through antisocial activities. amines, or a girl that’s being beat up by of intense life and job skills training, 4 Although youth workforce pro- her boyfriend, to a job? We have to work days a week, 4 hours a day. They also grams often involve complex collabora- on those barriers first.” learn CPR and first aid, receive on-site tions among a variety of government An example of the holistic approach tool training, and go on field trips such and nonprofit service providers, the is the Glendale Youth Alliance, a pri- as to the Museum of Tolerance to learn exemplary cases that we identified mary youth services contractor for the about conflict resolution. tended to have discrete identities, Verdugo Consortium local workforce Group work experiences cultures and program boundaries. area. Glendale Youth Alliance is a non- For youth participants, joining one of profit organization that was started A second element of successful these programs provided an identity when the community came together youth public work programs was creat- that typically became a source of pride, to address a nascent gang problem. ing a structured experience with youth similar to what other youth might They began by putting youth to work working in cohorts and staff working experience by being part of a sports in supervised crews that cleared brush alongside them to ensure that they team, band, or even a gang. from hillsides as part of the city’s wild- learn key work attitudes and skills.

44 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 The value of a caring, continuous adult relationship to a young person cannot be overestimated.

Photos: Orange County Conservation Corps Orange County Conservation Photos: Originally, Workforce One per- formed community-service work only, such as refinishing and painting the city pool, planting trees as part of a downtown beautification effort, and rebuilding the dugouts, fences and restrooms at the Little League ball- park. An unexpected outcome was the sense of accomplishment and civic pride that the youth experienced as they saw the fruits of their labor, and An evaluation of workforce training programs for as they received accolades from city young people in California found that the most councils, county department heads successful ones offer: a holistic approach that integrates and community leaders (Boyte 2004). social services with on-the-job training; the opportunity As the reputation of Workforce One to work closely with a group; and a balance of discipline and support from adult mentors. Top, Orange grew, requests for their assistance County Conservation Corps members work at Bolsa started coming in from private-sector Chica Ecological Reserve; inset, OCCC members Rocio businesses and homeowners strug- Rodriguez (left) and Olivia O’Neal. gling to find trustworthy day labor- ers. Filling this niche, Workforce One In some cases, these projects gener- how to present themselves as employ- regularly does minor sprinkler and ated funds that are funneled back to ees. They also are required to pass the fence repair, pruning and planting, support the program, as illustrated by state sanitation course. The program is painting and simple building repairs. Checkers restaurant in Butte County designed to give each participant 1,000 Although crews continue to provide and Workforce One in Tehama County, hours of experience, and one of the community-service work at no charge, both part of the NoRTEC. most difficult administrative duties is word-of-mouth brings in a steady Checkers restaurant. Checkers is getting the kids to leave the program stream of paying customers. After one a popular restaurant in Oroville that when it is time for them to do so. year, Workforce One was generating serves elegant Italian food. It is also Workforce One. Workforce One is a enough revenue to cover the wages Butte County’s primary program for crew of older youth (ages 18–21) with and payroll costs for a crew of five full- WIA-eligible, out-of-school youth, one supervisor assigned to five partici- time workers. though its patrons might never guess pants. The supervisors function as boss, Discipline and support that it was started specifically for that trainer, mentor, coach, parent, counselor purpose. When it opened in 2001, the and drill sergeant as the crews perform A number of the youth workforce idea was to introduce WIA-enrolled a variety of general labor, maintenance program leaders we interviewed em- youth to the world of work in what the and groundskeeping jobs. Crew mem- phasized that a healthy balance of dis- program director hoped would become bers acquire job skills including basic cipline and support is structured into a self-sustaining business enterprise. construction and repairs, painting, their programs. For example, a staff Checkers has surpassed all expecta- plumbing, electrical, horticulture, use member at Glendale Youth Alliance tions, offering work experience and a of tools and safety; they are also taught described his summer brush-clearing character-building program for 18- to the behaviors, attitudes and responses program as a “boot camp” that also 21-year-olds, while generating an an- that employers expect. They receive provides the positive group experi- nual six-figure income that helps sup- minimum wage and are expected to ence that teens crave: “It’s very fun, port this and other programs. Checkers meet work standards for productivity, though it’s very rigid. There is a hard is branching out, doing catering for quality, attendance and following in- start time and if you miss it three large social affairs and gaining even structions. Work-related mistakes and times, you’re out. [But we also] have more positive publicity and revenue. “soft skill” problems (such as communi- ‘Team of the Week’ and ‘Worker of the The 18 youth participants are paid cation issues, relationship problems) are Week.’” minimum wage as they take on all the approached as learning opportunities, Another example of a program fea- jobs in the restaurant, from greeting but participants who do not respond turing discipline and support is the to cooking to serving to cleaning up. to instruction and warnings must then Orange County Conservation Corps, an While performing the various jobs, face the real-world consequences of be- Anaheim-based, countywide nonprofit they learn about customer service and ing suspended or fired. organization with a $3.5 million annual

http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • January–March 2008 45 budget. The Corps features a structured They inspire high levels of commit- teaching discipline, responsibility and experience in which youth do recycling ment from both participating youth work-related skills, exemplary youth and other community improvement and workforce staff, create tangible public work programs contribute to the projects. Youth work in crews with su- public benefits such as fire protection vital national challenge of mobilizing pervisors, wear uniforms and are trans- and clean parks, and attract addi- the skills of all our citizens, beginning ported in Corps vans. tional financial resources that lever- with our most valuable potential asset — Corps members maintain a highly age limited funding. our young people. structured 40-hour week, with 32 hours It is important to keep in mind that of work and 8 hours of school. Nearly no single approach can satisfy the 90% lack a high school credential and at- needs of California’s diverse youth tend the Corps-run charter high school. population. Public work projects are D. Campbell is Community Studies Specialist, UC The rest receive pre-employment and especially successful for youth who are Davis, and Director of the California Communities other skills training. They are paid be- willing and able to make a long-term Program; J. Lamming is Junior Specialist, UC Da- tween minimum wage and $9.50 per commitment. However, these proj- vis; C. Lemp is Independent Research Consultant, hour, and are eligible for better jobs ects are less appealing to youth who Sonora; A. Brosnahan is 4-H Youth Development in the Corps and higher pay if they want or need immediate employment. Advisor, UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) San Joaquin County; C. Paterson is 4-H Youth De- do well. However, Corps participants This is one of many reasons why local velopment Advisor and County Director, UCCE are dismissed if they step out of line workforce officials still view short-term Solano County; and J. Pusey is retired 4-H Youth too many times, although they are al- summer jobs programs as a necessary Development Advisor, UCCE Los Angeles County. lowed one second chance to return to component of their overall efforts, de- Richard Ponzio, UC Davis Cooperative Extension the program. A Corps representative spite their limitations as a tool for youth specialist, served as Guest Associate Editor. This said: “We take a very employer-like ap- workforce development. report was supported in part by funds provided by an evaluation contract between UC Davis proach. They get monthly evaluations. Every youth that the WIA system and the California Workforce Investment Board They can get merit raises, but there is can put on the path to secure employ- (CWIB), as well as by a Core Issues Grant from the nothing automatic.” ment is a youth less likely to burden UC Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Relationships with WIA-funded staff the state later with social services or The analysis, interpretations and conclusions in give youth the opportunity to grow and prison expenses. However, the rationale this paper are the responsibility of the authors and develop. Because the approach empha- for these programs is much broader. By not the CWIB. sizes long-term nurture as opposed to episodic encounters, these relationships References can last for months or even years. The Lamming J, Lemp C, Campbell D. 2006. The Boyte HC. 2004. Everyday Politics: Reconnecting Workforce Investment Act and California Youth: Im- value of caring, continuous adult rela- Citizens and Public Life. Philadelphia: Univ Penn Pr. plementing Local Youth Councils and Youth Programs. tionships to young people cannot be 239 p. Fourth Interim Report, UC Davis Evaluation of Califor- overestimated, particularly if relation- Boyte HC, Kari N. 1996. Building America: The nia’s Workforce Investment System. California Com- Democratic Promise of Public Work. Philadelphia: munities Program, UC Davis. September 2006. http:// ships with their parents are problematic. Temple Univ Pr. 255 p. ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/filelibrary/5089/33969.pdf. Lemp C, Campbell D. 2005. Survey of Local Benefits to youth and society Brustein M, Knight R. 1998. A Guide to the Workforce Investment Act of 1998. National Associa- Workforce Investment Board Executive Directors. tion of Private Industry Councils, Washington, DC. Second Interim Report, UC Davis Evaluation of Cali- The WIA provision for a comprehen- 62 p. fornia’s Workforce Investment System. California sive approach to youth development Communities Program, UC Davis. April 2005. http:// Campbell D, Lemp C, Treiber J. 2006. WIA Imple- ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/filelibrary/5089/34141.pdf. has led local workforce officials to in- mentation in California: Findings and Recommenda- tions. Final Report, UC Davis Evaluation of California’s Mangum GL. 2000. Reflections on training crease the variety and depth of youth Workforce Investment System. California Communi- policies and programs. In: Barnow B, King C (eds.). services. But because the mandate for ties Program, UC Davis. http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/ Improving the Odds: Increasing the Effectiveness of filelibrary/5089/33964.pdf. Publicly Funded Training. Washington, DC: Urban Inst increased quality of service has not Pr. p 293–333. [CDF] California Department of Finance. 2006. been supported by a corresponding in- E-1 Population Estimates for Cities, Counties and Nathan R. 2000. Social Science in Government: crease in funding, fewer youth can ben- the State with Annual Percent Change — January 1, The Role of Policy Researchers. Albany, NY: Rocke- feller Inst Pr. 213 p. efit from WIA programs. The answer, as 2005 and 2006. Sacramento, CA. May 2006. Children Now. 2005. California County Data Reich RB. 1983. The Next American Frontier. New many previous studies have concluded, Book 2005. Children Now, Oakland, CA. http:// York: Penguin. 324 p. is not to shortchange the quality of publications.childrennow.org/publications/invest/ Reich RB. 1991. The Work of Nations. New York: services, but rather to increase the pub- databook_2005.cfm. Knopf. 331 p. lic investment in workforce programs Fogg N, Harrington P. 2004. One out of Five: A Reich RB. 2002. I’ll Be Short. Boston: Beacon Pr. Report on Out of School and Out of Work Youth in 121 p. (Giloth 2004; Mangum 2000; Reich 1991). Los Angeles and Long Beach. Center for Labor Mar- Sum A. 2003. Leaving Young Workers Be- Our review of youth workforce pro- ket Studies, Northeastern Univ. Boston, MA (prepared hind. National League of Cities, Institute for for Los Angeles Workforce Investment Board). grams found that public work projects Youth, Education, and Families. Washington, DC. Giloth RP (ed.). 2004. Workforce Intermediaries 16 p. www.nlc.org/ASSETS/B427F9BF9AB748E- are particularly promising. These ef- for the Twenty-first Century. Philadelphia: Temple 7A1768C04C03405B6/IYEF_DY_Leaving_Young_ forts incorporate many features associ- Univ Pr. 424 p. Workers_Behind.pdf. ated with successful program outcomes.

46 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 62, NUMBER 1 2007 Index

The following peer-reviewed research articles, and news and editorial coverage, were published in California Agriculture, Volume 61, Numbers 1 to 4 (January-March, April-June, July-September, October- December), 2007. Back issues are $5 per copy, while supplies last. To subscribe to the journal, order back issues, search the archives or download PDFs of all research articles in full, go to: http:// CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu. January–March April–June July–September October–December

Research articles News departments

Animal, avian, aquaculture Land, air and water sciences Editorials Research and outreach to prevent wood- land loss. Cal Ag 61(1):7–10. and veterinary sciences Knox AK, Tate KW, Dahlgren RA, Crawford PB. Key partners working to- SIDEBAR: Treatments could slow spread Atwill ER. Management reduces E. gether to stem obesity epidemic. Cal Ag Berentsen AR, Timm RM, Schmidt RH. of sudden oak death. Cal Ag 61(1):9. The Coyote Lure Operative Device revis- coli in irrigated pasture runoff. Cal Ag 61(3):98. OB 61(4):159–65. Regulators and researchers seek in- ited: A fresh look at an old idea. Cal Ag Feenstra G, Tomich T. Sustainable food novative water-quality solutions. Cal Ag 61(1):20–3. Kuhn TJ, Tate KW, Cao D, George MR. systems link growers to new consumer 61(4):156–8. Castillo AR, Santos JEP, Tabone TJ. Min- Juniper removal may not increase overall markets in California. Cal Ag 61(4):146. Klamath River Basin water yields. Cal Ag 2007 freeze: UV could cast new light on eral balances, including in drinking water, Gillespie J. Lessons from the E. coli out- 61(4):166–71. citrus damage. Cal Ag 61(2):54–5. estimated for Merced County dairy herds. break — understanding the complexity of SIDEBAR: Frost-damaged plants may Cal Ag 61(2):90–5. Lubell M, Fulton A. Local diffusion net- foodborne disease. Cal Ag 61(2):50. need pruning, but wait until spring. works act as pathways to sustainable Cal Ag 61(2):55. agriculture in the Sacramento River Valley. Gomes WR. Taking the University to the Economics and public policy people. Cal Ag 61(1):2. Cal Ag 61(3):131–7. UC Malaria Research and Control Carman H. California farmers adapt man- Group vows to defeat malaria. Cal Ag dated marketing programs to the 21st Index 2006 61(2):56–8. century. Cal Ag 61(4):177–83. Natural resources SIDEBAR: UC Davis scientist recounts Cal Ag 61(1):47. Hardesty SD, Salgia VD. Most West Coast O’Dell RE, Young SL, Claassen VP. Na- battle with neuroinvasive West Nile agricultural cooperatives are financially tive roadside perennial grasses persist a virus. Cal Ag 61(2):56–7. competitive. Cal Ag 61(4):172–6. decade after planting in the Sacramento Letters Valley. Cal Ag 61(2):79–84. Cal Ag 61(1):4; Cal Ag 61(2):52; Cal Ag Science briefs Phillips RL, McDougald NK, Atwill ER, Food and nutrition 61(3):101. Farmers’ markets benefit growers, local McCreary D. Exclosure size affects economies. Cal Ag 61(4):149. Cena ER, Joy AB, Heneman K, Zidenberg- young blue oak seedling growth. Cal Ag Cherr S. Low-income women in Califor- 61(1):16–9. Outreach news Flies could transmit exotic Newcastle dis- nia may be at risk of inadequate folate ease between poultry. Cal Ag 61(4):150. intake. Cal Ag 61(2):85–9. Phillips RL, McDougald NK, McCreary Teaming up helps bring down childhood D, Atwill ER. Blue oak seedling age in- overweight. Cal Ag 61(3):104–5. OB Frog-killing fungus may be spread by re- Crawford PB, Lamp CL, Nicholson Y, et al. fluences growth and mortality. Cal Ag UC Davis institute focuses on sustainabil- production. Cal Ag 61(4):151. Food insecurity may be linked to childhood 61(1):11–5. obesity in low-income Mexican-American ity. Cal Ag 61(3):102–3. IPM pub focuses on light brown apple families. Cal Ag 61(3):106–11. OB moth. Cal Ag 61(4):149. Pest management Kazaks AG, Stern JS. Overweight and Research updates Medfly outbreak in Dixon. Cal Ag Brodt SB, Goodell PB, Krebill-Prather RL, 61(4):150. obesity are associated with decreased Breaking new ground: UC Santa Cruz cel- Vargas RN. California cotton growers magnesium intake in people with asthma. ebrates sustainable innovation in farming, More flavonoids in organic tomatoes, utilize integrated pest management. Cal Cal Ag 61(3):119–23. OB food systems. Cal Ag 61(4):152–5. study shows. Cal Ag 61(4):151. Ag 61(1):24–30. SIDEBAR: UC students eating local, Kirkpatrick N, Briggs M, Zidenberg-Cherr S. Report: Delta failure costs could top $40 Casey C, Newman J, Robb K, et al. IPM organic produce. Cal Ag 61(4):154–5. California teachers support the Nutrition billion. Cal Ag 61(2):53. program successful in California green- Competencies — new nutrition instruc- Expanded research to target E. coli out- house cut roses. Cal Ag 61(2):71–8. tion guidelines. Cal Ag 61(1):40–6. breaks. Cal Ag 61(1):5–6. To our readers Ritchie LD, Woodward-Lopez G, Gerstein Shrestha A, Hembree KJ, Va N. Growth SIDEBAR: Scientists test for E. coli D, et al. Preventing obesity: What should stage influences level of resistance in O157:H7 in Salinas Valley. Cal Ag Editorial work gets the gold. Cal Ag we eat? Cal Ag 61(3):112–8. OB glyphosate-resistant horseweed. Cal Ag 61(1):6 61(3):101. 61(2):67–70. BT Human and community development Plant sciences Billikopf G. Quality evaluations should not Kahn TL, Bier OJ, Beaver RJ. New late- be taken for granted. Cal Ag 61(1):35–9. season navel orange varieties evalu- ated for quality characteristics. Cal Ag Espinosa-Hall GB, Metz D, Johns M, et 61(3):138–43. al. UCCE helps community coalitions Key to 2007 special sections reduce childhood overweight. Cal Ag Lopez G, Johnson RS, DeJong TM. High spring temperatures decrease peach fruit 61(3):124–30. OB BT = Biotech risks and benefits size. Cal Ag 61(1):31–4. Marvier M. Pharmaceutical crops have OB = Examining obesity a mixed outlook in California. Cal Ag 61(2):59–66. BT

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